7757422 BBC Learning English

8/14/2019 7757422 BBC Learning English

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BBC Learning EnglishConjunctions & clauses

Prefixes and suffixesPrepositions &

prepositional phrases


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Conjunctions & clausesas, while, when, as long as

William Martinez from Puerto Rico writes:

How can I correctly use the following conjunctions concerning time expressions: as,as long as and while ? Also, would you be kind enough to give me some examplesof use of these two expressions: as a basis for and on the basis of ?

as or while

We can use as or while to talk about two longer actions that are in progress atthe same time:

There was a lot to do. While I cleaned the car, my wife was preparing lunch. She then did the ironing after lunch as I cleared away the dishes.

As a general rule, we tend to use while here rather than as because as has manydifferent meanings and uses. It could be confusing if as meaning while could bemistaken for as meaning because :

As I was doing my homework, my mum prepared my supper. (As = because) As I was doing my homework, my mum prepared my supper. (As = while)

as or when

We use as or when to talk about two short events that happen at the samemoment. As and when are often used with just in this context. We cannot usewhile here:

The telephone rang just when / just as I was about to leave. I decided not to answer it.

However, if we want to say that when one thing changes another changes at thesame time, when one is the consequence of the other, we tend to use as :

As the day wore on, it became hotter and hotter. As you get older, it becomes more and more difficult to make friends.

while or when

In more formal speech and writing, it is possible to leave out subject + be withwhen and while when main and subordinate clauses refer to the same subject. Wecannot use as in this way:

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When making cranberry jam, remember to use as much sugar as fruit. When you are making cranberry jam, be sure to use as much sugar as fruit. While in France, he grew particularly fond of all varieties of cheese. While he was in France, he grew particularly fond of all types of cheese.

as long as: expressing time

The as ... as construction is used when we are making comparisons and comparingideas of similar magnitude or duration

There was extra time, so the football match lasted as long as the concert. He worked for as long as he wanted to on the project.

"Take as long as you like," they said. "There's no hurry!" As long as I live, I shall smoke no more cigarettes.

as long as: expressing condition

Note that as long as is also used in conditional sentences as an alternative toprovided , meaning if and only if . So long as is also possible in this context:

I don't mind. You can leave early, as long as you finish the work. I don't mind. You can go home early, so long as you finish the work. I don't mind. You can leave after lunch, provided you finish all the work.

on a ... basis

The noun basis suggests a particular method or system for organising or doingsomething. We have the expressions on a/anhourly/daily/monthly/annual/temporary/permanent basis :

These toilets are checked for cleanliness on an hourly basis She thought she would have the job on a permanent basis, but it turned out

to be temporary. This place is known as 'the windy city' and typhoons are expected on a

regular basis.

on the basis of / as a basis for

Here we have two further expressions with basis with a slightly different meaning.Used with the preposition on , method or system is suggested. Used with thepreposition as , ideas, facts or actions from which something can develop issuggested:

The contract was awarded on the basis of cost more than anything else. These preliminary talks will be very useful as a basis for further negotiations.

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'as' and 'like'

Cristina Pinho from Brazil asks:

I love this section of the BBC.

Here is my question:- "Ive worked as a dog" or "Ive worked like a dog." What isthe difference between as and like ?

As and like are used in a number of different ways and can be different parts of speech.

'as' and 'like' - prepositions

As refers to something or someone's appearance or function. Consider the followingexamples:

'Before I became a teacher I worked as a waiter.' 'I'm going to the fancy dress party as Superman.' 'The sea can be used as a source of energy.'

The expression 'I've been working as a dog' sounds unusual because it suggests thatyou were doing the work of a dog!

Like has the meaning 'similar to' and is used when comparing things. Look at theseexamples:

'Ive been working like a dog.' 'She looks a bit like her brother.' 'Just like you, Im always a bit wary of large dogs.'

The expression 'I've been working like a dog' is idiomatic and means that you havebeen working very hard. Note that we can use adverbs of degree, such as just ,very , quite , not much , not at all , a bit , etc, to modify like :

'Hes very serious not at all like his father, perhaps more like his motherat times.

'as' and 'like' - conjunctions

As and like can also be used as conjunctions:

As means 'in the same way that'. Consider the following:

'I always drink tea without milk, just as they do on the continent.'

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'Try to keep your balance on the tightrope, as I do, by spreading out yourfingers like this.'

'The first ten days of July were very wet this year, as they were last year andthe year before.'

In informal English, like is used in the same way. This is particularly common inAmerican English. Consider the following:

'Nobody else would look after you like I do, baby!' 'She needs the money, like I do, so she works in a bar in the evenings.' 'I hope youre not going to be sick again, like you were when we went to

Brighton.

as ... as and as

Mohammad Tariq from Afghanistan writes:

Hello! I hope you are in the best of health. Would you kindly tell me what parts of speech as ... as are. I know that we use adjectives or adverbs between them, but Idon not know what they are themselves. Kind regards.

as ... as as adverb / preposition

Look at this example:

He came as quickly as he could.

This structure is used to measure and compare things that are of similar proportion.In this construction, the first as functions as an adverb modifying the followingadjective or adverb . The second as functions as a preposition when it relates tothe following noun or pronoun . (It can also function as a conjunction when itrelates to the following clause .) Compare the following:

The meal was as good as the conversation: spicy and invigorating! She spoke as slowly as she could Has everybody eaten as much as they want? I hope you will agree that I am as imaginative a cook as my wife (is)!

Note from the above example that if there is an adjective and a noun after the firstas , a / an must go between them. Note also that if we want to make a negativestatement, we can use soas instead of asas :

He is not so / as intelligent as his sister is.

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Here, as means over the same period of time as:

I think you become more tolerant of other people as you get older. As prices rose, the demand for higher salaries became more intense.

as as preposition

Finally, note that as can also be used as a preposition when we want to avoid usingthe verb to be. Compare the following:

As his father, it is your duty to ensure that he goes to school every day. As you are his father, it is your duty to ensure that he goes to school every

day. As a social historian, I am always interested in peoples life styles. Being a social historian, I am always interested in peoples life styles. He established his reputation as a freedom fighter through many heroic acts. The police described him as a dangerous criminal. The police considered him to be a dangerous criminal

S Boon and D Nukoon from Thailand write:

Could you please explain the usage of the adjective unfair to us?

For example: I won't argue with you, but I think you are being unfair . Also, we'dlike to learn why being is placed in front of unfair . How is you're being unfairdifferent from you're unfair ?

Santhosh KP from India writes:

Really, this site has helped me a lot. The doubts which people are asking about arereally the doubts of a majority. I am doubtful about using being . So can you pleaseexplain to me the different uses of being with different examples?

Bhavin from India writes:

Can you please explain how being is used with the past participle?

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being + adjective

We normally use the progressive form with an adjective when we are talking aboutactions and behaviour. And being unfair in your example sentence, Boon andNukoon, relates to somebody's behaviour of not being fair in their actions, so theprogressive form is preferred. Here are some further examples:

You're being silly / foolish / childish when you do such silly / foolish / childish things.

I was walking on tiptoe and being very careful not to wake the baby.

However, when the adjectives relate to feelings, we do not use the progressive form:

I was upset / worried when I heard that they would have to operate on John's knee.

I am delighted / overjoyed to hear that you have passed all your exams.

being + past participle

We use being with the past participle, Bhavin, in present progressive and pastprogressive passive forms. So we might say:

My car is being serviced . Instead of: The local garage is servicing my car.

The computers are being installed tomorrow.Instead of: They're installing the computers tomorrow.

My nieces enjoyed being taken to the circus.Rather than: I enjoyed taking my nieces to the circus.

I was quite sure I was being followed .Instead of: I was quite sure someone was following me .

She was being punished for being cruel to the cat.Rather than: They were punishing her for being cruel to the cat.

Note that cruel in the above example is an adjective describing behaviour so theprogressive form is used with it.

Note that other passives with being , i.e the future progressive passive ( will bebeing ) and perfect progressive passive ( has been being ) are quite rare.

being in participle clauses

We can use an adverbial participle clause to express reason or cause as analternative to a because/since/as clause . Using a participle clause in this way is

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more characteristic of written English or a literary style, rather than spoken colloquialEnglish. Compare the following:

Being French , he is passionate about wine and cheese.Instead of : Because he is French , he is passionate about wine and cheese.

