2305 United States GovernmentFirst Unit Exam Review/Study Guide

Fall 2013Define the terms but do not stop there. You want to know the significance of these terms. The how, the why, the who, the what, the when, the where of each term. Make yourself a Microsoft Word document and have it on hand for your exam. Take extensive notes on these terms from your textbook.American DreamTheAmerican Dreamis a nationalethosof theUnited States, a set of ideals in which freedom includes the opportunity for prosperity and success, and an upwardsocial mobilityfor the family and children, achieved through hard work in a society with few barriers. In the definition of the American Dream byJames Truslow Adamsin 1931, "life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement" regardless ofsocial classor circumstances of birth.[1]The American Dream is rooted in theDeclaration of Independence, which proclaims that "all men are created equal" with the right to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."[2]ConservativeHistorically, the central themes inAmerican conservatismhave included respect for American traditions, support ofrepublicanismand the rule of law, Judeo-Christian values, anti-Communism, advocacy ofAmerican exceptionalismand a defense of Western civilization from the threats posed bymoral relativism,multiculturalism, and postmodern ridicule of traditional culture.. "Liberty" is a core value, with a particular emphasis on strengthening the free market, and opposition to high taxes and government or labor union encroachment on the entrepreneur.[1]In recent decades, historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role inAmerican politicsand culture since theAmerican Revolution. However they have stressed that an organized conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s. The recent movement is based in theRepublican Party, but during the era ofsegregation, before 1965, manySouthern Democratswere alsoconservative. Southern Congressmen were a key part of aConservative Coalitionthat largely blocked liberal labor legislation in Congress from 1937 to 1963, though they tended to be liberal and vote with the rest of the Democratic Party on other economic issues.[2]Southern Democrats fended off the more conservative Republican Party (GOP) by arguing that only they could defend segregation because the Republican Party nationally was committed to integration. That argument collapsed when Congress banned segregation in 1964. This provided an opportunity for Republicans to appeal to conservative Southerners on the basis that the GOP was the more conservative party on a wide range of social and economic issues, as well as being hawkish on foreign policy when the antiwar forces gained strength in the Democratic party. Southern white conservatives moved from the Democratic Party to the GOP at the presidential level in the 1960s, and at the state and local level after 1990.[3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" \l "cite_note-4" [4]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" \l "cite_note-5" [5]The history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies.Fiscal conservativesandlibertariansfavorsmall government, low taxes, limited regulation, andfree enterprise.Social conservativessee traditional social values as threatened bysecularism; they tend to supportschool prayerand the Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms and tooppose abortionandoppose same-sex marriage.[6]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" \l "cite_note-7" [7]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" \l "cite_note-8" [8]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" \l "cite_note-9" [9]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" \l "cite_note-10" [10]Neoconservativeswant to expand American ideals throughout the world.[11]Paleoconservativesadvocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and stand inopposition to multiculturalism.[12]Nationwide most factions (except some libertarians) support a unilateral foreign policy, and a strong military. The conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of "godless communism."[13]William F. Buckley Jr., in the first issue of his magazineNational Reviewin 1955, explained the standards of his magazine and helped make explicit the beliefs of American conservatives:[14]Among our convictions:

It is the job of centralized government (in peacetime) to protect its citizens lives, liberty and property. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress. The growth of government (the dominant social feature of this century) must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations, on the libertarian side. The profound crisis of our era is, in essence, the conflict between the Social Engineers, who seek to adjust mankind to conform with scientific utopias, and the disciples of Truth, who defend the organic moral order. We believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side.

The meaning of "conservatism" in America has little in common with the way the word is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo (2011) notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world callsliberalismorneoliberalism."[15]Similarly, Gross et al. (2011) reject the view that conservatism can be defined in terms of a xed or stable essence or an immutable category of belief or practice. Instead, they recommend a historical view of the concept that focuses on how particular meanings come to be defined as conservative within a given sociohistorical milieu," both by self-identified conservatives and by their political opponents. In this conception, conservatism is best understood as a collective identity that evolves in the course of struggles and collaborations over political meaning.[16]DemocracyDemocracyis "a system ofgovernmentin which all the people of astateorpolity... are involved in making decisions about its affairs, typically by voting to elect representatives to a parliament or similar assembly," as defined by theOxford English Dictionary.[1]Democracy is further defined as (a:) "government by the people; especially: rule of the majority (b:) " a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections."[2]According topolitical scientistLarry Diamond, it consists of four key elements: "1. A political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections. 2. The active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life. 3. Protection of the human rights of all citizens. 4. A rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens".[3]The term originates from theGreek(dmokrata) "rule of the people",[4]which was found from (dmos) "people" and (krtos) "power" or "rule", in the 5th century BC to denote thepolitical systemsthen existing inGreek city-states, notablyAthens; the term is an antonym to (aristokrata) "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.[5]The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to an elite class of free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the olderMiddle FrenchandMiddle Latinequivalents.

Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in anabsolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in anoligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,[6]are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements.Karl Popperdefined democracy in contrast todictatorshipor tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for arevolution.[7]Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy isdirect democracy, in which all eligible citizens have direct and active participation in the political decision making. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called arepresentative democracy. An analogous system, that fuses elements of democracy withsharia law, has been termedislamocracy.[8]direct democracyDirect democracy(also known aspure democracy)[1]is a form ofdemocracyin which people decide (e.g. vote on, form consensus on) policy initiatives directly.governmentAgovernmentis the system by which astateor community is controlled.[1]In theCommonwealth of Nations, the wordgovernmentis also used more narrowly to refer to thecollective group of peoplethat exercisesexecutive authorityin a state.[2]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" \l "cite_note-3" [3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" \l "cite_note-4" [4]This usage is analogous to what is called an "administration" inAmerican English. Furthermore, especially in American English, the concepts ofthe stateandthe governmentmay be usedsynonymouslyto refer to the person or group of people exercising authority over a politically organized territory.[5]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" \l "cite_note-6" [6]Finally,governmentis also sometimes used in English as asynonymforgovernance.

In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists oflegislators,administrators, andarbitrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining thepolicyof the state. A form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political systems and institutions that make up the organisation of a specific government.

Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways. For this reason,political scientistsgenerally argue that government should not be studied by itself; but should be studied along withanthropology,economics,environmentalism,history,philosophy,science, andsociology.

indirect democracyDemocraciesare sometimes divided intodirectand indirect (also known asrepresentative democracy). The latter are the most common.

Inindirect, or representative democracy,citizenselectrepresentativesto makelawson their behalf.[1]This is what most modern countries have today.

