SGRS3123 : Kemahiran Asas Literasi Maklumat

Program Khas Pensiswazahan Guru

HASNAN HASSANemail: nan1184@uum.edu.my

*

Cognitive Information Processing*

Without looking at it, try to describe your watch:what color is the facewhat marks the hourswhat color are the handsis there a second handdoes it say anything on the face*

Assumptions of Human Information ProcessingSome learning processes are unique to humansMental events are the focus of studyThe study of human learning must be objective and scientificIndividuals are actively involved in the learning processLearning involves the formation of mental associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changesKnowledge is organizedLearning is a process of relating new information to previously learned information*

TerminologyCognitive Process- any internal mental event and includes such phenomena as perceiving, attention, interpretation, understanding and rememberingLearning vs. Memory - learning is viewed as the acquisition of new information. Memory is related to the ability to recall information that has been previously learnedStorage - the process by which new information is placed in memoryRetrieval - the process by which people find the information they have previously stored so they can use it againEncoding - the process by which information is modified before it is stored - often helps storage**

Dual-Store Model of Memory-Atkinson-Shiffrin modelinputinputinputlostlostlost?SensoryRegisterShort-termMemoryLong-term Memory*

Sensory Registercapacityform of storageduration*

The Role of Attentionthe process by which people select some of the environmental input they receive for further cognitive processing*

What do you see?????*

Factors Influencing AttentionSizeIntensityNoveltyIncongruityEmotionPersonal SignificanceCompetition between similar tasks*

Which letters first draw your attention?a B c D*

Read the Italics Print...Somewhere Among hidden the in most the spectacular Rocky Mountains cognitive near abilities Central City is Colorado the an ability old to miner select hid one a message box from of another gold. We Although do several this hundred by people focusing have our looked attention for on it, certain they cues have such not as found type it style.*

IncongruityI took a walk to the rabbit this morning.*

Processes Underlying Attentionselective attentionautomaticitybottleneck effect*

Short-term Memorycapacitystorage formduration*

Example 1. Memorize in sequence: 808810844033542 How many right?15-1211-87-44-1*

Example 2. Memorize in sequence:435797100084322How many right?15-1211-87-44-1*

Control Processes in STMChunkingRehearsalRetrieval*

Long-Term MemoryCapacityForm of StorageDuration*

Control Processes in LTMStorageRetrieval*

Are STM and LTM Really Different?Consider:acoustic vs. semantic memoriesbrain injury patientschanges due to aging*

Metacognition/ Executive Controlpeoples knowledge of their own learning, cognitive processes and their regulation of those processes to enhance learning and memory. Also known as thinking about thinking.*

Implications for InstructionEncourage multiple representations for encodingOrganize information to maximize retrievalSupport metacognitionLink new material to prior knowledgeMinimize interferenceRecognize STM limitations **

During the 1960s, discontent with the inadequacies of behaviorism became more widespread. The behaviorist perspective could not easily explain why people attempt to organize and make sense out of information they learn - why do we remember general meaning instead of verbatim facts? Among learning theorists, there emerged a growing realization that mental events could no longer be ignored, indeed must be incorporated into expls.Computer metaphor - humans as information processors. Issues in representation

