Imperialism Inquiry

How should we remember Emilio Aguinaldo?

“Rebel Leader of the Philippine Forces,” c. 1899. Library of Congress, Accessed from http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/aguinaldo.html

Supporting Questions

1. Why did Aguinaldo align with the United States against the Spanish?

2. What consequences did the Spanish-American War have for the Philippines?

3. Why did Aguinaldo fight against the United States in the Filipino War?

4. To what extent did Aguinaldo’s actions reflect the reasons he argued for independence?

T H I S W O R K I S L I C E N S E D U N D E R A C R E A T I V E C O M M O N S A T T R I B U T I O N - N O N C O M M E R C I A L - S H A R E A L I K E 4 . 0 I N T E R N A T I O N A L L I C E N S E . 1

Imperialism Inquiry

How should we remember Emilio Aguinaldo?

C3 Framework Indicators

D2.Civ.12.9-12. Analyze how people use and challenge local, state, national, and international laws to address a variety of public issues. D2.His.3.9-12. Use questions generated about individuals and groups to assess how the significance of their actions changes over time and is shaped by the historical context. D4.7.9-12. Assess options for individual and collective action to address local, regional, and global problems by engaging in self-reflection, strategy identification, and complex causal reasoning.

Staging the Question Generate questions about the staging sources, paying close attention to origin, medium, and context.

Supporting Question 1 Supporting Question 2 Supporting Question 3 Supporting Question 4

Why did Aguinaldo align with the United States against the Spanish?

What consequences did the Spanish-American War have for the Philippines?

Why did Aguinaldo fight against the United States in the Filipino War?

To what extent did Aguinaldo’s actions reflect the reasons he argued for independence?

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Generate a list of reasons why Aguinaldo chose to align with the United States.

Create a graphic organizer that illustrates expectations and results of the Spanish-American War.

Write a paragraph that describes Aguinaldo’s reasons for fighting against United States occupation.

Create a claim about the extent to which Aguinaldo’s government reflected the independence movement’s ideals.

Featured Sources Featured Sources Featured Sources Featured Sources

Source A: TimelineSource B: Excerpt from Where in the World is the Philippines?

Source A: Video, Results of the Spanish-American War Source B: Proclamation of Independence, 1898Source C: Treaty of Peace between the United States and Spain, 1898Source D: Philippine Constitution, 1899

Source A: Proclamation of War, 1899

Source B: Aguinaldo’s Letter to the American People, 1900

Source A: Aguinaldo’s obituary, 1964

Summative Performance Task

ARGUMENT How should we remember Emilio Aguinaldo? Construct an argument (e.g., detailed outline, poster, essay) that discusses the compelling question using specific claims and relevant evidence from historical and contemporary sources while acknowledging competing views.

EXTENSION Assess the textbook’s depiction of Aguinaldo and determine if revisions are needed.

T H I S W O R K I S L I C E N S E D U N D E R A C R E A T I V E C O M M O N S A T T R I B U T I O N - N O N C O M M E R C I A L - S H A R E A L I K E 4 . 0 I N T E R N A T I O N A L L I C E N S E . 2

Taking Informed Action

UNDERSTAND Investigate the relationship between the United States and a country with whom there is a tense diplomatic relationship and determine the cause(s) for tension.ASSESS Analyze the reasons for tension and determine whether opposition to the United States is justified or not.ACT Contact the country’s ambassador, or other stakeholder, sharing your perspective on how the opposition should be approached.

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Overview

Inquiry Description

This inquiry leads students through an investigation of geopolitical relationships, particularly through an imperialistic lens. Focusing on the Philippines, students investigate the compelling question—how should we remember Emilio Aguinaldo?—in order to examine questions of foreign intervention, self-determination, and national sovereignty. By investigating the compelling question, students will examine the United States’ relationship with the Philippines and, likewise, apply historiographical thinking in assessing this time in history. By completing this inquiry, students will begin to understand how historical context shapes interpretation of geopolitical questions. Using Aguinaldo as a case study, this inquiry allows students to consider the factors impacting international relationships, as well as historical perspectives.

NOTE: This inquiry is expected to take four to five 45-minute class periods. The inquiry time frame could expand if teachers think their students need additional instructional experiences (i.e., supporting questions, formative performance tasks, and featured sources). Inquiries are not scripts, so teachers are encouraged to modify and adapt them to meet the needs and interests of their particular students. Resources can also be modified as necessary to meet individualized education programs (IEPs) or Section 504 Plans for students with disabilities.

Structure of the Inquiry

In addressing the compelling question “How should we remember Emilio Aguinaldo?” students work through a series of supporting questions, formative performance tasks, and featured sources in order to construct an argument supported by evidence while acknowledging competing perspectives.

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Staging the Compelling Question

In staging the compelling question, teachers may prompt students with sources depicting Emilio Aguinaldo in both positive and negative ways. It is assumed that students have already been introduced to Aguinaldo during instruction on the Spanish-American War. The staging task asks students to reflect back on previous learning, as well as be introduced to vastly different depictions. Using these sources, teachers should have students generate questions, paying close attention to the origin, type of source (medium), and context of each source. For example, the sources from the time of the Filipino War are very critical of Aguinaldo, whereas his obituary presents glowing descriptions from President Lyndon B. Johnson. In addition to students’ generation of questions, teachers should ask questions to have students scrutinize the origin and purpose of each source.

Supporting Question 1

The first supporting question—“Why did Aguinaldo align with the United States against the Spanish?”—helps students refer back to previous learning, focusing specifically on Aguinaldo’s role. Likewise, it helps position Aguinaldo and the Philippines within larger imperialist progressions. The formative performance task has students organize evidence by generating a list of reasons. This list can be a simple list of reasons, or be more complex, further organizing evidence into categories. For example, teachers could scaffold the task by having two categories—reasons related to Spain and reasons related to the United States. These categories would help students further parse out the factors, considering the complex questions around imperialism and national sovereignty for the Philippines.

In addition to students’ textbooks, the featured sources support this task. The first featured source is a timeline, created for this inquiry, listing events in and around the Filipino War. The timeline can be used for the entire inquiry. The second source is an excerpt from a book written by a Filipino diplomat, describing the assurances made to Aguinaldo by the United States, urging him to fight alongside the United States and secure an independent Philippines.

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Supporting Question 2

For the second supporting question—“What consequences did the Spanish-American War have for the Philippines?”—students build on their knowledge of the Spanish-American War by assessing the war’s outcomes. The formative performance task has students create a graphic organizer that illustrates expectations and results of the Spanish-American War. Teachers may have students build directly off of their first performance task, linking Aguinaldo’s expectations to the results and the Philippine responses.

The first featured source is a brief video from C-SPAN, describing the 1898 Treaty between the United States and Spain. The subsequent sources are excerpts from the Proclamation of Independence (1898), the Treaty of Paris (1898), and the Philippine Constitution (1898). These sources show a series of conflicting events—the Philippines declare independence, followed by the Treaty of Paris, where possession of the archipelago is transferred to the United States. Aguinaldo and the revolutionary government reaffirm Filipino sovereignty in the Philippine Constitution, declaring a free and independent Republican government. Teachers are encouraged to have students draw comparisons between these events and the American Revolution and/or other revolutions they have studied. Teachers should also point out that Aguinaldo is proclaimed as a dictator—though a dictator in this context is not necessarily the authoritarian style of government from the 20th century, with which students’ are more likely familiar, proclaiming himself as such complicates narratives of Aguinaldo as a democratic freedom fighter

Supporting Question 3

The third supporting question—“Why did Aguinaldo fight against the United States in the Filipino War?”—has students connect the first two supporting questions to one another in order to consider Aguinaldo’s reasoning for fighting against the United States. The formative performance task is a summary paragraph describing Aguinaldo’s reasoning. Teachers are encouraged to have students incorporate their previous tasks into this task.

In addition to the previous featured sources, the additional featured sources present more explicit challenges to the United States. The first source is the Philippines’ Proclamation of War, citing their desire for freedom and self-determination. The second source is Aguinaldo’s letter to the American people, where he makes reference to his country’s plight and that of the colonists during the American Revolution. This letter was printed in American newspapers, which will allow students to also grapple with questions of historical context and the factors impacting reception of his letter.

Supporting Question 4

For the fourth supporting question—“To what extent did Aguinaldo’s actions reflect the reasons he argued for independence?”—students will connect what they learned about Aguinaldo through the Spanish-American War and Filipino War to consider how his words reflected his deeds. Students’ formative task asks them to create a claim (or series of claims) about the extent to which Aguinaldo’s government reflected ideals of the independence movement. By creating evidence-based claims, students are preparing to write a summative performance task that answers the compelling question. In addition to the previous sources, including the declaration of Aguinaldo as a

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dictator and his obituary, the featured source describes some of his post-war actions, illustrating continued service to the country.

Summative Performance Task

At this point in the inquiry, students have examined Aguinaldo’s relationship with the United States in the Spanish-American War, outcomes of the war, formal documents concerning the Filipino revolt, and reflected upon Aguinaldo’s actions in historical context. Students should be expected to demonstrate the breadth of their understandings and their abilities to use evidence from multiple sources to support their claims. In this task, students construct an evidence-based argument using multiple sources to answer the compelling question “how should we remember Emilio Aguinaldo?” It is important to note that students’ arguments could take a variety of forms, including a detailed outline, poster, or essay.

Students’ arguments will likely vary, but could include any of the following:

Aguinaldo should be remembered as a Filipino nationalist, who was committed to self-determination and democracy for the Philippines.

Aguinaldo should be remembered as a Filipino nationalist, who was committed to sovereignty for the Philippines, though he would not have established a democratic system.

Aguinaldo should be remembered as a betrayed ally of the United States. The promises made to Aguinaldo were ignored in order for the United States to maintain economic and political dominance in the area.

Aguinaldo should be remembered as a former ally, who betrayed the United States when the United States did not grant Filipino independence.

To extend their arguments students can assess their textbook’s description and determine if descriptions of Aguinaldo need revision. This extension task can also become an informed action by contacting the book publisher with suggested revisions.

Students have the opportunity to Take Informed Action by drawing on their understandings to analyze a current geopolitical relationship. To understand, students can explore the diplomatic relationship between the United States and another nation, investigating any tension and the tension’s causes. To assess the issue, students analyze the reasons for the tension and consider whether or not the tension is justified, considering themes of nationalism, self-determination, or other themes from the inquiry. To act, students will write a stakeholder (e.g., ambassador, elected official) to share their view of how the United States should address the diplomatic tension.

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Staging the Compelling Question

Featured Sources

Source A: Excerpt from “Philippine Debate Embitters Senators…” New York Times, 1 February 1900. Accessed from: https://www.nytimes.com/1900/02/01/archives/philippine-debate-embitters-senators-utterances-of-mr-pettigrew-are.html?searchResultPosition=1Source B: Political Cartoon, “Hit Him Hard,” Judge, 4 February 1899. Accessed from: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3g06317/Source C: Excerpt from, “Aguinaldo, 94, Dies; Led Filipino Revolts,” New York Times, 6 February 1964. Accessed from: https://www.nytimes.com/1964/02/06/archives/aguinaldo-94-dies-led-filipino-revoits.html.

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SOURCE A

“Senator Hawley [of Connecticut] denounced Aguinaldo as a forger, an embezzler, and a scoundrel, saying that he was responsible for this wholly unnecessary war” in the Philippines.

SOURCE B

Hit him hard! President McKinley - "Mosquitoes seem to be worse here in the Philippines than they were in Cuba"

From Library of Congress: William McKinley about to swat "insurgent Aguinaldo," a mosquito, as other "insurgent" mosquitoes prepare to attack him.

SOURCE C

Both President Johnson and General MacArthur issued tributes to General Aguinaldo last night.

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“ We are confident,” the President said, ”that his struggle for Philippine independence, his love of freedom and his devotion to country will continue to inspire his people. His monument is the Republic of the Philippines.”

“He was the very incarnation of the Filipino desire for liberty and freedom,” General MacArthur declared, “ and his country owes him much. He was a lifelong friend of mine and his death saddens me.”

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Supporting Question 1Featured Source Source A: Timeline of the Spanish-American War and Filipino War

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Supporting Question 1Featured Source Source B: Excerpt from Where in the World is the Philippines?: Debating its National Territory,

Rodolfo Severino (2011), p. 7-8.

Aguinaldo was in exile in Hong King, when two emissaries from the USS Petrel visited and encouraged him to join the United States’ fight against the Spanish. Despite having captured Spain’s sea forces, the US did not have the forces to occupy the land. 

According to Aguinaldo, the Petrel commander assured him of American assistance, declaring, “The United States is a great and rich nation and needs no colonies.” [...] Aguinaldo received the American consul, Spencer Pratt, who informed him that [Commodore Dewey] had sent a telegram giving assurances of U.S. recognition of Philippine independence “under the protection of the U.S. Navy.” In response to Aguinaldo’s query, Pratt stressed that there was no need for a formal written agreement, as “the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were in fact equivalent to the most solemn pledge that their verbal promises and assurance would be fulfilled to the letter.” “Placing the fullest confidence in their word of honor,” Aguinaldo assured Pratt that he would lead the resumed fight against the Spaniards. [...] On board the admiral’s flagship, the USS Olympia, Dewey, according to Aguinaldo, confirmed what Pratt had told the Filipino general, “adding that the United States had come to the Philippines to protect the natives and free them from the yoke of Spain. He said, moreover, that America is exceedingly well off as regards territory, revenue, and resources and therefore needs no colonies, assuring me finally that there was no occasion for me to entertain any doubts whatever about the recognition of the Philippines by the United States.” On 4 July, the first U.S. military expedition, under General Anderson, landed at Cavite, across the bay from Manila. Again according to Aguinaldo, “General Anderson solemnly and completely endorsed the promises made by Admiral Dewey to me, asserting on his word of honour that America had not come to the Philippines to wage war against the natives nor to conquer and retain territory, but only to liberate the people from the oppression of the Spanish Government.” 

Dewey was later to deny having given those assurances.

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Supporting Question 2Featured Source Source C: “On This Day: The 1898 Treat of Paris,” C-SPAN Classroom. Accessed from:

https://www.c-span.org/classroom/document/?7503. C

Clip 2: Screenshot

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Supporting Question 2Featured Source Source B: Act of Proclamation of Independence of the Filipino People, 1898

The Proclamation was issued by Aguinaldo; neither Spain or US recognized the declaration of independence.

In the town of Cavite-Viejo, Province of Cavite, this 12th day of June 1898:

Taking into account the fact that the people of this country are already tired of bearing the ominous yoke of Spanish domination,

Because of arbitrary arrests and abuses of the Civil Guards who cause deaths in connivance with and even under the express orders of their superior officers ...which abuses were left unpunished….

Had resolved to start a revolution in August 1896 in order to regain the independence and sovereignty of which the people had been deprived by Spain ….

And having as witness to the rectitude of our intentions the Supreme Judge of the Universe, and under the protection of the Powerful and Humanitarian Nation, the United States of America, we do hereby proclaim and declare solemnly in the name and by authority of the people of these Philippine Islands,

That they are and have the right to be free and independent; that they have ceased to have any allegiance to the Crown of Spain; that all political ties between them are and should be completely severed and annulled; and that, like other free and independent States, they enjoy the full power to make War and Peace, conclude commercial treaties, enter into alliances, regulate commerce, and do all other acts and things which an Independent State has a right to do,

And imbued with firm confidence in Divine Providence, we hereby mutually bind ourselves to support this Declaration with our lives, our fortunes, and with our most sacred possession, our Honor.

We recognize, approve, and ratify, with all the orders emanating from the same, the Dictatorship established by Don Emilio Aguinaldo whom we revere as the Supreme Head of this Nation….

...

Moreover, we confer upon our famous Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo all the powers necessary to enable him to discharge the duties of Government, including the prerogatives of granting pardon and amnesty,

And, lastly, it was resolved unanimously that this Nation, already free and independent as of this day, must use the same flag which up to now is being used [which includes] the colors of Blue, Red, and White, commemorating the flag of the United States of North America, as a manifestation of our profound gratitude towards this Great Nation for its disinterested protection which it lent us and continues lending us.

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Supporting Question 2Featured Source Source C: Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain (Treaty of Paris), December 10,

1898.

The United States of America and Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain, ...have, after discussion of the matters before them, agreed upon the following articles:

Article III.

Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands….The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty.

Article IV.The United States will, for the term of ten years from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of the present

treaty, admit Spanish ships and merchandise to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the same terms as ships and merchandise of the United States.

Article IX.Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula, residing in the territory over which Spain by the present treaty

relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty [retain] all their rights of property, including the right to sell or dispose of such property or of its proceeds….

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Supporting Question 2Featured Source Source D: Malolos Convention, Philippine Constitution of 1899.

Teachers can provide the entire Constitution and compare it to the US Constitution, or use excerpts, such as those included here. The section provided discusses the sovereignty of the Philippines. Aguinaldo is listed as President of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines and Captain General and Commander-in-Chief of its Army

TITLE I

THE REPUBLIC

Article 1. The political association of all Filipinos constitutes a nation, whose state shall be known as the Philippine Republic

Article 2. The Philippine Republic is free and independent

Article 3. Sovereignty resides exclusively in the people.

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Supporting Question 3Featured Source Source A: Pedro Paterno’s Proclamation of War, Malolos Congress, 1899.

June 2, 1899

To the Filipino people:

No one is ignorant of the fact that since we took the direction of the Ship of State we have sacrificed ourselves to the services of the government of our republic, offering ourselves as victims for the sake of peace without abandoning the sacred idea of liberty and independence which fires our country; but the North Americans refuse to suspend hostilities, asked for by us so that we may consult the National Assembly, seat of free popular sovereignty. The Commissioners returning from Manila so declare.

Since it is their desire, may the responsibility of the war and its consequences fall on the great nation of the United States of America.

We have done our duty as patriots and human beings, showing the great powers of the world that the present cabinet has the diplomacy necessary to protect our cause as well as the arms required to defend our rights.

The Council of Government, deciding to preserve our republican institutions, national independence, and the presidency of Don Emilio Aguinaldo, in spite of the Americans, who intended to construct upon our ruins the edifice of tyranny, has concluded to continue the war, preserving unhurt in their spirit and letter our constitution and laws, which we have conquered with so much blood and such sacrifices.

To war, then, beloved brothers, to war!

In order that the people be free it is necessary that they be brave. Rich and poor, learned and ignorant, beloved Filipinos, hasten to unite to save our native land from insult and ignominy, from punishments and scaffolds, from the sad and fatal inheritance of enslaved generations.

The God of War, in whom we have put our faith and hope, will help us.

Confusion, internal and international dissensions and conflicts, rend the invading army; its volunteers, being aware that we are in the right, fight without enthusiasm and only in compliance with their forced military duty. Within the American nation itself, a great political party asks for the recognition of our rights, and the Divine Providence watches over the justice of our case.

Forward, Filipinos, and the sun of victory will shine upon us.

Long live the Filipino sovereign people !! Long live national independence !! Long live the liberating army !! Long live Don Emilio Aguinaldo, President of the Republic !!

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Supporting Question 3Featured Source Source B: Emilio Aguinaldo’s Letter to the American People, 1900.

June 1900.

God Almighty knows how unjust is the war which the Imperial arms have provoked and are maintaining against our unfortunate country! If the honest American patriots could understand the sad truth of this declaration, we are sure they would, without the least delay, stop this unspeakable horror.

When we protested against this iniquitous ingratitude, then the guns of the United States were turned upon us; we were denounced as traitors and rebels; you destroyed the homes to which you had been welcomed as honored guests, killing thousands of those who had been your allies, mutilating our old men, our women and our children, and watering with blood and strewing with ruins the beautiful soil of our Fatherland.

… the Spanish government, whose despotic cruelty American Imperialism now imitates, and in some respects surpasses, denied to us many of the liberties which you were already enjoying when, under pretext of oppression, you revolted against British domination.

Why do the Imperialists wish to subjugate us? What do they intend to do with us? Do they expect us to surrender -- to yield our inalienable rights, our homes, our properties, our lives, our future destinies, to the absolute control of the United States? What would you do with our nine millions of people? Would you permit us to take part in your elections? Would you concede to us the privilege of sending Senators and Representatives to your Congress? Would you allow us to erect one or more federal states? Or, would you tax us without representation? Would you change your tariff laws so as to admit our products free of duty and in competition with the products of our own soil?

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