In many representative democracies (Canada, theUSA,Britain, etc.), representatives are most commonly chosen inelectionswhere a winning candidate has to win more votes than any other candidate. That does not mean that it must be a majority of the votes cast. In theory other methods, such assortition(more closely aligned withdirect democracy), could be used instead. Also, representatives sometimes hold the power to select other representatives,presidents, or other officers of government (indirect representation).

In a democracy the ultimate power to decide significant electoral system reforms lies with the people. The key question that democrats will tend to ask of any proposed change in electoral law or the voting mechanism is: Will it actually increase the capacity of the electorate to get rid of unsatisfactory rulers and replace them with others? Democrats regard that basic capacity as the best protection against governmental incompetence and abuse of power, however if individuals do not express their ideas on what they think is right than we cannot call it a direct democracy but indirect

LiberalLiberalism, is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. The former principle is stressed in classical liberalism while the latter is more evident in social liberalism.[1] Classical liberalism, a political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual, parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification of political, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricted development in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmental guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties.

Conservative liberalism, a variant of liberalism, combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or, more simply, representing the right-wing of the liberal movement

Economic liberalism, the ideological belief in organizing the economy on individualist lines, such that the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by private individuals and not by collective institutions.

Social liberalism, the belief that liberalism should include social justice and that the legitimate role of the state includes addressing issues such as unemployment, health care, education, and the expansion of civil rights

An adherent of aLiberal party Liberal democracy, a form of government based on limited majority rule

Liberal Democratic Party, a common name for political parties around the world

Liberalism (international relations), a theory of international relations

European liberalismLibertarianLibertarianism(Latin:liber, "free") is apolitical philosophythat upholdslibertyas its principal objective. Libertarians seek to maximizeautonomyandfreedom of choice, emphasizingpolitical freedom,voluntary associationand the primacy of individual judgment.[1]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism" \l "cite_note-2" [2]Libertarians generally share a skepticism of authority; however, they diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing political and economic systems. Variousschoolsof libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions ofstateand privatepower, often calling to restrict or even to wholly dissolve coercivesocial institutions. Rather than embodying a singular, rigid systematic theory or ideology, libertarianism has been applied as anumbrella termto a wide range of sometimes discordant political ideas throughmodern history.

Although some present-day libertarians advocatelaissez-fairecapitalismand strongprivate propertyrights,[3]such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources, others, notablylibertarian socialists,[4]seek to abolish capitalism and private ownership of themeans of productionin favor of theircommonorcooperative ownershipandmanagement.[5]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism" \l "cite_note-6" [6]Whileminarchiststhink that a minimal centralized government is necessary,anarchistspropose to completely eliminate the state.[7]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism" \l "cite_note-DDFriedman2008ref-8" [8]The termlibertarianismoriginally referred to a philosophical belief infree willbut later became associated withanti-statesocialismandEnlightenment-influenced[9]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism" \l "cite_note-10" [10]political movementscritical of institutional authority believed to serve forms of social domination and injustice. While it has generally retained its earlier political usage as a synonym for eithersocialorindividualist anarchismthrough much of the world,in the United Statesit has since come to describe pro-capitalisteconomic liberalismmore so than radical,anti-capitalistegalitarianism. In theStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, libertarianism is defined as the moral view thatagentsinitiallyfully own themselvesand have certain moral powers to acquireproperty rightsin external things.[11]As individualist opponents ofsocial liberalismembraced the label and distanced themselves from the wordliberal, American writers, political parties andthink tanksadopted the wordlibertarianto describe advocacy of capitalistfree marketeconomics and anight-watchman state.

majority ruleMajority ruleis a decision rule that selects alternatives which have amajority, that is, more than half the votes. It is the binary decision rule used most often in influential decision-making bodies, including thelegislaturesofdemocratic nations. Some scholars have recommended against the use of majority rule, at least under certain circumstances, due to an ostensible trade-off between the benefits of majority rule and other values important to a democratic society. Most famously, it has been argued that majority rule might lead to a "tyranny of the majority," so the use of supermajoritarian rules andconstitutional limitson government power has been recommended to mitigate these effects. Recently some voting theorists have argued that majority rule is the rule that best protects minorities.ModerateInpoliticsandreligion, amoderateis an individual who is notextreme,partisan, norradical.[1]In recent years, the termpolitical moderateshas gained traction as abuzzword.

The existence of the ideal moderate is disputed because of a lack of a moderatepolitical ideology.

Aristotlefavoured conciliatory politics dominated by the centre rather than the extremes of great wealth and poverty or the special interests of oligarchs and tyrants.[2]MonarchyAmonarchyis a form ofgovernmentin whichsovereigntyis actually or nominally embodied in one or several individual(s) reigning untildeathorabdication. They are called themonarchs.[1]Forms of monarchy differ widely based on the level of legal autonomy the monarch holds in governance, the method of selection of the monarch, and any predetermined limits on the length of their tenure. When the monarch has no or few legal restraints in state and political matters, it is called anabsolute monarchyand is a form ofautocracy. Cases in which the monarch's discretion is formally limited (most common today) are calledconstitutional monarchies. Inhereditary monarchies, the office is passed through inheritance within a family group, whereaselective monarchiesuse some system of voting. Each of these has variations: in some elected monarchies only those of certain pedigrees are eligible, whereas many hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion, age, gender, mental capacity, and other factors. Occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whoselegitimacyis subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a monarchsreignis either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved: an invasion being repulsed, for instance. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy.

Richard I of Englandbeing anointed during his coronation inWestminster Abbey, from a 13th-century chronicle.

Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Where it exists, it is now usually aconstitutional monarchy, in which the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role, but exercises limited or no official political power: under the written or unwritten constitution, others have governing authority. Currently, 44 sovereign nations in the world havemonarchsacting as heads of state, 16 of which areCommonwealth realmsthat recognise QueenElizabeth IIas their head of state. AllEuropean monarchiesare constitutional ones, with the exception of theVatican City, but sovereigns in the smaller states exercise greater political influence than in the larger. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia "reign, but do not rule" although there is considerable variation in the degree of authority they wield. Although they reign under constitutions, the monarchs ofBrunei,Morocco,Oman,Qatar,Saudi ArabiaandSwazilandappear to continue to exercise more political influence than any other single source of authority in their nations, either by constitutional mandate or by tradition.

natural lawNatural law, or thelaw of nature(Latin:lex naturalis; ius naturale), is aphilosophy of lawthat is supposedly determined bynature, and so is universal.[1]Classically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyzehuman nature both social and personal and deduce binding rules of moral behavior from it. Natural law is often contrasted with thepositive lawof a given political community,society, orstate.[2]In legal theory, on the other hand, the interpretation of positive law requires some reference to natural law. On this understanding of natural law, natural law can be invoked to criticize judicial decisions about what the law says but not to criticize the best interpretation of the law itself. Somejuristsand scholars use natural law synonymously withnatural justiceornatural right(Latinius naturale),[3]while others distinguish between natural law and natural right.[1]Although natural law is often conflated withcommon law, the two are distinct in that natural law is a view that certain rights or values are inherent in or universally cognizable by virtue of human reason or human nature, while common law is the legal tradition whereby certain rights or values are legally cognizable by virtue of judicial recognition or articulation.[4]Natural law theories have, however, exercised a profound influence on the development ofEnglishcommon law,[5]and have featured greatly in thephilosophiesofThomas Aquinas,Alberico Gentili,Francisco Surez,Richard Hooker,Thomas Hobbes,Hugo Grotius,Samuel von Pufendorf,John Locke,Francis Hutcheson,Jean Jacques Burlamaqui,Emmerich de Vattel,Cesare BeccariaandFrancesco Mario Pagano. Because of the intersection between natural law andnatural rights, it has been cited as a component in theUnited States Declaration of Independenceand theConstitution of the United States, as well as in theDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.Declarationismstates that the founding of the United States is based on Natural law.

Natural Law andconsent of the governed(John Locke) are the Foundation of the American Declaration of Independence, Constitution and Bill of Rights. (See "Laws of Nature" First Paragraph Declaration of Independence[6]) Consent of the Governed, derived from the John Locke's Natural Law Social Contract, replaced the Old World Governance Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings.

OligarchyOligarchy(fromGreek(oligarkha); from (olgos), meaning "few", and (arkho), meaning "to rule or to command")[1]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy" \l "cite_note-2" [2]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy" \l "cite_note-3" [3]is a form ofpower structurein whichpowereffectively rests with a small number of people. These people could be distinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, education, corporate, religious or military control. Such states are often controlled by a few prominent families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not anecessary conditionfor the application of this term.

Throughout history, oligarchies have often beentyrannical(relying on public obedience and/or oppression to exist).Aristotlepioneered the use of the term as a synonym for rule by the rich,[4]for which another term commonly used today isplutocracy.

personal libertyThepersonal liberty lawswerelawspassed by severalU.S. statesin theNorthto counter theFugitive Slave Actsof1793and1850. Different laws did this in different ways, including allowing jury trials for escaped slaves and forbidding state authorities from cooperating in their capture and return. States with personal liberty laws includedConnecticut,Massachusetts,Michigan,Maine,New Hampshire,Ohio,Pennsylvania,Wisconsin, andVermont.political culturePolitical cultureis defined by theInternational Encyclopedia of the Social Sciencesas the "set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning to apoliticalprocess and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in thepolitical system". It encompasses both the political ideals and operating norms of apolity. Political culture is thus the manifestation of the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A politicalcultureis the product of both the history of a political system and the histories of the members. Thus it is rooted equally in public events and private experience.[1]political equality

political ideologyThis is alist of political ideologies. Manypolitical partiesbase their political action andelection programon anideology. Insocial studies, apolitical ideologyis a certainethicalset ofideals, principles,doctrines,mythsorsymbolsof asocial movement,institution,class, and or large group that explains how society should work, and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocatepowerand to what ends it should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. The popularity of an ideology is in part due to the influence ofmoral entrepreneurs, who sometimes act in their own interests.

Political ideologies have two dimensions:

1. Goals: How society should be organized.

2. Methods: The most appropriate way to achieve this goal.

An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers to be the bestform of government(e.g.democracy,autocracy, etc.), and the besteconomic system(e.g.capitalism,socialism, etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, "socialism" may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system.

Ideologies also identify themselves by their position on thepolitical spectrum(such as theleft, thecentreor theright), though this is very often controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g.populism) and from single issues that a party may be built around (e.g.opposition to European integrationor thelegalization of marijuana).

The following list attempts to divide the ideologies found in practical political life into a number of groups; each group contains ideologies that are related to each other. The headers refer to names of the best-known ideologies in each group. The names of the headers do not necessarily imply some hierarchical order or that one ideology evolved out of the other. They are merely noting the fact that the ideologies in question are practically, historically and ideologically related to each other. Note that one ideology can belong to several groups, and there is sometimes considerable overlap between related ideologies. Also, keep in mind that the meaning of a political label can differ between countries and that parties often subscribe to a combination of ideologies.

The list is strictly alphabetical. Thus, placing one ideology before another does not imply that the first is more important or popular than the second.

PoliticsPolitics(fromGreek:politikos, definition "of, for, or relating to citizens") is the practice and theory of influencing other people. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions ofgovernance organized control over a human community, particularly astate. Furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community (a usually hierarchically organized population) as well as the interrelationship(s) between communities.

A variety of methods are employed in politics, which include promoting or forcing one's own political views among people,negotiationwith other political subjects, makinglaws, and exercisingforce, includingwarfareagainst adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, fromclansandtribesof traditional societies, through modernlocal governments,companiesand institutions up tosovereign states, to theinternational level.

It is very often said that politics is about power.[1]Apolitical systemis a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society.History of political thoughtcan be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such asPlato'sRepublic,Aristotle'sPoliticsand the works ofConfucius.

Formal Politics refers to the operation of a constitutional system of government and publicly defined institutions and procedures.[1]Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics.[1]Many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives.[1]Informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting one's daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, or how one person or group exercises influence over another.[1]Informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that "politics is everywhere".[1]popular consentPopular consentmeans people should be able to participate directly in the governing of their own societiespopular sovereigntyPopular sovereigntyor thesovereignty of the peopleis the principle that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives (Rule by the People), who are the source of all political power. It is closely associated withsocial contractphilosophers such asThomas Hobbes,John LockeandJean-Jacques Rousseau. Popular sovereignty expresses a concept and does not necessarily reflect or describe a political reality.[a]It is usually contrasted with the concept ofparliamentary sovereignty, and withindividual sovereignty. The people have the final say in government decisions.Benjamin Franklinexpressed the concept when he wrote, "In free governments, the rulers are the servants and the people their superiors and sovereigns".[1]Americans founded theirRevolutionand government on popular sovereignty, but the term was also used in the 1850s to describe ahighly controversial approachto slavery in the territories as propounded by senatorStephen A. Douglas. It meant that local residents of a territory would be the ones to decide if slavery would be permitted, and it led to bloody warfare inBleeding Kansasas violent proponents and enemies of slavery flooded Kansas territory in order to decide the elections. An earlier development of popular sovereignty arose from philosopherFrancisco Suarezand became the basis forLatin American independence. Popular sovereignty also can be described as thevoice of the people.

In Scandinavia it serves as a the basis for many countriesconstitution as opposed to the principle of "separation of powers".[2]RepublicArepublic(fromLatin:res publica) is aform of governmentor country[1]in which power resides in elected individuals representing the citizen body[2]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic" \l "cite_note-M-W-3" [3]and government leaders exercise power according to therule of law. In modern times, the definition of a republic is commonly limited to a government which excludes amonarch.[3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic" \l "cite_note-WordNet-4" [4]Currently, 147 of the world's206 sovereign statesuse the word "republic" as part of their official names.

Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology and composition. In the classical andmedievalperiod of Europe, many states were fashioned on theRoman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval andRenaissancepolitical tradition today referred to as "civic humanism", is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such asSallustandTacitus. However, Greek-influenced Roman authors, such asPolybius[5]andCicero, sometimes also used the term as a translation for the Greekpoliteiawhich could mean regime generally, but could also be applied to certain specific types of regime which did not exactly correspond to that of the Roman Republic. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such asAthens, but had a democratic aspect.

Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the early 19th century, eventually displacingabsolute monarchyas the most common form of government. In modern republics the executive is legitimized both by aconstitutionand by popularsuffrage.Montesquieuincluded bothdemocracies, where all the people have a share in rule, andaristocraciesoroligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.[6]Most often a republic is asovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or which have governments that are described as 'republican' in nature. For instance,Article IVof theUnited States Constitution"guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".[7]Similarly, theSoviet Unionwasconstitutionallydescribed as a "federal multinational state", composed of 15republics, two of which UkraineandBelarus had their own seats at the United Nations.

social conservativeSocial conservatismis a group of political ideologies centred around preserving traditional beliefs, attitudes and philosophy, in the face ofsocial progressivism. The aims of social conservatism vary from organisation to organisation, and from country to country. Thus, there are really no policies or positions that could be considered universal among social conservatives. There are, however, a number of general principles to which at least a majority of social conservatives adhere.StatistInpolitical science,statismis the belief thatthe stateshould control eithereconomicorsocial policy, or both, to some degree.[1]Statism is effectively the opposite ofanarchism,[1]and an individual who supports the existence of the state is astatist. Statism can take many forms fromminarchismtototalitarianism. Minarchists prefer a minimal ornight-watchman stateto protect people fromaggression,theft,breach of contract, andfraudwithmilitary,police, andcourts.[2]Some may also includefire departments,prisons, and other functions.[2]Welfare stateadepts and other such options make up more statist territory of thescaleof statism.[3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statism" \l "cite_note-Welfare_State_by_Marx-4" [4]Totalitarians prefer a maximum or all-encompassing state.[5]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statism" \l "cite_note-Totalitarianism_by_Cernak-6" [6]TotalitarianismTotalitarianismis a political system in which thestateholds totalcontrolover the society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life wherever possible.[1]The concept of totalitarianism was first developed in the 1920s by theWeimarGerman jurist, and later Nazi academic,Carl SchmittandItalian fascists. Schmitt used the term,Totalstaatin his influential work on the legal basis of an all-powerful state,The Concept of the Political(1927).[2]The concept became prominent inWesternanti-communistpolitical discourse during theCold Warera, in order to highlight perceived similarities betweenNazi Germanyand otherFasciststates on the one hand, andSovietCommunist Partystates on the other.[3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" \l "cite_note-4" [4]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" \l "cite_note-5" [5]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" \l "cite_note-6" [6]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" \l "cite_note-7" [7]Other movements and governments have also been described as totalitarian. The leader of the historic Spanishreactionaryconservativemovement called theSpanish Confederation of the Autonomous Rightdeclared his intention to "give Spain a true unity, a new spirit, a totalitarian polity..." and went on to say "Democracyis not an end but a means to the conquest of the new state. When the time comes, eitherparliamentsubmits or we will eliminate it."[8]Anti FederalistAnti-Federalismrefers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of theConstitutionof 1788. The previous constitution, called theArticles of Confederation, gave state governments more authority. Led byPatrick Henryof Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, that the position of president, then a novelty, might evolve into amonarchy.Articles of Confederation

TheArticles of Confederation, formally theArticles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among all thirteen original states in the United States of America that served as its first constitution.[1]Its drafting by a committee appointed by theSecond Continental Congressbegan on July 12, 1776, and an approved version was sent to the states for ratification in late 1777. The formal ratification by all thirteen states was completed in early 1781.

Even when not yet ratified, the Articles provided a system for the Continental Congress to direct theAmerican Revolutionary War, conduct diplomacy with Europe and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. Nevertheless, the weakness of the government created by the Articles became a matter of concern for keynationalists. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under theUnited States Constitution.[2]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" \l "cite_note-3" [3]The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government with a chief executive (the president), courts, and taxing powers.

Bill of RightsTheBill of Rightsis the collective name for the first tenamendmentsto theUnited States Constitution. Proposed to assuage the fears ofAnti-Federalistswho had opposed Constitutional ratification, these amendments guarantee a number of personal freedoms, limit the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and reserve some powers to the states and the public. Originally the amendments applied only to the federal government, however, most were subsequently applied to the government of each state by way of theFourteenth Amendment, through a process known asincorporation.

On June 8, 1789 RepresentativeJames Madisonintroduced a series of thirty-nine amendments to the constitution in theHouse of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress inArticle One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789,Congressapproved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution and submitted them to thestatesforratification. Contrary to Madison's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as "supplemental" additions to it. On December 15, 1791, Articles ThreeTwelve, having been ratified by the required number of states, became Amendments OneTen of the Constitution.

On May 7, 1992, after an unprecedented period of202years, 225days, Article Two crossed the Constitutional threshold for ratification and became theTwenty-seventh Amendment. As a result,Article Onealone remains unratified and still pending before the states.

The Bill of Rights enumerates freedoms not explicitly indicated in the main body of the Constitution, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, a free press, and free assembly; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom from unreasonable search and seizure, security in personal effects, and freedom from warrants issued without probable cause; indictment by agrand juryfor anycapitalor "infamous crime"; guarantee of a speedy, public trial with an impartialjury; and prohibition ofdouble jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights reserves for the people any rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution and reserves all powers not specifically granted to the federal government to the people or the States. The Bill was influenced byGeorge Mason's 1776Virginia Declaration of Rights, the EnglishBill of Rights 1689, and earlier English political documents such asMagna Carta(1215).

The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence, but was the basis for many Supreme Court decisions of the 20th and 21st centuries. One of the first fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights is on public display at theNational ArchivesinWashington, D.C.

checks and balancesTheseparation of powers, often imprecisely used interchangeably with thetrias politicaprinciple,[1]is a model for thegovernanceof a state (or who controls the state). The model was first developed inancient Greece. Under this model, thestateis divided into branches, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the other branches. The typical division of branches is into alegislature, anexecutive, and ajudiciary. It can be contrasted with thefusion of powersin aparliamentary systemwhere the executive and legislature (and sometimes parts of the judiciary) are unified.committees of CorrespondenceThecommittees of correspondencewere shadow governments organized by the Patriot leaders of theThirteen Colonieson the eve of theAmerican Revolution. They coordinated responses to Britain and shared their plans; by 1773 they had emerged as shadow governments, superseding the colonial legislature and royal officials. The Maryland Committee of Correspondence was instrumental in setting up theFirst Continental Congress, which met inPhiladelphia. These served an important role in the Revolution, by disseminating the colonial interpretation of British actions between the colonies and to foreign governments. The committees of correspondence rallied opposition on common causes and established plans for collective action, and so the group of committees was the beginning of what later became a formal political union among the colonies.

A total of about 7,000 to 8,000 Patriots served on these committees at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership in their communitiesthe Loyalists were excluded. The committees became the leaders of the American resistance to British actions, and largely determined the war effort at the state and local level. When Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to defy the boycott by importing British goods.

The Committees promoted patriotism and home manufacturing, advising Americans to avoid luxuries, and lead a more simple life. The Committees gradually extended their power over many aspects of American public life. They set up espionage networks to identify disloyal elements, displaced the royal officials, and helped topple the entire Imperial system in each colony. In late 1774 and early 1775, they supervised the elections of provincial conventions, which took over the actual operation of colonial government.[1]Confederation

Aconfederation(also known asconfederacyorleague) is a union of political units for common action in relation to other units.[1]Usually created bytreatybut often later adopting a commonconstitution, confederations tend to be established for dealing with critical issues (such asdefense,foreign affairs, or a commoncurrency), with thecentral governmentbeing required to provide support for all members.

The nature of the relationship among the states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between the member states, the central government, and the distribution of powers among them is highly variable. Some looser confederations are similar tointergovernmental organizationsand even may permitsecessionfrom the confederation. Other confederations with stricter rules may resemblefederations. A unitary state or federation maydecentralizepowers to regional or local entities in a confederal form.

In a non-political context, confederation is used to describe a type of organization which consolidates authority from other autonomous (or semi-autonomous) bodies. Examples include sports confederations or confederations of pan-Europeantrades unions.

InCanada, the wordconfederationhas an additional, unrelated meaning.[2]"Confederation" refers to the process of (or the event of) establishing or joining the Canadian federal state.[2]In the context of the history of theindigenous peoples of the Americas, a confederacy may refer to a semi-permanent political and military alliance consisting of multiple nations (or "tribes", "bands", or "villages") which maintained their separate leadership. One of the most well-known is theIroquois Confederacy, but there were many others during different eras and locations acrossNorth America; these include theWabanaki Confederacy,Western Confederacy,Powhatan Confederacy,Seven Nations of Canada,Pontiac's Confederacy,Illinois Confederation,Tecumseh's Confederacy,Great Sioux Nation,Blackfoot Confederacy,Iron ConfederacyandCouncil of Three Fires.

Constitution

TheUnited States Constitutionis thesupreme lawof theUnited States of America.[1]TheConstitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government. Its first three articlesentrenchthe doctrine of theseparation of powers, whereby thefederal governmentis divided into three branches: thelegislative, consisting of thebicameralCongress; theexecutive, consisting of thePresident; and thejudicial, consisting of theSupreme Courtand other federal courts. ArticlesFour,FiveandSixentrench concepts offederalism, describing the rights and responsibilities ofstate governmentsand of thestatesin relationship to the federal government.Article Sevenestablishes the procedure subsequently used by the thirteenStatestoratifyit.

Since the Constitutioncame into forcein 1789, it has beenamendedtwenty-seven times.[2]In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as theBill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty and justice and place restrictions on the powers of government.[3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution" \l "cite_note-4" [4]The majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures. Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions world-wide, are appended to the end of the document. At seven articles and twenty-seven amendments, it is the shortest written constitution in force.[5]All five pages of the original U.S. Constitution are written onparchment.[6]The Constitution is interpreted, supplemented, and implemented by a large body ofconstitutional law. The Constitution of the United States is the first constitution of its kind, and has influenced the constitutions of other nations.

Declaration of IndependenceTheDeclaration of Independenceis the statement adopted by theContinental Congressmeeting atPhiladelphia, Pennsylvaniaon July 4, 1776, which announced that thethirteen American colonies,[2]then at war withGreat Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen newly independentsovereign states, and no longer a part of theBritish Empire. Instead they formed a new nationtheUnited States of America.John Adamswas a leader in pushing for independence, which was unanimously approved on July 2. Acommittee of fivehad already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term "Declaration of Independence" is not used in the document itself.

Adams persuaded the committee to selectThomas Jeffersonto compose the original draft of the document,[3]which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The Declaration was ultimately a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 todeclare independencefrom Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of theAmerican Revolutionary War. The national birthday,Independence Day, is celebrated on July 4, although Adams wanted July 2.

After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printedDunlap broadsidethat was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost, and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson's hand.[4]Jefferson's original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams andBenjamin Franklin, and Jefferson's notes of changes made by Congress, are preserved at the Library of Congress. The best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at theNational ArchivesinWashington, D.C.This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, and signed primarily on August 2.[5]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" \l "cite_note-6" [6]The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances againstKing George III, and by asserting certainnatural and legal rights, including aright of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few for the next four score years.Abraham Lincolnmade it the centerpiece of his rhetoric (as in theGettysburg Addressof 1863), and his policies. Since then, it has become a well-known statement onhuman rights, particularly its second sentence:

We hold these truths to be self-evident, thatall men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these areLife, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

This has been called "one of the best-known sentences in the English language",[7]containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history".[8]The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted byAbraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy, and argued that the Declaration is a statement of principles through which theUnited States Constitutionshould be interpreted.[9]Itprovided inspirationto numerous nationaldeclarations of independencethroughout the world. Historian David Armitage, after examining the influence of the American "Declaration" on over 100 other declarations of independence, says:

The American Revolution was the first outbreak of the contagion of sovereignty that has swept the world in the centuries since 1776. Its influence spread first to the Low Countries and then to the Caribbean, Spanish America, the Balkans, West Africa, and Central Europe in the decades up to 1848.... Declarations of independence were among the primary symptoms of this contagion of sovereignty.[10]enumerated powersTheenumerated powersare a list of items found inArticleI,Section8of theU.S. Constitutionthat set forth the authority ofCongress.[1]In summary, Congress may exercise the powers that the Constitution grants it, subject to the individual rights listed in theBill of Rights. Moreover, the Constitution expresses various other limitations on Congress, such as the one expressed by theTenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

Historically, Congress and theSupreme Courthavebroadly interpretedthe enumerated powers, especially by deriving manyimplied powersfrom them.[2]The enumerated powers listed in Article One include bothexclusive federal powers, as well asconcurrent powersthat are shared with the states, and all of those powers are to be contrasted withreserved powersthat only the states possess.[3]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerated_powers" \l "cite_note-4" [4]federal systemFederalismis apoliticalconcept in which agroupof members are bound together by covenant (Latin:foedus,covenant) with a governingrepresentative head. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system ofgovernmentin whichsovereigntyisconstitutionallydivided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upondemocraticrules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called afederation. The termfederalistdescribes several political beliefs around the world. Also, it may refer to the concept of parties; its members or supporters called themselvesFederalists.[1]In a federal system where sovereignty is divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, power is also divided. The central governing authority has certainexclusive federal powers, the constituent political units have certainstates' rights, and those two levels of government share certainconcurrent powers.

The Federalist PowersThe Federalist(later known asThe FederalistPapers) is a collection of 85 articles and essays written byAlexander Hamilton,James Madison, andJohn Jaypromoting theratificationof theUnited States Constitution. Seventy-seven were published serially inThe Independent JournalandThe New York Packetbetween October 1787 and August 1788. A compilation of these and eight others, calledThe Federalist; or, The New Constitution, was published in two volumes in 1788 by J. and A. McLean.[1]The collection's original title wasThe Federalist; the titleThe Federalist Papersdid not emerge until the 20th century.

Though the authors ofThe FederalistPapers foremost wished to influence the vote in favor of ratifying the Constitution, inFederalist No. 1they explicitly set that debate in broader political terms:

It has been frequently remarked, that it seems to have been reserved to the people of this country, by their conduct and example, to decide the important question, whether societies of men are really capable or not, of establishing good government from reflection and choice, or whether they are forever destined to depend, for their political constitutions, on accident and force.[2]There are many highlights among the essays ofThe Federalist.Federalist No. 10, in which Madison discusses the means of preventing rule by majority faction and advocates a large, commercial republic, is generally regarded as the most important of the 85 articles from a philosophical perspective; it is complemented byFederalist No. 14, in which Madison takes the measure of the United States, declares it appropriate for an extended republic, and concludes with a memorable defense of the constitutional and political creativity of the Federal Convention.[3]InFederalist No. 84, Hamilton makes the case that there is no need to amend the Constitution by adding aBill of Rights, insisting that the various provisions in the proposed Constitution protecting liberty amount to a "bill of rights".Federalist No. 78, also written by Hamilton, lays the groundwork for the doctrine ofjudicial reviewby federal courts of federal legislation or executive acts.Federalist No. 70presents Hamilton's case for a one-man chief executive. InFederalist No. 39, Madison presents the clearest exposition of what has come to be called "Federalism". InFederalist No. 51, Madison distills arguments for checks and balances in an essay often quoted for its justification of government as "the greatest of all reflections on human nature."

According to historianRichard B. Morris, they are an "incomparable exposition of the Constitution, a classic in political science unsurpassed in both breadth and depth by the product of any later American writer."[4]FederalismFederalismis apoliticalconcept in which agroupof members are bound together by covenant (Latin:foedus,covenant) with a governingrepresentative head. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system ofgovernmentin whichsovereigntyisconstitutionallydivided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upondemocraticrules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called afederation. The termfederalistdescribes several political beliefs around the world. Also, it may refer to the concept of parties; its members or supporters called themselvesFederalists.[1]In a federal system where sovereignty is divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, power is also divided. The central governing authority has certainexclusive federal powers, the constituent political units have certainstates' rights, and those two levels of government share certainconcurrent powers.

First Continental Congress

TheFirst Continental Congresswas a meeting of delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies that met on September 5 to October 26, 1774 atCarpenters' Hallin Philadelphia,Pennsylvania, early in theAmerican Revolution. It was called in response to "The passage of the Coercive Acts" (also known asIntolerable Actsby the Colonial Americans) by theBritish Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had punished Massachusetts for theBoston Tea Party.

The Congress was attended by 56 delegates appointed by the legislatures of twelve of the thirteen colonies. Georgia declined to send delegates because they were hoping for British assistance withNative Americanproblems on its frontier and did not want to upset the British.[1]The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economicboycottof British trade; rights and grievances; and petitionedKing George IIIfor redress of those grievances.

The Congress also called for anotherContinental Congressin the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of theIntolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so theSecond Continental Congresswas convened the following year to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of theAmerican Revolutionary War. The delegates also urged each colony to set up and train its own militia.

Full faith and credit clauseArticle IV, Section 1 of the United States Constitution, known as the "Full Faith and Credit Clause", addresses the duties thatstateswithin theUnited Stateshave to respect the "public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state." According to theSupreme Court, there is a difference between the credit owed to laws (i.e. legislative measures and common law) as compared to the credit owed to judgments.[1]Judgments are generally entitled to greater respect than laws, in other states.[2]At present, it is widely agreed that this Clause of the Constitution has little impact on a court'schoice of lawdecision,[3]although this Clause of the Constitution was once interpreted differently.[4]Great CompromiseTheConnecticut Compromise(also known as theGreat Compromise of 1787orSherman's Compromise) was an agreement that large and small states reached during theConstitutional Conventionof 1787 that in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have under theUnited States Constitution. It retained thebicameral legislatureas proposed byRoger Sherman, along with proportional representation in the lower house, but required the upper house to be weighted equally between the states. Each state would have two representatives in the upper house.implied powersImplied powers, in theUnited States, are those powers authorized by a document (from the Constitution) that, while not stated, seem to be implied by powers expressly stated. WhenGeorge WashingtonaskedAlexander Hamiltonto defend the constitutionality of theFirst Bank of the United Statesagainst the protests[1]ofThomas Jefferson,James Madison, and Attorney GeneralEdmund Randolph, Hamilton produced what has now become the classic statement for implied powers.[2]Hamilton argued that the sovereign duties of a government implied the right to use means adequate to its ends. Although the United States government was sovereign only as to certain objects, it was impossible to define all the means which it should use, because it was impossible for the founders to anticipate all future exigencies. Hamilton noted that the "general welfare clause" and the "necessary and proper clause" gave elasticity to the constitution. Hamilton won the argument with Washington, who signed his Bank Bill into law.

Later, directly borrowing from Hamilton, Chief JusticeJohn Marshallinvoked the implied powers of government in the court decision ofMcCulloch v. Maryland. This was used to justify the denial of the right of a state to tax a bank, theSecond Bank of the United States, using the idea to argue the constitutionality of theUnited States Congresscreating it in 1816.