Being a friend of Tony Blair, I'm often invited to No 10.Rather than: As I am a friend of Tony Blair , I'm often invited to No 10.

Being quite slim , I was able to squeeze through the hole in the railings.Instead of: Since I am quite slim I was able to squeeze through the hole inthe railings.

Being rather over weight , Geoffrey was unable to squeeze through. Rather than: Because he's rather over weight , Geoffrey was unable to squeezethrough.

verb + verb-ing / adj + prep + verb-ing

Note that being as verb-ing , is required in all such instances:

Would you mind being quiet for a moment?

I look forward to being interviewed on the current affairs programme.

She was afraid of being accused of a crime which she did not commit.

I am tired of being taken for granted and expected to do all thehousework.

The difference in use between 'because', 'as', 'since' and 'for'

Agnes Leyen asks:

Could you please tell me the difference (in use) between because , as , since andfor . I think it's very confusing.

The present perfect is often used with since and for to denote periods of time up tothe present. (Note that we do not use present perfect with expressions that refer toa time period that has finished, i.e. 'last week' or 'the day before yesterday'. Herethe simple past is used: 'I went to the cinema three times last week.')

If you use since with the present perfect or present perfect continuous, you aresignalling when something started. If you use for , you are signalling how longsomething has been going on. Compare:

'She has been living in Holland since the summer of 1992.' 'She has been living in Holland for the last nine years.'

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That is one use of since and for .But since and for can also be used in a similar way to as and because to give thereason for an action or a situation. However, there are important differencesbetween them.

Because is used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence or

utterance. The because clause usually comes at the end:

'I went to Spain last summer because I wanted the guarantee of sunshine onevery day of my holiday.'

As and since are used when the reason is already well known and is thereforeusually less important. The as or since clause is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence:

'As the performance had already started, we went up to the balcony andoccupied some empty seats there.'

'Since John had already eaten, I made do with a sandwich.'

For suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought. It is never placed at thebeginning of the sentence and is more characteristic of written, rather than spokenEnglish:

'I decided to stop the work I was doing - for it was very late and I wanted togo to bed.'

but as conjunction and preposition

L S Ng from Singapore writes:

What does but mean in this sentence?

All but two of the boys are coming.

Here it means except ( for ) or apart from and we can substitute these prepositionsfor but in this sentence. We could also use bar which has the same meaning:

All but / bar / except for / apart from two of the boys are coming with us.

but as conjunction

We usually think of but as a conjuction linking two contrastive sentences or clauses:

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but for

Note that but for as a preposition has a different meaning from but by itself. Wecan sometimes use it as an alternative to anif-clause with a third conditional negative sentence, indicating what might havehappened if other things had not happened. Compare the following:

If it hadn't been for your generosity , I wouldn't have been able to go toAmerica.

But for your generosity , I wouldn't have been able to go to America.

I would have been home in time for supper, if there had been no fog todelay me .

I would have been home in time for supper but for the fog .

But for his broken leg in the earlier part of the season, he might have beenin the England team to play Poland last May.

If he hadn't broken his leg in the earlier part in the season, he might havebeen in the England team to play Poland last May.

Kristina from Bulgaria asks:

What is a cleft sentence and how do we use it?

Cleft sentences are used to help us focus on a particular part of the sentence andto emphasise what we want to say by introducing it or building up to it with a kind of relative clause.

Because there are two parts to the sentence it is called cleft (from the verb cleave )which means divided into two.

Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot use intonation forpurposes of focus or emphasis, but they are also frequently used in speech.

Cleft structures include the reason why , the thing that , the person/peoplewho , the place where , the day when and what-clauses which are usually linkedto the clause that we want to focus on with is or was .

Compare the following sets of sentences and notice how the cleft structure in eachcase enables us to select the information we want to focus on:

I've come to discuss my future with you. The reason why I've come is to discuss my future with you.

Your generosity impresses more than anything else.

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The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your generosity.

The jewels are hidden under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road, Epping. The place where the jewels are hidden is under the floor at 23 Robin Hood

Road, Epping. Under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road is the place where the jewels are

hidden.

Mary works harder than anybody else in this organisation. The person who works harder than anybody else in this organisation is

Mary. Mary is the person in this organisation who works harder than anybody

else.

The Second World War ended on 7 May 1945 in Europe. The day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe was 7 May 1945 7 May 1945 was the day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe.

We now need actions rather than words. What we now need are actions rather than words. Actions rather than words are what we now need.

I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the Ballet Frankfurt performance. What I enjoyed most in the Ballet Frankfurt performance was the brilliant

music. The brilliant music was what I enjoyed most in the Ballet Frankfurt

performance.

Note from the last two examples that cleft structures with what-clauses are oftenused with verbs expressing an emotive response to something like adore , dislike ,

enjoy , hate , like , loathe , love , need , prefer , want , etc.

Cleft structures with what-clauses are also often used with does/do/did and withthe verb happen when we want to give emphasis to the whole sentence, rather thana particular clause.

Compare the following:

The police interviewed all the witnesses to the accident first. What the police did first was (to) interview all the witnesses to the accident.

You should invest all your money in telecoms companies. What you should do is (to) invest all your money in telecoms companies. What you should invest all your money in is telecoms companies.

She writes all her novels on a typewriter. What she does is (to) write all her novels on a type writer.

Their car broke down on the motorway so they didn't get to Jo's wedding ontime.

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What happened was that their car broke down on the motorway so theydidn't get to Jo's wedding on time.

It is sometimes very effective to use all instead of what in a cleft structure if youwant to focus on one particular thing and nothing else:

I want a new coat for Christmas. All I want for Christmas is a new coat. A new coat is all I want for Christmas.

I touched the bedside light and it broke. All I did was (to) touch the bedside light and it broke.

Finally, we can also use preparatory it in cleft sentences and join the words that wewant to focus on to the relative clause with that , who or when .

In the example which follows, note how this construction enables us to focus ondifferent aspects of the information, which may be important at the time:

My brother bought his new car from our next-door neighbour last Saturday. It was my brother who bought his new car from our neighbour last

Saturday. It was last Saturday when my brother bought his new car from our

neighbour. It was a new car that my brother bought from our neighbour last Saturday. It was our next-door neighbour that my brother bought his new car from

last Saturday.

Look out for cleft structures in your reading. They are a very common feature of written English.

Subordinating and coordinating conjunctions

Khadija Attarabulsi from Libya writes:

Would you please help me to learn and understand coordinating andsubordinating conjunctions ? I would be so grateful if you could explain them infull. Thank you in advance.

Conjunctions are joining words and their main function is to link together twodifferent parts of a sentence.

And / but / or (coordinating conjunctions)

And, but and or are the three main coordinating conjunctions. They join two clauseswhich are grammatically independent of each other and would make sense if theystood alone. Compare the following:

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1. She's already had two holidays this year and now she wants another one.

She's already had two holidays this year. Now she wants another one.

2. I had a terrible cold last week, but I still went to work.

I had a terrible cold last week. I still went to work.

3. You can sit at the front, or you can stand at the back. I don't mind.

You can sit at the front. You can stand at the back. I don't mind.

But note they way in which conjunctions help to add meaning to thesentence. And indicates that we are listing items or ideas, or means that weare discussing alternatives and but means that we are contrasting facts orideas.

Note also that in the second of the two coordinating clauses, the subjectwords and modal auxiliaries can often be left out:

She's already had two holidays this year and now wants another one.

I had a terrible cold last week, but still went to work.

You can sit at the front or stand at the back. I don't mind.

This is not normally possible in subordinate clauses. Compare the following:

She was anxious and unhappy and didn't know where her husband was.

She was anxious and unhappy because she didn't know where her husband was.(NOT: She was anxious and unhappy because didn't know where her husband was.)

If / when / because / since / even though / etc (subordinatingconjunctions)

Words like if, when, because, since, although, etc, are subordinating conjunctionswhich introduce subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are dependent on the mainclause in some way and do not normally stand alone.

Note the way in which subordinating conjunctions also give meaning to the sentence:

* if suggests a condition* when / whenever indicate time* while suggests time or contrast of surprising facts* because points to reason * since suggests reason or time

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* as suggests reason or time* although / though / even though all indicate a contrast of surprising facts

Compare the following examples of use and note the way the same conjunction (e.g.while, since, as ) can be used for different purposes. Subordinating clauses of thiskind can normally go first or last in the sentence, depending on what you want to

emphasize:

If you feel thirsty or hungry , help yourself to anything at all in the fridgeor freezer.Help yourself to anything at all in the fridge or freezer, if you feel hungry or thirsty .

While they were away , I helped myself to an ice-cold beer and a pizza fromthe freezer.I helped myself to an ice-cold beer and a pizza from the freezer while they were away .

Whenever I babysit at their house , I am always very well looked after.I am always very well looked after whenever I babysit at their house .

When I babysat for the Robinsons last month , I was given nothing to eat or drink.I was given nothing to eat or drink when I babysat for the Robinsons last month .

While I am fond of their children , I think the parents are very mean.(BUT NOT: I think the parents are very mean while I am fond of their children)

Since I started working full-time , I don't have so much time now for babysitting.I don't have so much time now for babysitting since I started working full-time .

Because / since / as I work six days a week , I can't even find time tosee my friends.I can't even find time to see my friends as I work six days a week .

As I was leaving work the other da y, I bumped into an old friend.I bumped into an old friend as I was leaving work the other day .

Although I am happy with my life , I think I should try and get out more.

I think I should try and get out more, even though I am happy with my life .

'Due to', 'owing to', on account of' and 'because of'

Sathya Narayanan from India asks:

What is the difference in the usage of owing to and due to ?

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Due to and owing to are similar in meaning to on account of and because of .They are all prepositions used with noun phrases and are often usedinterchangeably. They indicate that something happened as a result of something orintroduce the reason for something happening:

'He was kept in after school due to/owing to his bad behaviour.' = He waskept in after school on account of/because of his bad behaviour.

'Due to/owing to a broken propeller, the new cruise liner returnedimmediately to port.' = 'The new cruise liner returned immediately to portbecause of/on account of a broken propeller.'

It used to be thought that it was incorrect to use due to in this way, but modernusage shows no hesitation in using these expressions interchangeably.

Note that these prepositions are sometimes used in cleft structures with it and theverb to be :

'It is due to/on account of all his hard work over the winter months that he

has passed the exam with such a good grade.' 'It was owing to/because of traffic congestion on the road leading to the

airport that I missed my flight.'

The noun phrases which these prepositions introduce are often rather formal and itmay be more natural to use because in informal, conversational English. Butremember that because is a conjunction and must therefore be used to introduce asubordinate clause of reason:

'We had to give up the idea of a boat trip because it started to pour withrain.'

'Owing to the heavy rain, we had to give up the idea of a boat trip.'

In this final owing to example, there is a mismatch of formal and colloquial stylesand it does not sound quite right. In the following examples, however, theprepositional phrase might be preferred as it is more succinct:

'Why are you so late?' 'On account of the traffic. Incredibly heavy!' 'Why are you so late?' 'Because the traffic was so incredibly heavy on the

road into London. '

even if, even though, even, even so

Damien van Raemdonck from Belgium writes:

Is there any difference in meaning between even if and even though ?

For example, in the sentence:

Even if I had time, I wouldn't do it.

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Could even though be substituted and used instead of even if ?

even if / even though

No, they are not interchangeable. If you want to use even though , the meaningchanges.

Even though means despite the fact that and is a more emphatic version of though and although.

Even if means whether or not and has to do with the conditions that may apply.


1. Even if I had two hours to spare for shopping, I wouldn't go out and buy asuit.

2. Even though I had two hours to spare for shopping, I couldn't find the suit Iwanted.

The first example describes an unreal situation where we could substitute 'justsupposing' for even if and say: just supposing I had two hours to spare forshopping, I still wouldn't go out and buy a suit.

The second example describes a real situation where the shopper spent twohours looking for a particular kind of suit, but couldn't find it. When we attach evento though in this way, we are in effect saying: you may find this surprisingbut...!

Compare the following pairs of sentences:

Even though he lost his job as Arts Minister, he continued to serve in thegovernment.

Even if he loses his job as Arts Minister, I think he'll continue to serve in thegovernment.

Even though the injury was serious, she decided to carry on playing. It wasan important match.

I know she'll want to carry on playing, even if she gets injured. It's animportant match.

Even though I've cleaned it and polished it, it still doesn't look new. Even if I clean and polish it, it still won't look new.

even

Note that even cannot be used as a conjunction like even if and even thoughwhen it stands alone.

We cannot say:

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Even I've polished and cleaned it, it still doesn't look new.

When even stands alone, it functions as an adverb and means this is more thanor less than expected . Again, you are registering something that may besurprising when you use it.

Study the following and note the position of even in these sentences:

I can't dive. I can't even swim! She speaks so many languages. German, Polish, Russian, Arabic, French,

Spanish. She even speaks Catalan!

Even can also go at the beginning of a phrase when it refers to words orexpressions that we wish to emphasize, again because this is surprising informationfor the listener:

He works all through the year. Even at Christmas and New Year! I know his English isn't very good but even I can understand him!

even so

Even so is a prepositional phrase that can be used in a similar fashion tointroduce a fact that is surprising in the context of what has been said before. Itconnects ideas between clauses or sentences:

I know her English isn't very good, but even so I can understand her. The evidence was only circumstantial. Even so , he was convicted and spent

ten years in prison for a crime that he perhaps did not commit.

'Ever' and 'whenever'

Tiffany Teng from Singapore asks:

We know it is correct to say: I have never been to London. But for someone whohas been to London before, is it correct to say: I have ever been to London?

No. Ever means at any time , so it is inappropriate in the above sentence. Ever isused mainly in questions.

Although it is usually associated with the present perfect, it can also be used with apresent, past or past perfect verb form or with future reference.

If the answer is no , we often use never in the reply, meaning not at any time.

If the answer is yes , we might add once or twice , etc, to indicate how many timeswe have done whatever is being referred to. Compare the following:

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'Have you ever been to Ireland?' 'Yes, Ive been there twice, once in 1983 andagain in 1995.'

'Did you ever meet Tom Robinson when you were at uni?' 'No, I never did.' 'My driving instructor asked me if Id ever driven before.' 'I said, no, I never

had.' 'Do you ever go to the cinema?' 'No, I prefer to watch films on video or DVD.' 'Are you ever going to finish this book?' 'Ill try and finish it over the summer.

Ive no time now.' 'Will you ever marry me?' 'No, Jason I dont think I ever will.'

As you can see from this last example, ever can be used in an affirmative sentencewith not as an alternative to the more usual 'never'. It can also be used inaffirmative sentences with if and with adverbs which express a negative idea, likehardly . Remember the meaning of ever is always at any time. Compare thefollowing:

'If you ever change your mind, let me know. Wed love to have you on theteam.'

'If you are ever in London, be sure to come and see us.' 'We hardly ever go to the theatre. Its too expensive.' 'I dont think we shall ever see Jenny again now that shes emigrated to

Australia.'

Remember also that ever can be tagged on to where, when, what, which, who and how to make the conjunctions wherever , whenever , whatever , whichever ,whoever and however , meaning 'no matter where, no matter when, no matterwhat, no matter which, no matter who and no matter how. Compare thefollowing:

'We were playing Hide and Seek and we couldnt find him wherever we

looked.' 'If you have a problem, you can phone me up whenever you like at anytime of the day.'

'Whatever advice I gave her, she would be sure not to take it.' 'Whichever path we took, we were unable to find our way out of the maze.' 'I shall sell my computer to whoever wants it.' 'However hard I try, I can never seem to learn vocabulary.'

Finally, ever is used in the comparative expression as ever and than ever , meaning as/than at any time in the past. Study the following two examples:

'Youll have to work harder than ever today, if you want to finish this jobbefore it gets dark.'

'Jayne, its so long since I heard you sing, but you sing as beautifully asever !'

To + infinitive and for + verb-ing to express purpose

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Gloria Fulvia from Italy writes:

Do I say Schools are for learning or Schools are to learn ? I would like to knowthe grammar of to + infinitive and for + -ing form when I'm talking aboutpurpose . I greatly appreciate your explanation. Thanks.

for or to + infinitive: individual purpose

For is commonly used with nouns to express individual purpose :

I popped into the supermarket for some apples on the way home.(Not: I popped into the supermarket for buying some apples)

I stopped by at his office for a chat about our marketing strategy.(Not: I stopped by at his office for having a chat about marketing.)

I decided I would save up for a new computer .(NOT: I decided I would save up for buying a new computer.)

If we want to express individual purpose with a verb pattern , we are obliged touse to + infinitive:

I stopped by at the supermarket to buy some apples on the way home.

I popped into his office to have a chat about our marketing policy.

I decided to save up to buy a new computer .

For + verb-ing: the purpose of an object

However, if we are talking about the purpose of an object or an action, we normallyuse the for + verb-ing pattern. Note that this pattern commonly answers thequestion: What are they (used) for ? Compare the following:

Schools are for educating children not for entertaining them .

Schools are for learning. Life is for living .

This kitchen knife is especially useful for slicing vegetables .

What's this for? ~ It's for opening oysters . It's much better than a knife.

What's this fifty pound note for? ~ It's for buying food for the weekend .

Note that when the subject of the sentence is a person rather than the thingdescribed, the to + infinitive pattern is also possible:

I use this small knife to slice vegetables with .

I use this gadget to open shellfish with .

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in order to / so as to

Note that, as an alternative to to + infinitive , we might use in order to , or so asto , to express individual purpose when we want to be more formal or explicitabout the reason for doing something. All of these structures answer the question:Why? . Compare the following:

I went to bed early in order to get enough sleep before the exam.

After four weeks of exams, I went to the seaside to rest .

After twenty days of exams, I went to the seaside for a rest .

After all those exams, I went to the seaside so as to have a good rest .

The in order to and so as to structures are particularly useful with stative verbssuch as be, have, know, appear , and before negative inifinitives:

So as not to appear foolish, I learnt all I could about the company beforegoing for the interview.

I'm going to move to the city centre in order to be near where I work.

In order not to have to commute, she bought a flat in the town centre.

In order to know more about him, she studied his movements carefully.

however / nevertheless / moreover

Wutthichula Khunpatwattana fromThailand writes:

I have a very simple question, but nobody has been able to make it clear to me. Iknow that the words however and nevertheless are slightly different in meaningand use. I would much appreciate it if you could make the differences clear to me.

However and nevertheless: to express a contrast

We can use either of the adverbs however or nevertheless to indicate that thesecond point we wish to make contrasts with the first point. The difference is one of

formality: nevertheless is bit more formal and emphatic than however. Considerthe following:

I can understand everything you say about wanting to share a flat withMartha. However , I am totally against it.

Rufus had been living in the village of Edmonton for over a decade.Nevertheless , the villagers still considered him to be an outsider.

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Note that however and nevertheless are normally placed in initial position in asentence when contrasting two ideas. They can, however, also come in mid positionor end position:

There will be no more pay increases this year. That is for sure. We have,however , agreed to carry out a full review of pay and conditions. We haveagreed, nevertheless , to carry out a full review of pay and conditions.

He's still able to get around quite well.His whole life has been plagued by illness, however .His whole life has been plagued by illness, nevertheless

Less formal equivalents of however and nevertheless would be even so, in spiteof this, yet or yet..still . These alternatives would be better suited to spoken Englishdiscourse:

She's really quite ill and has been for some time. Even so / In spite of thisshe remains in good spirits.

He has over a million pounds in his bank account. Yet he still gets up at six every morning to go to work.

however and nevertheless: for counter-argument

If you need to write essays, it is also useful to use however, nevertheless,nonetheless or even so to introduce the final part of a three-part structure:

* in the first part you might outline an argument, introducing it perhaps with it isoften said ;

* in the second part you might indicate that there is supporting evidence using it istrue or certainly to introduce these ideas;

* in the third part introduce the counter-argument with however or one of the otherdiscourse markers listed above.

It is said that water pollution is one of the greatest evils in this country.

It is true that more and more factories are being built along this stretch of the river and that a certain amount of waste will inevitably be discharged intothe river.

However , in all the discussions that I have had with these firms' representatives, I have not found one who does not have a responsibleattitude to environmental protection.

moreover: for adding

I often find when marking essays that moreover is used as an alternative tohowever. But be careful here. It does not have the same meaning. Moreover is thevery formal equivalent of futhermore or in addition which would be the least

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formal of these three. These adverbs should be used to support or to add informationto what has already been said:

The refugees are desperately short of food. They have very little shelter to protect them from the winter winds that are now blowing. Furthermore ,they are desperately in need of medical supplies.

She had noticed that there was a man sitting in the second row of the stallsto her right who was observing her, rather than watching the play.Moreover , he seemed to be smiling at her as if he recognised her.

in conclusion

Finally, remember that if you are writing essays, it is useful to introduce the finalparagraph with one of these expressions: to conclude, in conclusion, to sum up :

In conclusion , it is clear that pollution will continue to plague our planet for theforeseeable future. However , if individuals and governments act responsibly, there

may come a day in the not too distant future when a more optimistic outlook is justified.

clauses of purpose: 'in order to' and 'so that'

Gyonggu Shin from South Korea writes:

I would like you to talk about the difference between to + infinitive and in order to+ infinitive.

In these two sentences:

a) I went to school to study .b) I went to school in order to study .

(b) seems to be all right, though perhaps you do not say it.

to / in order to. / so as to.

You are right, Gyonggu. If we use in order to it sounds a bit more formal andexplicit than to by itself, but both are equally possible in both spoken and written

English.

They both convey exactly the same meaning when expressing purpose:

To cut the tree down, I had to hack through the undergrowth first. In order to cut the tree down, I had to hack through the undergrowth first.

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In order to is normal before a negative infinitive. We do not usually use to by itself here:

In order not to oversleep, I set the alarm for seven oclock. I walked very slowly across the room with the drinks in order not to spill

them.

We can also use so as to instead of in order to and it carries the same degree of explicitness or formality:

We moved house last year so as to be closer to our children andgrandchildren.

I gave him a cheque in advance to ease his financial problems and so as notto delay the building work.

Before stative verbs like know , seem , appear , understand , have , etc, it is moreusual to use in order to or so as to :

I talked to them both for half an hour so as to have a thoroughunderstanding of the problem.

I followed her around all day in order to know whether she had any intentionof meeting him.

So that.../ in order that ...

These structures are also frequently used to talk about purpose, although so that ismore common and less formal than in order that .

Note that these structures are normally used with (modal) auxiliary verbs.


Hes staying on in Australia for nine more months so that he can perfect hisEnglish.

Hes staying on in Australia for nine more months in order to perfect hisEnglish.

Were going to leave by three so that we dont get stuck in the rush-hourtraffic.

Were going to leave by three so as not to get stuck in the rush-hour traffic.

Jamie had an afternoon nap so that he wouldnt fall asleep at the concertlater.

Jamie had an afternoon nap in order not to fall asleep at the concert later.

In order that you may pass the exam, we recommend you read through allyour notes. (Very formal.)

In order to pass the exam, we recommend you read through all your notes.(Less formal.)

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Note that in informal colloquial English, that may be omitted from the so thatconstruction.

Listen out for this variation, though I wouldnt recommend that you use it:

Ill come early so we can have a good chat before Denise arrives. Ive bought a video camera so I can film the children as they grow up. We shall wear warm clothes when we go camping in October so we dont get

cold.

David Cho from South Korea writes:

'I have difficulty in using 'in which' .

Sometimes I understand it, sometimes not. It is one of the relative clauses, I think.

Please explain more about relative clauses such as 'of which' , 'by which' , 'onwhich ', 'where' , etc.

relative clauses

We use relative clauses and relative pronouns like who , which , where tointroduce them in order to identify people and things or to give more informationabout them.

