8 Relativistic Effects - Intranet - ANUgeoff/HEA/8_Relativistic_Effects.pdf · High Energy Astrophysics: Relativistic Effects 20/93 Consequences For angles close to the line of sight,

Relativistic Effects

1 Introduction

The radio-emitting plasma in AGN contains electrons withrelativistic energies. The Lorentz factors of the emitting elec-

trons are of order . We now know that the bulk motionof the plasma is also moving relativistically – at least in someregions although probably “only” with Lorentz factors about10 or so. However, this has an important effect on the prop-erties of the emitted radiation – principally through the ef-fects of relativistic beaming and doppler shifts in frequency.This in turn affects the inferred parameters of the plasma.

102 6–

Relativistic Effects ©Geoffrey V. Bicknell

2 Summary of special relativity

For a more complete summary of 4-vectors and Special Rel-ativity, see Rybicki and Lightman, Radiative Processes in As-trophysics, or Rindler, Special Relativity

High Energy Astrophysics: Relativistic Effects 2/93

2.1 The Lorentz transformation

The primed frame is moving wrt to the unprimed frame witha velocity in the –direction. The coordinates in the primedframe are related to those in the unprimed frame by:

x

y

x

y

V

SS

v x


(1)

We put the space-time coordinates on an equal footing by

putting . The the part of the Lorentz transforma-tion can be written:

(2)

The reverse transformation is:

x x vt– = t tVx

c2------–

=

y y= z z=

vc--= 1

1 2–-------------------=

x0 ct= x t–

x x x0– = x0 x0 x– =


(3)

i.e.,

(4)

x x Vt+ = y y= z z=

t t Vxc2--------+

=

x x x0+ = x0 x0 x+ =


2.2 Lorentz–Fitzgerald contraction

2.3 Time dilation

x

y

x

yV

SS


x

y

x

y

V

L0

x2 x1– L0=

x2 x1– x2 x1– V t2 t1– – =

L0 L= L 1– L0=

SS


Consider a clock at a stationary position in the moving framewhich registers a time interval . The corresponding time

interval in the “lab” frame is given by:

(5)

i.e. the clock appears to have slowed down by a factor of

T0

T t2 t1– t2 t1– V x2 x1– c2– = =

t2 t1– T0= =


2.4 Doppler effect

The Doppler effect is very important when describing the ef-fects of relativistic motion in astrophysics. The effect is the

l Vt=

d Vt cos=

To observer

P1 P2

D

V


combination of both relativistic time dilation and time retar-dation. Consider a source of radiation which emits one periodof radiation over the time it takes to move from to .

If is the emitted circular frequency of the radiation in the

rest frame, then

(6)

and the time between the two events in the observer’s frameis:

t P1 P2

em

t 2em----------=


(7)

However, this is not the observed time between the events be-cause there is a time difference involved in radiation emittedfrom and . Let

(8)

and

(9)

t t 2em----------= =

P1 P2

D distance to observer from P2=

t1 time of emission of radiation from P1=

t2 time of emission of radiation from P2=


Then, the times of reception, and are:

(10)

Hence the period of the pulse received in the observer’s frameis

t1rec t2

rec

t1rec t1

D Vt cos+c

--------------------------------+=

t2rec t2

Dc----+=


(11)

Therefore,

t2rec t1

rec– t2Dc----+

t1D Vt cos+

c--------------------------------+

–=

t2 t1– Vc---t cos–=

t 1Vc--- cos–

=


(12)

The factor is a pure relativistic effect, the factor is the result of time retardation. In terms of lin-

ear frequency:

(13)

2obs----------- 2

em---------- 1

Vc--- cos–

=

obsem

1Vc--- cos–

----------------------------------

em 1 cos– ---------------------------------= =

1 cos–

obs

em 1 cos– ---------------------------------=


The factor

(14)

is known as the Doppler factor and figures prominently in thetheory of relativistically beamed emission.

2.5 Apparent transverse velocity

Derivation

A relativistic effect which is extremely important in high en-ergy astrophysics and which is analysed in a very similar wayto the Doppler effect, relates to the apparent transverse veloc-ity of a relativistically moving object.

1 1 cos– ---------------------------------=


l Vt=

d Vt cos=

To observer

P1 P2

D

l Vt sin=

V


Consider an object which moves from to in a time

in the observer’s frame. In this case, need not be the timebetween the beginning and end of a periodic wave. Indeed, inpractice, is usually of order a year. As before, the time dif-ference between the time of receptions of photons emitted at

and are given by:

(15)

The apparent distance moved by the object is

(16)

P1 P2 t

t

t

P1 P2

trec t 1Vc--- cos–

=

l Vt sin=


Hence, the apparent velocity of the object is:

(17)

In terms of

VappVt sin

t 1Vc--- cos–

------------------------------------

V sin

1Vc--- cos–

------------------------------= =

Vappc

-----------

Vc--- sin

1Vc--- cos–

------------------------------=

V c=


(18)

The non-relativistic limit is just , as we would

expect. However, note that the additional factor is not a con-sequence of the Lorentz transformation, but a consequence oflight travel time effects as a result of the finite speed of light.

app

Vappc

-----------= Vc---=

app sin

1 cos–------------------------=

Vapp V sin=


Consequences

For angles close to the line of sight, the effect of this equationcan be dramatic. First, determine the angle for which the ap-parent velocity is a maximum:

(19)

This derivative is zero when

(20)

dappd

--------------1 cos– cos sinsin–

1 cos– 2---------------------------------------------------------------------------------=

2–cos

1 cos– 2--------------------------------=

cos =


At the maximum:

(21)

If then and the apparent velocity of an object canbe larger than the speed of light. We actually see such effectsin AGN. Features in jets apparently move at faster than lightspeed (after conversion of the angular motion to a linearspeed using the redshift of the source.) This was originallyused to argue against the cosmological interpretation of qua-

app sin

1 cos–------------------------

1 2–

1 2–-----------------------

1 2–------------------- = = = =

1» 1


sar redshifts. However, as you can see such large apparent ve-locities are an easily derived feature of large apparentvelocities.

The defining paper on this was written by Martin Rees in1966 (Nature, 211, 468-470).


0.8

0.9

0.95

0.98

Plots of for various indicated values

of as a function of .

app

app


The following images are from observations of 3C 273 overa period of 5 years from 1977 to 1982. They show proper mo-tions in the knots and of mas/yr and

mas/yr respectively. These translate to proper mo-

tions of and respectively.

C3 C4 0.79 0.03

0.99 0.24

5.5 0.2h 1– c 6.9 1.7h 1– c


From Unwinet al., ApJ,289, 109


2.6 Apparent length of a moving rodThe Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction gives us the relationshipbetween the proper lengths of moving rods. An additionalfactor enters when we take into account time retardation.

x

d x cos=

To observer

P1P2

D

l x sin=

V

L


Consider a rod of length

(22)

in the observer’s frame. Now the apparent length of the rod isaffected by the fact that photons which arrive at the observerat the same time are emitted at different times. correspondsto when the trailing end of the rod passes at time and

corresponds to when the leading end of the rod passes at time. Equating the arrival times for photons emitted from

and at times and respectively,

L 1– L0=

P1t1 P2

t2 P1

P2 t1 t2


(23)

When the trailing end of the rod reaches the leading end

has to go a further distance which it does in

secs. Hence,

t1D x cos+

c-----------------------------+ t2

Dc----+=

t2 t1– x cosc

-------------------=

P2

x L– t2 t1–


(24)

and the apparent projected length is

(25)

This is another example of the appearance of the ubiquitousDoppler factor.

x L–Vx cos

c-----------------------=

x L

1Vc--- cos–

-------------------------=

Lapp x sinL sin

1 cos–------------------------

L0 1 cos– --------------------------------- L0= = = =


2.7 Transformation of velocitiesThe Lorentz transformation

(26)

can be expressed in differential form:

(27)

x x Vt+ = y y= z z=

t t Vxc2--------+

=

dx dx Vdt+ = dy dy= dz dz=

dt dt Vdxc2

-----------+ =


so that if a particle moves in time in the frame thenthe corresponding quantities in the frame are related by theabove differentials. This can be used to relate velocities in the2 frames via

(28)

dx dt SS

dxdt------

dx Vdt+

dt Vdxc2

-----------+

----------------------------------

dxdt------- V+

1V

c2-----

dxdt-------+

-----------------------= =

vxvx V+

1Vvx

c2-----------+

--------------------=


For the components of velocity transverse to the motion of ,

(29)

In invariant terms (i.e. independent of the coordinate system),take

S

dydt------ vy

dy

dt Vdxc2

-----------+

----------------------------------vy

1Vvx

c2-----------+

------------------------------= = =

dzdt----- vz

dz

dt Vdxc2

-----------+

----------------------------------vz

1Vvx

c2-----------+

------------------------------= = =


(30)

then

(31)

The reverse transformations are obtained by simply replacing by so that:

(32)

v|| Component of velocity parallel to V=

v Component of velocity perpendiciular to V=

v||

v|| V+

1 Vv|| c2+----------------------------= v

v

1 Vv|| c2+ ------------------------------------=

V V–

v||v|| V–

1 Vv|| c2–---------------------------= v

v

1 Vv|| c2– ------------------------------------=


and these can also be recovered by considering the differen-tial form of the reverse Lorentz transformations.

2.8 Aberration

v

v||

v

S v

v||

vS

x

y

x

y


Because of the law of transformation of velocities, a velocityvector makes different angles with the direction of motion.From the above laws for transformation of velocities,

(33)

(The difference from the non-relativistic case is the factor of.)

The most important case of this is when . We put

(34)

tanvv||------

v

v|| V+ -------------------------

v sin v cos V+ -----------------------------------= = =

v v c= =

v|| c cos= v c sin=

v|| c cos= v c sin=


and

(35)

and the angles made by the light rays in the two frames satis-fy:

(36)

Vc---=

c cosc cos V+

1Vc--- cos+

--------------------------- cos cos +1 cos+--------------------------= =

c sinc sin

1Vc--- cos+

------------------------------------- sin sin

1 cos+ -----------------------------------= =


Half-angle formula

There is a useful expression for aberration involving half-an-gles. Using the identity,

(37)

the aberration formulae can be written as:

(38)

2---tan

sin1 cos+---------------------=

2--- tan

1 –1 +------------ 1 2/

2---- tan=


Isotropic radiation source

Consider a source of radiation which emits isotropically in itsrest frame and which is moving with velocity with respectto an observer (in frame ). The source is at rest in whichis moving with velocity with respect to .

VS SV S

S S

x

y

x

y

V

1---sin 1–


Consider a rays emitted at right angles to the direction of mo-

tion. This has . The angle of these rays in are given

by the transformation for , with . This gives:

(39)

(40)

2---= S

sin 2=

sin1---=


These rays enclose half the light emitted by the source, so thatin the reference frame of the observer, half of the light is emit-ted in a forward cone of half-angle . This is relativistic

beaming in another form. When is large: .

3 Four vectors

3.1 Four dimensional space-timeSpecial relativity defines a four dimensional space-time con-tinuum with coordinates

(41)

1

1---

x0 ct= x1 x= x2 y= x3 z=


An event is the point in space-time with coordinates where.

The summation convention

Wherever there are repeated upper and lower indices, sum-mation is implied, e.g.

(42)

The metric of space-time is given by

(43)

x

0 1 2 3 =

AB AB

0=

3

=

ds2 dxdx=


where

(44)

(45)

Hence the metric

(46)

1– 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

= Inverse 1– 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

= =

ds2 dx0 2 dx1 2 dx2 2 dx3 2+ + +–=


This metric is unusual for a geometry in that it is not positivedefinite. For spacelike displacements it is positive and fortimelike displacements it is negative.

This metric is related to the proper time by

(47)

Indices are raised and lowered with , e.g. if is a vec-

tor, then

(48)

This extends to tensors in space-time etc. Upper indices arereferred to as covariant; lower indices as contravariant.

ds2 c2– d2=

A

A A=


d

3.2 Representation of a Lorentz transformationA Lorentz transformation is a transformation which preserves

. We represent a Lorentz transformation by:

(49)

That is, a Lorentz transformation is the equivalent of an or-thogonal matrix in the 4-dimensional space time with indefi-nite metric.

Conditions:

• – rules out reflections ( )

s2

x x=

=

det 1= x x–


• – isochronous

For the special case of a Lorentz transformation involving aboost along the –axis

(50)

00 0

x

– 0 0

– 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=


3.3 Some important 4-vectors

The 4-velocity

This is defined by

(51)

The zeroth component

udx

d---------

dx0

d---------

dxi

d-------= =


(52)

Note that we use for the Lorentz factor of the transforma-tion and for particles. This will later translate into for bulkmotion and for the Lorentz factors of particles in the rest-frame of the plasma.

The spatial components:

dx0

d--------- c

dtd----- c

dt

dt2 c 2–– dx1 2 dx2 2 dx3 2+ + +---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------= =

c

1v2

c2-----–

------------------- c= =


(53)

so that

(54)

The 4-momentum

The 4-momentum is defined by

(55)

where

dxi

d-------

dxi

dt-------

dtd----- vi= =

u c vi =

p m0u mc mvi Ec--- pi= = =


(56)

is the energy, and

(57)

is the 3-momentum.

Note the magnitude of the 4-momentum

(58)

E c2p2 m2c4+ mc2= =

pi m0vi=

pp p0 2 p1 2 p2 2 p3 2+ + +–=

Ec--- 2

p2+– m– 2c2= =


3.4 Transformation of 4-vectorsKnowing that a 4-component quantity is a 4-vector meansthat we can easily determine its behaviour under the effect ofa Lorentz transformation. The zero component behaves like

and the component behaves like . Recall that:

(59)

Therefore, the components of the 4-velocity transform like

(60)

Hence,

x0 x x

x x x0+ = x0 x0 x+ =

U0 U0 U1– =

U1 U0– U1+ =


(61)

Transformation of Lorentz factors

Putting gives

(62)

c c v1– 1 v1

c-----–

= =

v1 c– v1+ v1 v1 c– = =

v2 v2=

v3 v3=

v1 v cos=

1 vc-- cos–

=


This is a useful relationship that can be derived from the pre-vious transformations for the 3-velocity. However, one of theuseful features of 4-vectors is that this transformation of theLorentz factor is easily derived with little algebra.

Transformation of 3-velocities

Dividing the second of the above transformations by the first:

(63)

Dividing the third equation by the first:

v1 v1 c–

1 v1

c-----–

------------------------------

v1 c–

1 v1

c-----–

------------------------

v1 V–

1Vvx

c2---------–

------------------------= = =


(64)

and similarly for . These are the equations for the transfor-mation of velocity components derived earlier.

v2 v2

1 v1

c-----–

------------------------------

v2

1Vvx

c2---------–

----------------------------= =

v3


4 Distribution functions in special relativity

In order to properly describe distributions of particles in a rel-

py

pz

Distribution of momenta in momentum space.

p

px


ativistic context and in order to understand the transforma-tions of quantities such as specific intensity, etc. we need tohave relativistically covariant descriptions of statistical dis-tributions of particles.

Recall the standard definition of the phase space distributionfunction:

(65)fd3xd3pNo of particles within an elementrary volume

of phase space=


4.1 Momentum space and invariant 3-volume

The above definition of is somewhat unsatisfacto-ry from a relativistic point of view since it focuses on threedimensions rather than four.

Covariant analogue of

The aim of the following is to replace by something thatmakes sense relativistically.

Consider the space of 4-dimensional momenta. We expressthe components of the momentum in terms of a hyperspheri-cal angle and polar angles and .

f x t p

d3p

d3p


(66)

The Minkowksi metric is also the metric of momentum spaceand we express the interval between neighbouring momenta

as . In terms of hyperspherical angles:

(67)

p0 mc cosh=

p1 mc cossinsinh=

p2 mc sinsinsinh=

p3 mc cossinh=

dpdp

dpdp d mc 2– +=

m2c2 d 2 d2 d2sin2+ sinh2+ +


This is proved in Appendix A.

The magnitude of the 3-dimensional momentum is

(68)

A particle of mass is restricted to the mass shell. This is a 3-dimensional hypersurface in mo-

mentum space. From the above expression for the metric, it iseasy to read off the element of volume on the mass shell:

(69)

This volume is an invariant since it corresponds to the invar-iantly defined subspace of the momentum space,

.

p mc sinh=

mm constant=

d mc 3 sinh2 ddsin=

m constant=


On the other hand, the volume element refers to a sub-space which is not invariant. The quantity

(70)

depends upon the particular Lorentz frame. It is in fact the

projection of the mass shell onto . However, it

is useful to know how the expression for is expressed interms of hyperspherical coordinates.

In the normal polar coordinates:

(71)

Putting in this expression,

d3p

d3p dp1dp2dp3=

p0 constant=

d3p

d3p p2 dpddsin=

p mc sinh=


(72)

That is, the normal momentum space 3-volume and the invar-iant volume differ by a factor of .

4.2 Invariant definition of the distribution functionThe following invariant expression of the distribution func-tion was first introduced by J.L. Synge who was one of the in-fluential pioneers in the theory of relativity who introducedgeometrical and invariant techniques to the field.

We begin by defining a world tube of particles with momen-

tum (4-velocity ).

d3p mc 3 sinh2 dsin ddcosh dcosh= =

d cosh

p u


The distribution function is defined by:

World tube of particles with 4-

velocity . The cross-sectional 3-area of the tube is .

u

d0

t

x

y

u

d0

d

n

f x p


The three-area of the world tube, is the particular 3-area

that is normal to the world lines in the tube. Using , we

define the distribution function, , by the followingdefinition:

(73)

This is expressed in terms of a particular 3-area, .

d0

d0

f x p

Number of world lines within

the world tube with momenta

within d

f x p d0d=

d0


Now consider the world lines intersecting an arbitrary 3-area

(or 3-volume) that has a unit normal . The projectionrelation between and is

(74)

Proof of last statement

First, let us define what is meant by a spacelike hypersurface.

In such a hypersurface every displacement, , is spacelike.

That is, . The normal to a spacelike hyper-

surface is timelike. The square of the magnitude of a unit nor-mal is -1:

d n

d d0

d0 d c 1– un– =

dx

dxdx 0


(75)

Example:

The surface

(76)

is spacelike. Its unit normal is:

(77)

We can also contemplate a family of spacelike hypersurfacesin which, for example

(78)

nn 1–=

t constant=

n 1 0 0 0 =

t variable=


This corresponds to a set of 3-volumes in which and vary, that are swept along in the direction of the time-axis. Asbefore the unit normal to this family of hypersurfaces is

and the corresponding 4-velocity is

(79)

In the present context, we can consider the set of 3-spaces corresponding to each cross-section of a world tube as a

family of such spacelike hypersurfaces. Each hypersurface isdefined as being perpendicular to the 4-velocity so that, in

x1 x2 x3

n 1 0 0 0 =

u cdtd----- 0 0 0

c 0 0 0 cn= = =

d0


general, . However, it is possible to make a

Lorentz transformation so that in a new system of coordinates

and .

The significance of

What is the significance of a surface as indicated in thefigure? This is an arbitrary surface tilted with respect to theoriginal cross-sectional surface .This surface has its own

unit normal and 4-velocity, .

u0 c 0 0 0

n0 1 0 0 0 = u0

c 0 0 0 =

d

d

d0

n u

cn=


In the coordinate system in which the normal to has

components , let us assume that the 4-ve-

locity of is . That is, represents a sur-

face that is moving with respect to at the velocity with

Lorentz factor, . The unit normal to is

(80)

Relation between volumes in the two frames

Let be the primed (moving) frame. The element of vol-ume of is

d0

n0 1 0 0 0 =

d u c v = d

d0 v

d

n =

dd


(81)

At an instant of time in the primed frame denoted by

(82)

Hence,

(83)

Expression of the Lorentz factor in invariant form

Consider the invariant scalar product

d dx1dx2dx3=

dt 0=

dx1 dx1 vdt+ dx1= =

dx2 dx2= dx3 dx3=

d0 dx1dx2dx3 dx1dx2dx3 d= = =


(84)

Dropping the subscript on and using we

have

(85)

Hence,

(86)

Note that the “projection factor” is greater than unity, perhapscounter to intuition.

nn0 1 0 0 0 – –= =

n n0 c 1– u=

c 1– un–=

d0 c 1– un– d=


Number of world lines in terms of

We defined the distribution function by:

(87)

Hence, our new definition for an arbitrary :

d


the world tube with momenta

within d

f x p d0d=

d


the world tube crossing dwith momenta within d

f x p c 1– un– dd=


Counting is an invariant operation and all of the quantities ap-pearing in the definition of are invariants, therefore

(88)

4.3 An important special case

Take the normal to to be parallel to the time direction in anarbitrary Lorentz frame. Then

(89)

and

(90)

f

f x p Invariant=

n0 1 0 0 0 =

un– u0n0– – u0= =


Also

(91)

Now

(92)

Therefore,

(93)

d d3x=

p0 mc cosh= u0 cosh=

f x p un– dd f x p d3xdcosh=

f x p d3xd3p=


Our invariant expression reduces to the noninvariant expres-sion when we select a special 3-volume in spacetime. Thusthe usual definition of the distribution is Lorentz-invarianteven though it does not appear to be.

5 Distribution of photons

5.1 Definition of distribution functionWe can treat massless particles separately or as a special caseof the above, where we let and in such a

way that . In either case, we have for pho-

tons,

m 0 cosh

mc coshhc

------


(94)

and the distribution function is still an invariant.