In the case of the United States government, implied powers are the powers exercised by Congress which are not explicitly given by the Constitution itself but necessary and proper to execute the powers.

MercantilismMercantilismwas an economic theory and practice, dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century,[1]that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It is the economic counterpart of politicalabsolutism.[2]Mercantilism includes a nationaleconomic policyaimed at accumulatingmonetary reservesthrough a positivebalance of trade, especially offinished goods. Historically, such policies frequently led to war and also motivated colonial expansion. Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over time. Hightariffs, especially on manufactured goods, are an almost universal feature of mercantilist policy. Other policies have included:

creating overseas colonies;

forbidding colonies to trade with other nations;

monopolizing markets withstaple ports;

banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments;

forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships;

subsidies on exports;

promoting manufacturing through research or direct subsidies;

limiting wages;

maximizing the use of domestic resources; and

restricting domestic consumption throughnon-tariff barriers to trade.

Mercantilism in its simplest form isbullionism, but mercantilist writers have emphasized the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of agrowing money supply.Specieconcerns have since been rendered moot byfiat moneyandfloating exchange rates. In time, the heavy emphasis on money was supplanted byindustrial policy, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity. Mature neomercantilist theory recommends selective high tariffs for"infant" industriesor to promote the mutual growth of countries throughnational industrial specialization[citation needed].

The term "mercantile system" was used by its foremost critic,Adam Smith,[3]but "mercantilism" had been used earlier byMirabeau.

While many nations applied the theory, one exemplar was France, economically the most important state in Europe at the time.King Louis XIVfollowed the guidance ofJean Baptiste Colbert, his controller general of finances (166283). It was determined that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and everyone else. The goal of mercantilist economic policies was to build up the state, especially in an age of incessant warfare, and the state should look for ways to strengthen the economy and weaken foreign adversaries.[4]necessary and proper clauseTheNecessary and Proper Clause, also known as theElastic Clause, theBasket Clause, theCoefficient Clause, and theSweeping Clause,[1]is a provision inArticle One of the United States Constitution, located at section 8, clause 18.

The Necessary and Proper Clause is as follows:

The Congress shall have Power ... To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

New Jersey PlanTheNew Jersey Plan(also widely known as theSmall State Planor thePaterson Plan) was a proposal for the structure of theUnited States Governmentpresented byWilliam Patersonat theConstitutional Conventionon June 15, 1787.[1]The plan was created in response to theVirginia Plan, which called for two houses of Congress, both elected withapportionmentaccording to population.[2]The less populous states were adamantly opposed to giving most of the control of the national government to the more populous states, and so proposed an alternative plan that would have kept the one-vote-per-state representation under one legislative body from theArticles of Confederation. The New Jersey Plan was opposed byJames MadisonandEdmund Randolph(the proponents of the Virginia Plan).Second Continental CongressTheSecondContinental Congresswas a convention of delegates from theThirteen Coloniesthat started meeting in the summer of 1775, inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in theAmerican Revolutionary Warhad begun. It succeeded theFirst Continental Congress, which met between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774, also in Philadelphia. The second Congress managed the colonial war effort, and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting theUnited States Declaration of Independenceon July 4, 1776. By raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties, the Congress acted as thede factonational government of what became the United States.[1]When the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775 it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Continental Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the samepresident(Peyton Randolph) and secretary (Charles Thomson).[2]Notable new arrivals includedBenjamin Franklinof Pennsylvania andJohn Hancockof Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over theHouse of Burgesses; he was replaced in the Virginia delegation byThomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later.Henry Middletonwas elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined. Hancock was elected president on May 24.[3]Delegatesfrom twelve of theThirteen Colonieswere present when the Second Continental Congress convened.Georgiahad not participated in theFirst Continental Congressand did not initially send delegates to the Second Continental Congress. On May 13, 1775,Lyman Hallwas admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John's in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself.[4]On July 4, 1775, revolutionary Georgians held aProvincial Congressto decide how to respond to theAmerican Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. They arrived on July 20.[5]Separation of powersTheseparation of powers, often imprecisely used interchangeably with thetrias politicaprinciple,[1]is a model for thegovernanceof a state (or who controls the state). The model was first developed inancient Greece. Under this model, thestateis divided into branches, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the other branches. The typical division of branches is into alegislature, anexecutive, and ajudiciary. It can be contrasted with thefusion of powersin aparliamentary systemwhere the executive and legislature (and sometimes parts of the judiciary) are unified.Stamp Act CongressTheStamp Act Congress, orFirst Congress of the American Colonies, was a meeting held between October 7 and 25, 1765 inNew York City, consisting of representatives from some of theBritish colonies in North America; it was the first gathering of elected representatives from several of the American colonies to devise a unified protest against new British taxation.Parliamenthad passed theStamp Act, which required the use of specially stamped paper for virtually all business in the colonies, and was coming into effect November 1.

The Congress was organized in response to a circular letter distributed by the colonial legislature of theProvince of Massachusetts Bay, and consisted of delegates from nine of the eighteen British colonies in North America. All nine of the attending delegations were from theThirteen Coloniesthat eventually formed theUnited States of America. Although sentiment was strong in some of the other colonies to participate in the Congress, a number of royal governors took steps to prevent the colonial legislatures from meeting to select delegates.

The Congress met in the building now known asFederal Hall, and was held at a time of widespread protests in the colonies, some of which were violent, against the Stamp Act's implementation. The delegates discussed and united against the act, issuing aDeclaration of Rights and Grievancesin which they claimed that Parliament did not have the right to impose the tax because itdid not include any representation from the colonies. Members of six of the nine delegations signed petitions addressed to Parliament andKing George IIIobjecting to the Act's provisions.

The extra-legal nature of the Congress caused alarm in Britain, but any discussion of the congress's propriety were overtaken by economic protests from British merchants whose business with the colonies suffered as a consequence of the protests and their associatednon-importationof British products. These economic issues prompted the British Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act, but it passed theDeclaratory Actthe same day, to express its opinion on the basic constitutional issues raised by the colonists; it stated that Parliament could make laws binding the American colonies "in all cases whatsoever."[1]Supremacy clauseTheSupremacy Clauseis the provision inArticle Six,Clause 2of theUnited States Constitutionthat establishes the United States Constitution, federal statutes, and treaties as "the supreme law of the land." It provides that these are the highest form of law in the United States legal system, and mandates that all state judges must followfederal lawwhen a conflict arises between federal law and either astate constitutionorstate lawof anystate.

The supremacy of federal law over state law only applies ifCongressis acting in pursuance of its constitutionallyauthorized powers.

Three fifths CompromiseTheThree-Fifths Compromisewas a compromise reached between delegates fromsouthern statesand those fromnorthern statesduring the 1787 United StatesConstitutional Convention. The debate was over whether, and if so, how, slaves would becountedwhen determining a state's total population for legislative representation and taxing purposes. The issue was important, as this population number would then be used to determine thenumber of seatsthat the state would have in theUnited States House of Representativesfor the next ten years. The effect was to give the southern states a third more seats in Congress and a third more electoral votes than if slaves had been ignored (but fewer than if counts of slaves and free persons had been lumped together), allowing the slaveholder interests to largely dominate the government of the United States until 1865.[1]The compromise was proposed by delegatesJames WilsonandRoger Sherman.Virginia PlanTheVirginia Plan(also known as theRandolph Plan, after its sponsor, or theLarge-State Plan) was a proposal byVirginiadelegates for abicameral legislativebranch.[1]The plan was drafted byJames Madisonwhile he waited for a quorum to assemble at theConstitutional Conventionof 1787.[2]

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Plan" \l "cite_note-3" [3]The Virginia Plan was notable for its role in setting the overall agenda for debate in the convention and, in particular, for setting forth the idea ofpopulation-weighted representationin the proposed national legislature.Article OneArticle Oneof theUnited States Constitutionestablishes thelegislative branchof thefederal government, theUnited States Congress. The Congress is abicamerallegislature consisting of aHouse of Representativesand aSenate.Article One, Section EightSection 8: Powers of Congress[edit]Enumerated powers[edit]

Congress's "power of the purse" authorizes taxing citizens, spending money, and printing currency.

Newly naturalized citizen,Albert Einsteinreceived his certificate of United States citizenship from JudgePhillip Forman.

Main article:Enumerated powersCongress's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight:

The Congress shall have power

Tolay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common defence[note 1]and general Welfareof the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

Toborrow Money on the credit of the United States;

Toregulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish auniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject ofBankruptciesthroughout the United States;

Tocoin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix theStandard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment ofcounterfeitingthe Securities and current coin of the United States;

ToestablishPost Officesandpost Roads;

Topromote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constituteTribunals inferiorto thesupreme Court;

To define and punishPiraciesandFeloniescommitted on thehigh Seas, and Offenses against theLaw of Nations;

Todeclare War, grantLetters of Marque and Reprisal, and makeRules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and supportArmies, but noAppropriationof Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain aNavy;

To make Rules for the Government andRegulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia toexecute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exerciseexclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over suchDistrict(not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection ofForts,Magazines,Arsenals,dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;And

To make all Laws which shall benecessary and properfor carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress.

Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense" or "general welfare" of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare," leaving thepolitical questionto Congress. InUnited States v. Butler(1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare". Congress continues to make expansive use of theTaxing and Spending Clause; for instance, thesocial securityprogram is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.

Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when decidingKnox v. Lee,the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine ofsovereign immunityprevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges its commitment.[59]Commerce Clause[edit]

Chief JusticeJohn Marshallestablished a broad interpretation of the Commerce Clause.

Main article:Commerce ClauseThe Congress shall have Power [...] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of thecommerce clausefor widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause wasGibbons v. Ogden, decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws:Thomas Gibbonshad a federal permit to navigate steamboats in theHudson River, while the other,Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce" included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief JusticeJohn Marshallrejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce" included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated" by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution".

The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when alaissez-faireattitude dominated the Court. InUnited States v. E. C. Knight Company(1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enactedSherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it."

The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruledNew Dealprograms unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. InSchechter Poultry Corp. v. United States,(1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State." As Chief JusticeCharles Evans Hughesput it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased." Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.

It was only in 1937 that the Supreme Court gave up thelaissez-fairedoctrine as it decided a landmark case,National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company.The legislation in question, theNational Labor Relations Act, prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices" such as firing workers for joiningunions. The Court ruled to sustain the Act's provisions. The Court, returning to the theories propounded by John Marshall, ruled that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce. Further decisions expanded the Congress's powers under the commerce clause. This dramatic change in the Court's thinking was influenced by the threat of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt'sCourt Packingscheme.

In the 1990s, the Court acted to restrain Congress's exercise of its power to regulate commerce. InUnited States v. Lopez, the Court found that Congress could not exercise "Police power" reserved to the States by use of the Commerce Clause.

In contrast toUnited States v. Lopez, the powers defined in the Commerce Clause have been elastically re-interpreted to cover non-commercial activity not just between but within the states. In 2005, the Supreme Court controversially ruled inGonzales v. Raich,that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to regulatecannabisplants grown, processed, and consumed within the state on private property. The court reclassified the plant as a commodity even though it was not sold or exchanged in any transaction.

Other powers of Congress[edit]

Congress authorizes defense spending such as the purchase of theUSSBon Homme Richard.

Congress may establish uniform laws relating tonaturalizationandbankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establishpost offices and post roads(the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by grantingcopyrightsandpatentsof limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as theCopyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right" used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments).[60]Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled inEldred v. Ashcroft(2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress.

Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under theWar Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States' history: theWar of 1812, theMexicanAmerican War, theSpanishAmerican War,World War IandWorld War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations againstPancho Villaconstitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grantletters of marqueandreprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever-increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: theUniform Code of Military Justiceto improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and theFederal Tort Claims Actwhich among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as theFeres Doctrine.

Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever" for the nation's capital, theDistrict of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the electedmayorandcouncilof District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings.

Necessary and Proper clause[edit]Main article:Necessary and Proper ClauseThe Congress shall have Power [...] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect" on interstate commerce inWickard v. Filburn; however,Thomas Jefferson, in theKentucky Resolutions, supported byJames Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were fortreason,counterfeiting,piracyandfelonyon thehigh seas, and offenses against thelaw of nations.

The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause wasMcCulloch v. Maryland(1819), which involved the establishment of anational bank.Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct" relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies".Thomas Jeffersoncountered that Congress's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase". Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listingallof Congress's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind". Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients" of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced" that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines" of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known asimplied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress cannot enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers.

Power to Declare WarArticle I, Section 8, Clause 11of theUnited States Constitution, sometimes referred to as theWar Powers Clause, vests in theCongressthe power to declarewar, in the following wording:

[The Congress shall have Power...] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;A number of wars have been declared under the United States Constitution, although there is some controversy as to the exact number, as the Constitution does not specify the form of such a declaration.

Article TwoArticle Twoof theUnited States Constitutioncreates theexecutive branchof thegovernment, consisting of thePresident, theVice President, and other executive officers an