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Emergency Response to TerrorismTC: Hazardous Materials

Unit 3: Chemical and Physical Properties

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Terminal Objective

Given chemical and physical properties of an unknown material, the students will be able to estimate risk and to determine appropriate response actions and precautions.

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Enabling Objectives

The students will: Identify chemical and physical properties of

terrorist agents that relate directly to providing a safe and effective response.

Identify the mechanisms of harm for Biological, Nuclear, Incendiary, Chemical, and Explosive (B-NICE) agents.

Identify various B-NICE dissemination methods and devices.

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Introduction

Chemistry has existed for thousands of years.

Properties have not changed. Our perception of chemical hazards may

need to change. Base response on chemical and physical

properties, not hysteria.

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Properties

States of matter Concentration Melting and

freezing point Vapor density

Molecular weight Vapor pressure Volatility Persistency

Overview

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States of Matter

Biological agents--solids or liquids Chemical and blister agents--solids, liquids, or

gases Blood and choking agents--gases

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Concentration

Low probability of finding pure agent Nearly impossible to produce pure agent

Two primary reasons--ability and safety Ability--must be produced following exact procedures, pure compounds needed

for quality agents Safety--dangerous to produce pure substances, packaging and transportation

dangerous

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Melting & Freezing Point

Chemical Celcius Fahrenheit

Ethion -13 9

Sulfuric Acid 11 52

Chlorine -101 -150

Acetone -95 -138

Benzene 6 42

Toluene -96 -141

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Vapor Density

Relationship of materials to air (air=1) Materials with vapor density <1 will rise in air. Materials with vapor density >1 will stay at ground

level. Except hydrogen cyanide, all warfare agents are >1.

Those with higher numbers have difficulty escaping their containers.

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Molecular Weight

Based on chemical formula and structure Can be used to determine vapor density Partially determines how much material

goes into the air (volatility)

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Vapor Pressure: Definition

Pressure exerted on a container from the vapor coming from a liquid

Pressure exerted by surface of liquid against atmospheric pressure

Ability of a material to produce vapor that can cause severe human problems Respiratory Skin

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Vapor Pressure: Importance

One of the most important physical properties and a key to survival

High vapor pressure may require high levels of personal protective equipment (PPE)

Low vapor pressure may dictate lesser levels Materials with little or no vapor pressure present

only a contact risk

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Vapor Pressure: Measurements

Usually expressed in one of three terms Pounds per square inch (14.7 psi) Atmospheres (1 atm) Millimeters of mercury (760mm/Hg)

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Volatility

Ability to evaporate Sometimes used in conjunction with

vapor pressure Materials with high vapor pressure = volatile

Amount of material going into the air Helps us understand the agent’s ability to

do harm

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Persistency

Military term Combination of vapor pressure and volatility Persistent agents remain in place for a period

of time when released Nonpersistent agents disperse Generally described in days (not hours) Most vapor pressure or volatilities are

measured at 20°C (70°F)

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Vapor Risk

Chemicals begin to evaporate rapidly at 40mm/Hg

H2O evaporates in a few days; gasoline in a couple of hours; ether in a few minutes In an open cup at standard temperature

and pressure (STP) (68°F)

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Vapor Pressure / Volatility

Chemical VaporPressure

Volatility Persistency

V-Agent 0.0007mm/Hg

10.5mg/m3 @25C

Persistent

Sulfuric Acid 1 mm/Hg@145C

5,362mg/m3 @145C

Sarin 2.1 mm/Hg 16,090mg/m3

Nonpersistent

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Vapor Pressure / Volatility (cont'd)

Chemical VaporPressure

Volatility Persistency

Water 25 mm/ Hg 22,933mg/ m3 @25C

Gasoline 300 mm/ Hg 1,246,607mg/ m3

Chlorine 4,800 mm/ Hg 19,369,000mg/ m3

Nonpersistent

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Characteristics of Terrorism Agents: Biological

Some similarities to chemical agentsSome similarities to chemical agents Onset of symptoms is the big differenceOnset of symptoms is the big difference Route of entryRoute of entry Sensitive to environmental conditionsSensitive to environmental conditions Toxicity comparisonsToxicity comparisons Invisible to our senses, difficult to detectInvisible to our senses, difficult to detect