1. Because people possess some abilities to the species (complex language) the processes involved in learning may be different in human beings from other animals. Accordingly, almost all information processing research is conducted with human subjects, and theories formulated from this research are typically not generalized to other species.2. Mental events are centrally involved in human processing and must therefore be incorporated into theories of learning processes. To the extent individuals think about the same situation differently, they will learn different information form that situation.3. Like behaviorists, HIP theorists underscore the importance of objective research. Unlike behaviorists, however, HIP theorists believe that mental events can be inferred from carefully designed experiments. Later in the lecture I will describe some of these studies.4. Rather than merely being passive victims of environmental conditions, people are active participants in the learning process, and in fact control their own learning. Individuals themselves determine how they mentally process the information they receive, and these cognitive processes in turn determine what, if anything, is learned in a given situation.5. This assumption is essentially the same premise as Banduras social learning theory. According to contemporary cognitive psychologists, learning involves an internal, mental change, but not necessarily the external behavior change that many behaviorists propose. Learning can therefore occur without being reflected in an individuals observed performance.6. An individuals knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and emotions are not isolated from one another but are infect all associated and interconnected. 7. Information processing theorists believe that learning is most likely to occur when individuals can relate a new experience to the information they have acquired from earlier experiences.Information from the environment - input - first enters the sensory memory, where it is held for a short time ( in the case of visual information, less than a second) If the information is processed in a particular way, it moves onto the STM. Information is held in the STM only for a few seconds, however, and must be processed further is it is going to move onto the LTM. The processing of information in the STM often requires information from the LTM as well. If a piece of information enters the SR or the STM but is not processed sufficiently to move to the next component, that information is assumed to be lost form the memory system. in other words it is forgotten. Whether information can be lost from LTM is still a huge question with HIP. also called SSTR, sensory memory, iconic memory , echoic memoryIt hold information long enough that it can undergo preliminary cognitive processing. All environmental information that we are capapble of detecting probably stays with us for a brief time. 50 ms. Example a sparkler or flashlight trail. Example tuning gout after an hour of lecture - your attention wanders, but when you notice and tune back in , you generally remember two or three words the instructor has said before you tune back in. The capacity of the sensory register appears unlimited.Information appears to be stored in sensory register basically in the form in which it has been sensed At this point the information has not been understood or interpreted by the individual. SR holds information before it is processed.Information remains in the SR for only a brief time. Measuring the exact duration has been difficult. One problem in studying the SR is that once people are asked something about the information there it is processed. At his point it is no longer in the SR but has moved onto the STM. Research of individuals like Sperling, indicate that the visual information in the SR is probably less than a second.Other research shows that auditory information tends to stay around longer that visual information. One possible explanation for this is that a major part of auditory information, human speech can only be understood in its sequential context. For example, I scream for ice scream. I scream and Ice scream sound alike, only when you hear the for can you distinguish. Interpreting sound thus, might be easier if you can hold them in your memory longer.Attention is the process essential for moving information from sensory memory to short-term memory. In essence, attended information stays around, unattended information drops by the wayside. One reason why people cannot learn then is because they are not paying attention to the information.. Take class for example. If you are sitting in class with your mind a thousand miles away, you might say you that you forgot what the professor said, or you might say you never heard it. The truth is actually somewhere in the middle, the information reached your sensory register, but it was not processed, so it faded away.

Attention is a very limited mental resource. But rather than thinking of attention in a simple minded way, it is better to think of it as being limited in the sense that one cannot perform two demanding tasks at the same time. Only tasks that are practiced to the point that they are not demanding can be performed simultaneously. For instance we can walk and talk at the same time, but how many of you can perform mental addition and carry on a conversation.

Since it turns out that people cannot attend to everything at once. Look at this picture what do you see. Okay look at it again...Now try this exercise, See if you can focus on both the man and the mouse at exactly the same time, so that you can clearly see the details of both. Can you do it? Most people are unable to attend to both the man and the mouse at exactly the same time, although they may me able to shift their focus from the man to the mouse and back and forth very quickly.

Given that attention is limited in its capacity, how do we know what to attend to in our sensory register?You probably noticed the BD before the other letters because of the larger size. Attention tends to be drawn to larger objects, and fact that newspaper publishers employ when type setting, and why advertisers intentionally use fine print!

Intensity - More intense stimuli - bright colors and loud noises attract attention. Teachers will frequently talk louder when they want their students attention. Similarly toy manufacturers use bright colorsObjects that are incongruous - that dont make sense within the context - tend to capture peoples attention.

Stimuli with strong emotional associations capture peoples attention. Story writers use this all the time - seductive detail.

Personal Significance - individuals pay attention to stimuli that are important to them at a given time. Example sitting in from of the TV with a text book - which will people attend to?

Think for a moment about curriculum material, including textbooks that you have seen recently. Do the important words and concepts stand out? Are certain topics likely to grab a students interest because they are interesting or relevant to the students age group? If your answers to these questions are no - then students are likely to have difficulty attending to and learning from those materials.STM is that component of the memory system in which the most active processing of information takes place. It is the component where thinking occurs and has often been likened to ones awareness or consciousness. STM selects what information will be attended to in the SR, and holds that information while it is being processed. In addition the STM holds memory form the LTM - information that will help the interpretation of newly received environmental input.Capacity - Unlike the SR, the STM appears to have a limited capacity for storing information. The magical number for the STM is approximately 7+- 2 Try this, listen to this list, and repeat the number back to after I finish, 94738. Okay. Now try this list: 2749190478. This is why phone numbers are 7 digits long!

