8 Job Design Work Study and Measurement

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PIMSR OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

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Introduction

Historical Perspective on Productivity Improvement

Scientific Management and Frederick Winslow

Taylor

By far the most influential person of the time and someone, whohas had an impact on management service practice as well as on

management thought up to the present day, was F. W. Taylor.Taylor formalized the principles of scientific management, and thefact-finding approach put forward and largely adopted was areplacement for what had been the old rule of thumb.

He also developed a theory of organization which altered thepersonalized autocracy which had only been tempered by varyingdegrees of benevolence, such as in the Quaker family business ofCadbury’s and Clark’s.

Taylor was not the originator of many of his ideas, but waspragmatist with the ability to synthesize the work of others andpromote them effectively to a ready and eager audience ofindustrial manager who were striving to find new or improved waysto increase performance.

Objectives of Scientific Management

The four objectives of management under scientific managementwere as follows:

1. The development of a science for each element of a man’swork to replace the old rule-of-thumb methods.

2. The scientific selection, training and development of workersinstead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and trainthemselves as best they could.

3. The development of spirit of hearty cooperation betweenworkers and management to ensure that work could becarried in accordance with scientifically devised procedures.

4. The division of work between workers and the managementin almost equal shares, each group taking over the work for




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which it is best fitted instead of the former condition in whichresponsibility largely rested with the workers. Self-evident inthis philosophy are organizations arranged in hierarchy,systems of abstract rules and impersonal relation betweenstaff.

F. W. Taylor contribution to organizational theory

His framework for organization was:• Clear delineation of authority.• Responsibility.• Separation of planning from operations.• Incentive schemes for workers.• Management by exception.• Task Specialization.

Taylor’s Impact has been so great because he developed aconcept of work design, work measurement, production controland other functions, that completely change the nature of theindustry. Before scientific management, such departments aswork study, personnel, maintenance and quality control did notexist. What was more his methods proved to be verysuccessful.




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WHAT IS JOB DESIGN?

Job Design involves conscious effort to organize tasks, duties andresponsibilities into a unit of work to achieve a certain objective. Itspecifies the content of each job and determines how work isdistributed within the organization. Job Design integrates workcontent (tasks, functions and relationships), the extrinsic andintrinsic rewards and qualification required (skills, knowledge andabilities) for each job in a way that meets the need of employeesand the organization.

The design of jobs has a critical impact on organization and

employee objectives. From the organizations perspective, the waytasks and responsibilities are grouped can affect productivity andcosts. Jobs that are not satisfying or are too demanding aredifficult to fill. Boring jobs may experience higher turnover. For anemployee, motivation and job satisfaction are affected by thematch between job factors (content, qualifications and rewards)and personal needs. Therefore, the thoughtful design of jobs canhelp both the organization and its employees achieve theirobjectives.

Job is more than a collection of tasks recorded to a job analysisschedule and summarized in a job description. Jobs are thefoundation of organization productivity and employee satisfaction.As the number of new workers coming into the labor marketsslows and international competition increasing well designed jobswill become even more important in attracting and retaining amotivated work force, which is capable of producing qualityproducts and services. It may be stated that, poorly designed jobsmay lead to lower productivity, low employee turnover, complainsabsenteeism, unionization and other problems.

How can job design help with the organization of work?

Job design principles can address problems such as:

• Work overload,• Work under load,• Repetitiveness,• Limited control over work,




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• Isolation,• Shift work,• Delays in filling vacant positions,• Excessive working hours, and• Limited understanding of the whole job process.

Job design is sometimes considered as a way to help deal withstress in the workplace

OBJECTIVES OF JOB DESIGN:

A job is a long term assignment of tasks by means of which aperson is able to contribute to effectiveness of an organization. Afirm depends on its employees for success. Anything that affectsthe employee’s job performance should therefore be of interest tomanagement. The three main objectives that a manager tries to

realize in specifying jobs are:

Economically FeasibleTasks

TechnicallyFeasible Tasks

BehaviourallyDesirable Tasks

BehaviourallyAcceptable Tasks

The Most DesirableObjectives of Job Design

What many WorkersFeel that they have

1. Technical feasibility

2. Economic feasibility3. Behavioral feasibility

1. TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY:

A job is a set of tasks or duties assigned to be performed.The person who holds the job must be capable of performingthe assignment with the equipment and systems availableand the job must take the necessary transformation of inputs




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into outputs. A job must not be beyond the reasonable limitsof a person’s skills or physical and mental endurance. Aproper selection of processes and equipments as well asproper training of employees helps ensure technicalfeasibility.

2. ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY:

The cost of performing the job should not be too high. Sincemany businesses must perform in a competitive environment,they are subject to some pressure, to keep prices at reasonablelevels.

3. BEHAVIOURAL FEASIBILTY:

Some characteristics of job may affect the job-holders’perception of themselves, their perception of others and theirrelationships with others. The feelings that people desire from a job affect their motivation to perform it. Since a job is often morethan just a set of mechanical motion to be performed, it requiresmotivation and mental stimulation if it is to be performed,successfully. Beyond the individual, jobs carry with them, socialinteraction that, may lead to group reaction. Informalorganization or work groups have a large impact on theeffectiveness of an organization. Attitudes are contagious and

peer pressure may be responsible for many of the motivationalreaction of workers.