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Manufacture of Bio Agents

Obtained from natureObtained from nature Detection probably will occur after the factDetection probably will occur after the fact Someone with little training can, with a small Someone with little training can, with a small

amount of a culture, grow larger quantitiesamount of a culture, grow larger quantities Relatively easy to produceRelatively easy to produce

Only “relatively”Only “relatively” Hard to produce high gradeHard to produce high grade Must be able to survive the distributionMust be able to survive the distribution

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Biological Agents--Weapon

Delayed effects are to the terrorist’s Delayed effects are to the terrorist’s advantageadvantage

Variety of dispersal methods possibleVariety of dispersal methods possible Aerosol dispersion via agricultural sprayerAerosol dispersion via agricultural sprayer Contaminated water, food, or medicineContaminated water, food, or medicine Bombings with little damage may signal Bombings with little damage may signal

biological agent disseminationbiological agent dissemination Containers from labs or bio supply are cluesContainers from labs or bio supply are clues

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Biological Terrorism Agents

Biological and toxinsBiological and toxins Greatest risk to our community.Greatest risk to our community. Toxins--second most popular.Toxins--second most popular. Ricin is easy to produce without Ricin is easy to produce without

suspicion.suspicion. Biological agents are difficult to Biological agents are difficult to

detect, so rely on labs.detect, so rely on labs.

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Biological Terrorism Agents(cont'd)

BacteriaBacteria Single-celled microscopic Single-celled microscopic

organismsorganisms Direct pathogenic effectsDirect pathogenic effects Dangerous to humansDangerous to humans

AnthraxAnthrax PlaguePlague Tularemia and choleraTularemia and cholera

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Biological Terrorism Agents(cont'd)

VirusesViruses Submicroscopic agentSubmicroscopic agent Contain protein coat of ribonucleic acid Contain protein coat of ribonucleic acid

(RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)(RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Dangerous and sometimes deadlyDangerous and sometimes deadly

Viral hemorrhagic feversViral hemorrhagic fevers Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) SmallpoxSmallpox

In most cases, require a host to reproduceIn most cases, require a host to reproduce

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Biological Terrorism Agents (cont'd)

ToxinsToxins Ricin--derived from beans of the castor Ricin--derived from beans of the castor

plantplant Abrin--similar to ricin, but 75 times more Abrin--similar to ricin, but 75 times more

powerfulpowerful Botulinum toxin--made from bacterial Botulinum toxin--made from bacterial

byproducts; highly potentbyproducts; highly potent 3,000 times more powerful than ricin3,000 times more powerful than ricin 100 times more powerful than sarin100 times more powerful than sarin

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Biological Terrorism Agents (cont'd)

Mycotoxins Dangerous biological toxins Can be introduced by almost any route

including absorption through the skin Effects similar to those of blister agents

except symptom onset is faster, usually minutes

Not sensitive to heat or ultraviolet light and can be used effectively as a weapon

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Nuclear Agents

Radioactive materials Three types of radiation injuries

External irradiation Contamination Internal (target organs)

Ionizing radiation: alpha, beta, gamma

Overview

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Comparing Radiation Particle Types

Alpha particles Heaviest Least penetrating Hazardous if inhaled, swallowed, or entered via wound

Beta particles High speed Moderate penetrating power Travel 10 times farther than alpha Penetrate into skin and cause severe skin burns Require fairly thin shielding for protection

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Comparing Radiation Particle Types (cont'd)

Gamma particles Most penetrating type Can travel miles in the air Can penetrate many centimeters into tissue,

damaging deep organs Also called “penetrating” radiation Both internal and external hazard

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Measuring Radioactivity:Units of Quantity

Units of quantity Curie (Ci)--old term but still common; measures

amount of radiation emitted System International (SI)--new terminology that

uses meter, gram, liter SI unit is becquerel (Bq) 1 Ci = 37 gigabecquerel (GBq)

GBq = 1.000.000.000 Bq

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Measuring Radioactivity:Units of Dose

Dose--amount of radiation absorbed Absorbed dose--energy imparted to matter by

ionizing radiation per unit of mass of irradiated material

Radiation absorbed dose (rad)--measure of energy deposited in matter by ionizing radiation Indicator of immediate damage SI unit is the Gray (Gy)

100 rad = 1 Gy 1 rad = 0.01 Gy

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Measuring Radioactivity:Units of Exposure

Roentgen (R)--how much charge due to ionization is produced in a volume of air

Roentgen equivalent man (rem)--damage caused by radiation passing through living tissue

The SI unit is the sievert (Sv) 1 rem = 0.01 Sv 100 rem = 1 Sv

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Elements of Protection

Time

Distance

Shielding

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ALARA

As Low As Reasonably Achievable

Take all reasonable steps to minimize exposure.

Should guide all activities involving radiation.

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Responder Exposure Limits

Recommended limits established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Not considered safe limits because they still present some risk

Recommended: Maximum 25 rem total dose for any single life-threatening emergency

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Emergency Response Exposure Limits

Dose Limit(REM)

Activity Condition

5 All10 Protecting

valuableproperty

Lower dosenot practical

25 Lifesavingorprotectionof largepopulations

Lower dosenot practical

>25 Lifesavingorprotectionof largepopulations

Only on avoluntarybasis topersonsfully aware

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Common Radiation ExposuresRadiation Source Relative Dose

(millirem)Gastrointestinal series(upper and lower)

1,400

Radon in averagehousehold in the UnitedStates

200 annually

Living in Denver 81 annually

X-rays and nuclearmedicine

50 annually

Natural radioactivity in thebody

39 annually

Living in Chicago 34 annually

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Common Radiation Exposures (cont'd)

Radiation Source Relative Dose(millirem)

Cosmic Radiation 31 annually

Mammogram 30

Living at sea level 28 annually

Consumer products (suchas drinking water)

11 annually

Chest X-ray 10

Living near a nuclear powerstation

< 1 annually

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Incendiaries

General info Used for centuries Flexible IRA used for years and use is on the rise here Used in 20 to 25 percent of all U.S. bombing

incidents Fewer than 5 percent of actual or attempted

bombings have been preceded by a threat

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Incendiary Device Components

Ignition source Combustible filler Housing

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Materials Used for Incendiary Devices

Roadway flares Gasoline and motor oil Light bulbs Common electrical components and devices Matches Household chemicals Fireworks Propane and butane cylinders Plastic pipes, bottles, and cans

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Chemical WeaponsCategories

Nerve agents Blister agents Blood agents Choking agents Riot control agents (irritants) Industrial chemicals

Overview

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Chemical Weapons:General Information

Liquids when containerized Disseminated as aerosols or gases Effects from irritation to death Onset of symptoms: seconds to several

hours Influenced by weather Can be protected against, treated and

decontaminated

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Military Designations

Military has its own designations even for chemicals in common industrial use.

Often named after the inventor. Military detection equipment uses

military designations.

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Military Designations (cont'd)

MilitaryDesignation

AgentCategory

Agent Name

GA Nerve Tabun

GB Nerve Sarin

GD Nerve Soman

VX Nerve V-Agent

H Blister Mustard

S-mustard Blister Sulfurmustard

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Military Designations (cont'd)

MilitaryDesignation

AgentCategory

Agent Name

HD Blister Mustarddistilled

HN Blister Nitrogenmustard

HT Blister Thio mustard

L Blister Lewisite

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Military Designations (cont'd)

MilitaryDesignation

AgentCategory

Agent Name

CX Blister Phosgeneoxime

CK Blood Cyanogenchloride

AC Blood Hydrogencyanide

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Military Designations (cont'd)

MilitaryDesignation

AgentCategory

Agent Name

CL Choking Chlorine

CG Choking Phosgene

CR or CS Irritant Tear gas

CN Irritant Mace

OC Irritant Pepperspray

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Toxicity Terms

Standard exposure values provided for chemical agents

Military may add some terms Toxicity derived from extensive military

studies Standard exposures and military use:

Dose = Concentration X Time

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Lethal Dosage

LD50--Lethal Dose

LC50--Lethal Concentration

LCt50--Time expression, in minutes

LDt50--Lethal dose per time

ICt50--Incapacitating concentration AEL--Airborne Exposure Limit

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Choking Agents

Most common: chlorine and phosgene Widely used in industry and can be found

in every community Used in World War I Nonpersistent and move away quickly

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Blood Agents

“Blood” agent is a misnomer Attack the cell’s ability to use oxygen Example: hydrogen cyanide Ingredients can be found in some

industrial locations and labs

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Blister Agents

Used during World War I Affect both skin and respiratory system Examples: mustards, lewisite Effects may be delayed

Higher concentrations act more quickly At low concentrations, symptoms may be

delayed 4 to 24 hours

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Blister Agents (cont'd)

Both mustard and lewisite carcinogens Lewisite and phosgene oxime cause

irritation and pain upon contact If liquid or vapors inhaled, blister agents

cause respiratory damage

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Nerve Agents

Act on the nervous system quickly and are composed of chemicals similar to organophosphate pesticides

Examples: GA, GB, GD, and VX Have high vapor density and low

volatility

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Incapacitating Agents

Also known as irritants Nonlethal Four basic categories

Tear gas--CR or CS Mace--CN Pepper spray--OC Combination mace/pepper--none designated

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Other Toxic Gases

Texts suggest additional agents Most are common industrial chemicals Adaptable for large-scale attack Include

Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Arsine Phosphine

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Obstacles to Effective Terrorist Use of Chem Agents

Vapor pressure Vapor density Molecular weight Volatility Instability in water/humidity

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Obstacles to Effective Terrorist Use of Chem Agents (cont'd)

Producing nerve agents Aum Shinrikyo cult example:

Full-scale sarin production area Backed by millions of dollars

Chemicals required for sarin not easily obtained or manufactured

Production takes expertise, equipment, facilities, and ability to produce undetected

Hoax more likely than actual agent

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Chemical WeaponsDissemination Methods

Aerosol--suspension or dispersion of small particles (solids or liquids) in a gas Hand-held spray bottles Backpack pesticide spray equipment

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Chemical WeaponsDissemination Methods (cont'd)

Dissemination is difficult Most scenarios have limited effectiveness Military dissemination uses explosive detonated in air. Most serious injury to those in physical contact with product. Persons in immediate area most affected. Very difficult to produce building-wide or large-scale effects.

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Dissemination Devices:Electrical Box

Can be mounted on a wall. Box has a hole in the side and spray device mounted inside. Can be placed on a timer or remotely activated.

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Dissemination Devices:Electrical Box (cont'd)

Inside the box: spray device container plunging

mechanism battery remote

activation system

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Dissemination Devices:Fire Extinguisher

Fire extinguisherwith a solenoid and four spray nozzles using a timer mechanism

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Dissemination Devices:Cylinder

Pressurized cylinder with a holding tank, which provides agent delivery through Venturi effect

Can be used with a timer or remote activator

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Dissemination Devices:Spray Paint and Milk Carton

Spraypaint delivery bottle (left)

Delivery device hidden in milk carton activated by remote control (right)

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Dissemination Devices:Briefcase

Contains fans for bio agent dispersalor could house a spray device for chemical agents

Newer models have concealed fans

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Dissemination Devices:Leaf Blower

Containeradded to bottom, provides mechanism for biologicaldistribution

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Render Safe Considerations

Using a water cannon,explosive ordnance division (EOD) attempted to breach this device. It was not successful in openingthe box, and broke the chemical containeron the inside.

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Explosives Terrorist weapon of choice 70 percent of all terrorist incidents in the United

States Can deliver death themselves or disperse an

agent of death IED's

Vehicle bombs Pipe bombs Satchel devices

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Activity 3.1

Ranking Hazardous Agents

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Summary

Key chemical and physical property is vapor pressure, and by understanding vapor pressure, you can identify the true risk of chemicals, making responses easier.

Basic chemical properties of terrorism agents work against their successful use in most cases.

By understanding the relationship of vapor pressure, volatility, and vapor density, a responder can make informed decisions regarding tactics and PPE.

By using science, fear can be conquered.