Form of Storage - Regardless of the form of the information received it appears that much of the information stored in STM is stored in an auditory form - at least information that is language -based. For example a study done by COnrad (1964) adults were shown six-letter sequences, with letters being presented visually, one at a time, at three to four second intervals. As soon as the last letter of the sequence had been presented, subjects wrote the letters down, guessing at any letters they could not easily recall. When subjects made errors in their recollections, the letter they said they had seen were more likely to resemble the actual stimuli in terms of how they sounded than how they looked. The letter F was remembered as the auditorily similar stimulus S 131 times, but as its visually similar P only 13 times.

Duration Short-term memory is exactly what the name implies, short. Research indicates that the duration of short-term memory is probably somewhere between five an twenty seconds. As was true for the Sr, decay and interference have been offered as explanations for this short time span. Chunking is the association of small bits of data into larger more meaningful chunks of information

Primary rehearsal - also called maintenance rehearsal - repeating over and over

Elaborate rehearsal - additional verbal props - imagery - visual image of item or informationmnemonics- memory assisting techniquesthat link new and unfamiliar information with already learned information STM retrieval is a process of scanning all information in the STMChunking is the association of small bits of data into larger more meaningful chunks of information

Primary rehearsal - also called maintenance rehearsal - repeating over and over

Elaborate rehearsal - additional verbal props - imagery - visual image of item or informationmnemonics- memory assisting techniquesthat link new and unfamiliar information with already learned information STM retrieval is a process of scanning all information in the STMChunking is the association of small bits of data into larger more meaningful chunks of information

Primary rehearsal - also called maintenance rehearsal - repeating over and over

Elaborate rehearsal - additional verbal props - imagery - visual image of item or informationmnemonics- memory assisting techniquesthat link new and unfamiliar information with already learned information STM retrieval is a process of scanning all information in the STMLTM is clearly the most complicated component of the human memory system. As such, it has been studied more extensively than either sensory register or the STM. capacity - unlimitedstorage - in a number of ways, language provides one basis, visual another. However, most psychologists agree that the bulk of information stored in the LTM is stored semantically. - in terms of meanings. Two characteristics of LTM should be mentioned here. First information is rarely stored in LTM exactly as it is received GIST!!!. Second, information in LTM is organized into related pieces or packages.

Duration - Disagreement, some think it is permanent, other believe in a forgetting process. Storage in the first two components of the model are relatively easy. First, information that is sensed is stored in the SR, information that is attended to is stored in the LTM. LTM is not so easy.. Information is stored in many different ways. In general however, information that is understood, organized, and integrated with information previously there is more likely to be stored. Remember the processing needed for information to be stored in LTM takes place in the STM. Remember that the STM has a limited capacity. As such, storage in LTM is a slow process, & a great deal of information is lost along the way.

Retrieval of information from SR and STM is easy. If the information is still there it will likely be found. LTM retrieval is more difficult. LTM has more information than an individual can realistically search through at one time. As such, retrieval from LTM depends greatly on searching in the right location. Retrieval is closely tied to storage, the better something has been understood, organized and integrated, the more likely we will remember it. The more ways a piece of information is stored in LTM the greater the chance of finding for retrieval. Give an example....some people with brain injuries can be impaired in memory, but not the other, for example, some subjects can remember information before a brain trauma, but are unable to learn any new information after the injury.

However, there is evidence that information can be stored in STM semantically, and in the LTM acoustically.

Also brain injuries might reflect problems with storage and retrieval not, STM and LTM processes.

Some psychologists believe that information is not in separate stores, but in different phases of the same store. For example, the activation of a single memory. According to this view, all information is stored in a single memory unit, and is either active or inactive. Most of the time, the bulk of our memory is in an inactive state. Metacognition or Exec control governs the information processing process. It helps to delegate what sensory input gets attended to, it regulates what information is retrieved from LTM, and how n information is processed and encoded. It monitors all activity that governs learning and recall. It has become and important part of the IP model. So, the add to our model, we might use this figure: