2012 Shimamura Chp1Aesthetics

7/29/2019 2012 Shimamura Chp1Aesthetics

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Toward a Science of Aesthetics

issues and ideas

Arthr P. Shmmr

What happns whn w xpnc a wok o at? What dos t man to hav an

asthtc xpnc? Can scnc hlp s dv nal pncpls abot astht-

cs, o s th ally no accontn o tast? Phlosophs, psycholosts, and

cntly noscntsts hav soht answs to ths qstons, wth ach op

ocsd on spcfc sss. In ths volm, an ntdscplnay appoach s od

that daws on phlosophy, psycholoy, and noscnc, and consds th

asblty o an ntatv scnc o asthtcs.

Hstocally, th tm aesthetics has bn lnkd to th way at voks an mo-

tonal spons. Alxand Bamatn cond th tm n 1750 to advanc hs

nw phlosophcal appoach, whch was to stdy th at o thnkn batlly

(ars pulchre cogitandi). H ad that th appcaton o baty s th ndpont

o an asthtc xpnc. Popl sns baty n many thns, om natal

objcts to sklll atwoks, and asthtcs s th stdy o how th mnd bholds

batl objcts. Bamatn postd that ctan physcal popts o an objct

may vok lns o baty, bt th xpnc tsl s ply a mndl vnt.

Many contnd that th sol ppos o at s to cat objcts that vok lns o

batythat s, to nstll an aesthetic spons.

Consdn th many ways popl xpnc at ths days, Bamatns

dfnton s ctanly nadqat. Contmpoay at ctcs and phlosophs fnd

th tm otdatd and lvant to th way popl xpnc at today (s

Chapt 6). Fo now, ath than dspnsn wth th tm, a boadnn o t wllb consdd. At can aos o motons n many waysom baty to an

to hoo o dsst. It may pq o snsoy pocsss thoh atstc balanc

and om, mnd s o o own past, o oc s to thnk abot th wold n

nw ways. Rath than consdn th one and onlyasthtc xpnc as that

ovwhlmn sns o baty popl somtms xpnc, phaps whl vw-

n Mchlanlos Davido lstnn to Bthovns Ninth Symphony, th a

vaos knds o asthtc xpncs, vn ons that may b mo ocsd on

pcptal o concptal ats. Som may wnc at a dfnton o asthtcs

that s so boad that ts xpnc s dvod o any motonal nvolvmnt. Indd,

t may b bst to spaat th noton o asthtcs om o xpnc wth at

01-Shimamura_Chap-01.indd 301-Shimamura_Chap-01.indd 3 9/6/2011 3:16:01 PM9/6/2011 3:16:01 PM

Shimamura, A. P. (2012). In A. P. Shimamura &

S. E. Palmer (Eds.), Aesthetic Science: Connecting

Minds, Brains and Experiences (pp. 3-28), Oxford

University Press.

This file is for educational purposes, other use or dissemination of material is not permitted.


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4 Asthtc Scnc

altoth. Sch sss wll b addssd n th chapts to ollow. At th otst, w

wll on th sd o nclson ath than xclson, and consd aesthetics as

any hdonc spons to a snsoy xpnc. A hdonc spons s to a

pnc jdmnt: an objct may b pd o not, lkd o not, ntstn o

not, appoachd o avodd. Atwoks a pm objcts o asthtc valaton,

bcas o many th sol ppos s to nstll an hdonc spons. As sch, ths

volm cnts on th way w bhold atwoks, thoh hdonc sponss may b

lctd by any objct.

T contbtos o ths volm w askd to addss th potntal o an

aesthetic science. Ts chapt povds backond matal by by dscbn

nal sss o asthtcs om phlosophcal, psycholocal, and nobolocal

pspctvs. Oth chapts dlv th nto ths sss and vn dbat th

plasblty o asthtc scnc as a wokabl ntps. T ocs o th book s

pmaly on th vsal ats, thoh many sss ptan to all tadtons wthn th

ats, ncldn msc, flm, that, danc, and ltat. W also ocs on th way

at voks asthtc sponss ath than how o why at s catdthat s, th

ntnt s to consd th nat o th bholds xpnc ath than th atsts

catv otpt. In ths way, w hop to downplay sch thony sss as dfnn

at (What is art?) and spcyn ts mann wthn a clt (Why do humans

make art? What is its unction in modern society?). By ocsn on th bholds

xpnc, w hop to hhlht th ways n whch at s pcvd, ntptd,

and lt. In oth wods, w wll xplo what os on n th mnd and ban o th

bhold.

Philosophical Approaches

Lon bo attmpts w mad to appoach asthtcs scntfcally, phlosophs

addssd th nat o asthtc xpncs. T analyss hav bn and

contn to b ssntal, as thy dfn and shapn ssntal sss concnn th

qalty o ths xpncs. H w povd a b ovvw o o phlosophcal

appoachs to asthtcsmmtc, xpssonst, omalst, and concptalach

o whch hhlhts dnt aspcts o hman psycholocal xpncs.

a mimetic approach: seeing nature through a window

In Platos Republic (Book X), at s dfnd as mimesis o mtatons o alty.

Accodn to Platos vw o dalsm, th xst dal o p oms, sch as a

pct ccl o a pct bd. Sch dal oms cannot b alzd by th hands o

hmans, bcas no on can daw a pct ccl o bld a pct bd. Plato

dnatd at as ntllctally dstant om dal oms. A capnts bd s a copy

o th dal om. A pantn o a bd s vn wos, bcas t s a copy o a ca-

pnts bd, and ndd a ath poo copy. It lacks th ncton o a bd, as on



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oward a Science o Aesthetics 5

cannot slp on t, and t s dpctd om only on vwpont. Ts, a pantn

ossly mspsnts th nat o objcts, as t s at bst twc movd om dal

oms. Plato was wlln to bansh all at om hs Rpblc. Pots and damatsts

w jst as a om th tth as th lowly pant, bcas th woks mly

mtat hman xpncs and condtons. Evn wos, at sts motons, ths

clodn th ablty to thnk atonally. Accodn to Plato, atsts a nwothy

vals o phlosophs, bcas thy ty to val tth bt mana only to cat

poo mtatons o alty. Platos natv vw o at s ctanly xtm. Yt hs

chaactzaton o at as mimesis, as an mtaton o psntaton o th al

wold, cold b appld to mch o Wstn at.

As n many phlosophcal sss, Astotl od a vw that opposd Platos

poston. In Te Poetics, Astotl acknowldd that at s a om o mmss,

bt vwd t as a natal om o plas nstad o a pvson. W dlht n

lstnn to a pom o watchn a ood dama. Moov, w can lan om at as

mtatons o alty. A damatc play may dpct what cold happn jst as mch

as what has happnd. W lan om th mstaks o tmphs o fctonal cha-

acts, sch as th ho n a tac dama. Indd, at can dpct and ay ssn-

tal nvsals o th hman condton. Astotl ths poposd that at shold b

vald, not vlfd, as an mtaton o alty.

Plato and Astotl dfnd th Wstn appoach to at as catn mtatons

o th al wold. Wth spct to pantn, th ablty to do ths accatly qd

xtnsv knowld and tchncal sklls that w not wll dvlopd ntl th

15th cnty, whn Rnassanc atsts ban to stdy th mathmatcs and scn-tfc knowld ncssay to cat alstc scns. Wth ths nomaton, an atst

cold mmc wth pant on canvas th snsoy xpnc o vwn an actal

scn. Indd, th atst catd a wndow thoh whch th bhold cold vw

nat.

Pantn scns accatly dpnds pon th psntaton o a th-

dmnsonal (3-D) wold onto a two-dmnsonal (2-D) sac. Intstnly, n

vy wakn momnt w pom ths pocss, as o tna, that cvd 2-D

sac at th back o th y, svs as th bans canvas om whch w dv and

psnt a 3-D wold. O bans tansom ths v-chann psd-down

and mo-vsd mas nto spatal latons o objcts n th al wold, a ataccomplshd wth xqst ndn o sz, dpth, and colo. In pantns,

atsts cat th illusion o objcts n 3-D spac, a at that qs knowld o

how lht s ctd o objcts and pojctd to th y.

Bo th Rnassanc, atsts had acqd som skll n dpctn 3-D objcts.

Fo xampl, aly Gk and Roman atsts w awa o th mpotanc o shadn

and oshotnn to cat th mpsson o dpth. Yt t took Rnassanc

atsts, sch as Bnllsch, Masacco, and Lonado, to concptalz and mpl-

mnt th ls o lna pspctv wth mathmatcal and atstc acmn.

Anoth snfcant advanc was th dvlopmnt o chiaroscuro (Italan o

light-dark), a tchnq n whch shadn s sd to hhtn th pcpton o



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6 Asthtc Scnc

th dmnsonalty n objcts. In th al wold, contod sacs ct lht

n vaos dctons. Sacs that ct mo lht nto th y appa lht

than sacs that ct lht away om th y. Ts, nomaton abot th

spatal ontaton and dpth o objcts can b land by chans n shadn.

Lonado was a mast o chaosco, as can b sn n hs stdy o dapy

(F. 1.1). Not how th adatons o lht and dak nd xqstly th con-

tos o th olds. Lonados mastl applcaton o chaosco catd th

llson o sn 3-D oms n a 2-D dawn. T alsm s so accat that th

dawn smbls a photoaphc ma. Lonados atsty was ondd n

knowld abot lna pspctv and th way lht cts o sacs.

igure 1.1 Leonardo da Vinci (14521519). Dapy o a satd f. Distemper with

white highlights. (Photo credit: Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resource, NY.)



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In a mmtc appoach to at, th bhold valats an atwok on th bass

o how closly t smbls a vw thoh a wndow onto a al-wold scn.

Rnassanc atsts advancd ths appoach wth lna pspctv and chaosco.

Whn w xpnc at today, w can appcat th skll nvolvd n catn

sch scns. Indd, mch o Wstn at, patclaly at p to th md-19th cn-

ty, was pncpally concnd wth catn atwoks ntndd to b xpncd

om a mmtc appoach.

an expressionist approach: perceiving with feeling

Most msm-os wold say that at, whl on a wndow to th wold, has

ts pmay oal n xpssn motons. Mo spcfcally, thy wold conc wth

Bamatns thss that at s mant to vok lns o baty. W sns baty

n many thnsn nat, n popl, n das, and n at. Fancs Htchson, n a

tats consdd to b th fst modn ssay n phlosophcal asthtcs,

dscbd at as nstlln a sns o baty and plas n th bhold. H

ad that whn w bhold a batl objct w do so ndpndntly o th

objcts ppos o ncton. Htchson acknowldd that popl hav dnt

opnons abot what s batl, thoh h ad that th a absolt stan-

dads. H clamd that w all appcat th baty o a hamonc chod, an lant

mathmatcal thom, o a wll-composd pantn.

T ancnt Latn aphosm De gustibus non est disputandum (Abot tast

ths no dsptn) sts th sta o Davd Hms 1757 ssayO the Standard oaste. Accodn to Hm: Baty s no qalty n thns thmslvs: t xsts

mly n th mnd whch contmplats thm; and ach mnd pcvs a dnt

baty. Hm advancd Htchnsons amnt by dscbn what sms to b a

totally sbjctv vw o tast: a thosand dnt sntmnts, xctd by th

sam objct, a all ht: Bcas no sntmnt psnts what s ally n th

objct. Nvthlss, Hm ad that th a nvsal standads by whch w

valat and jd baty. Good tast dpnds pon xpt knowld, tann,

and havn a dlcat sns. Moov, th dal bhold avods psonal pj-

dcs and cltal bass. Wth sch ls o dn ons asthtc xpncs,

Hm asstd that th s a common bass (.., a standad) o valatnbatl objcts.

Fom Hm, w advanc to Immanl Kant, whos vwpont s on consd-

d as th bnnn o a cognitive appoach to th mnd. In Critique o Pure

Reason h wot: thoh all o knowld bns wth xpnc, t by no

mans ollows that all ass ot o xpnc. Kant ad that th s mo to

knowld than jst th shts, sonds, and smlls that mpn on o snss. W

ntpt th wold by lnkn snsoy xpnc to p-xstn concpts o das.

Ts ntacton btwn xpnc and knowld oms th bass o Kants

phlosophy o asthtcs, whch h dscbd n Critique o Judgment. Kant statd

that jdmnts o tast a valatons o plas (o dsplas) and that ths



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8 Asthtc Scnc

valatons a laly sbjctv. Many thns lct plasabl lns, sch as

fn ood, a lovly hom, and sx, bt ths thns a also appcatd o oth

asons, sch as sstnanc, shlt, and pocaton. Kant dntfd th ats

o objcts that v s plas: thy a aabl, ood, and batl. Asthtc

jdmnts a spcfcally basd on o valaton o batl thns. Fo Kant,

baty s an nnat dal that s shad amon all ndvdals and s ths a nvsal

concpt. Ts, Kant chod th sntmnts o Htchson and Hm by an

that asthtc jdmnts a both sbjctv (basd on xpnc) andnvsal

(basd on a p-xstn concpt o baty).

In addton to baty, Kant consdd sublime lns. Whas baty s

to th qalty o an objct and s ths bondd by th objct, th sblm s

to a ln o ovwhlmn bondlssnss. W xpnc th sblm whn w

consd th mmnsty o nat: alaxs o nnmabl stas; th vast, sm-

nly nndn xpans o th ocan; o th ath-shakn pow o an ptn

volcano. Unlk lns o baty, whch a always plasabl, th sblm may

nvolv a sns o a o pan, as whn w compa th nomty o nat wth

th vlnablty and nadqacy o ons own bn. Althoh many assocat

sblm lns wth los o sptal xpncs, Kant took a dcddly

scla vwpont by n to popls asthtc spons to nat. Wth spct

to at, Kant ad that atwoks thmslvs cannot b sblm, bt n psntn

manfcnt thns o vnts, thy can lct sblm lns.

Fo Kant, asthtc jdmnts a not assocatd wth an objcts ncton o

ppos. A sns s not batl bcas t os wamth, no s a pantn o awoman batl bcas w ds to hav amoos latons wth h. Asthtc

jdmnts a mad n an ntlydisinterestedmann (ohne alles Interesse). Ts

tm s ath msladn, as t shold not b ntptd as mann without interest.

Instad, Kant mant that an objct vwd asthtcally shold b consdd wthot

nc to ts ncton o oth pactcal ss, sch as satsyn ons hn, phys-

cal comot, o sxal ds. Accodn to Kant, at accntats alty by povdn

batl o sblm ndns o nat that a appcatd n a disinterested

mannwthot ad to th ppos, ncton, o ds o th objcts potayd.

Ts noton s th bass o th common vw o asthtcs as art or arts sake.

In th 19th cnty, Romanticism took hold by mphaszn motonal xps-svnss n at. At was not mant to psnt mndan cops o th al wold;

ath, t was mant to b manfcntly damatc and hoc. At th Lov

msm n Pas, Todo Gcalts Te Raf o the Medusa (F. 1.2) llstats

an actal vnt, th amath o th wck o th Fnch naval shpMduse, whch

an aond o th Wst Acan coast. In ths tac vnt, a maksh a was

constctd and o th 146 popl aboad, only 15 w fnally scd. Gcalts

pantn dpcts th momnt whn svvos s a boat that has com to th

sc. In Te Raf o the Medusa, w wtnss a sblm momnt flld wth to

and aw. T pantn nsps an expressionistappoach, whch ollows th Kantan

noton that at mst aos and xct o lns o baty and sblmty.



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Tohot th 19th cnty and nto th 20th cnty Wstn at was xp-

ncd om both a mmtc and xpssonst appoach. In What is Art?, Lo

olstoy ad that th ssntal sccss o an atwok s th d to whch th

atst s abl to commncat hs o h lns to th bhold. Phlosophcal

thos nd th bc o Expressionism placd th motonal qalty o an

atwok at th oont o all asthtc xpncs. As xmplfd by th 20th-

cnty dvlopmnt oAbstract Expressionism, at cold b th p mbodmnt

o moton as dpctd by splashs o colos, bold lns, and nondscpt shaps.

Whn askd abot hs vw o at, Matss pontd to a tabl and statd: Wll, tak

that tabl, o xampl . . . I do not ltally pant that tabl, bt th moton t

podcs pon m.

Fo many atsts, phlosophs, and ndd most laypopl,th ssntal ppos, not th only ppos, o at s to ndc lns n th

bhold.

a formalist approach: abstracting significant form

Dn th scond hal o th 19th cnty, a makdly dnt appoach to at

md. Atsts ban xpmntn wth th pcptal qalty o th woks

and jctd th tadtonal appoach o catn th illusion o 3-D scns on

canvas. Pctoal sklls admd snc th Rnassanc, sch as lna pspctv

and chaosco, w vwd as old-ashond tcks that atsts appld to mak

igure 1.2 Gricault, Todore (17911824). T Ra o th Mdsa. 1819. Oil on canvas.

(Photo Credit: Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resource, NY.)



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10 Asthtc Scnc

scns look alstc. Why shold at b stctd to potayals o th wold as w

s t? In hs smnal tats, Modernist Painting, th notd at ctc Clmnt

Gnb statd that th ssnc o modn at s ts atnss. Rath than po-

tayn 3-D objcts n natal scns, modn at s abot th at sac and th

popts o pmnt. Atsts (and bholds) mst conz that th canvas s

ndamntally a 2-D sac onto whch pant s bshd, dppd, o smad.

Gnb dntfd Mant as th fst Modnst pant, as hs pantns dd

not ncld tadtonal fnshn tochs that catd th llson o 3-D spac. Hs

pantns w on jctd by th Acadm ds Bax-Ats, th stablshd

oanzaton that dfnd ood and bad at, bcas hs backonds w ba o

ohly pantd, and th applcaton o sbtl shadn to cat dpth was mssn.

Ctcs at th tm consdd hs pantns cd and nfnshd. In hndsht, w

now s th bnnn o a bold om o pantn. Mant accntatd th atnss

o hs canvas: on s th ston sns o 3-D spac attand by lna pspctv,

on s th xtnsv s o chaosco to nhanc th th-dmnsonalty o

objcts, on s th havy lazn o pant to concal bshstoks. Mant mpha-

szd th snsal qalty o pant tsl, ths oshadown Impssonsm, th

tadton h lat mbacd.

Fom Mant to oth Impssonst atsts, sch as Mont and Rno, on ss

th applcaton o colo on canvas n a nw and dynamc mann. T ntpta-

ton o om chans om mmtc dpctons o alstc scns to mpssons

o nat. At th tm, Impssonst pantns w consdd ly, hadly wothy

o consdaton as at. T volton thy ban was to s pant as lht, catnom almost as a bypodct that md om ndn th mpssons. In th

pantns o ths thn-nad Impssonsts vws now appcat th sn-

sal qalty o th at. Post-Impssonst atsts sch as Van Goh, Gan, and

Czann xpmntd th wth th dssolton o alsm by dstotn colo,

pspctv, and om. It s vtally mpossbl to appcat a Van Goh pantn

wthot notcn th oc o hs bsh stoks and hs applcaton o pant on

canvas.

Clv Bll, th at thost who, alon wth Clmnt Gnb, hlpd dfn

aly-20th-cnty at, dscbd th ssnc o th asthtc xpnc as p-

cvn signicant orm. Fo Bll,

th actal contnt o a pantn was lvant;nstad t was ctcal that th atst many th snsal qalty o lns, colos, and

abstact shaps. Ts vw o at oms th bass o ormalism: th vw that at

shold b appcatd solly on th bass o ts snsoy qalts. Fomalsm os

a mans o ntptn abstact at, bcas th contnt and objcts n a pantn

a lvant. Wth a omalst appoach, th bhold consds an atwok ply

on th bass o snsoy atsthat s, th asthtc ntplay o colos, lns,

txts, and shaps.

What motvatd th sh om a mmtc o xpssonst appoach to a omal-

st appoach? Hstoans hav sstd that th advnt o photoaphy actd as a



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catalyst o ths chan. Photoaphy ndd mmtc pantns as nadqat o

otdatd. Why shold an atst pant a alstc scn whn a photoaph cold

do th job wth pct dpcton o pspctv and shadn? By th 1860s, pho-

toaphy was n th manstam. Popl cold pos at photoaphy stdos and

obtan amly potats to snd to amly and nds. Landscap photoaphs,

sch as Calton Watkns and Fancs Fth, w showcasn manfcnt scns

o dstant lands. Gvn th poplaty o photoaphy, atsts, sch as th

Impssonsts, may hav dcdd to cat a styl dnt om that od by

ths nw tchnoloy.

Intstnly, atstcally nclnd photoaphs dn th 19th cnty

d-mphaszd th xqst dtal o th mdm and td to mmc th appa-

anc o pantns. o v th wok an atstc l, so, ot-o-ocs mas

w n vo as thy mlatd ol pantns. Som scatchd th pnts wth fn

ndls to mmc tchns. It was not ntl th 20th cnty that staht photo-

aphs, sch Edwad Wston and Ansl Adams, sd th mdm to ts llst.

Ts two photoaphs w pat o Gop .64, an nomal cad o photo-

aphs who advocatd shap ocs and dtal o om (th tm.64 s to th

smallst lns apt avalabl at th tm, whch aodd maxmal shapnss

thoh mo xtnsv dpth o fld). Ts photoaphs dvlopd a omalst

appoach as thy dscontd contnt and mphaszd th ntplay o lns, shads,

and shaps. Consd Edwad Wstons Pepper No. 30 (F. 1.3). Sch a common

objct s not dpctd o ts ncton o ppos. Wston photoaphd th

vtabl to hhlht th lns, contos, and shadns that v th objctts om. T s, o cos, an oancsom say otcqalty to Wstons

photoaphs. In hs own wods, howv, h smply wantd to abstact th snsoy

qalty o th objct dpctdthat s, h wantd to xpss asthtc appal n

tms o snfcant om.

a conceptual approach: believing is seeing

Lon bo atstc advancs n lna pspctv and chaosco, n phstoc

cav pantns and ancnt mmmy potats, atwoks w mant to commn-

cat concpts o mssas, on to a hh bn. In oth wods, th ppos osch atwoks was to convy a concptal pont (.., a pla to th ods) ath

than to psnt a alstc vw o th wold o to xpss ln. Whn w sach

o th ndlyn mann o an atwok w apply a concptal appoach to at.

Contmpoay at ctcs ly havly on ths appoach, bcas at dn th past

50 yas has ocsd on th psntaton o concptal statmnts. Ts contm-

poay vw has ts oots n Macl Dchamps 1917 pc Fountain, whch was

sbmttd to an at xhbton sponsod by th Socty o Indpndnt Atsts, a

op o avant-ad atsts who schwd jd xhbtons and awads.Fountain

s actally a mns nal tnd on ts back. Dchamp pchasd t om th



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12 Asthtc Scnc

J. L. Mott Ion Woks n Nw Yok Cty, snd t R. Mtt, and sbmttd t nd

that psdonym. Althoh th Socty statd that thy wold show all sbmttd

woks, Fountain was nv xhbtd, as som boad mmbs sd to consd

th pc as a wok o at. Evn on clamd t was at, thn M. Mtt mst b

lty o plaasm, as th pc was obvosly a commcal podct.

Althoh th onal Fountain was nv xhbtd, Dchamp lat comms-

sond sval plcas, whch a now dsplayd n pomnnt at msms.

In 2004, a svy o 500 at xpts

votd Fountain as th most nntal

igure 1.3 Weston, Edward (18861958). Ppp No. 30. 1930. Gelatin silver print, 9-7/16

7-1/2. Gif o David H. McAlpin. (1913.1968) (Photo Credit: Digital Image Te Museum o

Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY.)



11/26


modn at wok o all tm, ths spassn any wok by Pcasso, Matss, o

Wahol. Why? Claly, n od to consd Fountain a wok o at th actal con-

cpt o at ndd to b adcally chand. Fountain was (1) not catd by an

atst, (2) not ntndd to xpss a sns o baty, and (3) not ntndd to lct

a sns o snfcant om. Dchamps ntnton was to mak popl think and

qston th vy dfnton o at. Yo may fnd baty and snfcant om n

Fountain, bt that ctanly was not Dchamps ntnton. Hs slcton o a nal

was ntndd to dstb and dsst vws, whch adhd to hs allanc wth

Dadaism, an at movmnt dsnd to shock and pok n at th bhold.

On cold vwFountain as an aly xampl opost-modern at. T tm has

many manns and has bn bandd abot n nmos ways. Howv, on

attbt opost-modernism s th ol o th atst as a concptal thost attmpt-

n to dfn th mann o at tsl. I wll to ths noton as meta-arto art

about art. Althoh som at hstoans wold sst that all at s ssntally a

commnt abot at, I vw th ston noton o mta-at as an otowth o aly

modnst vws, vdncd ntally by Impssonst atsts who xpmntd

wth th nat o th mdm. Post-modnsm contnd th nvstaton by

concptalzn th pocss o catn at. A concptal appoach stvs to

xtnd th bondas o at: Dos at nd to b catd by an atst? Dos t

nd to b batl o hav snfcant om? What dstnshs at om non-at?

Post-modnsm ntllctalzs th pactc o at. It s ths ant-xpssonst,

ant-omalst, ndd som may vn say ant-asthtc. Isss o baty, snf-

cant om, and oth asthtc xpncs, sch as th sblm qalty o atwoks,v way to concptal statmnts abot th mann o at.

It took th at wold sval dcads to appcat lly th snfcanc o

Fountain as a habn o post-modnsm. At th tm, Dchamps Fountain and

hs oth ons o vyday objcts that h chstnd as at w nally

consdd Dadast joks, a way o tasn and attln th at stablshmnt. It was

not ntl th latt hal o th 20th cnty that many atsts ban to xpss

thmslvs as concptal thosts. T oal o th post-modn atsts was ssn-

tally th oal o any phlosoph o at: namly to dfn and chaactz th

nat o at. T post-modn atst, howv, sd at tsl to dscb a tho-

tcal pont ath than wtn o talkn abot t. o ntpt post-modnstwoks, on nds to ndstand th lana o at. Nlson Goodmans Languages

o Art and Szann LansArt in a New Key chaactzd ths nw appoach,

whn atwoks a vwd as concptal ntptatons o xpssv symbols

o thoht. Pop At, as xmplfd by Wahols pantns o Campblls Sop cans,

Lchtnstns la ndtons o comc stp panls, and Jasp Johns pantn o

th Amcan a, dpcts symbols o icons o popla clt that bo w

consdd mndan, vyday objcts.

A concptal appoach to at qs knowld abot th symbolc nts

dsplayd n an atwok. o appcat mta-at statmnts, t s ncssay to

hav knowld abot at hstoy and th vaos ways at has bn dfnd.



12/26

14 Asthtc Scnc

Fo xampl, Josph Kosths One and Tree Chairs (1965) s a ally nstallaton

that nclds a al cha, a photoaph o th sam cha, and a dctonay dfn-

ton o th wod chair. Ts atwok s mannl om a concptal appoach, as

knowld o at hstoy, sch as Platos dscpton o mmss and Lans noton

o at as symbols, hlps s ndstand th pc. Intstnly, o ach xhbton

oOne and Tree Chairs, Kosth povds only an nlad pntot o th dfn-

ton o th wod cha and nstcts th msm nstall to slct a al cha

and dsplay t and Kosths pntot o th dfnton alon wth a l-szd photo-

aph o th sam cha. Ts, th actal cha that s sd n ach msm xhb-

ton s dnt om pvos ons and s slctd by th nstall ath than th

atst. In ths way, Kosth sms to accntat th concptal ath than th

omal o motonal nat o hs atwok, as th objcts thmslvs (th cha

sd and th photoaph o t) chan wth ach nstallaton.

o smmaz phlosophcal appoachs, bholds ov th cnts hav

consdd atwoks n tms o (1) how sccsslly thy mmc th snsoy xp-

nc o lookn at th al wold as thoh a wndow, (2) how wll thy xpss

lns and a sns o baty, (3) how wll thy cat snfcant om, and

(4) how wll thy convy concptal statmnts. Each o ths appoachs

hhlhts dnt aspcts o th bholds mntal pocsss nvolvd n th at

xpnc: snsoy pocsss wth mmtc and omalst appoachs, motonal

pocsss wth an xpssonst appoach, and smantc o contv pocsss

wth a concptal appoach. oday, plalsm s ky, n th sns that anythn

os, om to atwoks lyn on mmtc psntatons to post-modnstatmnts abot at.

Empirical Approaches

What sts scntfc analyss apat om oth pactcs s ts lanc on mpcal

sach, whch nvolvs objctv, systmatc, and patabl masmnts. Fo

ov 125 yas, asthtc xpncs hav bn stdd scntfcally sn bhav-

oal mass. Most o ths nvstatons hav bn condctd nd th bc

o psycholocal scnc. Rcntly, noscntsts hav bn to dlv nto thbolocal ndpnnns o asthtcs by stdyn nolocal patnts wth

mpamnt n asthtc xpncs and applyn noman mthods to locat

ban ccts that a actv whn w look at at.

psychological science

Psycholocal scnc has ts oots n nvstatons o snsoy pocsss. In 1860,

Gstav Fchn od a mthod o th scntfc analyss o hman snsaton

n hs majo tats Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements o Psychophysics). Ts

nw scnc opsychophysics consdd th ways n whch physcal stml a



13/26


std by th mnd. In 1876 Fchn pblshd Vorschule der Aesthetik (Primer

o Aesthetics), whch psntd hs smnal analyss o th psychophyscs o

asthtcs. Fchn sstd that asthtcs cold b stdd om th bottom p

(von Unten herau). In oth wods, ath than conontn complx phlosoph-

cal concpts abot baty and sblmty, Fchn ocsd on analyss o lmntal

pcptal ats. H stdd pnc jdmnts o basc shaps, sch as

ctanls o vayn popotons, to dtmn whch on was most appaln. H

also stdd pncs o colos. By ndstandn ths basc lmnts o vsal

asthtcs, Fchn hopd to bld a nal ndstandn o th pcptal

qalts that dv o asthtc xpncs.

Fchn pavd th way o contlss psycholocal nvstatons nd th

bc o mpcal asthtcs. In ths xpmnts, obsvs a shown vaos

stml, sch as a collcton o shaps, colos, objcts, o vn actal pantns, and

a askd to at th pncs: that s, how mch thy lk on stmls ov

anoth. Fchn blvd that by stdyn th bldn blocks o pcpton, sch

as basc shaps and colos, h cold constct a nal thoy o asthtc xp-

ncs. Wth ths lmntal, bottom-p appoachom basc snsoy ats to

mo complx psntatonsFchn dfnd an mpcal appoach to th

stdy o asthtcs that s stll pactcd today.

In th aly 20th cnty, Gstalt psycholoy od an altnatv to th

lmntal, bottom-p appoach xmplfd by Fchns psychophyscal appoach.

T Gman psycholosts, Max Wthm, Kt Ko a, and Wolan Khl,

w pomnnt n stablshn ths holstc appoach to pcpton. Ty consddth vsal scn as an oanzd opn o ats and ad that pcptons

cold not b dssctd nto basc lmnts. Ts stanc was nhnt n th cdo

that th whol s dnt om th sm o ts pats. T Gstalt psycholosts

dvlopd th pncpl oPrgnanz, th noton that w oanz o pcptons

basd on th smplst o most sccnct ntptatons. Ty acknowldd that

th pcptal wold s ambos and llsoy. Ts, t s th oanzaton o a

vsal scn that w ntpt and not th lmntal ats thmslvs that mak

p a scn.

T psycholost Rdol Anhm appld Gstalt pncpls to th stdy o

vsal asthtcs. In hs smnal bookArt and Visual Perception,

Anhm ana-lyzd th ways n whch atwoks conom to Gstalt pncpls o pcptal oa-

nzaton. H dscbd pantns wth spct to th pcptal ocs that atsts

ndcd thoh balanc, hamony, and objct placmnt. Ts ocs v s to

asthtc xpncs, sch as a sns o calm o tnsnss. Fo xampl, a ccl

placd at th cnt o a ctanl s balancd and dcs tnson, whas a ccl

movd to on sd o a ctanl s nbalancd and ths hhtns tnson.

Anhms wtns on vsal asthtcs od a thotcally motvatd appoach

to th psycholoy o at. Hs Gstaltst ntptatons stssd th mann n

whch th oanzaton and dynamcs o pcptal ats act to cat ntst-

n woks o at.



14/26

16 Asthtc Scnc

Whas Fchn and Anhm w pmaly ntstd n pcpton, oth

psycholosts stdd how at nncs th bholds motons. Danl Blyn

dvlopd a thoy abot th way atwoks aos lns. Consd a pantn

that yo hav nv sn bo. A pantn that dos lttl to aos yo o on that

cass mnmal tnson wll lad yo to b ndnt to t. On th oth hand, a

pantn that s so tbly aosn o cass so mch tnson wll b ovpown

and lkly cas conson o dsplas. Accodn to Blyn, optmally plasn

atwoks a thos that cat som aosal o psycholocal tnson bt not so

mch that thy bcom dstbn. H sstd that aosal s dtmnd by sp-

cfc ats o atwoks, sch as novlty, complxty, spsnnss, nctanty,

and nconty. H calld ths ats collatv popts bcas thy mst b

pt toth (.., collatd) n od to dv ons motonal xpnc. T at

th nmb o collatv popts n an atwok, th at o aosal.

Accodn to Blyn, w p som novlty, sps, o nconty n

atwoks, bt too mch wll lad to a natv spons. Notc that th ats

Blyn dfns a not, stctly spakn, popts o th atwok tsl, bt

nstad latd to th bholds past xpnc. How novl o spsn a pant-

n s o a vn vw dpnds on that vws past xpncs and knowld.

Ts, Blyns modl can xplan why ndvdals d n th appcaton

o atwoks, and how appcaton can chan ov tm. Consd th md-19th-

cnty bhold who has sn only alstc (mmtc) and omantc at.

Impssonst pantns may hav bn consdd too spsn o nconos

and ths b consdd dstbn o odd. Wth o 21st-cnty ys and bans,w hav bn xposd to all knds o abstact oms, not only n at msms bt

also n tlvson commcals and maazn ads. As a slt, Impssonst pant-

ns may b jst complx and nconos noh to b plasn and modatly

aosn. Expnc wth post-modn woks may allow on to an postv

lns om 20th-cnty styls sch as Cbsm, Abstact Expssonsm,

Salsm, and Mnmalsm.

Snc Fchns smnal tats, th mpcal analyss o asthtcs has nd-

on pods o owth and stanaton. Anhm, Blyn, and oths stmlatd

ntst and od mpotant thotcal amwoks, yt many hav qstond

th val o th mthods and thos dvlopd by ths pons o asthtcscnc. Evn amon psycholosts, th stdy o asthtcs has nally bn

vwd as a n topc. Moov, many phlosophs hav nod o jctd

mpcal appoachs, and lkws, psycholosts hav typcally dscontd

phlosophcal notons. T nsla nat o ths dscplns has ths lmtd

poss n asthtc scnc.

cognitive science

Contv scnc s a otowth o xpmntal psycholoy. It sks to nd-

stand mntal pocsss sch as pcpton, mmoy, lana, moton, and



15/26


asonn thoh an ntdscplnay appoach. Sval ats dstnsh

contv scnc om tadtonal psycholocal scnc. Fst, contv scnc

ncopoats fndns and pspctvs om many pactcs otsd o psychol-

oy, ncldn phlosophy, compt scnc, anthopoloy, lnstcs, and

noscnc. Scond, t daws havly on compt-basd modls o how th

mnd woks. Althoh contv scntsts do not blv that th ban is a dtal

compt, thy on adopt th analoy o th mnd as a comptatonal mcha-

nsm that manplats nomaton and has ts own npt, stoa, and otpt

dvcs. Td, a pomnnt concn s how nomaton n th mnd/ban s rep-

resentedo stod. Contv scntsts ly on an inormation processingappoach

onally dvlopd n compt scnc. T oal o ths appoach s to chaac-

tz th way snsoy snals act as nomaton that s ncodd, ntptd, and

psntd.

On patclaly mpotant dstncton s btwn bottom-up and top-down

pocssn. Bottom-p pocssn s to th ot o nomaton pocssn

om snsoy snals to knowld. op-down pocssn s to th s o

knowld to dct what w pcv. Ts, bottom s to low-lvl snsoy

pocsss, whas top s to knowld. Consd th dawn n F 1.4a by

psycholost Ro Shpad, nttld Sara Nader. I yo ocs on th black on,

yo s a slhott o a man playn th saxophon. Howv, yo ocs on th

wht on to th ht o th man, yo s a womans ac. Now that yo know

that both objcts xst, yo can d yo pcpton by sn th saxophonst

o th womans ac. Ts, knowld ds yo snsoy pocsss and ontsyo to ctcal ats. Ts s top-down pocssnknown s sn.

F 1.4b shows th nt-latonshp btwn top-down and bottom-p

pocssn. Ealy contv appoachs, sch as Fchns psychophyscal appoach,

(a) (b)Down

Top

Up

Bottom

Knowledge

Sensation

igure 1.4 (a) Shepard, Roger. Saa Nad (rom Mnd Shts, 1990, W. H. Freeman and

Co., New York). (b) Bottom-up processing describes the way we acquire knowledge rom

sensations, whereas top-down processing describes the way knowledge can inuence

sensations.



16/26

18 Asthtc Scnc

w basd pmaly on bottom-p pocsss, as t was thoht that pcptal

lmnts (.., shap, colo) cold b constctd to dv mann (.., co-

nzn objcts). Indd, t was onc thoht that nns cold bld obots that

cold dnty objcts n a vsal scn basd ply on bottom-p nomaton,

sch as th knd o nomaton codd om a vdo cama. Althoh sch

obots cold ncton n vy stctd nvonmnts, t soon bcam appant

that hmans ly havly on top-down pocsss to ntpt complx vsal scns.

In oth wods, w apply o knowld o th wold to ntpt what w s.

T notd at hstoan Enst Gombch was th fst to consd top-down

pocssn as an ntal pat o asthtc xpncs. In Art and Illusion,

Gombch ad that an atst bns not wth hs vsal mpsson bt wth hs

da o concpt. Ts pont s qally mpotant o th xpnc o th

bhold. Basd on o psonal and cltal knowld, th bhold oms

xpctatons that hlp ntpt an atwok and dct vwn to salnt ats.

Jst as th ma oSara Naders ambos, Gombch sstd that all at s

llsoy and w mst bld an ntptaton o what an atwok psnts basd

on xstn knowldo what h (and contv scntsts) call schemata o,

mo smply, schemas. Schmas a concptal amwoks that popl s to

om xpctatons. Fo xampl, as yo nt a staant yo apply a restaurant

schma that sts p xpctatons that ncld sttn at a tabl, odn om a

mn, njoyn a mal, payn o th mal, and lavn a tp. W also hav a

museum schma that nclds walkn thoh alls, dvlopn pncs

abot atwoks, and consdn what th atst s tyn to commncat. Pastknowld and xpncs dtmn th nat o ths xpctatons. Gombch

ntatd psycholoy, at hstoy, and phlosophy n an analyss o th at pocss

(both n makn and vwn at). H adoptd a contv scnc appoach, s-

stn that atwoks act as symbols that dscb o psnt al-wold objcts

and xpncs.

T contv scnc appoach to asthtcs has and n ntst cntly wth

th commcal mpotanc o dtal anmaton and wb dsn. Fo xampl,

comptatonal analyss o chaosco, o what compt scntsts call shape rom

shading, hav povdd xtaodnaly alstc compt-natd anmatons.

Wth spct to wb dsn, commcal vnts dpnd on attactn and man-tann clnts to th wbsts. Popl tnd to dslk modfcatons n th colo

and oanzaton o avot wbsts. Wb dsns now tak ths tndncy nto

accont and on apply fndns om contv scnc to dc th mpact o

dsn altatons. Fo xampl, a fndn calld chan blndnss shows that

altatons n a vsal dsplay can o nnotcd whn thy a don adally, on

at at a tm o n small ncmnts o snl ats, sch as colo o txt.

In 2008, Yahoo.com adally ntodcd a nw look to th hompa acoss

days. Smlaly, Bay.com took 30 days to chan ts backond om ay to

wht. It s lkly that many dd not notc ths chans.



17/26


neuroscience

Can th complxts o asthtc xpncs b ndstood by xamnn ban

mchansms? Noscntsts hav stdd th wokns o th ban om many

lvls o analyssom analyss o ndvdal ban clls (.., nons) to th

stdy o nal actvty n th hman ban. By th lat 19th cnty, stann tch-

nqs w dvlopd that nabld scntsts to vsalz ndvdal nons so

that th shap, sz, and connctvty cold b xamnd. In 1909, Kobnan

Bodmann pblshd a smnal atlas o th hman cbal cotx basd on hs

dtald anatomcal stds. W now know that th cbal cotx s a thn sht

o ntconnctd nons that has xpandd consdably dn volton, n

act so mch so that t has bcom noldd wthn th hman skll, ths vn ts

appaanc o many ds (y) and vallys (slc). I th cbal cotx w

attnd, t wold b qvalnt n aa to th sz o an xta-la (vy thn)

pzza (abot 20 nchs n damt, 2 mm thck). Bodmann compad th cllla

stct o nons n dnt pats o th cbal cotx. H dfnd 52 dstnct

aas, ZIP cods yo wll, on th bass o physcal ats, sch as sz, shap,

and dnsty. W to ths ons as Bodmann aas, whch a stll sd

today to dnty ons o th hman cbal cotx.

Nal ccts hav bn dntfd that ptan to vaos mntal capablts,

sch as vson, mmoy, lana, motonal dv, and moto contol. Both

stctal (anatomcal) and nctonal (ban actvty) analyss hav bn sd to

nvstat th nal colats o hman contv ncton. Wth spct to ana-tomcal landmaks, F 1.5 shows th lateral(sd) sac o th l cbal

cotx. T medial sac s hddn om vw as t sts at aanst th oth

cbal cotx. T ntal npt o vsal nomaton nto th cotx occs at th

most posto on o th occptal lob, an aa calld thprimary visual cortex.

Fom ths pont, vsal nomaton s pocssd alon two majo paths. T dosal

o wh path coss p to th patal lob and pocsss spatal nomaton,

whas th vntal o what path coss down thoh th tmpoal lob and

pocsss objct nomaton.

T most anto on o th ontal lobs s calld th prerontal cortex

(PFC). It cvs npts om oth ban ons and snds pojctons back toths ons. In ths way, th PFC coodnats and contols nal pocssn.

I on consds th mlttd o nal snals actv at any vn momnt, t

bcoms obvos how mpotant t s o s to hav a mchansm that ochstats

ths cacophony o ban actvty. O ablty to ocs attnton to spcfc snsoy

snals o tv spcfc mmos dpnds on th PFC to monto and contol

nal actvty, jst as an ochstal condcto mst contol th actvty o a op

o mscans n od to psnt a smooth pomanc. T PFCs ol n mon-

ton and contolln nal actvty oms th bass o top-down pocssn as

t ds and slcts snsoy snals. Vaos tms, sch as executive controland



18/26

20 Asthtc Scnc

metacognition, hav bn sd to dscb th ol o PFC n sppotn top-down

pocssn.

Bo th advnt o noman tchnqs sch as MRI (nctonal

mantc sonanc man), noscntsts stdd hman ban ncton by

obsvn th way dama to dnt pats o th ban dspts contv

ncton. Sch neuropsychologicalnvstatons od nshts nto th oan-

zaton o th hman ban, as dsct dama on ld to ath dsct bhav-

oal dsods. Fo xampl, patnts wth dama alon th dosal vsal pathway

xhbt dfcts n spatal ablty, whas thos wth dama alon th vntal

pathway xhbt dfcts n objct conton. Fom sch stds, th nalndpnnns o mntal ablts, sch as pcvn, adn, mmbn, and

vn appcatn at, hav bn analyzd (s Chapts 12 and 15).

Wth spct to motons, w know that th vntal (low) on o th PFC,

an aa calld th orbitorontal cortex, s mpotant o th contol and laton

o motons. Ts act bcam qt appant om stds o th now-classc n-

olocal cas o Phnas Ga. Ga was a aload oman o th Rtland and

Blnam Raload. On Sptmb 13, 1848, h was wokn wth xplosvs to

cla a al path thoh a ocky aa n Vmont. Ts pocd nvolvd th s

o an on od, calld a tampn on, to compss xplosv powd nto a bod

hol. Ga was sn hs tampn on whn t nadvtntly stck th sd o th

igure 1.5 Te lateral surface of the cerebral cortex. Visual processing begins at the most

posterior part o the occipital lobe (green) and courses through the temporal lobe (yellow) via

the ventral path and through the parietal lobe (pink) via the dorsal path. At the most

anterior part o the rontal lobe (purple) is the prerontal cortex (PFC), which acts to monitor

and control cortical activity in posterior regions.(Brain images reprinted with permission

rom Dtal Anatomst Intactv Atlas, University o Washington, Seattle, WA,

copyright 1997.)



19/26


hol, casn a spak that ntd th xplosv powd. T xploson snt th od,

hapoon-lk, p thoh Gas l chkbon, thoh hs ontal lobs, and ot

th top o hs skll. Amaznly, Ga svvd th accdnt and lvd o anoth

11 yas. Althoh h dd not appa to xhbt ntllctal mpamnt, hs mo-

tonal dsposton chand. Po to hs accdnt, Ga was known to b a ood

oman and ndly wth th oth woks. A th accdnt, th physcan

who tatd Ga, John Matyn Halow, statd that Ga was ftl, vnt,

ndln at tms n th ossst poanty (whch was not pvosly hs

cstom).

Contmpoay analyss o patnts wth obtoontal dama hav a md

th ol o th obtoontal cotx n motonal contol (s Chapt 15). It s as

ths patnts act ot th lns and dss wthot consdn th cons-

qncs o th actons. I thy l any, thy may bcom volnt; thy a

sxally aosd, thy may mmdatly act ot th lns. In a cnt cas,

Samantha Fshkn was jctd ot th wndow o an ovtnn pckp tck as

h boynd swvd to avod anoth vhcl. Sh ht a conct mbankmnt,

whch actd h skll and casd sv ontal lob dama. In a New York

imes Magazine atcl abot Samanthas njy, th atho, Pt Landsman,

wot: th nw Samantha was savaly dsnhbtd. Baks n h nal wb had

asd all sns o socal convnton. Sh coldnt contol h ds to talk, h

an, h sxal s. Patnts wth obtoontal dama on xhbt motonal

otbsts, nappopat socal bhavo, sk-takn bhavo, and obsssv-

complsv dsod.

