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Essentials of Processing AssessmentSecond Edition

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Essentials of Psychological Assessment SeriesSeries Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of 16 PF Assessmentby Heather E.-P. Cattell and James M. Schuerger

Essentials of Assessment Report Writingby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Nancy Mather,Nadeen L. Kaufman, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Assessment With Brief Intelligence Testsby Susan R. Homack and Cecil R. Reynolds

Essentials of Autism Spectrum Disorders Evaluationand Assessmentby Celine A. Saulnier and Pamela E. Ventola

Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development–II Assessmentby Maureen M. Black and Kathleen Matula

Essentials of Behavioral Assessmentby Michael C. Ramsay, Cecil R. Reynolds,and R. W. Kamphaus

Essentials of Career Interest Assessmentby Jeffrey P. Prince and Lisa J. Heiser

Essentials of CAS Assessmentby Jack A. Naglieri

Essentials of Cognitive Assessment with KAIT and Other KaufmanMeasuresby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Debra Broadbooks,and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Conners Behavior AssessmentsTM

by Elizabeth P. Sparrow

Essentials of Creativity Assessmentby James C. Kaufman, Jonathan A. Plucker, and John Baer

Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, Third Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan, Samuel O. Ortiz,and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of DAS-II Assessmentby Ron Dumont, John O. Willis, and Colin D. Elliot

Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Interventionby Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling

Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventionsby Barbara J. Wendling and Nancy Mather

Essentials of Executive Function Assessmentby George McCloskey and Lisa A. Perkins

Essentials of Forensic Psychological Assessment, Second Editionby Marc J. Ackerman

Essentials of IDEA for Assessment Professionalsby Guy McBride, Ron Dumont, and John O. Willis

Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessmentby Douglas K. Smith

Essentials of KABC-II Assessmentby Alan S. Kaufman, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, ElaineFletcher-Janzen, and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of MillonTM Inventories Assessment, Third Editionby Stephen Strack

Essentials of MMPI-ATM Assessmentby Robert P. Archer and Radhika Krishnamurthy

Essentials of MMPI-2 Assessment, Second Editionby David S. Nichols

Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Assessment,Second Editionby Naomi Quenk

Essentials of NEPSY -II Assessmentby Sally L. Kemp and Marit Korkman

Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Nancy Hebben and William Milberg

Essentials of Nonverbal Assessmentby Steve McCallum, Bruce Bracken, and John Wasserman

Essentials of PAI Assessmentby Leslie C. Morey

Essentials of Processing Assessment, Second Editionby Milton J. Dehn

Essentials of Response to Interventionby Amanda M. VanDerHeyden and Matthew K. Burns

Essentials of Rorschach Assessmentby Tara Rose, Nancy Kaser-Boyd, and Michael P. Maloney

Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Daniel C. Miller

Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identificationby Dawn Flanagan and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5) Assessmentby Gale H. Roid and R. Andrew Barram

Essentials of TATandOther Storytelling Assessments, Second Editionby Hedwig Teglasi

Essentials of Temperament Assessmentby Diana Joyce

Essentials of WAIS -IV Assessment, Second Editionby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WIAT -III and KTEA-II Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Kristina C. Breaux

Essentials of WISC -IV Assessment, Second Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials ofWJ IIITMCognitive Abilities Assessment, SecondEditionby Fredrick A. Schrank, Daniel C. Miller, Barbara J. Wendling,and Richard W. Woodcock

Essentials of WJ IIITM Tests of Achievement Assessmentby Nancy Mather, Barbara J. Wendling,and Richard W. Woodcock

Essentials of WMS -IV Assessmentby Lisa Whipple Drozdick, James A. Holdnack,and Robin C. Hilsabeck

Essentials of WNV TM Assessmentby Kimberly A. Brunnert, Jack A. Naglieri,and Steven T. Hardy-Braz

Essentials of WPPSI TM-III Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WRAML2 and TOMAL-2 Assessmentby Wayne Adams and Cecil R. Reynolds

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Essentialsof Processing

AssessmentSecond Edition

Milton J. Dehn

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For my grandchildren:Hannah, Gabe, Peter, Dora, Arya, Finn, Gunner, and Peyton.

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CONTENTS

Series Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

One Introduction and Overview 1

Two Psychological Processes and Learning 25

Three The Neuroanatomy of Psychological Processes 61

Four Strategies for Assessing Processing 75

Five Assessing Processing With Cognitive Scales 107

Six Assessing Memory 135

Seven The Children’s Psychological ProcessesScale (CPPS) 175

Eight Using Scales Designed to Assess Processing 207

Nine Analyzing Test Results and Determining SLD 225

Ten Evidence-Based Interventions for PsychologicalProcessing Deficits 261

Eleven Illustrative Case Study 291

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References 319

Annotated Bibliography 335

About the Author 339

Index 341

About the CD-ROM 349

Note: All Appendixes are on the CD.

Appendix A Selective Testing Tables forProcessing and Memory

Appendix B Batteries, Composites, andSubtests That Measure Specific Processes

Appendix C Interview Items

Appendix D Observation Items

Appendix E Processing and MemoryAssessment Forms

Appendix F Children’s Psychological Processes Scale

Appendix G Psychological Processing Analyzer

Appendix H Statistical Tables

Appendix I Processing Assessment Report Template

Appendix J Self-Monitoring Sheet

x CONTENTS

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SERIES PREFACE

In the Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, we have attempted to providethe reader with books that will deliver key practical information in the mostefficient and accessible style. The series features instruments in a variety of

domains, such as cognition, personality, education, and neuropsychology. For theexperienced clinician, books in the series offer a concise yet thorough way tomaster utilization of the continuously evolving supply of new and revisedinstruments, as well as a convenient method for keeping up to date on thetried-and-true measures. The novice will find here a prioritized assembly of allthe information and techniques that must be at one’s fingertips to begin thecomplicated process of individual psychological diagnosis.

Wherever feasible, visual shortcuts to highlight key points are utilized alongsidesystematic, step-by-step guidelines. Chapters are focused and succinct. Topics aretargeted for an easy understanding of the essentials of administration, scoring,interpretation, and clinical application. Theory and research are continuallywoven into the fabric of each book, but always to enhance clinical inference,never to sidetrack or overwhelm. We have long been advocates of “intelligent”testing—the notion that a profile of test scores is meaningless unless it is broughtto life by the clinical observations and astute detective work of knowledgeableexaminers. Test profiles must be used to make a difference in the child’s or adult’slife, or why bother to test? We want this series to help our readers become the bestintelligent testers they can be.

This volume—a revision and expansion of Essentials of Processing Assessment—provides practitioners with a framework for planning, conducting, and inter-preting an assessment of psychological processes. It also offers an overview ofevidence-based interventions for some psychological processes. The approach issystematic and elucidates a challenging type of evaluation that usually requires thecompilation of an assessment battery from different tests. The author sets the stageby (a) proposing a theory of psychological processing and an integrated model ofspecific learning disability (SLD) identification, (b) reviewing the relationsbetween psychological processes and specific types of academic learning, and

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(c) providing detailed information on precisely which of 11 processes are measuredby major cognitive and memory scales, as well as scales specifically designed forprocessing assessment. Through step-by-step guidelines and worksheets, theauthor walks the reader through interpretation of test results from a psychologicalprocessing perspective.

The final component of the evaluation process is diagnosis. To that end, thistext provides guidance on how to determine significant intra-individual strengthsand weaknesses among psychological processes and how to use those patterns toidentify students with SLD. It is our belief that the insights and practices gainedfrom the authoritative author of this volume will lead to more accurate diagnosesand more effective treatment for individuals who struggle with learning.

Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman, EdD, Series EditorsYale Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine

xii SERIES PREFACE

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Iwish to express my gratitude to John Garruto, DEd, a New York state schoolpsychologist and adjunct professor at State University of New York College atOswego. John reviewed each chapter and provided insightful feedback from a

practitioner’s viewpoint.

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One

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

F rom 2011 to 2013, a unique gathering occurred at several state schoolpsychology conferences, beginning in Oregon and then proceeding to NewYork, Texas, and California. These were followed by a similar gathering at

the 2013 national conference of the Learning Disabilities Association of America.At each of these venues, several experts in learning disability assessment andidentification came together for a summit and presentations. The experts repre-sented the fields of school psychology, neuropsychology, and learning disabilities.Among them were Dawn Flanagan, Nancy Mather, Kevin McGrew, GeorgeMcCloskey, Daniel Miller, Samuel Ortiz, Steven Feifer, Elaine Fletcher-Janzen,Milton Dehn, and James B. Hale. At each conference, these summits were dubbedThe Meeting of the Minds.