That boy who is standing at the bus stop over there is my little brother. My new camera which I bought on the internet last week is broken. The High Street jeweller's which bought and sold silver and where you could

get a good price by bargaining has closed down.

where / in which / at which

In which and at which are sometimes used as more precise sounding alternativesto where to introduce relative clauses after nouns referring to place:

Near where I live there's a wood where you can find woodpeckers . Near where I live there's a wood in which you can find woodpeckers . The fancy-dress party, where the men all turned up as gangsters , was

held in Manhatten. The fancy-dress party, at which the men all turned up as gangsters , was

held in Manhatten.

when / on which

On which is sometimes used as a more precise sounding alternative to when tointroduce relative clauses after nouns referring to time:

The day when I'm forced to give up riding will be a sad day for me.

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The day on which I'm forced to give up riding will be a sad day for me.

position of prepositions

Note that in questions the preposition is more frequently placed at the end of theclause. It can also be placed before the relative pronoun where it sounds moreformal :

In which street does he live? Which street does he live in ?

He lives in the street where all the houses are surrounded by high fences. He lives in the street in which the houses are surrounded by high fences

For which organisation does he work? Which organisation does he work for ?

He works for a spy network, about which I know nothing.

He works for a spy network ( which ) I know nothing about .

Note from examples above and below that putting the preposition at the end of theclause is usually also possible in statements:

The people with whom he worked have all been arrested. (Formal) The people ( who ) he worked with have all been arrested. (Informal)

This is the bedroom in which he was murdered. (Formal) This is the bedroom ( that ) he was murdered in . (Informal)

Note from these examples, that in statements when the preposition is placed at theend of the clause, we can use that instead of who or which or we can omit therelative pronoun completely!

preposition + relative pronoun

A wide range of prepositions are often used in prepositional structures with relativepronouns who and which to introduce relative clauses. In most cases, theprepositions retain their original meaning. Compare the following:

That post marks the beginning of the mined area, beyond which it isinadvisable to go.

In the clearing lay the badly injured soldier, above whom birds of prey werecircling.

We passed a giant toadstool in the forest, under which fairies were sitting.

They had collected the sap from the sugar maple trees, from which maplesyrup is manufactured.

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Before us we could see a forest orchid of which there are many varieties.

An Austrian naturalist, with whom I worked closely in the Eighties,discovered this particular orchid.

Note that when the relative pronoun is placed immediately after the prepositionwe can't use who instead of whom, and we can't use that or zero pronouneither.

Ken Peng from Malaysia writes:

What are linking adverbs - please give me some examples - and are they alsocalled conjunctive adverbs?

Xiao Ling from China writes:

I'm having difficulty distinguishing some linking devices like however ,nevertheless , whereas , etc. Would you please explain to me how to use thoseterms correctly?

Linking adverbs

Linking adverbs are adverbs that are used to link ideas or clauses in spokendiscourse or written text. They could also be called conjunctive adverbs in so far asthey perform the same sort of function as conjunctions .

We use a very wide variety of linking adverbs. Some are more commonly used informal written English, whilst others are more characteristic of informal, spokenlanguage. Here are some of the most common.

Yet / but still

Yet and but still are used to link contrasting ideas together. But still is veryinformal, yet is semi-formal. In the examples below, note how different meaning andusage is when they are employed as adverbs, adding information to the verb, and aslinking adverbs, contrasting ideas:

Haven't you finished that work yet ? Come on. Get a move on!

I have yet / still to see an English orchid as beautiful as those in the rainforests of Brazil.

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I've cautioned him three times already for arriving late for work. But he still turned up ten minutes late again this morning.

He claims he is a vegetarian, (and) yet he eats everything my mother puts infront of him.

Note that yet as a linking adverb can only be placed in front position in the clause.Still can be placed before or immediately after the subject: but he still / but stillhe.

As well / too

As well and too are linking adverbs , meaning also or in addition , which wouldbe a more formal equivalent. Again, note the difference in meaning and usage whenthey are employed as adverbs modifying the adjective or adding information to theverb, and as linking adverbs, meaning in addition :

This T-shirt is too small for me. I need a larger size.

I certainly can't play the piano as well as she does. Katerina is good enoughto be a concert pianist. I play quite well, but not as well.

My birthday's on the sixth of June. ~ That's funny. My birthday's on the sixthof June too / as well.

We're all going to Cornwall for our holidays this year. Oh, and Jeremy'scoming as well / too.

Note that too and as well as linking adverbs are normally placed in end positionin the clause, although in a more formal style too can be placed immediately afterthe subject:

You like Beethoven. I too am fond of Beethoven's music.

However / nevertheless

As linking adverbs , however and nevertheless are used to emphasize a contrastwith what has been said or written before which may appear surprising to thelistener or reader:

It is clear that prices have been rising steadily throughout this year. It is,however , unlikely that they will continue to rise as quickly next year.

I would be the first to admit that prices have risen sharply this year.Nevertheless , they are unlikely to rise as sharply next year.

The politician was confident of success. His advisers were not so certain,however .

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He always remains cheerful. But his life has been beset by constant illness,nevertheless .

Note that however and nevertheless reflect more formal usage and that both cancome in front, mid or end position in the clause.

Whereas / while

Whereas and while are both conjunctions which we use as linking devices tobalance ideas or contrasting points in a more formal style of English. Asconjunctions they can only come at front position in the clause

It rains quite a lot in England in the summer months whereas rain in Spainin the summer is a rare occurrence.

While I don't mind you having the occasional glass of wine, drinking toomuch is not in order.

A less formal equivalent which might be used in more informal contextswould be the connecting phrase: on the other hand.

Perhaps we should spend the whole week under canvas. On the other hand ,it may rain a lot and then we could return home earlier.

A question from Paul Zaffaroni in Mexico:Several years ago I heard this dialogue in a movie: "I will never forget you." Theother person replied: "nor I you." I have never heard this kind of reply before, but I

know it is grammatically correct. Could you please tell me how you would classify it?

Karen Adams answers: This is a really interesting question. But before we begin I do need to say that itsounds as if Paul has been watching a very old English film, because the phrase norI you isnt really something you would hear nowadays in British English.

However, the question does give us a very clear example of something which is verycommon in English. Its an example of ellipses. Ellipses is missing out what you, thespeaker and the listener already know. In Pauls example, we have I will neverforget you and nor I you.

The person who is answering really means nor will I ever forget you.

However, both the listener and the speaker know that this information is shared sothey dont need to say it. You can find much more common examples of ellipses ineveryday language, for example, in the sentence: I drove to work, and then Iparked the car in the car park. You wouldnt really expect to hear I said twice. Sonormally you would hear I drove to work and parked in the car park. We miss outthe second I because we already know that its there.

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Similarly, I listen to the news on the radio and I listened to the drama programmeon the radio. You would normally say I listened to the news and the dramaprogramme on the radio. This gives us all of the new information, but it misses outthe things which we know already. In this case, I listened so I listened to the newsand the drama programme on the radio.

We can think of lots of other examples if we can think of the example of love andforgetting, you may hear in a film, for example, I will always love you. And theperson whos listening may say and I you. What they mean is, and I will alwayslove you. But they dont need to repeat the words which the other speaker hasalready said.

Ellipses also feature in sentences where we know exactly what the speaker is saying,and they may drop off a final word. So for example: he is as tall as I am. You mayactually hear someone say he is as tall as I. We dont need the am as it doesntadd any new information.

We try to be as economical as possible when we speak, using only the words whichwill give the listener the information which he or she needs. Therefore, if wererepeating information or adding in extra words which dont give any moreinformation, we tend to drop them out. This is what ellipses are.

One important thing to remember, however, is that sometimes, in our examples,ellipses can sound a little old fashioned. So in our example he is as tall as I normally in British English you would hear, these days hes as tall as me. However,grammatically, he is as tall as I is the more correct.

And in Pauls example I will never forget younor I you - this is something youreactually unlikely to hear these days in British English. Probably the person answeringwould say me neither. However, grammatically, nor I you is the more correct.

Do try to listen out for ellipses in everyday language.

In the sentence: Today we learned that the university is going to close themath department it is necessary to include that, but in the sentence The work Ido is very important it is not included. Shouldn't it be: The work that I do...?

There are a number of instances in English, Saulo, where it is possible, evendesirable, to omit that .

that as conjunction with reporting verbs

In your first example sentence, that is used as a conjunction, joining two parts of the sentence. After verbs like learned, discovered, found (out), knew, felt,thought , it is quite natural to omit that , especially in informal speech:

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I discovered Julian had borrowed my car without my permission.

I felt he was wrong to do this, but he thought it would be all right.

After the more common reporting verbs, (e.g. say, tell ) it is also entirely natural to

omit that in informal speech:

I told him I'd be back by ten o'clock but he said he needed me here by nine.

After certain verbs (e.g. replied, shouted) that cannot be omitted and it is notnormally dropped after nouns:

The Dean of the Humanities Faculty informed the students that the drama dept wasgoing to close.

He left a message on my voice mail that he was leaving immediately for Vienna.

I replied (to his message) that he should remain in Britain.

He shouted at me that he was fed up with living in Britain. omitting that in two-word conjunctions

There are a number of two-word conjunctions where that may be omitted. Theseinclude so that and now that which we can use to talk about purpose and resultand providing that and provided that which we can use to talk about imposingconditions .

In a more formal style we may prefer to retain that , but in an informal style it isoften omitted. Compare the following:

We intend to send her to Brazil so that she can perfect her Portuguese.

I spent Easter with Anneke in Switzerland so I could learn to ski.

Now that we've joined the EU, prices are sure to rise.

Now the exams are over I can lie in bed all morning.

Provided that / providing that you sign the contract before we join the EU, you won'thave to pay VAT.

You can borrow my DVD player, providing / provided you return it on Monday. omitting that as relative pronoun

In your second example sentence, Saulo, that is used as a relative pronoun,introducing a relative clause. When that is the object in a relative clause, as in yourexample, we normally leave it out:

The work (that / which) she does for this company is much appreciated.

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The representatives of the company (that / who) I met in Portugal were very helpful.

Note from the above examples that that can be used to refer to both things andpeople , whereas which as a relative pronoun can only refer to things and who canonly refer to people .

Note also that when the relative pronoun is the subject of a relative clause, it has tobe included. It cannot be omitted then:

Menorca is one of the Balearic Islands that / which lies to the north east of Mallorca.

We have a number of friends who / that have built holiday homes on the island.

Tamas Hoczat from Hungary writes:Im learning about relative clauses. Ive got two sentences:

At the end of the street there is a path leading to the river. At the end of the street there is a path that leads to the river.

Are both of them correct? Which one should I use? Thank you for helping me.

Both are perfectly correct and sound perfectly natural in this example, so use eitheror both. Generally speaking, the participial clause , starting with - ing or - ed , ismore characteristic of written English, as it allows us to say the same thing as arelative clause , starting with who , which or that , but with fewer words.

Participial clauses are also frequently heard in radio and TV news broadcasts (aswell as newspaper articles and reports) as they permit a lot of information to becompressed into a limited amount of time. This is one reason why they are oftendifficult for a learner of English to follow.

The reporting of The Great Train Robber Ronnie Biggs arrival back in the UK a coupleof weeks ago as he stepped off the plane after 35 years on the run in Australia andBrazil was reported as follows:

"The only glimpse of Biggs, dressed in blue shirt and green sweater , lasted onlya few seconds. Lawyers acting for Biggs have said they will seek a hearing beforethe Court of Appeal".

A participial clause , starting with ed or past participle , is used instead of a

relative pronoun plus passive voice. Study these further examples:

Food sold (= which is sold) in this supermarket is of the highest quality. Anyone found touching (= who is found ) these priceless exhibits will be

escorted out of the museum. The tailback on the A34 caused ( = which was caused / which had been

caused) by the head-on collision stretched for over 20 miles in bothdirections.

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It took the ambulances called ( = that were called / that had been called) tothe scene over half an hour to get through.

A participial clause , starting with -ing is used instead of a relative pronoun plusactive verb, continuous or simple.

The train now arriving (= which is now arriving) at platform 1 is the 6.36from Newcastle.

There are delays for people travelling to work (= who are travelling towork) on Southern Region trains this morning.

Anyone touching (= who touches ) these priceless exhibits will beescorted out of the museum.

The police impounded all the vehicles belonging to (= which belonged to)his brother .

The boy driving (= who was driving) the BMW was underage, unlicensedand over the limit.

Note that when we are talking about a single completed action in a defining relativeclause, we cannot use an active participle:

The girl who fell down the cliff broke her leg.(NOT: The girl falling down cliff)

What is the difference in meaning between these two sentences:Seeing an accident ahead, I stopped my car.Having seen an accident ahead, I stopped my car.

There is not very much difference in meaning between these two pairs of sentences.Sometimes we can use an -ing or past participle clause with similar meanings, ashere, although use of the past participle form emphasises that the first action hasbeen completed before the second action begins. Thus, we could paraphrase thesetwo sentences as follows: Having seen an accident ahead, I stopped my car. I noticed that there had been anaccident ahead and stopped my car.

Seeing an accident ahead, I stopped my car. When I saw the accident ahead, Istopped my car. In general, we tend not to use participle clauses so much in speech. They are tooformal. In speech we would probably say:

I saw an accident ahead, so I stopped my car.

However, in written English participial clauses can be very useful. As you can seefrom the examples above, when the subject in the participle clause is the same as

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the participle in the main clause, they enable us to say the same thing, but withfewer words.

participial clauses = adverbial clauses

Participial clauses often express condition, reason, cause, result or time in asimilar way to full adverbial clauses, only more economically. Compare the following: Used sparingly, this face cream should last you until Christmas. If you use itsparingly, this face cream should last you until Christmas.Having taken the wrong train, I found myself in Bath, not Bristol. Because I hadtaken the wrong train, I found myself in Bath, not Bristol.Passing the theatre on my right, I walked up the steps and could see all the lights onthe Thames ahead of me. After I had passed the theatre on my right, I walked upthe steps and could see all the lights on the Thames ahead of me.

Note from the above examples that the -ing form participle is used to talk aboutpast, as well as present events, e.g.: Talking to you I always feel that my problems will be solved.By talking to you, I always feel that my problems will be solved.

participle clauses following conjunctions and prepositions Participle clauses, with -ing particularly, can be used after various conjunctions andprepositions, such as: when, while, before, after, on, without, instead of . Notethe following examples:

Remember to take all your belongings with you when leaving the train.

I sprained my ankle while playing tennis.Before entering the mosque you must take off your shoes.After taking everything into consideration, we decided to sell the house.After having driven 300 miles across country, I arrived to find the house had beensold.On hearing that my sister was planning to marry him, I decided to leave the flat toher.Without wanting to seem rude, I must tell you that you are ungrateful.Instead of listening to my advice, she walked out without saying goodbye.

Note from the above examples that the participle clause normally, but not invariably,comes in front of the main clause.

negative participle clauses Negative participle clauses are also possible, in which case not normally comesbefore the -ing form or past participle:

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Not having had a shower for two days, I was desperate to get to the bathroom.Whilst not wishing to appear impolite, I must ask you to leave so that I can make aprivate telephone call.

having been + past participle

Note that this passive structure can also be used in participle clauses as analternative to a since-clause: Having been invited to the party by Prince William himself, we could hardly refuse togo. ( = Since we had been invited)Having been deprived of food for over twenty days, the castaway was fedintravenously at first.Having been unemployed for over two years, I found it difficult to get work.

'since' as time preposition, conjunction and adverb

Is it correct to use the present perfect after since, for example:

Mr and Mrs Smith have been quarrelling since theyve been married. Theyve beenhappy since theyve lived here.

I was taught that since introduces a date, not a period of time, and no grammar hasgiven me a clear explanation on that question. Thank you.

Since is used in a variety of different ways, both with the present perfect and withother tenses.

'since' as preposition

When it is used as a preposition to introduce a date or a specific time in the past, itis normally used with present perfect and past perfect tenses. It refers to a period of time starting at a particular point in the past and continuing up till now (presentperfect) or up until another point in the past (past perfect). Compare the following:

I havent seen my younger brother since 14 July 1998.Theyve been on strike since the beginning of April and theres no sign of it ending.I hadnt visited the area since my childhood days and I noticed last summer howeverything had changed.

'since' as conjunction

Since can also be used as a conjunction , as in your examples, Michele, introducinga clause. The tense in the since-clause can be past or perfect , depending onwhether it refers to a point in the past or to a period of time leading up to thepresent or, in the case of the past perfect, leading up to a point in the past.

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Since as a conjunction sometimes combines with ever to make ever since . Notealso in these examples that present and past tenses are possible in the mainclause as well as the present perfect :

Weve been patronising this pub (ever) since weve been living in this village.Weve been patronising this pub (ever) since we moved to this village.

Henrys been teetotal since we got married.Henrys been teetotal since weve been married.

Its only a week since I met him, but were very much in love.Its only a week since weve known each other, but were very much in love.

Theyre a lot happier since they separated.Theyre a lot happier since theyve been living apart.

Youre looking much better since you came out of hospital.Youre looking much better since youve been out of hospital.

It was in the summer of 2001 that I saw her and it was over 20 years since we hadlast met.'Do you realize,' I said, 'its over 20 years since we last met?'

'since then' / 'ever since'

Note that since can also be used as an adverb . Since then refers to a particularpoint in time and ever since to a period of time. Which one we use depends onwhether we want to focus attention on the point in time or on the continuing periodof time. Compare the following:

She left home in 1992 and hasnt contacted us since then. The company startedlosing money in 2002 and has been in serious decline since then.

The company started losing money in 2002 and has been in serious decline eversince. I took my final exams five years ago and have been working as a doctor eversince.

Use of 'so' and 'such'

Savino Carrella from Naples asks:

Could you kindly tell me whether the use of so in the following sentence is correct:'Miles looked older than his brother, revealing so a strange maturity.' Here so shouldstand for 'in this way'.

If so here means 'in this way' or 'thus', it would normally come immediately after themain clause:

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You will already have noticed from at least one of the above examples that so andsuch are often followed by 'that'-clauses suggesting result or consequence. Notethat when plural nouns are used after such , the article is, of course, omitted.

'I'm so glad (that) you could come!' 'It had been so hot on the journey (that) we had to drink a litre of water

when we arrived home.' 'There was so much to do on that holiday (that) nobody ever got bored.' 'They were such good swimmers (that) they had no difficulty swimming

across the fast-flowing river.' 'She prepared such good meals (that) no one ever thought of going out to

eat.' 'I've got such a high temperature (that) I'm hoping (that) my husband will

drive me straight to the surgery when he gets home from work.'

There is one exception to the general rule as set out above and that is that only socan be used with indefinite determiners much and many and it is more usual withlittle and few when these are followed by a noun. We therefore have the new

pattern:

so + determiner + noun

'So many sun-worshippers had crowded on to the beach that there was nospace left for my towel.'

'I'm sure there will be so much noise in the restaurant that I shan't be able tohear what anybody is saying.'

'I had so little rest over the weekend that I couldn't go to work on Mondaymorning.'

'There were so few leaves on the tree that it was pointless to try to shelterfrom the rain beneath it.'

You cannot say: ' such many sun-worshippers', or ' such much noise' and it would beunusual to say: ' such few leaves' or ' such little rest'.

Finally compare:

'Such little people!' ('Little' here is used as an adjective meaning 'small'.) 'So few people!' ('Few' here is used as a determiner meaning 'not very

many'.)

You will already have noticed from at least one of the above examples that 'so' and

'such' are often followed by that-clauses suggesting result or consequence. Note thatwhen plural nouns are used after 'such', the article is, of course, omitted. 'I'm soglad (that) you could come!' 'It had been so hot on the journey (that) we had todrink a litre of water when we arrived home.' 'There was so much to do on thatholiday (that) nobody ever got bored.' 'They were such good swimmers (that) theyhad no difficulty swimming across the fast-flowing river.' 'She prepared such goodmeals (that) no one ever thought of going out to eat.' 'I've got such a hightemperature (that) I'm hoping (that) my husband will drive me straight to thesurgery when he gets home from work.'

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ThoughI have a little question about though . I'm not sure of its many meanings.Sometimes it is in the middle of a sentence and sometimes at the end of asentence and I get confused.

George Pickering answers: Thank you Raphael for your interesting question.

Yes, it's true, you can put though at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of sentences.

We can use though , and although , or even though at the beginning of a subordinateclause to mark a contrast with the idea in the main clause. For example:'Even though he didn't have much time, he stopped to help the old lady.'

We can change the order of the two clauses and say:'He stopped to help the old lady, even though he didn't have much time.'

In these examples, though means 'despite the fact that'.

We can also put though at the end of the contrasting clause. For example:'I still find English hard to understand; I can understand more than last year,though!'

When placed at the end of a sentence like this, though means 'nevertheless' or'however'.

Nguyen Tu Thang from Vietnam writes: Could you please explain the use of the wordthough in sentences where its role seems to be nothing but an added word used atthe end of sentences in conversation?

Alex from Peru writes: Is the meaning the same when we use even though andeven when ? I'm quite confused about this.

Though can be used both as a conjunction and as an adverb

though as conjunction

We usually think of though as a conjunction as the more informal alternative of although , introducing a subordinate clause of contrast. When we use though oralthough , they introduce an idea that makes the statement in the main clause seemsurprising:

(Al)though I was late for the meeting, I decided to go nevertheless

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(Al)though the sausages were past their sell-by date, I ate them and didn't becomeill. even though

Note that we use even though as an alternative to though or although when the

ideas expressed appear more extreme or surprising::

Even though the earthquake occurred ten days ago, the authorities believe it maystill be possible to find survivors under the rubble. though as adverb

In your definition of the word, Nguyen, though is used as an adverb with a meaningsimilar to however . Again it indicates a contrast. Used in this way, it occupies eithermid or end position in a sentence and makes the previous statement or idea seemless true or appealing:

I thought Steve's essay was very good. ~ Yes, he made some good points and it wasgood in parts. It was a bit repetitive, though.

I drove that new convertible the other day. Very impressive. ~ Isn't it ratherexpensive, though?

It seems he's still suspected of the crime. His main defence, though, is that he spentthe evening with his girlfriend and she seems totally credible. even if / even when / even though

When we use even before if, when and though, it has the effect of making the ideasexpressed appear more extreme or surprising. Even if is used for emphasising that

although something might happen, the situation will not change:

I shall continue to work from 6 a.m. till midnight, even if it kills me.

Even if I became a millionaire, I would not stop working.

Even when is used for emphasising that although something happens on a regularbasis, the situation does not change:

She checks her text messages when you least expect her to, even when she'sdriving.

He never stops talking and goes on and on even when other people are talking. Even though, as we have seen, introduces a fact that makes the main statement inyour sentence seem very surprising:

Even though she has a degree in business administration, all her business ventureshave failed.

They made me feel as if I was one of the family, even though I'd never met any of them before.

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even so

Note that even if, even when and even though are conjunctions, linking twoclauses. Even so like though , meaning however, is an adverb and is used forintroducing a statement that seems surprising after what has been said before.

This time he has kept all the promises he made. Even so, I don't really trust him.

I know you know this piece of music off by heart, but, even so, you should follow thescore.

Unless and otherwise

Haja Najubudeen from Dubai writes:

Please help me to use unless and otherwise .Does unless have to be used with a past participle in a sentence?

unless = if not

Unless is similar in meaning to if not and can be used instead of if not in certaintypes of conditional sentences. We normally use unless with present tenses whenwe are referring to the future:

You won't get in to see the show, if you don't have reserved seats. OR:Unless you have reserved seats, you won't get in to see the show.

Let's play tennis on Saturday, if it's not raining. OR:Let's play tennis on Saturday, unless it's raining .

I'll see you at the gym this evening, if you're not too tired . OR:I'll see you at the gym this evening, unless you're too tired.

if not

However, we cannot use unless in questions:

What will you do if you don't pass those exams?

If I don't pass those exams, I won't be able to study in Australia I won't be able to study in Australia, unless I pass those exams.