An organization must achieve economic feasibility in order tosurvive. This may make it necessary to stress technicalefficiency at the expenses of employee satisfaction andmotivation .jobs must be made satisfying to add to worker’smotivation so that there is no reduction in efficiency andperhaps even improvements in quality and cost performance.Behavioral scientist and managers strive to seek answers to the

question of how to achieve optimal designs that balancetechnical objectives and social or behavioral objectives.One promising approach is the social –technical-systemsapproach because it involves the inter-relationships betweenthe social needs of workers and the technical needs of the tasksto be performed.




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FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN

Job design is affected by organizational, environmental andbehavioral factors. A properly designed job will make it moreproductive and satisfying. If a job fails on this account, it must beredesigned based on the feedback. The various factors affecting job design are the following:

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS

Organizational factors include characteristics of tasks, workflow, ergonomics and work practices.

CHARACERISTICS OF TASKS:

Job design requires the assembly of number of tasks into a jobor a group of jobs. An individual may carry out one main taskwhich consists of a number of interrelated elements offunctions. On the other hand, task functions may be splitbetween a team, working closely together or strung along anassembly line. In more complex jobs, individuals may carry outa variety of connected tasks. Each with a number of functions,

or these tasks may be allocated to a group of workers ordivided between them. Complexity in a job may be a reflectionof the number and variety of tasks to be carried out, or therange and scope of the decisions that have to be made, or thedifficulty of predicting the outcome of decisions.

The internal structure of each task consists of threeelements, planning, executing and controlling. A completelyintegrated job will include all these elements for each of thetask involved. The worker or group of workers having beengiven objectives in terms of output, quality and cost targets,

decide on how the work is done, assemble the resources,perform the work and monitor output, quality and coststandards. Responsibility in a job is measured by the amountof authority; some one has to put to do all these things. Theideal design is to integrate all the three elements.




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FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN

Productive andSatisfying Job

Job DesignEnvironmental

Factors

BehaviouralFactors

OrganisationalFactors

Feedback

WORK FLOW:

The flow of work in an organization is strongly influenced by thenature of the product or services. The product or service usuallysuggests the sequence and balance between jobs, if the work is tobe done efficiently. After the sequence of jobs is determined, thebalance between the jobs is established.

WORK PRACTISES:

Work practices are set ways of performing work. These methodsmay arise from tradition or the collective wishes of employees.

Work practices were tilled now, determined by time and motionstudy which established the standard time needed to complete thegiven job. The study required repeated observations. The accuracyof the readings depended on competence of the work study

engineer. Deviations from the normal work-cycle causeddistortions in measurements, were biased towards existing workpractices with little effort at method’s improvement and could becarried out only when, production was under way. A new techniquehas now emerged which, if introduced, could drastically alter thework practices. Called the MOST (Maynard Operating SequenceTechnique), the technique uses a standard formula to list themotion sequence ascribed in index values.




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ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS:

Environmental factor affect the job design. These factors that havea bearing on job design are employee abilities and availability andsocial and cultural expectations.

1. Employee Abilities and Availability: Efficiencyconsideration must be balanced against the abilities andavailability of the people to do the work. When Henry Fordmade use of the assembly line, for example, he was awarethat most potential workers lacked any automobile makingexperience. So, jobs were designed to be simple andrequired little training. Therefore, considerable thought mustbe given, as to who will actually do the work.

2. Social and cultural Expectations: during the earlier days,

securing a job was the primary consideration. The workerwas prepared to work on any job and under any workingconditions. Now, it is not the same. Literacy, knowledge andawareness of workers have improved considerably. So also,their expectations from the job. Hence, jobs must bedesigned to meet the expectations of workers. Whendesigning jobs for international operations, uniform designsare almost certain to neglect national and culturaldifferences. Hours of work, holidays, vacations, rest breaks,religious beliefs, management styles and worker

sophistication and attitudes are just some of the predictabledifferences that can affect the design of jobs acrossinternational borders. Failure to consider these socialexpectations can create social dissatisfaction, lowmotivation, hard to fill job openings and a low quality of worklife, especially, when foreign nationals are involved in thehome country or overseas.

3. Behavioral Factors: Behavioral factors include feedback,autonomy, and use of abilities.

Feedback:

Individuals must receive meaningful feedback about theirperformance, preferably by evaluating their ownperformance and defining the feedback. This implies that,they should ideally work on a complete product, orsignificant part of it which can be seen as a whole.




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Autonomy:

Autonomy is being responsible for what one does. It is thefreedom to controlone’s responses to the environment. Jobs that give workers,authority to make decisions will provide addedresponsibilities which tend to increase the employee’s senseof recognition and self esteem. The absence of autonomy,on the other hand, can cause employee apathy or poorperformance.Use of abilities:

The job must be perceived by individuals as requiring themto use abilities; they value in order to perform the job

effectively.

Variety:

Lack of variety may cause boredom. Boredom is turn leadsto fatigue causes mistakes. By injecting variety into jobs,personnel specifications can reduce errors caused byfatigue.

What are features of "good" job design?

Good job design accommodates employees' mental and physicalcharacteristics by paying attention to:

• Muscular energy such as work/rest schedules or pace ofwork, and

• Mental energy such as boring versus extremely difficulttasks.

Good job design:

• Allows for employee input. Employees should have theoption to vary activities according to personal needs, workhabits, and the circumstances in the workplace.

• Gives employees a sense of accomplishment.• Includes training so employees know what tasks to do and

how to do them properly.




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• Provides good work/rest schedules.• Allows for an adjustment period for physically demanding

jobs.• Provides feedback to the employees about their

performance.• Minimizes energy expenditure and force requirements.• Balances static and dynamic work.

Job design is an ongoing process. The goal is to makeadjustments as conditions or tasks change within the workplace.

APPLICATION OF ERGONOMICS.

Ergonomics is applied in two areas i.e.

The physical devices or equipments people use inperforming work, and

A worker is a part of a system including the tools he/she uses.These combinations are called as machine worker systems. Sincethe human part of machine worker system cannot be redesigned,reconstructed to increase its effectiveness so the machine must beadapted to the worker. All controls and information displays shouldbe located for clear access and visibility. Levers and hand wheelsshould be of proper size and located so that sufficient operatingforce may be applied in appropriate direction.

Gauges should be arranged so that the indicators point inapproximately the same direction when the equipment is operatingnormally. This helps the operators to quickly spot deviations fromnormal working.

THE WORK ENVIRONMENT

The environment in which people work can affect their comfort,health and productivity. Some environmental variables to be

considered are temperature, noise and lighting.

TemperatureHuman beings can perform under a variety of combinationsof temperature, humidity and air movements. A comfortabletemperature may range from 26.4 C to 38.4 C depending onconditions such as humidity and air movement.




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NoiseFor occupational safety and health it is necessary to ensure

that the workers should not be exposed to noise intensity of above90 db for more than nine hours continuously. Higher soundintensities up to 130 db are permitted for short exposures. Whensound intensities are above 85 to 90 db protection devices need tobe worn.

LightingGood illumination at the work place or on the work surface isnecessary for proper work performance without strain for theeyes. The color content of light and the amount of glare arealso important.

Activities involved in ergonomics or workstation design are- Improving the workflow.

Reducing repetitive physical motions. Adjusting illumination levels. Allowing employees to personalize the work area (e.g.: with

pictures .flower plants. etc.)




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WHAT IS WORK STUDY?

To increase productivity, two important function of

production management are: installation of the most effectivemethod of performing the operation and the control of resources-mainly plant and labor required in carrying out the operation.

INTRODUCTION TO METHOD STUDY

According to British Standards Institution (BS-3138)‘Method study is the systematic recording and critical

examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work, as ameans of developing and applying easier and more effectivemethods and reducing costs.

The definition suggests the examination of existing as well asproposed production methods. Critical examination whenconducted on existing methods helps the firm to identifyunnecessary costs associated with the existing jobs. Such costsget added to the jobs due to various reasons and are mot readilyapparent especially to those who are responsible for causing them.They are brought to light when existing production methods areanalyzed critically and impartially. Critical examination of proposedproduction methods, on the other hand, helps the4 organization to

WWOORRKK SSTTUUDDYY

METHOD STUDY TIME STUDY




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prevent the possibility of introduction of unnecessary cost in new jobs.

Production methods, another term in the definition, refer to themanufacturing process by which materials and other resources getconverted in the goods and services. Since production method is acomplicated combination of men, machines and materials, thescope of method the scope of method study is broader based?Method study in general analyses the following aspects;1. Manufacturing operations and their sequence.2. Machines3. Workmen4. Materials5. Tools6. Gauges and measuring instruments7. Work bench layout8. Layout of physical facilities

9. Movement of men and materials10. Materials handing11. Working conditions.

BASIC PROCEDURE OF METHOD STUDY

Method study is an organized approach and its investigationrests on the following six basic steps outlined in the block diagram

1. Select the work to be analyzed

2. Record all facts relating to the existing method.

3. Examine the recorded facts critically but impartially.

4.Develop the most economical method commensuratewith plant requirements.

5. Install the new method as standard practice.

6. Maintain the new method.




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These six steps are in a logical order and indeed represent acommonsense approach to any investigation. The success of theanalysis thus depends on correct order of the investigation and therigor of the application. Each of the above steps is brieflydescribed below:

Record facts relating to

the existing method

Examine facts critically

but impartially

Select the job to

be analyzed

Purpose Place Sequence Person Means

Develop alternatives to

the existing method

Install the new

method

Maintain the new

method




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Selecting to the job Selecting of the jobs to be studied for methods improvement

by the method study practitioner is a managerial responsibilityand it (selection) may be based on economic, technical orhuman consideration. Economic consideration justifies selectionbased on economic worth of the job.

Recording of facts Systematic recording is the most crucial step in method

improvement. Since recording by long hand has its limitation, itis mot recommended for use in me3thod study. Instead, fivesymbols and eight charting conventions are used to record factsrelating to the job under study. Five typical symbols are

and eight chartingconvention concern composition of the chart, reject, rework,repetition, change of state, introduction of mew material,combined event and numbering of events. The document onwhich details of the process are recorded by the above referredsymbols and conventions is called chart.

Critical examination Critical examination aims to analyze the facts critically and

there by give rise to alternatives which form the basis ofselection and development of easier and effective methods.

Critical examination is conducted through a systematic andmethodical questioning process.

Development and selection Development and selection stage concern short listing of

ideas generated at the critical examination stage, testing eachshort listed idea for its technical and economic feasibility, andmaking selection among the alternatives wherever choiceexists.

Installation ‘Installation’ of the proposed method involves preparation of

project report on recommendations, making oral presentation tothe top management, securing approval of the decision maker,assisting line management during implementation, arrangingtraining of workmen, and getting jobs retimed afterimplementation.

D




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Maintenance Maintenance phase is the follow up phase after the

implementation which serves as a monitoring and controlmechanism. It helps to ensure that the revised methods are setinto concrete and workmen do not revert back to old methods.

