A Contemporary Viewpoint · issues in the history of childhood (1) the state versus the family as agent of socialization: socialization by the state: sparta: children taken away from

A Contemporary Viewpoint

by

Hetherington & Parke

Child

Psychology

Chapter One

Child Development:

Themes, Theories, and Methods

Child Psychology seeks to answer two

basic questions

� (1) Developmental changes: Describing the changes that children go through at different ages.

BASIC DESCRIPTION AND OBSERVATION; E.G., CHANGES IN CHILDREN'S PLAY FROM SOLITARY PLAY TO PARALLEL PLAY TO PLAYING GAMES WITH RULES

� (2) What are the underlying processes that result in change? For example, what strategies do children use to achieve new skills and behaviors? Cooperation is a social strategy that facilitates interaction with peers. At a deeper level, developmental psychologists want to know how important genes and environments are: THE NATURE/NURTURE CONTROVERSY

SCIENCE AND HUMAN

INTERESTSScientists see children through the lenses of their theories. Scientists are

often not disinterested observers of children; they are often influenced by:

� a.) Political beliefs e.g., a leftist egalitarian bias that everyone is born with the same potential; or a conservative bias toward saying that science supports the rationality of traditional sex roles.

� b.) Ethnic agendas: e.g., some scientific issues, such as whether there are racial differences in intelligence, have political implications. This is why books like The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray are so controversial.

SCIENCE AND HUMAN

INTERESTS

� c.) Career goals: � doing research that is likely to be funded by government grants;

� doing research that is likely to lead to tenure.

� It's a bad idea for an assistant professor to begin focus his or her research on politically incorrect research.

� d.) Moral agendas: � many developmental psychologists want to help children; these people

are meliorists: they want to make the world a better place, but this often makes them subscribe to theories that people can be easily changed by the environment.

ARE SCIENTISTS BIASED???

Scientist Child

� See: L. A. Times article “Bias in Social Science”� EXAMPLES OF INTENSELY CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES DEALT

WITH IN THIS COURSE: (1) RACE AND IQ (CH. 10) (2) GENETIC INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE (CH. 2 AND CH. 10) (2) SEX DIFFERENCES (CH. 13) (3) EFFECTS OF DAY CARE (CH. 11)

Theories and Data

ISSUES in the HISTORY OF

CHILDHOOD

� (1) THE STATE VERSUS THE FAMILY AS AGENT OF SOCIALIZATION:

� SOCIALIZATION BY THE STATE: � SPARTA: CHILDREN TAKEN AWAY FROM PARENTS IN EARLY

CHILDHOOD; SOCIALIZATION FOR CONFORMITY, SOCIAL COHESION, ALTRUISM, MILITARY PROWESS

� NAZI GERMANY: NAZIFICATION OF SCHOOLS, HITLER YOUTH; SOCIALIZATION AS IN SPARTA

� SOVIET UNION: COMMUNIST CONTROL OF SCHOOLS; SOCIALIZATION FOR CONFORMITY.

� UNITED STATES: ASSUME PARENTAL SOCIALIZATION; HOME SCHOOLING. BUT PUBLIC EDUCATION STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES. MANDATED CURRICULA


CHILDHOOD

� (2) CHANGES IN THE IMPORTANCE OF LOVE

TOWARD CHILDREN AND BETWEEN SPOUSES

� PURITANISM: ORIGINAL SIN AND AUTHORITARIAN

PARENTING

� LOVE AS THE BASIS OF MARRIAGE BEGINNING IN

THE MIDDLE AGES; THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

� CONTEMPORARY EMPHASIS ON LOVE


CHILDHOOD

� (3) CHANGES IN PARENTAL INVESTMENT IN CHILDREN

� CHILDREN COST MORE TO REAR SINCE EDUCATION HAS BECOME CRITICAL.

� PURITANS AND EDUCATION

� DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: BEGINNING IN 19TH CENTURY, FEWER CHILDREN, MORE EDUCATION

� DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE AND PROLONGED CHILDHOOD


CHILDHOOD

� 4) CHANGES IN SOCIETAL INVESTMENT

IN CHILDREN RISE OF CHILDREN'S

SERVICES

� MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES

� RENAISSANCE FOUNDLING HOMES

� MODERN WELFARE PROGRAMS SUCH AS

AID FOR FAMILIES WITH DEPENDENT

CHILDREN


CHILDHOOD

� (5) CHANGES IN SINGLE PARENTING, TEENAGE

PARENTING, DIVORCE, RECONSTITUTED

FAMILIES, ETC.

� Single parenting and divorce were extremely rare in Western societies until the mid-20th century.

� Mechanisms:

� Ostracism

� Finding the father

� Low levels of public welfare programs


CHILDHOOD

� (6) CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY: Computers, the internet, and the media revolution.

� Children are exposed to very sophisticated media messages related to aggression, sexuality, gender, ethnicity, etc.

� Depending on adult or societal control, children are able to follow their own interests by surfing the net, watching TV, going to movies, etc. E. g., aggressive children choose to watch violent media) (The ACTIVE CHILD)

� Children are also passive recipients of at least some cultural messages coming from these sources. (The PASSIVE CHILD)

Themes of Development

� Major theories take a position on these

themes; e.g., Nature vs. Nurture

� Main theoretical views guide research

Themes of Development: Biological versus

Environmental Influences: Nature vs. Nurture

� 1.) Biological versus Environmental Influences

� John Watson, early 20th century: Environment is everything.

� Arnold Gesell in the 1930s: Development determined by an 'inner timetable which is produced by genes.

� Gesell is a Maturationist

� Maturation = Genetically determined process of growth at unfolds naturally over development. Think of cognitive ability as growing just like children grow in height.

� SINCE 1980, MORE EMPHASIS ON NATURE, BUT A GREAT DEAL OF CONTROVERSY.

Six Themes of Development: 1. Biological

versus Environmental Influences: Nature

vs. Nurture

� Most psychologists now tend to be

interactionists: E.g., there are interactions

between the child's genetic tendencies

toward aggression and the child's being

exposed to violence on TV. Violent TV has

a greater effect on children who are

genetically inclined toward aggression.

Themes of Development: 2. Active,

passive, and transactional models

� A. ACTIVE: CHILD ACTIVELY

APPROACHES, EXPLORES, OR

INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT

� A CURIOUS CHILD EXPLORES A NEW TOY

� A CHILD GENETICALLY PRONE TO

AGGRESSION PICKS FIGHTS AND LIKES

VIOLENT TV

Child → Environment



� B. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL: CHILD INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCES CHILD; LIKE A CONVERSATION.

� PREMATURE CHILD IS EXTREMELY IRRITABLE; THIS MAKES CAREGIVING DIFFICULT AND RESULTS IN FRUSTRATED PARENT; PARENT MORE LIKELY TO ABUSE CHILD

� A CHILD GENETICALLY PRONE TO AGGRESSION PROVOKES STRONG DISCIPLINE FROM PARENT, MAKING HIM MORE AGGRESSIVE

C → E → C → E



� C. PASSIVE: CHILD PASSIVELY INFLUENCED BY ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES;

� REINFORCEMENT IN CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM

� NORMAL CHILD IS ABUSED BY CRAZY PARENT

E → C

� NO ONE MODEL IS CORRECT. DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES ARE BETTER DESCRIBED BY DIFFERENT MODELS. THIS IS THE CASE WITH ALL OF THESE ISSUES.

� HOWEVER, MOST PSYCHOLOGISTS DE-EMPHASIZE THE PASSIVE MODEL.

Themes of Development: 3. Continuity

versus Discontinuity

� Continuity versus Discontinuity

� Continuous process: each new event builds on earlier experiences in orderly way or gradual improvement.

� Change is Quantitative and Smooth

� Discontinuous process: development occurs in discrete steps or stages; each stage is qualitatively new set of behaviors

� Change is Qualitative and Step-Like



� QUANTITATIVE CHANGE: A MEASURABLE CHANGE OF AMOUNT (E.G., CHANGES IN HEIGHT, OR CHANGES IN LEARNING) ASSOCIATED WITH NON-STAGE THEORIES; (When you learn something new you don't become a different person; you have simply added to your knowledge in a quantitative way.)

� QUALITATIVE CHANGE: A CHANGE OF TYPE (E.G., THE CHANGE FROM A CATERPILLAR TO A BUTTERFLY) ASSOCIATED WITH STAGE THEORIES; QUALITATIVE CHANGES ARE FUNDAMENTAL, REORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES. (When you



� SMOOTH CHANGE (ASSOCIATED WITH

NON-STAGE THEORIES



� Step-Like Change

(Associated with Stage Theories)

Formal Operational

Concrete Operational

Preoperational Stage

Sensorimotor Stage



� Textbook: Whether development is continuous or discontinuous "depends on the power of the lens we use in examining changes across development."

� If we look over a long period of time (several years), the differences seem large, qualitative and discontinuous.

� If we look over a short period of time (a few months), the differences are small, quanatitative and continuous.

� See Figure 1-1c (p. 7): Child slowly learns the best and developmentally most advanced strategy.

Figure 1.1: Continuity and Discontinuity in Child

Development



� The continuity/discontinuity issue is not as important as formerly, with most theorists believing that development is "basically continuous."

� Stage theories like Piaget's theory have been on the decline, but notice that the text mentions "transition points" as of particular interest. Transition points are a sort of watered down stage view.

� However, that there could be true discontinuities and qualitative change if, say, genes turn on at a certain age and result in a major cognitive or emotional advance over a fairly short period of time.

� This may be the case with puberty and some of the other major cognitive advances in childhood. For example, children get much more rational around age 6.

Themes of Development: 4. Individual

Characteristics versus Environmental,

Contextual and Cultural Influences

� Individual and personality characteristics

direct behaviors: Aggressiveness;

Introversion/shyness; affection

� Traits versus context: Which is more

important?

� Context: Aggression more likely at football

game than church

� Trait: Some children are more inclined to

aggression because of genetic influences than

others.


Characteristics versus Contextual and Cultural

Influences

� Many psychologists are interactionists:

individual characteristics like personality

interact with situations.

� For example, aggressive children

seek out situations to express their

aggression (football games, karate

classes, joining a gang). But

removing children from aggressive

contexts may lower their aggression.


Characteristics versus Contextual and Cultural

Influences

� Individuals respond different to environmental

or situational challenges

� Biological risk; serious illness

� Psychological risk; crazy parent

� Environmental risk: poverty; tough

neighborhood

� Different responses

� Some children suffer permanent damage

� Some have “sleeper effects”

� Some are resilient

� Some are better for it: “if it don’t kill yaG”

Themes of Development: 5: CULTURAL UNIVERSALS

VERSUS CULTURAL RELATIVISM

� Terminology:� NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE UNIVERSAL

COMMONALITIES OF CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT (E.G., WALKING,) (PIAGET STUDIED UNIVERSALS) TALKING, STAGES; OFTEN VIEWED AS RESULTING FROM BIOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS (E.G., ARNOLD GESELL);

� IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

� SOURCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CAN BE NATURE AND/OR NURTURE.

� ALL POLITICIZED CONTROVERSY IN PSYCHOLOGY INVOLVES INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Themes of Development 5: CULTURAL UNIVERSALS

VERSUS CULTURAL RELATIVISM

� CULTURAL RELATIVISM, EXTREME VIEW: CHILD DEVELOPMENT HAS DIFFERENT LAWS AND PATTERNS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES.