And we cannot use unless with would to talk about unreal future situations:

If he didn't take everything so seriously, he would be much easier to work with.

If he weren't so bad-tempered, I would help him to get the work done

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We cannot use unless with would have to talk about unreal situations in the pasteither:

If you hadn't driven so recklessly, you wouldn't have had this accident. If you hadn't had that last glass of wine, this would never have happened.

unless

We have to use unless, and not if not , if we are introducing an idea as anafterthought:

I shan't bother to go to the meeting at the school tonight - unless you want to go, of course.

Note that in written English, as regards punctuation, the afterthought is usuallypreceded by a dash.

unless + past participle

Unless can be used with a past participle in a reduced clause, Haja, when youchoose to omit the subject words and the auxiliary verbs within the brackets in theexamples below:

Don't shut down these computers unless (you are) instructed to do so. Just log off.

Unless (he is) given sufficient warning of the consequences, he will continueto misbehave.

However, this often makes the language produced sound rather formal and in spokenEnglish we would normally retain subject words and auxiliary verbs.

otherwise = apart from this / if not

Otherwise is used as a linking adverb and has the meaning of apart from this or if we disregard this :

The sea was very rough and we couldn't swim all week, but otherwise / apart from this we enjoyed ourselve s.

They all suffered from hypothermia. Otherwise, / Apart from that, they were OK.

It also has the meaning of if not , in the sense of if this does not happen , or if this were not the case , when it is used as a linking device:

Remember to use sun cream with high protection when you go down to thebeach. Otherwise, / If you don't , you'll get sunburnt within half an hour.

Look, we really must hurry. Otherwise, / If we don't , we'll miss the train. He must be quite intelligent. Otherwise, he wouldn't have got into

university. / If he wasn't , he wouldn't have got into university.

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What or that? and noun-verb collocations

Maria Grazia Rinieri from Italy writes:

I have two questions. Firstly, is it a mistake to say all what I have done instead of all that I have done ?

Secondly, I would like to know if it's possible to write: students gave theirfeedback on the arguments treated by the teacher , or must I use subject ortopic instead of arguments and the verb dealt with instead of treated ?

What or that?

Yes, it is a mistake to say: All what I have done . What cannot be used as a relativepronoun coming after a noun or pronoun. We have to use the relative pronoun thatand say: All that I have done . Or, if that is the object of the relative clause as inthis example, we can simply omit it, use zero pronoun instead and say: All I'vedone

All ( that ) I've done is to offer to help him with his homework. I haven't donehis homework for him.

Here are some more examples. Note that that cannot be omitted if it is the subjectof the relative clause as in the last example below:

Everything (that) you ordered is now in the shop and can be collected. The paintings (that) I bought are now hanging on the walls in my house. The only thing that keeps me awake at night is wondering if the house is

properly insured.

What can, however, be used to introduce a clause where it combines the function of noun and relative pronoun and means that which or the thing(s) that :

What I did was help him with his homework, not do it for him. What he does in his free time doesn't interest me. I don't remember what time he went to bed last night . (what = the time

at which) I have no idea about what happened after I left .

Noun-verb collocations

In your example, Maria, of students gave their feedback on certain arguments, theverb which best collocates with arguments here is raised , so the sentence wouldread:

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The students gave their feedback on the arguments raised by their teacher.

Collocation (or co-location if you like) refers to the way in which some wordsregularly occur together . We do not usually treat arguments . We normallywould not say that. Instead, we raise arguments or discuss arguments .

However, if we are talking about wounds or injuries , these are the things wetreat . We might also treat a topic or subject if we are writing an essay as analternative to dealing with it .

His injuries were serious and could only properly be treated in hospital.

How do you propose to treat this topic when you are writing about Napoleon?

In language learning, it's very important to develop an understanding of words thatregularly occur together. Test your knowledge of these noun-verb collocations in thetext below. One of the alternatives listed is the best fit or the normal collocation .

Choose that one.

The female crocodile usually assembles/builds/manufactures/erects her nest on the banks of a river. She normally lays/releases/drops/spawnsabout fifty eggs.She then closes/shuts down/seals/binds the nest for protection against

predators. Provided the nests are not molested/assaulted/bothered/disturbed , the baby crocodiles proceed/hatch/appear/arise from the eggs after about twelve weeks.

Now scroll down the page to check your selections

Crocodiles, birds and insects all build their nests .They lay their eggs .And crocodiles seal their nests for protection against predators.If they are unlucky, their nests might be disturbed by predators. But if they arelucky, the baby crocodiles will hatch from the eggs after twelve weeks.

Hello, I am Vaibhav. I am calling from India, and my question is: 'When do we use'which' and when do we use 'that'? What are the constraints, what are the conditionsunder which we use these two words?

Catherine Walter answers: OK - that's a good question. I'm assuming that you mean in what we call relativeclauses since this is where the confusion usually occurs.

Now, in a relative clause, we can use 'who' or 'whom' for people, and 'which' forthings. So we can say: 'the man who came to dinner', or 'the bridge which crossesthe Ganges up river from here'. So: 'the man who came to dinner', 'the bridge whichcrosses the Ganges'.

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Now, 'that' is less formal, and it can be used for both people and things in somerelative clauses. So I could say, less formally: 'the man that came to dinner', 'thebridge that crosses the Ganges'.

But, 'that' can only be used in what we call identifying relative clauses and those are

clauses where you need the information to understand what you're talking about.Those were both identifying relative clauses, but if I said: 'Mr Swan, who came todinner', I don't need 'who came to dinner' to define Mr Swan, I've already identifiedhim. So, you can not use 'that' in that sentence, and you can not use 'that' if you aretalking about: 'Waterloo Bridge, which crosses the Thames up river from here'. So,that's when you use 'which' for identifying relative clauses and for non-identifyingrelative clauses, but you can only use 'that' informally for identifying relative clauses.Is that clear?

Vaibhav responds: Can we take certain examples for this, like, there is a group of presidents who aremeeting in the conference: 'the president who is from India', 'the president which isfrom India', 'the president that is from India' - which one is correct?

Catherine Walter replies: OK - you can't use 'which' for a president, because a president is a person. You canuse 'who' or 'that'. If there are several presidents and you want to talk about 'thepresident that is coming there', instead of 'the president that's not coming there'.But if by saying 'the president' it's clear that you mean only one person, then youcan not use 'that'. You have to say 'who': 'the president who is coming to theconference'.

which or that?

I would be very grateful if you could explain how to choose between which and thatin a sentence. This is a great problem for me. Thanks in advance.

That and which can be used interchangeably in most circumstances, Isabelle. Thatcan even be used as an alternative to who . Let's take a closer look.

who / which / that

Who , which and that are all relative pronouns and are used to introduce relativeclauses. They can be used as the subjects of verbs in relative clauses. As relativepronouns, who can only refer to people and which can only refer to things. But thatcan refer to both people and things. That when it refers to people denotes aninformal style of English. Compare the following:

Who is the woman wearing dark glasses who arrived five minutes ago?

'The Office' is a TV sit-com which / that is not suitable for young children.

Do you know anyone that could help me design web pages? - I know a German webartist who designed web pages for Lufthansa.

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Note that who , which and that replace he , she , it and they and enable us to jointwo clauses which would otherwise be separate.

Who is the woman wearing dark glasses? She arrived five minutes ago.

'The Office' is a British TV sit-com. It is not suitable for young children.

I know a German web artist. He designed web pages for Lufthansa.

Who , which and that can also be used in a similar way as the objects of verbs inrelative clauses in which case they replace him , her , it and them . We can usewhom instead of who as an object relative pronoun in a more formal style of English. Compare the following:

She's now living with the musician that / who she met at the pop concert.

She's now living with the musician whom she met at the pop concert.

She's now living with the musician. She met him at the pop concert.

Where are the Radiohead CDs which / that your brother borrowed last week?

Where are the Radiohead CDs? Your brother borrowed them last week.

Note that when who , which and that function as object relative pronouns, they areoften left out of the sentence altogether:.

She's now living with the musician she met at the pop concert.

Where are the Radiohead CDs your brother borrowed last week?

that rather than which

After quantifiers like everything, something, all and after the thing we

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