SELECTION OF THE JOB

The selection of job should be such that the proposed methodachieves one or more of the following results(a) Increase production with same labor, material and equipment

or same production with less labor, material and equipment.

(b) Improved quality with lesser scrap.(c) Improved layout leading to elimination/minimization of

unproductive movements of men and materials.The following consideration should be kept in mind while

selecting a job for the purpose of method improvement

Economic considerationTechnical considerationHuman consideration

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION Economic consideration is usually important at all stages of

the study. The time and money spent in conducting a longinvestigation should be justified by the saving resulting from it

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATION Technical consideration analyses technical aspect of the job

selected for the analysis. The method study man should select

a job in which he has the technical knowledge filing which hewill not be able to do justice to the job. An electrical engineermay not be able to solve satisfactorily the problems faced in thefoundry.




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HUMAN CONSIDERATION Human consideration is the greatest consideration of all.

Method study means a change but a change which is acceptedhalf-heartedly by the workers and their representatives is reallyno good a change.

Human consideration is thus very important aspect inmethods study. You must overcome the resistance to change.Convince your employee why change is necessary. Get hiswhole hearted co-operations. The effectiveness of the methodstudy can be proved by selecting and improving some of those jobs which are considered unsafe, dirty, strenuous, hard andinconvenient by the workers themselves.

RECORDING THE FACTSRecording is the preparatory step towards critical

examination. The success of critical examination to a large

extent, depends on how correctly, precisely and incomprehensive form the facts relating to method under studyare recorded.

The development of recording process in the recent periodhas shown that a much smaller number of symbols areadequate. In fact, the American Society of MechanicalEngineers and British Standard Institute have advocated justfive symbols.

METHOD STUDY SYMBOLS

Most of the processes/activities in method study can berecorded by means of standard five symbols. They are:

Operation

An operation occurs when there is a distinct change in physicalor chemical characteristic of an object or, when there is anaddition or subtraction or, when there is consumption of

physical effort or when information is given or received.

Inspection




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An inspection occurs when the object is verified againstpredetermined standards of quality, or quantity, or both.Inspection, unlike operation, does not take the object one stepforward towards completion. It merely verifies whether or notthe object has undergone the required operation as perspecifications.

Transport

A transport occurs when the object is moved from one place toanother.

Delay

A delay occurs when the object is held up resulting in delayin the start of next event i.e. next operation, inspection ortransport.

Storage

Storage occurs when the object is kept in an authorizedcustody and is protected against unauthorized removal.

• Materials kept in the work distribution center• Tools kept in racks in a tool crib.These symbols are placed one below another as per

occurrence of the events and are joined by a vertical line. Abrief description of the activity is given on the right hand of thesymbols. And the time that the activity takes is written on lefthand against all the symbols except the transport symbols.

CHARTING CONVENTIONSSimple processes can be recorded with the help of the

foregoing symbols. Complicated processes-those involvingrework, rejection, repetition, change of state, introduction of newmaterial, combined activities etc. can not be recorded clearly bysymbols alone. The recording of such activities beside symbolsrequires use of charting convention. Typical chartingconventions are:




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(A) COMPOSITION OF THE CHART There are three distinct parts of the chart:

Introduction to record name of the chart, present or proposedmethod, task under study, chart begins, chart ends, charted by,date of chartingBody to show activities by relevant symbols has written onebelow another according to the sequence.Summary to give frequency of each symbol, total time for eachsymbols and total distance traveled by object,

(B) REJECTION Sometimes materials or components are rejected during

processing. Such rejection-the stage at which it occurs and theplace where this discarded material is taken to-requires to beshown in the chart.

(C) REPETITION Repetition concerns a situation where an activity or a series

of activities are to be repeated. To show such activities byrepeated use of symbols is unnecessary. Much of this extraeffort can be saved by enclosing the activities by the loop.

(D) REPROCESSING Reprocessing concern a situation where the component is

not completely rejected but is to be reworked.

(E)INTRODUCTION OF NEW MATERIALS Introduction of new materials considers the entry points of

the materials. Such entries are indicted on the chart byhorizontal lines with description of materials written above theline quantity below the line.

(F) COMBINED ACTIVITIES Sometimes, more than one activity is performed

simultaneously by the operator. Such activities are represented

by combined symbols.

(G) NUMBERING OF ACTIVIEIES CHARTING METHODS:

Different charting methods to record details of the existingmethods are as follows:1. Chart2. Diagrams3. Templates and models




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4. Photographic aids5. Graphic techniques

CHARTChart is the most popular method of recording data. The

activities comprising the job are recorded by means of symbolsand charting conventions. There are different types of charts:(1) Operation process chart

Give bird eye view of the entire process(2) Flow process chart

Show detailed sequence of activities preformed by theworkmen, material, and equipment.(3) Multiple activity chart

Study man machine utilization; determine number ofmachine to be manned by one operator and the like.(4) Two handed process chart

Study work bench layout

1. OPERATION PROCESS CHART (OPC) An operation process chart is a chart on which the major

activities and entry points of materials are recorded to have agraphic view of operations and inspections involved in the process.

An operation process chart gives the detailed step by stepaccount of what is done to the materials from beginning of the firststage to last stage. Only operations and inspections performed onthe materials are depicted on this chart. Activities like transport,

delay and storages are not included.

Operation process chart is useful to• Visualize the complete sequence of operations and

inspections involved in the process.• Know where the operation selected for detailed study fits into

the entire process.

2. FLOW PROCESS CHART (FPC)

Flow process chart is a chart which sets out the sequence offlow of work of a product, or any part of it through the section orthe department or the factory by recording the event under reviewusing appropriate symbols.

Flow process chart is prepared in a manner similar to that ofoperation process chart except that in addition to the symbols for‘operation’ and ‘inspection’, symbols for ‘transport’ ‘delay’ and‘storage’ are also made use of.

Flow process chart is useful to explore the possibilities of –




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• Reducing distance traveled by the workmen• Avoiding waiting time and thereby reduce production losses.• Evolving better sequence of activities.

How it is preparedFlow process chart, like operation process chart, consists of

three parts-introduction, body and summary.All the five symbols- operation, inspection, transport, delay

and storage- are used in the making of this chart. The symbolsare placed one below another as per occurrence of the activitiesand are joined by a small vertical line. A brief description of theactivity is inserted on the right hand of the symbols and the tineor the distance, depending upon the symbols, is given on theleft handoff the symbol.

3. MULTIPLE ACTIVITY CHART A multiple activity chart is a chart on which the activities of

more than one subject are recorded to indicate their inter-relationship in a given work cycle. Multiple activity charts in otherwords shows what each subject does at any time in relation to theother.

Why it is made?A multiple activity chart is made to:

• Detect idle time enforced on men and machines.• Determine number of workmen necessary to perform a job

involving tea working.• Establish number of machines that can conveniently manned

by an operator.

Two symbols are used in the making of this chart onerepresenting working and other representing idle.

4. TWO HANDED PROCESS CHART A two handed process chart is a chart is a chart on which the

activities performed by two hands or two limbs of the operator arerecorded to show their inter-relationships.

Why it is made?Two handed process chart is useful:

• To visualize the complete sequence of activities in arepetitive task of short duration performed within the confines




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of a work place. This chart is generally prepared to study avariety of assembly, machining and clerical jobs.

• To study a work bench layout.

CRITICAL EXAMINATION

Critical examination aims to analyze the facts critically andthereby give rise to alternative which forms the basis forselection and development of improved methods.

Critical examination is conducted through a systematic andmethodical questioning process. Each activity recorded on thechart, whether it relates to processing, or inspection, or materialhandling, or to any other aspect, is picked up, one at a time andis examined minutely.Each governing consideration analyzes one specific aspect of

the job.Purpose: analyzes whether the job/activity is essential.Place: analyzes whether the job/activity is being performed atthe right place.Sequence : analyzes whether the job/activity is being doneat the right time.Person: analyzes whether the job/activity is being performed byright person.Means: analyzes whether the job/activity is done using rightmaterials, right, tools, right, jigs and fixture, right measuring

instruments and gauges.

DEVELOPMENT AND SELECTION

Critical examination gives rise to a number of creative ideasbut creative ideas in themselves can not achieve a thing untilthey are expanded and put to use. Since not all ideas arepracticable, some of the ideas may require to be discardedwhile others may need to be expanded, refined and developed,

and yet some others may require to be kept aside until a futuretime.Development there fore involves analysis of creative ideas andgiving them a practical shape. Development phase is thecombination of three phases: evaluation, investigation andselection.




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*EVALUATIONEvaluation assesses the true worth of each creative idea and

thereby decides whether an idea should be pursued ordiscarded. It is, therefore, an exercise to shortlist creative ideas.(1) combination of ideas(2) estimation of cost of resting and implementation(3) fault finding and fault identification

*INVESTIGATIONInvestigation explores as to how the ideas cleared at the

evaluation stage as suitable or promising can be converted intopractical suggestions.(1) Test each idea for its technical feasibility(2) Predict performance of each feasible idea(3) Test each feasible alternative for its economic feasibility

INSTALLATION OF PROPOSED METHODInstallation refers to the implementation of the proposed

method and it serves the following objectives:To prepare and present the change proposal to themanagementTo develop sequential steps to be taken to implement theproposal on its acceptance.

RECOMMENDATION PHASEEven if the management is solidly behind the methods

improvement programme, it still requires facts and figures tosupport specific proposals.• Project preparation• Project presentation

IMPLEMENTATION PHASENo recommendation is effective until implemented. Though

the responsibility of implementation is that of top management

yet active assistance of method man is required to resolveproblem, minimize delay, and ensure changes.

• Obtain written acceptance to the proposal• Assist implementation• Authorize charges• Expedite implementation• Clear misconcepts and remove road blocks• Initial experiment with the proposed method




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• Subsequent trials• Arrange for training of workmen in the use of new

methods.• Undertake work measurement studies.

MAINTENANCE OF THE PROPOSED METHOD

Method change does not get completed with the implementation ofthe proposal. Follow up after the implementation is equallyimportant. Follow up after the implementation:Serves as a monitoring and control mechanism and helps toensure that revised methods are followed in future.Audits results achieved from the implementation of the study.Appraises the management of the contribution of method changes.Maintenance of the proposed method involves the following:

MONITORING AND CONTROLIt is necessary that the analyst should continually visit the

shops and maintain liaison with the line management. Thereporting frequency may be as under:Daily reports : Until one week after trialBi-weekly reports : From one week after and up to four weekafter the trialWeekly reports : From one month after and up to two monthsafter the trialMonthly reports : From two months after up to six months afterthe trial

AUDIT OF THE SAVINGS Audit of the saving realized too is the responsibility of the

practitioner. Audit of saving enables the practitioner:To know whether the implementation work is complete. This being

the case when the saving show up as predicted.Irrespective of the above situations, audit feedback helps

methods engineer in his future work.




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REVIEW OF THE APPROACH Audit the audit of the saving, method study should review the

approach followed by him in his investigations. This helps thepractitioner to draw conclusions:

• Was the approach followed by him effective? Does it requireany correction for the next study?

• Was the implementation process smooth? Did the linemanagement react favorably during implementation of futureprojects?

PERFORMANCE APPRAISALMere measurement of gains immediate after the

implementation is not enough. Some sort of performance appraisalsystem needs to be devised to measure the gains of theproductivity at regular intervals.




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WORK MEASUREMENT

“Work measurement is the process of establishing the time that a given task would take when performed by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance”.

“Work measurement is the application of technique design to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working”.

There are various ways in which work may be measured and avariety of techniques have been established. The basic procedure,irrespective of the particular measurement technique being used,consists of three stages:

• an analysis phase in which the job is divided into

convenient, discrete components, commonly known aselements;

• a measurement phase in which the specific measurementtechnique is used to establish the time required (by aqualified worker working at a defined level of performance) tocomplete each element of work;

• a synthesis phase in which the various elemental times areadded, together with appropriate allowances (see below), toconstruct the standard time for the complete job.

The techniques used to measure work can be classified into thosethat rely on direct observation of the work, and those that do not.

Determination of the length of time it should take to complete a job.Job times are vital inputs for manpower planning, estimating laborcosts, scheduling, budgeting, and designing incentive systems. Inaddition, from the workers' standpoint, time standards provide anindication of expected output. Time standards used underStandard Cost Systems reflect the amount of time it should take anaverage worker to do a job under typical operating conditions. The

standards include expected activity time plus allowances forprobable delays. The most commonly used methods of workmeasurement are:




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(1) Stopwatch time study

(2) Historical times

(3) Predetermined data

(4) Work sampling.

There are four work measurement methods, each of whichhas strengths and weaknesses. The historical data methodshows the time it actually took to complete a task. Such data havethe advantages of being easy to collect, understand, andcommunicate, but they provide no information for futureimprovement. For the work sampling method , a large number ofrandom observations are made of the task to determine the stepsin its normal performance. This method is easy to learn and use,

and it provides more operational detail than historical data. Thedisadvantage of work sampling is that it requires thousands ofsamples to establish an accurate measure for each step.

The time study method uses continuous and snapbackapproaches to record the elapsed time of a task. The snapbackapproach requires a stopwatch with a reset button that allows theobserver to read and record the time at the end of each workelement then reset (snapback) the watch to zero. Althoughpopular, the time-study method is subjective and relies heavily on

the experience of the time-study analyst. A computerized datacollector provides more accurate timing than the stopwatch.However, converting actual time to the expected or normal timeremains a problem.

The predetermined motion/time systems method is based on thepremises that all work consists of basic human motions and thattimes can be assigned to these motions if they are defined andclassified in a systematic way. A film or videotape records what a job entails and how long it takes. This technique is used mostfrequently in studying high-volume settings such as a workstationor an assembly line. An observer measures a job by watching andanalyzing it into its basic constituent motions. This method requiressubstantial training and practice to acquire and maintain accuracy.It enables all types of tasks to be assigned time/duration valuesthat can then be extended into cost values. The results are noteasy to communicate, but when properly executed, this methodyields very accurate times.




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Uses of Time Study/Work Measurement

In the process of setting standards it may be necessary to usework measurement:

1. To compare the efficiency of alternate methods. Other

conditions being equal, the methods which take the leasttime will be the best method.

2. To balance the work of members of team, in association withmultiple activity charts, so that, as nearly as possible, eachmember has a task taking an equal time to perform.

3. To determine in association with worker and machinemultiple activity charts, the number of machines an operativecan run.

The time standards, once set, may then be used:

4. To provide the basis for production planning and control forthe choice of a better layout and process planning, and forestablishing Just-In-Time inventory control systems.

5. To provide information than can enable estimates to bemade for tenders, selling prices and delivery dates.

6. To set standards of machine utilization and laborperformance which can be used for any of the abovepurposes and as a basis for incentive schemes.

7. To provide information for labor-cost control and to enablestandard cost to be fixed and maintained.

It is thus clear that work measurement provides the basicinformation necessary for all the activities of organizing andcontrolling the work of an enterprise in which the time elementplays a part.




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Inputs & Outputs of Time Study/ Work Measurement:

Inputs Outputs

Document results of a methodstudy for the job to be measured

Standard Time for the job thathas been measured

Observations of the job to bemeasured

Completed time study sheetwith the ratings & times.

Time Reading for the job to bemeasured from the stopwatch

Knowledge about the workcontent for a specific products &processes.

Choosing a measurement technique

The choice of a suitable measurement technique depends on anumber of factors including:

• the purpose of the measurement;• the level of detail required;• the time available for the measurement;• the existence of available predetermined data;• and the cost of measurement.

To some extent there is a trade off between some of these factors.For example, techniques which derive times quickly may provideless detail and be less suitable for some purposes, such as theestablishment of individual performance levels on short-cycle work.

The advantage of structured and systematic work measurement isthat it gives a common currency for the evaluation and comparison

of all types of work. The results obtained from work measurementare commonly used as the basis of the planning and scheduling ofwork, manpower is planning, work balancing in team working,costing, labor performance measurement, and financial incentives.They are less commonly used as the basis of product design,methods comparison, work sequencing, and workplace design.




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The requirements for taking a time study are quite strict.

Conditions:

• the practitioner (observer) must be fully qualified to carry out

Time Study,

• the person performing the task must be fully trained and

experienced in the work,

• the work must be clearly defined and the method of doing the

work must be effective

• the working conditions must be clearly defined

There are two main essentials for establishing a basic time for

specified work i.e. rating and timing .

Some terminology explained

Timing

The observer records the actual time taken to do the element or

operation. This usually is in cent minutes (0.01 min.) and is

recorded, using a stop-watch or computerized study board.

Rating.

When someone is doing work his/her way of working will vary

throughout the working period and will be different from others

doing the same work. This is due to differing speeds of movement,

effort, dexterity and consistency. Thus, the time taken for one

person to do the work may not be the same as that for others and

may or may not be 'reasonable' anyway. The purpose of rating is

to adjust the actual time to a standardized basic time that is




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appropriate and at a defined level of performance. Rating is on a

scale with 100 as its standard rating .

Elements

A complete job usually will be too long and variable to time and

rate in one go, so it would be analyzed into several smaller parts

(elements ) which, separately, will each be timed and rated.

Basic time

This is the standardized time for carrying out an element of work at

standard rating.

Example: An observer times an element as 30 cent minutes (cm)

and because it is performed more slowly than the standard 100, he

rates it as 95. Thus the basic time is 95% of 30 or 28.5 basic cm .

The formula is: (actual time x rating)/100.

Allowances

Extra time is allowed for various conditions which obtain, the main

ones being relaxation allowance for:

A. recovery from the effort of carrying out specified work under

specified conditions (fatigue allowance )

B. attention to personal needs

C. adverse environmental conditions,

plus

D. others concerned with machine operations




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Frequency

The basic time is the time for a complete cycle to be performed but

as not all elements are repeated in every cycle their times per

average cycle must be pro rata . In the example which follows,element 2 only occurs once every eight cycles so it’s basic time is

one eighth of the element time, per cycle. Similar treatment for

element 7 (one twelfth).

Standard time:

Basic time + allowances

Rating

Direct observation techniques (such as time study and analyticalestimating) include a process for converting observed times totimes for the "qualified worker working at a defined level ofperformance." The commonest of these processes is known asRating.

This involves the observer (after appropriate training) making an

assessment of the worker's rate of working relative to theobserver's concept of the rate corresponding to standard rating.This assessment is based on the factors involved in the work -such as effort, dexterity, speed of movement, and consistency.The assessment is made on a rating scale, of which there arethree or four in common usage. Thus on the 0-100 scale, theobserver makes a judgment of the worker's rate of working as apercentage of the standard rate of working (100).

The rating is then used (in a process known as "extension" in time

study) to convert the observed time to the basic time using thesimple formula:

Basic time = observed time x observed rating/standard rating

Rating is regarded by many as a controversial area ofmeasurement since it is a subjective assessment. Where differentobservers rate differently, the resulting basic times are not




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comparable. However, practiced rating practitioners areremarkably consistent. It is important that those undertaking therating are properly trained, and that this training is regularlyupdated (to maintain a common perception of standard rating)through rating 'clinics'.

Allowances

When carrying out work over a complete shift or working day,workers obviously suffer from the fatigue imposed both by the workundertaken and the conditions under which they are working. Thenormal practice is to make an addition to the basic time (commonlyreferred to as an "allowance") to allow the worker to recover fromthis fatigue and to attend to personal needs. The amount of the

allowance depends on the nature of the work and the workingenvironment, and is often assessed using an agreed set ofguidelines and scales.

It is usual to allow some of the recovery period inherent in theseallowances to be taken away from the workplace (and it isessential in adverse working conditions). Thus, work design shouldinclude the design of an effective work-rest regime. The addition ofallowances should never be used to compensate for an unsafe orunhealthy working environment.

One minority school of thought suggests that relaxation allowancesare unnecessary. With work which involves, say, the carrying ofheavy weights, this school suggests that the observerautomatically adjusts the concept of standard rating to allow for theweight. Thus, if the standard rate of performance for walking onlevel ground carrying no weight is equivalent to four miles perhour, then an observer rating a worker walking while carrying aweight will not expect the equivalent rate. Thus, it is argued thatthe weight has been allowed for in the adjustment of standardrating and any relaxation allowance is simply a duplication of thisadjustment.

In many jobs there are small amounts of work that may occurirregularly and inconsistently. It is often not economic to measuresuch infrequent work and an additional allowance is added tocover such work and similar irregular delays. This allowance isknown as a contingency allowance and is assessed either byobservation, by analysis of historical records (for such items as




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tool sharpening or replacement), or by experience. The end resultis a standard time which includes the time the work "should" take(when carried out by a qualified worker) plus additional allocationsin the form of allowances, where appropriate, to cover relaxationtime, contingency time and, perhaps, unoccupied time whichincreases the overall work cycle (such as waiting for a machine tofinish a processing cycle).

Work Measurement Components

A work measurement system has three components: preferredmethods, time values, and reporting. Preferred methods are notalways the most efficient or fastest way to do a task. They shouldenhance safety, quality, and productivity. Safety for the employeeand for the product should be considered. Quality is equallyimportant; it has been proven that good performance and good

quality go hand in hand. People who are trained in the propermethod and follow that method will produce high-quality work andper form at an acceptable performance level. Time values andreporting should also be considered. The time that a job shouldtake is determined not on the basis of speeding up the motions aworker normally makes but on the normal pace of the averageworker, taking into consideration allowances for rest periods,coffee breaks, and fatigue. A reporting system is important to thesuccess of any work measurement method. Supervisors andmanagers must have access to labor-management information

that is both timely and complete. Timely information can be used tomanage and shift labor hours to areas where they are needed andto correct problems or at least prevent them from becoming acrisis. Personal computers help to apply work measurement moreeffectively and more cheaply and provide immediate feedback tothe workers, supervisors, and managers.




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Work Measurement Procedure

Work measurement programs involve the use of a number oftechniques, each selected to cover an appropriate part of the task.The purpose of measurement is to collect real data about actualevents. To obtain time standards, the data are usually converted to

target data or data that apply under known conditions. All workmeasurement systems are based on the same, simple three-stageprocedure: analysis, data collection and measurement, andsynthesis. They differ in the nature and degree of analysis, thenature and level of data collection and measurement, and thenature of the synthesis process. However, the three-stageprocedure remains common.

Before measurement begins, the task to be measured is analyzed and broken down into convenient parts that are suitable for the

chosen measurement technique. The purpose of the measurementtechnique is to derive a "basic time" for each of these activities,elements, or motions. At the measurement stage, it is necessary tocollect descriptive or qualitative data on the nature of the task, theconditions under which it is performed, and other factors, whichmay have a bearing on the time that the task takes to be complete.When repetitive jobs are measured, data are collected over anumber of representative cycles of a job to obtain a "mean" or"typical" value. An analysis of the results can be done usingstatistical techniques to determine the number of observations that

must be made to provide a given level of confidence in the finalresults.

At the synthesis stage, the various parts of the task and theirassociated basic times are combined together in correct sequenceand with the correct frequency to produce the time for a complete job. During this stage, the basic time will be adjusted forallowances to become the standard time for the task.




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Case Study’s

1. Work measurement at Ohio Edison Company, a regionalutility, has resulted in a $1.4 million savings in just two years.Ohio Edison developed a comprehensive, computerized

work measurement system to measure some 95 percent oftheir utility line work, delineating 265 “work packages”---suchas installing a line pole--- in the process. A computer reportcompared actual performance to the historical standard.Ohio Edison’s goal was to improve communication betweenemployees and management. That goal was achieved, alongwith a 7 percent increase in efficiency.

2. At Ford Motor Company are union members, engineers, and

sharing a common goal a more competitive product throughimproved quality and productivity. Concomitant with this goalis Ford’s Modular Arrangement of Predetermined Timestandard, which provides a common language for workmeasurement and standards. MODAPTS is a part of Ford’s$50 million per year involvement effort to get 110,000automobile workers informed and participating is change.The application of MODAPTS has been successfullyimplemented in Ford’s Norfolk, Virginia, plant and is beingexpanded to other facilities.

3. Woolworth Holdings PLC and their national contact truckingcarrier retained a United Kingdom management consultingfirm to bring outside expertise to solving their deliveryproblems. The firm studied Woolworth’s delivery system, andcreated a new pay system for drivers. Schedules were setand a work measurement system established to assureWoolworth that their new store configuration investmentwould be supported by their contact delivery service. Theresult was an increased level of performance and anassurance that the service could be measured andmonitored.

4. An unusual work measurement program at Clark DistributionService Company in Chicago, ensure same-day filling andregular and rush orders for 1,200 equipment dealers. Theactivity card is the vehicle for change; computerized data




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from the card allows management to measure work and torespond immediately to bottlenecks or productivity slumps.The firm’s President estimates the saving to be $1 million peryear. The initial investment provides a 1000 percent annualreturn, quite acceptable by any yardstick.




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Conclusion

The design of jobs has a critical impact on organization andemployee objectives. From the organizations perspective, the waytasks and responsibilities are grouped can affect productivity andcosts. Jobs that are not satisfying or are too demanding aredifficult to fill. Boring jobs may experience higher turnover. For anemployee, motivation and job satisfaction are affected by thematch between job factors (content, qualifications and rewards)and personal needs. Therefore, the thoughtful design of jobs canhelp both the organization and its employees achieve theirobjectives.

Work measurement is the careful analysis of a task, its size, themethod used in its performance, and its efficiency. The objective isto determine the workload in an operation, the time that isrequired, and the number of workers needed to perform the workefficiently. Work measurement helps to determine the time spentperforming any process and offers a consistent, comparablemethodology for establishing labor capacities.

Work measurement can be extremely effective at informingsupervisors of the working times and delays inherent in differentways of carrying out work. The purpose of a measurement methodis to achieve full coverage of the work to be measured.

A good work measurement system has many benefits. It helps toreduce labor costs, increase productivity, and improve supervision,planning, scheduling, performance appraisal, and decision making.

To increase productivity, two important function of productionmanagement are: installation of the most effective method ofperforming the operation and the control of resources- mainly plantand labor required in carrying out the operation.




Bibliography & Webliography

Operation And Production Management By :

Chunnawala

Operation And Production Management By:

Ashwadh Thapa


Bhatt


L. C. Jhamb

Production And Operations Management By :

Everett E. Adam

Jr. Ronald J. Ebert

Webliography

www.wikipedia.com

www.google.com

www.youtube.com

www.keepvid.com

Documents

8 Job Design Work Study and Measurement