� VOGOTSKY IS MAIN THEORIST OF EXTREME CULTURAL RELATIVISM

� CULTURAL RELATIVISM, MODERATE VIEW: CULTURES AFFECT THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT;

� CHILDREN WALK SOONER IN CULTURES THAT ENCOURAGE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

� CULTURAL UNIVERSALISM: THERE ARE UNIVERSAL, NORMATIVE FEATURES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

� ALL CHILDREN GO THROUGH PIAGET’S STAGES;

� ALL CHILDREN SMILE AT AROUND 4 WEEKS OF AGE;

� ALL INFANTS BETWEEN 6 MONTHS AND 2 YEARS ARE FRIGHTENED WHEN SEPARATED FROM THEIR MOTHER.

Themes of Development: 6. Intrinsic

versus Extrinsic Motivation

� INTRINSIC: DOING THINGS FOR THEIR

OWN SAKE

� E.G., STUDYING BECAUSE YOU'RE

INTERESTED

� EXTRINSIC: DOING THINGS IN ORDER TO

GAIN REWARDS OR AVOID

PUNISHMENTS

� E.G., STUDYING TO AVOID PUNISHMENT

Theoretical Perspectives on

Development

� Two functions of theories

� Help integrate information into coherent,

interesting, plausible accounts of how

children develop.

� Social learning theory

� Generate testable hypotheses or

predictions about child behavior

� Example: Evolutionary theory predicts

males more prone to dominance and risk

taking.


Development

� Five general theoretical perspectives

� 1. Structural-Organismic Approach focuses on

structured set of stages an organism goes

through over the course of psychological

growth

� Used in Freud, Erikson, and Piaget’s

theories

Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory

Age 0 - 1 Oral Stage

Age 1 - 3 Anal Stage

Age 3 - 6 Phallic Stage

Age 6 - 12 Latency Stage

Age 12+ Genital Stage

Ego

Id

Super Ego

Freud:

Personality is

formed within the

first 6 years

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Ages 1 - 3

Ages 3 - 6

Ages 6 - 12

Ages 12 - 20

Ages 20 - 30

Ages 30 - 65

Ages 65+

Ages 0 - 1

Identity vs. Role confusion

Industry vs. Inferiority

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Trust vs. Mistrust

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Integrity vs. Despair

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental)

Theory

� 1.) Organization: Just as the structure of a mature

tree is predictable from given its genetic tendencies

and the environments trees grow in, children’s cognitive abilities change in an organized, regular,

and predictable way over development.

� 2.) Adaptation: Cognitive development depends on interacting with the world and adjusting to the

demands and reality of the world. For example, our

concepts reflect the categories of things in the world

and change as the world changes.

Piagetian Theory, 3 and 4: Assimilation and

Accommodation:

Adapt to new

information

AccommodationAssimilation

Reinterpret new

experiences so they

fit into old ideas –

existing ideas don’t

change, stay same

Revamp old ideas so

they can adapt to new –

change current ways of

thinking/ideas so as to

add new knowledge


Theory

� 5.) DEVELOPMENT IS THE RESULT OF QUALITATIVE CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF CHILDREN'S THINKING

� 6.) EGOCENTRISM: CHILDREN TEND TO HAVE DIFFICULTY SEEING THINGS FROM OTHERS' POINTS OF VIEW.

� E.g., 4-year-old can’t understand other child’s point of view about a toy they both want, or thinks that a visual display will look the same from a different viewpoint.

� WITH AGE, CHILDREN GRADUALLY DECENTER, but even we adults are somewhat egocentric.


Theory

� 7.) CONSTRUCTIVISM: CHILDREN ACTIVELYINTERPRET THE WORLD, THEY ARE NOT MERELY PASSIVE RECIPIENTS OF REINFORCEMENTS; THEY CONSTRUCT THEIR OWN REALITY; THEY INTERPRET WORLD AS FUNCTION OF THEIR STAGE.

� A stage is like having a pair of colored glasses: It makes you see the world differently;

� 8.) YOUNG CHILDREN ARE LESS FLEXIBLE IN THEIR THINKING;

� e.g., moral rules are absolute: “Stealing is bad,”

� Sex roles are absolute: “Girls wear dresses”; there are no exceptions.