5.2 Relation to specific intensityFrom the definition of the distribution function, we have

(95)

f x p d3xd3pNo of photons within d3x

and momenta within d3p=

Energy density of photons

within d3phfd3p hfp2dpd= =


The alternative expression for this involves the energy densi-ty per unit frequency per unit solid angle, . We know

that

(96)

Hence, the energy density within and within solid angle is

(97)

Therefore,

u

u Ic-----=

d

udd c 1– Idd=


(98)

This gives the very important result that, since is a Lorentzinvariant, then

(99)

Thus, if we have 2 relatively moving frames, then

hfp2dpd hfhc

------ 2

dhc

------ d c 1– Idd= =

f c2

h4------

I

3------=

f

I

3------ Lorentz invariant=


(100)

Take the primed frame to be the rest frame, then

(101)

where is the Doppler factor.

5.3 Transformation of emission and absorption coefficientsConsider the radiative transfer equation:

I

3------------

I

3------= I

---- 3

I=

I 3I=


(102)

Obviously, the source function must have the same transfor-mation properties as . Hence

(103)

Emission coefficient

The optical depth along a ray passing through a medium withabsorption coefficient is, in the primed frame

dId--------- S I–= S

j------=

I

S



(104)

The optical depth in the unprimed frame is

l l

In SIn S

l

sin------------=


(105)

and is identical. The factor counts the number of photonsabsorbed so that is a Lorentz invariant. Hence

(106)

The aberration formula gives

(107)

l

sin-----------=

e –

ll------------

sinsin

------------ 1=

sinsin

1 cos– --------------------------------- sin= =


and the lengths and are perpendicular to the motion, sothat . Hence,

(108)

i.e. is a Lorentz invariant.

The emission coefficient

(109)

l ll l=

-------- 1–

------------- 1= =

S

3------

j

3-------------

j

2------

1– Lorentz invariant= = =


Hence, is a Lorentz invariant.

5.4 Flux density from a moving sourceThe flux from an arbitrary source is given by

(110)

j 2

D

d

V

Observer

F I dcos I d

1

D2------- j Vd

V= =


Now relate this to the emissivity in the rest frame. Since

(111)

Therefore,

(112)

The apparent volume of the source is related to the volume inthe rest frame, by

j


j---- 2

j 2j= =

F1

D2------- 2j Vd

V

2

D2------- j Vd

V= =


(113)

This is the result of a factor of expansion in the direction ofmotion and no expansion in the directions perpendicular tothe motion. Hence the flux density is given in terms of the restframe parameters by:

(114)

Effect of spectral index

For a power-law emissivity (e.g. synchrotron radiation),

dV dV=

F1

D2------- 2j Vd

V

3

D2------- j Vd

V= =


(115)

Therefore,

(116)

This gives a factor of increase for a blue-shifted sourceof radiation, over and above what would be measured in therest frame at the same frequency.

j j---- –

j= =

F3 +

D2--------------- j Vd

V=

3 +


Example:

Consider the beaming factor in a jet viewed at the an-gle which maximises the apparent proper motion.

The maximum occurs when .

(117)

Hence,

5=

app cos =

5= 11

52------– 0.9798= =

1 1 cos– ---------------------------------

1

1 2– ------------------------ = = =


(118)

for a spectral index of

3 + 53.6 330= =

0.6


5.5 Plot of

Plot of the Doppler fac-tor as a func-tion of view-ing angle.


Appendix A

Line element in momentum space in terms of hyper-spherical angles

We have the hyperspherical angle representation of a point inmomentum space:

(119)

We can write:

p0 mc cosh=

p1 mc cossinsinh=

p2 mc sinsinsinh=

p3 mc cossinh=


(120)

where

(121)

dp0

dp1

dp2

dp3

A

d mc ddd

=

A

cosh mc sinh 0 0

sinh

sin cos

mc cosh

sin cos

mc sinh

coscosmc sinh–

cossinsinh

sinsinmc cosh

sincosmc sinh

sincosmc sinh

cossin cossinh mc coscosh mc sinsinh– 0

=


Hence

(122)

where

dpdp d mc d d d A†A

d mc ddd

=


(123)

On matrix multiplication we obtain:

(124)

A†

cosh–sinh

sin cos

sinh

sinsin cossinh

m– c sinhmc cosh

sin cos

mc cosh

sincosmc coscosh

0mc sinh

coscosmc sinh

sincosmc sinsinh–

0mc sinh–

cossinmc sinh

cossin0

=

dpdp d mc 2– d 2 sinh2 d 2 sin2 d 2+ + +=


A†A

1– 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 sinh2 0

0 0 0 sinh2 sin2

=


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8 Relativistic Effects - Intranet - ANUgeoff/HEA/8_Relativistic_Effects.pdf · High Energy Astrophysics: Relativistic Effects 20/93 Consequences For angles close to the line of sight,