These summits were the brainchild of James Hanson and Karen Apgar, schoolpsychologists from Oregon who were working on developing and applying thePattern of Strengths and Weaknesses (PSW) model to specific learning disability(SLD) identification in Oregon school districts. In their efforts to develop acontemporary, comprehensive, evidence-based approach, they sought input andfeedback from nationally recognized experts. They were especially interested inidentifying what the experts, each with his or her own model of SLD identifica-tion, agreed on. Initial discussions with a couple of the experts culminated in thesummits, which were attended by several experts.

As the experts met, one of the topics of discussion was how the PSW modelshould be applied to processing assessment. The experts already agreed thatpsychological processes should be directly assessed during SLD evaluations (Haleet al., 2010). Much of the group’s discussion focused on the challenges ofassessing psychological processes, the application of PSW to psychologicalprocesses, and how psychological processing strengths and weaknesses shouldbe used to identify SLD. The group also addressed general concerns about SLDidentification and the ramifications of their recommendations. One concern was

1

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that written guidelines are often misconstrued and applied rigidly withoutprofessional judgment.

This author participated in the meeting held in California in October 2012. Atthat meeting, the “minds” generated several tentative position statements aboutSLD that the majority of them agreed on. The points of general consensus were asfollows:

• Neurologically based processing deficits underlie specific learningdisabilities.

• A student cannot have a learning disability without the presence of aprocessing deficit.

• Some processes are highly correlated with academic skills. There isstronger evidence in some areas than others.

• If there is a learning disability, academic weakness(es) should be related tothe processing deficits.

• A pattern of strengths and weaknesses in processing doesn’t mean there isa learning disability. Clinical judgment, a comprehensive evaluation, andother sources of data must inform the diagnosis.

• Students with SLD have cognitive strengths and cognitive weaknesses,but their overall functioning tends to be at or near the average range.

• A weakness should be both normative and intra-individual.• A weakness should be statistically significant and unusual in the

population.• Cultural and linguistic differences will impact student cognitive devel-

opment and academic skills. A child cannot be considered to have aspecific learning disability if culture and/or language are primary reasonsfor processing or academic weaknesses.

• Environmental/economic disadvantage can cause neurobiological defi-cits, which may, in fact, result in a learning disability.

As this author participated in the California summit, he was impressed with theappreciation expressed by conference attendees for the experts’ presentations. Theattendees appeared to be eager for all the information they could gather, especiallyin regard to PSW and processing assessment. They welcomed all the guidance inSLD assessment that was available. For some, it may have been new information,but for many it appeared that they were familiar with the models and best practiceadvice but were still struggling with implementing and applying these practices.Given that many of the recommended practices are not new and that several booksand many articles have been published on PSW, cognitive processes, and learningdisability assessment, the demand for more information was somewhat surprising.

2 ESSENTIALS OF PROCESSING ASSESSMENT

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Consequently, the revision of Essentials of Processing Assessment seems verytimely. As states continue to refine their SLD identification criteria and practi-tioners seek more guidance on PSW and processing assessment, an update is inorder. In 2005, when Essentials of Processing Assessment was written, nearlyeveryone in the field of SLD identification was focused on how to design andimplement response-to-intervention (RTI) programs and procedures for SLDidentification using RTI data. With the demise of the IQ-achievement discrep-ancy model, many RTI-only advocates viewed any standardized testing ofintelligence, cognitive abilities, orpsychological processes as irrelevant.Some states even dropped theirrequirement of psychological process-ing assessment, despite the federalstatutory definition of a learning dis-ability “as a disorder in one or more ofthe basic psychological processesinvolved in understanding or in usinglanguage, spoken or written, whichmay manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, spell, or domathematical calculations” (IDEIA 2004, § 602.30).

All of the discussion and controversy surrounding SLD assessment may havebeen beneficial. It has prompted practitioners to seek new information and toquestion and closely examine their practices. For example, practitioners seemmoreconcerned with how to collect and utilize relevant assessment data in theirdecision-making processes. Practitioners also seem more interested than ever inunderstanding learning disabilities and finding evidence-based interventions forlearning disabilities.

At the same time, developments in psychological measurement and anexpanding research base have addressed some of the practitioners’ interests andquestions. For instance, many school psychologists have joined the growingspecialty of school neuropsychology (Miller, 2010). Supporting this interestare new assessment tools for child neuropsychological assessment and suchimportant psychological processes as executive functions. The interests havealso been reinforced with neuroscience and neuropsychology research, whichhas led to an increased understanding of how the brain functions during learningand memory (e.g., Berninger & Richards, 2002). For example, neuroimaging hasallowed us to actually see how the brain of a child with dyslexia functionsdifferently (Shaywitz, 2003). Moreover, just in the last few years, new interven-tions for brain-based learning problems have been developed and supported. For

DON’T FORGET......................................................An assessment of psychological pro-cesses should be included in every SLDevaluation, because Federal law (IDEIA,2004) states “The term ‘specific learn-ing disability’means a disorder in one ormore of the basic psychological pro-cesses.”

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 3

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example, one neuroimaging study (Tageuchi et al., 2010) was able to measuregrowth in the brain as a result of working memory training.

CHANGES TO ESSENTIALS OF PROCESSING ASSESSMENT

The second edition of Essentials of Processing Assessment will attempt to incorporatemany of the important developments and much of the relevant research that hasoccurred since 2005. Substantial revisions have been made to all of the originalchapters, and new chapters have been written on the Neuroanatomy of PsychologicalProcesses, the Children’s Psychological Processes Scale (CPPS), Assessing Memory, andEvidence-Based Interventions for Processing Deficits. A CD-ROM with additionalinformation, tables, assessment forms, and an Excel program for analyzing test scoreshas also been added. The change with the most impact on the structure of the bookand the recommended assessment practices may be the formulation of a theory ofpsychological processing that accounts for the relations between psychologicalprocesses and learning. Other changes and additions include the following:

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview• How psychological processes can be distinguished from intelligence,

cognitive abilities, cognitive processes, and skills• An overview of theories related to psychological processing• An overview of several specific learning disability identification models• Introduction of a psychological processing and learning theory• An Integrated SLD Identification Model

Chapter 2: Psychological Processes and Learning• The addition of fine motor processing and oral language processes• A more in-depth discussion of working memory and long-term recall• Update on processing aptitude-achievement relations research• A table that summarizes relations between processes and specific

academic skills• Discussion on the interrelationships among psychological processes• How the identification of processing deficits contributes to SLD

identification

Chapter 3: The Neuroanatomy of Psychological Processes (new chapter)• A basic review of the brain structures that are associated with psycho-

logical process• In-depth discussion of brain structures associated with working memory

and long-term recall


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Chapter 4: Strategies for Assessing Processing• New items for student, parent, and teacher interviews• New observation items• Updated tables that classify composites and subtests by process

Chapter 5: Assessing Processing With Cognitive Scales• Identifies subtests and composites on cognitive scales that measure

specific processes• Updates of specific tests, especially those that have been recently revised

or published

Chapter 6: Assessing Memory (new chapter)• Procedures for assessing working memory and long-term memory

processes• Detailed guidance for interviews, observations, history, and classroom

data• Tables that classify composites and subtests by memory processes• Completed examples of memory assessment planners• Details on use and interpretation of primary memory batteries

Chapter 7: The Children’s Psychological Processes Scale (CPPS; new chapter)• An overview of this new teacher rating scale, including information on its

structure, reliability, and validity• Administration, interpretation, applications, and an illustrative case study

Chapter 8: Using Scales Designed to Assess Processing• Updates of specific test information, especially for recently revised or

published tests

Chapter 9: Analyzing Test Results and Determining SLD• Changes in recommended procedures for cross-battery analysis• Using confidence intervals to test for significant differences• How to examine processing clusters• Recommendations for SLD identification• How to assess the impact of aptitude sets• An overview of the Psychological Processing Analyzer• Guideline for writing a processing report

Chapter 10: Evidence-Based Interventions for Psychological Processing Deficits(new chapter)• Concerns regarding processing interventions• Different types of interventions


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• Selecting and designing processing interventions• How to set goals and monitor progress• Details on interventions for each process

Chapter 11: Illustrative Case Study• In-depth analysis of a case study that includes processing interventions

DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND LEARNING

Psychological processes are mental (neuropsychological) operations that perceive,transform, manipulate, store, retrieve, and express information (Gagne, 1993).Psychological processes range from basic perceptual processes, such as recognizingdistinct sounds or perceiving visual details, to higher-level cognitive processes thatcontribute to language and reasoning performance. It would be very difficult toidentify all of the specific neurological processes that contribute to a cognitiveoperation, to learning, or to performance of a skill. It would be equally difficult toparse out the relative contribution of each process. Multiple processes underlieperformance on any given task (see Chapter 2), and any identified process can bedecomposed into more specific components and operations. The complexity ofpsychological processing makes it difficult to identify discrete processes. Thus, thepsychological processing constructs selected for assessment in the psychologicalprocessing assessment model presented in this book are groupings or aggregates ofspecific processes, rather than discrete, isolated processes (see Rapid Reference1.1). These psychological processes should be thought of as broad processes.(Definitions of the selected processes are in Chapter 2.)

The list of psychological processes certainly could be much longer than thatpresented in Rapid Reference 1.1, because nearly every brain function could bedescribed as a psychological process. However, this book is about the relationshipsbetween psychological processes and academic learning. Consequently, theselections have been limited to those cognitive processes that have strongevidence-based relations with the acquisition of specific academic skills.

Psychological Processes and Cognitive Processes

The psychological processes that are the focus of this book are primarily cognitiveprocesses. A cognitive process is another broad construct that applies to all forms ofknowing and awareness. The essence of cognitive processing or cognition isthinking, reasoning, learning, and remembering, but it also includes basicprocesses, such as perception. Cognitive processes might be considered a subset


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of psychological processes. For example, psychological processes include brainfunctions that generally are not considered as cognitive processes, such as sensory,motor, and social-emotional func-tioning. Although the processes thatare the focus of this book are primarilycognitive, and some experts use theterms interchangeably (e.g., Naglieri,2011), they are primarily referred toas psychological processes, because it isthe more commonly used term ineducation and legislation pertainingto SLD identification.

Psychological Processes and Cognitive Abilities

Cognitive abilities might be thought of as a combination of innate mentalcapacities and acquired knowledge and skills. For example, quantitative reasoningis a cognitive ability that is composed of some innate functions, such as thecapacity to understand relative differences in quantity, to apply logic, and tocreatively solve problems, coupled with mathematics concepts and procedures thathave been acquired through experience and learning. The level of performance inskills such as arithmetic is partially determined by the developed level of the

DON’T FORGET......................................................The psychological processes that are thefocus of this book are primarily cogni-tive processes. Thus, when the termcognitive processes is used in this book, itrefers to the subset of psychologicalprocesses that involve cognition.

Rapid Reference 1.1 Psychological Processes That AreHighly Related to Academic Skills

...........................................................................................................................AttentionAuditory ProcessingExecutive FunctionsFine-Motor ProcessingFluid ReasoningLong-Term RecallOral Language ProcessingPhonological ProcessingProcessing SpeedVisual-Spatial ProcessingWorking Memory


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abilities they depend on. For that reason, abilities are typically viewed as indicatorsof potential or capacity. The functioning and demonstration of abilities, whichtend to be broad, is dependent on underlying cognitive processes, which arerelatively more specific and discrete, working in an interrelated fashion. Given thisdistinction, mental features such as processing speed and auditory processingshould not be considered abilities but basic psychological processes.

Psychological Processes and Intelligence

The traditional approach to measuring cognitive abilities and learning potentialhas been to use intelligence tests. Although intelligence constructs have manydefinitions, including some that are very similar to cognitive processes, intellectualconstructs have primarily involved broad abilities, such as verbal intelligence. Incontrast, processing assessment tends to focus more on specific abilities (orprocesses), such as auditory processing. Furthermore, the construct and measure-ment of intelligence historically have focused on the products or content ofcognition, not the processes of cognition (Miller, 1999). For example, untilrecently about 50% of what intelligence tests measured was verbal ability oracquired knowledge, which is usually classified as crystallized intelligence. Althoughthe acquisition and retrieval of crystallized intelligence requires processing, it ismainly the content of crystallized intelligence that is being tapped by intellectualtests. The level of crystallized intelligence is undeniably a strong indication ofintellectual functioning, academic achievement, and underlying neuro-psychological processing, but it is not a process per se. From crystallizedintelligence scores, one can only infer what processing levels might be. Processingassessment attempts to measure cognitive processes more directly than intellectualassessment does.

From another perspective, psychological processing is what underlies intelli-gence. To acquire and demonstrate intellectual abilities, psychological processesmust be intact and at an adequate threshold. Thus, processing and intelligencehave an integral relationship, which is perhaps best conceptualized by Sternberg(1997). In Sternberg’s theory, there are three basic kinds of processing compo-nents: (1) metacomponents (higher order executive processes), (2) performancecomponents (lower order processes that process information under the supervisionof the metacomponents), and (3) knowledge-acquisition components (the pro-cesses involved in acquiring knowledge). Such processes underlie intellectualperformance and are the essence of learning. Intelligence, processing, and learningare all interrelated; for example, the development of general intelligence, especiallycrystallized intelligence, depends on learning.


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Psychological Processes and Skills

The application of psychological processes in a learning environment leads to theacquisition of knowledge and skills and allows the effective performance ofacquired skills. Skills involve the acquired ability to perform procedures. Skillsdevelop as a result of instruction, training, study, and practice. Similar to thedistinction between crystallized intelligence and processing, skills, such as aca-demic skills, are not psychological or cognitive processes but the product of suchprocesses. Consequently, tests that purport to measure psychological processesshould be relatively free of academic content and procedures. For example, using atest of arithmetic skills to measure working memory can result in an invalidworking memory score, especially when the examinee lacks arithmetic skills.

Psychological Processes and Learning

Human learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Learning depends onthe integration of many cognitive processes operating in parallel fashion in thebrain. Although processing is required for all types of learning, learning in this textrefers to the acquisition of reading, mathematics, language, and writing skills, aswell as academic knowledge, such as science and social studies. The generallearning cycle involves taking in selected information through one or more senses,manipulating that information in working memory, encoding the informationinto long-term storage, and retrieving the information to produce an expression orresponse. The most effective learners are those who actively influence the cognitiveprocesses that are necessary for effective learning. Most processing does not enterawareness or require directed efforts for its functioning, but active, consciouscontrol of learning processes seems to facilitate and enhance most academiclearning. For instance, one must consciously manipulate information in order tostudy effectively for a course examination. The importance of different types ofprocesses varies, depending on the type of learning. For example, the processes thatcorrelate the highest with learning mathematics are different from those thatcorrelate the highest with learning to read.

THEORIES RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSING

Information Processing Theory

In the 1960s, cognitive psychologists introduced a theory of mental processingand learning known as information processing theory (Neisser, 1967). Since then,research has found extensive support for the construct of information processing


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(Anderson, 1990; Gagne, 1993). The research spawned by the theory hasincreased our understanding of how humans learn and has influenced thedevelopment of processing assessment scales and the inclusion of processingmeasures in existing cognitive tests.

The information processing model uses the computer as a metaphor for humanmental processing (Gagne, 1993). The model describes how information flowsand is processed from environmental input to output back into the environment.The general model includes the main components of receptors (the senses),immediate memory, working memory, long-term memory, effectors (glands andmuscles that produce a response), and control processes (see Figure 1.1). The mainprocesses are selective perception, encoding, storage, retrieval, response organiza-tion, and control, with an emphasis on memory systems.

Cognitive psychology’s model of information processing classifies knowledgeinto two main types—declarative and procedural (Gagne, 1993). Declarativeknowledge is factual knowledge, such as knowing about something. Proceduralknowledge is knowing how to do something. The two types of knowledge arestored differently in long-term memory. The facts and ideas of declarativeknowledge are typically stored in organized, hierarchical networks in whichrelated ideas are interconnected and stored together. Declarative knowledgecan also be stored in the form of visual images and linear orderings. An integratedunit of declarative memory storage that incorporates facts, images, and linearorderings is referred to as a schema. In contrast, procedural knowledge is thought tobe stored in a series of if-then contingencies referred to as production system. The“if” part contains the rules that apply, and the “then” part contains the actions tobe carried out. With practice, the procedures become automated and require littleconscious processing or control to implement.

ReceptorsImmediateMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-TermRetrieval

Effectors

ControlProcesses

Figure 1.1. Components and Flow of Information in the Information ProcessingModel

Source: Essentials of Processing Assessment by Milton J. Dehn, 2006, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


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As neuroscience research increased, information processing theory receded intothe background. From the beginning, psychologists and educators criticized andquestioned the model and its learning implications. In general, the model seemedtoo linear and too static, failing to reflect the complex, integrated, parallelprocessing taking place in the brain. Furthermore, the model did not seem toadequately explain all of the primary processes, such as phonological processing,involved in academic learning.

Lurian and PASS Theories

Luria (1970) proposed a theory of brain organization and processing that dividesthe brain into three functional units or blocks. The first functional unit isresponsible for arousal and attention and is located in the brainstem. In Luriantheory, attention is defined as the ability to selectively focus cognitive activitytoward a stimulus over a period of time without being distracted by othercompeting stimuli (Naglieri, 2011). The second functional unit serves as theprimary intake of information, the processing of that information, and theassociation of that information with acquired knowledge (Kemp, Kirk, &Korkman, 2001). The second functional unit—located in the occipital, parietal,and temporal lobes—receives and processes visual, auditory, and other sensoryinformation.

The main types of processing in the second unit consist of simultaneousprocessing and successive processing. Simultaneous processing is a mental processby which the individual integrates separate stimuli into a single whole or group(Luria, 1970). Successive processing is a mental process by which the individualintegrates stimuli into a specific serial order that forms a chainlike progression(Naglieri & Das, 1997). The third functional unit—located in the frontal regionof the brain—regulates the executive functions of planning, monitoring, andstrategizing needed for efficient problem solving. Luria viewed these units andprocesses as part of an interdependent system. For example, the third functionalunit is affected by the attentional/arousal function in the first unit while regulatingprocessing in the second unit. Given the proper state of arousal and attention, theplanning, simultaneous, and successive processes interact to acquire knowledge.

The original Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC; Kaufman &Kaufman, 1983) was based on Luria’s theory but only included measuresof sequential and simultaneous processing. The 2004 revision of the KABC(KABC-II; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004) added two more processing scales—planning and learning. The authors built the KABC-II on a dual theoreticalframework, basing the scales on both Luria’s neuropsychological theory and on


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psychometric CHC theory (discussed in the next section). The Kaufmans equatedthe Lurian processes with broad cognitive processes from CHC theory as follows:sequential processing with short-term memory; simultaneous processing withvisual processing; planning with fluid reasoning; and learning with long-termretrieval (see Chapter 5 for more information on the KABC-II).

Naglieri and Das (1997) based another cognitive theory and assessment scaleon Luria’s processing theory. From the work of Luria and the influences ofcognitive psychology and neuropsychology, the planning, attention, simulta-neous, and successive theory emerged and became known as PASS theory (seeRapid Reference 1.2). Naglieri and Das (1997) operationalized PASS theory in theform of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), a test of cognitive processes (seeChapter 5 for more information on the CAS-II).

PASS theory and the tests that measure its components have been shown tohave diagnostic validity in regard to specific learning disabilities. Naglieri (2005)reviewed several studies and concluded that children with reading decodingproblems obtain low successive processing scores. Other studies (e.g., Naglieri& Johnson, 2000) have found low planning ability to be related to mathematicslearning and performance difficulties.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory is a contemporary theory of intelligence andhuman cognitive abilities. CHC theory posits a trilevel hierarchical model, with g,or general intelligence, at the top, 10 broad abilities at the middle level, andapproximately 70 narrow abilities at the lowest level (McGrew & Woodcock,2001). CHC theory is the consolidation of two theories of intelligence—Carroll’sand Horn-Cattell’s. Raymond Cattell identified the theory’s first two types ofintelligence—fluid and crystallized—in the 1940s. Fluid intelligence is the abilityto reason, form concepts, and solve problems that often include novel content orprocedures. Crystallized intelligence is the breadth and depth of knowledge,

Rapid Reference 1.2 Cognitive Processes in PASS Theory...........................................................................................................................PlanningAttentionSimultaneous ProcessingSuccessive Processing


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including verbal ability. John Horn and others went on to find support for severalmore types of intelligence, expanding the theory to eight or nine broad factors(Horn & Blankson, 2005). In the late 1980s, John B. Carroll (1993) completed ameta-analysis of more than 400 well-designed studies of intelligence conducted inthe 20th century. Carroll’s factor analytic model turned out to be a close matchwith Horn-Cattell theory. Thus, in the late 1990s, Horn and Carroll agreed tointegrate their theories. Since then, the theory has gained wide acceptance andinfluence.

CHC theory is applicable to processing assessment, because most of the broadabilities identified by the theory (see Rapid Reference 1.3) can also be consideredcognitive processes. The CHC cognitive processes that are included under theassessment model in this book are visual processing, auditory processing, long-term storage and retrieval, fluid intelligence, short-term memory (workingmemory), and processing speed. Crystallized intelligence, quantitative knowledge,and reading and writing ability are broad cognitive abilities, but they are notconsidered types of processing in the model proposed herein. Crystallizedintelligence and quantitative knowledge are more the products of processingand learning, rather than direct processes. Reading and writing ability are tooclosely associated with those respective academic skills to be considered psycho-logical processes. Decision/Reaction Time/Speed is also a type of processing, but itis not included in this book’s assessment model because of limited research on itsrelations with academic learning.

Rapid Reference 1.3 CHC Broad Abilities...........................................................................................................................

• Fluid Intelligence*

• Quantitative Intelligence

• Crystallized Intelligence

• Reading and Writing

• Short-Term Memory*

• Visual Processing*

• Auditory Processing*

• Long-Term Storage and Retrieval*

• Processing Speed*

• Decision/Reaction Time/Speed*Processes incorporated into this text’s processing model


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CHC theory has been operationalized in several cognitive abilities test batteries.The Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG; Wood-cock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001b) is based on CHC theory (see Chapter 6 formore information on the WJ III), as is the Stanford-Binet V (Roid, 2003). Asnoted in the previous section, the KABC-II (Kaufman &Kaufman, 2004) is basedon both the CHC and Luria theories. The cross-battery assessment model(Flanagan, Ortiz, & Alfonso, 2013) uses CHC theory as a framework forclassifying the subtests and factors from all existing intellectual and cognitivescales, including the traditional Wechsler scales.

School Neuropsychological Conceptual Model

Miller (2013) has recently integrated CHC clusters with neuropsychologicalprocesses in what he refers to as the School Neuropsychological ConceptualModel. In this model, Miller attempts to identify the underlying neuro-psychological constructs measured by the CHC broad abilities. The neuro-psychological processes included in his analysis are sensorimotor functions,attentional processes, visual-spatial processes, language functions, learning andmemory, executive functions, and speed and efficiency. Sensorimotor functionsare distinguished from cognitive processes; they are considered basic buildingblocks for higher order cognitive processes. In the basic cognitive processescategory, Miller includes visuospatial, auditory/phonological, executive functions,and learning and memory. Recently, he classified attention, working memory, andprocessing speed as “facilitators/inhibitors,” arguing that these three processes donot work in isolation but rather permeate almost every other cognitive process andfunction.

SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY IDENTIFICATION MODELS

Specific learning disability (SLD) identification is guided by federal and statelegislation and guidelines. IDEIA 2004 and the federal regulations that followed in2006 allow states to apply one of three SLD identification models: (1) thetraditional ability-achievement severe discrepancy approach; (2) response-to-intervention (RTI); and (3) alternative research-based procedures. Allowing theseoptions has resulted in considerable variability across states. Zirkel and Thomas(2010) completed a survey of all U.S. states and discovered that the ability-achievement severe discrepancy approach remains an option in the vast majority ofstates. They also found that 12 states require an RTI approach and that 20 statespermit a research-based alternative method of identification. In most states, local


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