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor

Pre-

operational

Concrete

Operational

Formal

Operational

0 - 2 7 - 12 12+2 - 7

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Birth to 2 years

Sensori-motor Uses senses and motor skills, items known by use

Object permanence learned

2-6 yrs Pre-operational

Symbolic thinking, language used; egocentric thinking

Imagination/ experience grow, child de-centers

7-11 yrs Concrete operational

Logic applied, has objective/rational interpretations

Conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications

12 yrs to adulthood

Formal operational

Thinks abstractly, hypothetical ideas (broader issues)

Ethics, politics, social/moral issues explored

Focus on organization and adaptation

Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on

the six developmental issues

� 1.) NATURE-NURTURE: INTERACTION BETWEEN CHILD AND ENVIRONMENT; ABILITIES SUCH AS ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION ARE INNATE; BUT DEVELOPMENT OCCURS BECAUSE THE CHILD CONSTANTLY MUST ACCOMMODATE TO NEW ENVIRONMENTS

� 2.) ACTIVE CHILD: CHILD IS INNATELY CURIOUS AND EXPLORATORY

� 3.) DEVELOPMENT IS DISCONTINUOUS: COMPLETE RE-ORGANIZATION AT EACH STAGE (QUALITATIVE CHANGE); CHANGE IS STEP-LIKE RATHER THAN SMOOTH.

Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on

the six developmental issues

� 4.) SITUATIONAL VERSUS INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS: INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS, ESPECIALLY THE STAGE THE CHILD IS IN, ARE EMPHASIZED

� RISK VERSUS RESILIENCE: STAGE THEORISTS DON'T EMPHASIZE THIS MUCH, BUT THEIR THEORY IS CONSISTENT WITH THE IDEA THAT INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS MODERATE RISK: E.G., OLDER CHILDREN WOULD REACT TO A DIVORCE DIFFERENTLY THAN YOUNGER BECAUSE THEY WOULD BE IN DIFFERENT COGNITIVE STAGES.

� 5.) CULTURAL UNIVERSALS (NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT) ARE EMPHASIZED: ALL CHILDREN GO THROUGH THE STAGES

� 6.) MOTIVATION IS INTRINSIC; CHILD ENJOYS FIGURING OUT THE WORLD

2. Learning Theories: Behaviorism

Five Theoretical Perspectives

� 2. Learning Approach:

� Behaviorism focuses on learning of behavior;

not unobservable factors or motivations

(Watson, Pavlov, Skinner)

� Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s dogs;

Watson classically conditions fear of rats in

a baby.

� Operant Conditioning: Skinner’s pigeons

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Pairing of metronome with appearance of food makes each a Conditioned Stimulus

CR (salivation)CS

Play metronome (CS) and dog salivates (CR) without food being presented

Appearance of food becomes CS; dog salivation is the CR

Before conditioning: when food was placed in dish (UCS), the dog salivated (UCR)UCR (salivation)UCS

CSCS CR (salivation)

Watson’s Classical Conditioning

UCS (loud noise)

CR (fear)

CS (furry rat)

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

If grades or parents’ urging are not a ‘reward’

(reinforcement), student will do other activities

If grades or parents’ urging are a ‘reward’

(reinforcement), student will study well

Quiz grade of A

earned

Quiz grade of F

earned

Learning Theories: Cognitive Social

Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

� Cognitive Social Learning Theory:

children learn through operant and

classical conditioning and from

observation and imitation of role models

� 1. CHILDREN ARE ABLE TO LEARN

THINGS WITHOUT REINFORCEMENT.

� Children observing aggressive models were

more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviors

even if they were not rewarded for doing so.

� You learn it just by seeing it, not because you

are rewarded.

Fig. 1-2

ATTENTIONExperience, Personality characteristics,

Relationship with model, Situational variables

RETENTIONRehearsal, Organization, Recall, Other cognitive skills

REPRODUCTIONCognitive representation, Concept matching, Use of feedback

MOTIVATIONExternal & Vicarious incentives, Self-evaluation,

Internalized standards, Social comparison

Matched Behavior

Modeled Behavior



� 2. SOCIAL LEARNING AND COGNITION: Children do not imitate blindly or automatically; cognitive factors are advanced as explaining why children imitate some things and not others.

� Bandura changed learning theory by combining it with aspects of cognitive psychology. This can be seen in the four processes Bandura proposes as relevant to social learning: Attention, Retention, Production, and Motivation.

� All of these undergo age changes; they all develop. Therefore, age affects social learning.



� 1. Attention: Children gradually improve in their ability to pay attention.

� This affects social learning because they pay better attention to models. One couldn't lecture to kindergartners and expect them to pay attention.

� 2. Retention: Children gradually improve their ability to remember things they have seen or experienced.

� This affects social learning because children are better able to remember what models did.



� 3. Production: Children's abilities gradually improve.

� This means that they are able to produce more of what they see and try to imitate. Obviously, young children can't imitate behaviors that they are physically unable to reproduce any more than I can dunk a basketball just by watching someone else do it.

� 4. Motivation: Motivation changes as children get older.

� For example, older children are probably more concerned about how others see them and more motivated to be socially acceptable. This might affect what types of models they would pay special attention to. A teenager might pay special attention to the behavior of other kids who are seen as cool.

Fig. 1-2

ATTENTIONExperience, Personality characteristics,

Relationship with model, Situational variables

RETENTIONRehearsal, Organization, Recall, Other cognitive skills

MOTIVATIONExternal & Vicarious incentives, Self-evaluation,

Internalized standards, Social comparison

Matched Behavior

REPRODUCTIONCognitive representation, Concept matching, Use of feedback

Modeled Behavior

Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the Six

Developmental Issues

� 1.) NATURE vs. NURTURE: CSLT PROPOSES ALL INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ARE DUE TO DIFFERENT LEARNING CONTINGENCIES; i.e., NURTURE

� 2.) CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM VIEWED CHILD AS PASSIVE; HOWEVER, CSLT SEES THE CHILD AS 'MODERATELY ACTIVE' BECAUSE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF CERTAIN CHILD CHARACTERISTICS IN AFFECTING HOW CHILDREN PROCESS THE ENVIRONMENT (ATTENTION, RETENTION, PRODUCTION, MOTIVATION)

� 3.) DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS CONTINUOUS: THERE IS QUANTITATIVE CHANGE: OLDER CHILDREN HAVE LEARNED MORE THAN YOUNGER CHILDREN; DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS SMOOTH, NOT ABRUPT

Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the six

Developmental Issues

� 4. ) EMPHASIS ON SITUATIONS (MODELING OPPORTUNITIES, REINFORCEMENTS, PUNISHMENTS) RATHER THAN INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS.

� EMPHASIZE FAMILY AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AS MODERATING RISK

� 5.) EMPHASIS ON IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT, NOT CULTURAL UNIVERSALS.

� NO CONCERN WITH NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT

� 6.) MOTIVATION IS EXTRINSIC;

� CHILD LEARNS IN ORDER TO GET REWARDS OR AVOID PUNISHMENT


Development

� Information-Processing Approaches focus on flow of information through the cognitive system.

� Computer as Metaphor: You type data in, the software processes it but there is a hardware supporting the software, and out comes a formatted term paper.

� Problem, software (cognitive program) analyses it using parts of brain (hardware), out comes the answer.

Information is taken into brain

Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored in the brain

until use

OUTPUTINPUT

Information is used as basis of behaviors and

interactions

Information-Processing Theory

math

historyreligion

science

literature

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: 3.

Dynamic Systems Theory

� Dynamic Systems Perspective focuses on changes over

time that result from interacting elements in a complex,

integrated system

� Individuals and their achievements can

only be understood within this

framework

� DST sees child development as a system of interacting

parts. This is most like the transactional model mentioned

above: everything affects everything else and it's all very

complicated.

� The child is constantly changing the environment and the

environment is constantly changing the child.



� Example: The family: if parents have a bad

relationship, it may have effects on the child.

� Child psychologists often want to bring the whole

family in if one child is having a problem; dad's drinking

problem affects family finances and mom's mood,

resulting in harsher punishment and fewer

opportunities like after-school tutoring.

� So all these things affect the child: everything affects

everything else.

� The child inherits not only the parents' genes but also

the parents' environment and from the moment of

conception they are constantly interacting.


� Characteristics of Systems Theory (from Table 1-2). The ones I emphasize are: 1.) Complexity: Each part of the system is unique but related to the other parts of the system. Example: Family members

� 2.) Wholeness and Organization: The whose system is more than the sum of its parts. Its collective behavior can be described in terms that do not necessarily apply to the system's parts and their interrelationships. To study a family, you must do more than study an the characteristics of each member separately and the relationships between them, but the organization of all family relationships and the whole family as an interacting unit. See example above. 3.) Equifinality: Although the dynamics of certain kinds of systems may be quite different, over time they tend to develop similarities. Family systems across different societies share many common characteristics (like parental affection), but the particular customs of a culture may dictate quite different expressions of these charateristics (giving a child a car as a graduation present in the U.S. versus giving a child a bow and arrow in New Guinea.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development:

4. Contextual Perspectives

Contextual theories emphasize the child’s environment, but they tend to emphasize much broader aspects of the environment than social learning theory (which emphasizes modeling and reinforcement)

� Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory –development is product of social and cultural experiences

� Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory –experiences and relationships in layers of environmental systems impact child development


Contextual Perspectives: Vygotsky’s

Sociocultural Theory Development is product of social and

cultural experiences

� Emphasizes importance of cultural

variation in development – cultural tools

include language, technology

� Vygotsky was the premier psychologist of

the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik

Revolution. He was a Marxist, and his

theory reflected that.

�



Sociocultural Theory

� 1) Did NOT focus on the individual child but on

the child as a product of social interaction,

especially with adults (parents, teachers).

� 2.) Focus on DYADIC INTERACTIONS (e.g., child

being taught by a parent how to perform some

culturally specific action), rather than child by

himself.



Sociocultural Theory

� 3.) Social world mediates children's cognitive development. Cognitive development occurs as child's thinking is molded by society in the form of parents, teachers, and peers. This leads to peer tutoring as a strategy in classrooms.

� 4.) The result is that people's thinking differs dramatically between cultures because different cultures stress different things. Leads to extreme cultural relatavism.

� For example, Box 1.1 on p. 17 shows that Uzbekis responded to reasoning problems using concrete examples from their own experience. But after learning to read and write, they responded to the problems in a more abstract manner.

� Before literacy, they had trouble with syllogism where the truth of the premises is irrelevant to the logical properties of the argument.

� All people who live in red houses are purple. John lives in a red house. John is purple.

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Chronosystem

Macrosystem

Microsystem

Mass media, education,

Friends of family

Extended family

Legal services, work,

Community/neighbors

Social welfare services

Intimate & immediate

effects: Family,

School,Peers,

Playground

Health care services

Religious institutions

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological model of development

Child

Historical

times,etc.National customs

Cultural values

Social conditions

Economic patterns

Political philosophy

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: 5.

Ethological and Evolutionary Perspectives:

Ethology: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen

� CLASSICAL ETHOLOGICAL THEORY: Ethology studies the behavior of animals and humans from an evolutionary perspective

� BEHAVIOR AS AN ADAPTATION (HAS SURVIVAL VALUE)

� ADAPTATION = A BEHAVIOR, a physical trait (like the bones of a bird wing) or cognitive program DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION IN ORDER TO PERFORM A PARTICULAR FUNCTION.

� = an evolutionary problem solver.

� EXAMPLE: ATTACHMENT IS A BEHAVIORAL SYSTEM DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION TO KEEP THE BABY CLOSE TO ITS MOTHER

� Animals have thousands of adaptations.


Ethology

� MUCH OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR IS INSTINCTIVE

INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR = :

1.) BEHAVIOR OCCURS IN ALL MEMBERS OF

SPECIES (= SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIOR)

2.) NO LEARNING REQUIRED; OFTEN BEHAVIOR CAN DEVELOP WITHOUT ANIMAL EVER

EXPERIENCING OTHER MEMBERS OF THE

SPECIES

3.) STEREOTYPED BEHAVIOR


Ethology

� Ethology emphasize how animal’s behavior is adapted to the context (evolutionary contextualism).

� BEHAVIOR IS ELICITED IN PARTICULAR CONTEXTS: E.G., AN ANIMAL MAY BE AGGRESSIVE ONLY DURING MATING SEASON, OR ONLY WITH OTHER MALES

� LIKE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY, ETHOLOGY EMPHASIZES UNIVERSALS OF DEVELOPMENT (NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT:

� ALL CHILDREN DEVELOP THE BASIC EMOTIONS IN THE SAME SEQUENCE IN ALL CULTURES: JOY, SADNESS, DISTRESS, ANGER, FEAR, ETC.


Ethology

� METHODOLOGY: NATURALISTIC

OBSERVATION; STRONGLY OPPOSED TO

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS UNTIL

BASIC NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

COMPLETED.

� This was a major departure from both

Cognitive Social Learning Theory (lab based

experiments) and Cognitive Developmental

Theory (interviews)


Ethology

� IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS OF ETHOLOGY:

� 1.) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

� 2.) THINK OF CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR AS

INCLUDING A SET OF BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

FOR SURVIVAL OVER EVOLUTIONARY TIME

� 3.) STUDY BEHAVIORS THAT ALSO OCCUR IN

ANIMALS (DOMINANCE, AGGRESSION,

ATTACHMENT, early parent-offspring relationships)

� 4.) FOCUS ON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR:

EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS, THREAT GESTURES,

POSTURE, ETC.

� 5.) CRITICAL PERIOD OR SENSITIVE PERIOD.


Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods

� DEFINITION: A PERIOD IN DEVELOPMENT WHEN ORGANISM IS MOST OPEN TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES (I. E., HAS GREATEST PLASTICITY)

HIGH

PLASTICITY

LOW ______________________________ AGE

� EXAMPLES OF CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE PERIODS: IMPRINTING IN DUCKS; ATTACHMENT IN HUMANS; EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON IQ(?) PRENATAL EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS (E.G., ALCOHOL) ON BABIES

Sensitive Periods for Teratogens

Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods:

Orphaned Baby Hippo adopts Turtle as

Mom



Mom



Mom


Evolutionary Psychology

� Similar to ethology but emphasis on the adaptiveness of cognition.

� The brain is composed of a variety of specialized mechanisms designed to solve particular problems in our evolutionary past. These are adaptations –evolutionary problem solvers.

� For example, there are mechanisms to pick appropriate mates (e.g., males attracted to youth and beauty as signs of fertility and health) and to deal with objects in three-dimensional space.

� Babies come into the world with a basic understanding of 3-dimensional space and objects. For example, they understand that objects like a toy truck can't go through a barrier. See Figure 8.1 on p. 328.


Evolutionary Psychology

� Each mechanism is specifically designed to solve an

adaptive problem: The mind as a Swiss Army knife with

different mechanism for fear, sexual attraction, attachment

to mother, estimating probabilities, seeing 3-dimensional

objects, etc.

Box 1.1: Children of the Great

Depression (p. 15)

� Mothers’ power increased as fathers lost

jobs; mothers got jobs or took in boarders

� Increase in divorce, separation, and desertion

� Children “drafted” into work

� More punitive discipline, especially fathers

� Children, especially boys moved out sooner;

negative affect, moody

� Tended to take safe, secure jobs rather than

risky jobs later in life

The End

Documents

A Contemporary Viewpoint · issues in the history of childhood (1) the state versus the family as agent of socialization: socialization by the state: sparta: children taken away from