Snc th 1990s, noman tchnqs hav vn noscntsts a wndow

to th wokns o th hman mnd n a way that wold hav bn consdd

scnc fcton only 20 yas ao. Wth th dvlopmnt o MRI, noscntsts

can assss ban actvty n spcfc ons, vtally on a momnt-to-momnt

bass. In MRI, th sam scann sd n hosptals can b tnd to dtct sbtl

chans n blood ow that occ whn a ban on bcoms actv. At any vn

momnt, howv, tns o thosands o nons a actv jst to kp s alv,

sch as mantann hat at, spaton, body tmpat, and nal con-

scos awanss. Oth ban actvty occs n spons to whatv w a don

at th momnt, sch as lstnn to a lct, mmbn a past vnt, o vwna pantn. An ma o th bans actvty at any momnt wold not b vy no-

matv, as w wold not know whch aas a actv n spons to a spcfc vnt

and whch aas a actv mly to kp s alv. Ts, noscntsts obtan

scans om on condton and compa thm to scans om anoth. Fo xampl,

on cold scan sbjcts whn thy hav th ys opn and compa th scans to

momnts whn thy hav th ys closd. By sbtactn th ys-opn scans

om th y-closd scans on can assss ban actvty that s spcfc to havn th

ys opn. All oth ban actvts wold b cancld ot bcas thy occ n

both condtons. Ts subtraction methodhas allowd noscntsts to dnty

ban aas that a latd to patcla mntal vnts.



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22 Asthtc Scnc

Wth th advnt o hman noman tchnqs, patclaly MRI, stds

o th bans spons to at hav bn condctd (s Chapts 13 and 14). In ths

bonn fld oneuroaesthetics, th obtoontal cotx has bn shown to

b patclaly actv dn motonal sponss to at. Kawabata and Zk

psntd alstc and abstact pantns that patcpants had pvosly atd as

ly, ntal, o batl. T obtoontal cotx was actv whn sbjcts w

psntd wth pantns that thy atd as batl compad to thos atd as

ntal. In anoth stdy, th obtoontal cotx was actv whl lstnn to

classcal msc that was atd as ntnsly plasabl (.., Rachmannos Piano

Concerto No. 3 in D Minor, Ops 30). Ts fndns show that th obtoontal

cotx s nvolvd n th valaton o batl woks o at.

It s mpotant to not, howv, that complx mntal pocsss actvat boad

nal ntwoks that a mpotant o a mlttd o nctons. o appcat a

pantn nmos ban ons a wokn toth to pocss snsoy snals,

connct snsoy nomaton wth what w know, and dv motonal snf-

canc. In th Kawabata and Zk stdy, th obtoontal cotx was patclaly

nvolvd whn th vwn o batl pantns was compad wth th vwn

o ntal pantns. Ts, th stdy solatd a patcla at o th bans

spons to pantnsnamly th jdmnt o baty. Many oth ban ons

w actv, sch as thos nvolvd n pcvn and concptalzn pantns,

bt ths actvatons wold hav occd o both sts o pantns and w ths

sbtactd ot n th analyss. Oth stds hav ocsd on snsoy o concptal

aspcts o asthtc xpncs (s Chapt 16). Ts, t s mpotant to kp nmnd that w a not daln wth a om o nal phnoloy, lnkn on ban

aa wth on mntal ncton. Instad, many ban ons a nvolvd n asthtc

xpncs, and th oal s to ndstand th dynamc ntactons acoss ths

ban ons.

Issues for Aesthetic Science

developing a framework for empirical analyses

Phlosophcal appoachs o dlns o scntfc nvstatons o asthtcs.

Mmtc and omalst appoachs ky on pcptal qalts and stmlat qs-

tons sch as: What dos t man to ntpt a pantn as a wndow to th al

wold? What pcptal pocsss a nvolvd n xpncn alstc scns

vss abstact at? How do lns, colos, shaps, and scns nnc o

asthtc xpncs? Expssonst appoachs consd th mann n whch

pcptal ats vok motons. Snc Blyns smnal wok on th way

motonal aosal nncs asthtc sponss, scntsts hav consdd both

psycholocal and noscntfc actos assocatd wth an xpssonst appoach

(s Chapt 10).



21/26


Rlatvly w mpcal stds hav addssd concptal appoachs to at.

T ol o knowld n o at xpnc has on bn downplayd, as many

l that at shold b xpncd dctly, om pcptal qalts to motons,

as knowld cold only dtact om o asthtc xpncs. It s cla,

howv, om contv scnc, and patclaly n th wtns o Gombch,

that knowld plays a snfcant ol, patclaly n dn top-down pocsss.

Also, whn w ty to appl wth th way w xpnc post-modn at, t

bcoms mpatv to consd th ol that knowld plays n o analyss o

sch woks (s Chapt 6).

T poms o an ntdscplnay asthtc scnc s motvatd by an ntst

om a own nmb o phlosophs, psycholosts, and noscntsts who

l a nd to bd socs and om a mo comphnsv analyss o at and

asthtcs (s Chapts 2, 3, and 5). T oal s analoos to th tadton o con-

tv scnc, n whch many dscplns a vald and consdd n th svc o

ndstandn conton. What s ndd s a way o tanlatn nomaton

om many pspctvs (s Chapt 4). In asthtc scnc, many dscplns

mst b ncldd and vald. In patcla, phlosophs, psycholosts, antho-

polosts, hstoans, atsts, and noscntsts mst consd th many ways w

xpnc and val at.

Ts ntodctoy chapt povdd a b backond o phlosophcal and

scntfc appoachs to at. Asthtc xpncs a captd n th ways w

appoach at, whch ncld: (1) a mmtc appoach (how wll dos an atwok

potay a alstc scn?), (2) an xpssonst appoach (how wll dos anatwok dv motonal xpncs?), (3) a omalst appoach (how wll dos

an atwok nhanc snsatons?), and (4) a concptal appoach (how wll dos an

atwok commncat mannl statmnts?). T bhold may xpnc at

om any o a combnaton o ths appoachs. Moov, som atwoks may

lnd thmslvs btt to on appoach than anoth.

F 1.6 daams a componntal amwok o th at xpnc. It s

ppotd that Te Artist ntnds to o an Artwork o asthtc jdmnt.

Dfntons o T Atst and Atwok cold b dscssd ad innitum; w wll

smply asst that Te Artists a hman and Te Artwork mst b snsd. O

ssntal concn s how w xpnc atthat s, th bholds asthtcxpnc. I popos that th bholds xpnc s bst ndstood by consd-

n th ways n whch an atwok nncs th pmay mntal nctons:

snsaton, knowld, and moton. Ts psycholocal nctons lat dctly

to th phlosophcal appoachs that w hav consdd. Mmtc and omalst

appoachs mphasz snsaton, concptal appoachs mphasz knowld,

and xpssonst appoachs mphasz moton.

Ts amwok s calld I-SKE n nc to th o ctcal atsth

atsts intention to o an atwok o asthtc valaton and th bholds

th mntal componnts, sensation, knowledge, and emotion. Wth spct to th

bhold, snsoy and motonal actos a ath obvos, as thy hav bn



22/26

24 Asthtc Scnc

consdd n both aly phlosophcal and mo cnt mpcal analyss.

Knowld s to wold (.., smantc) knowld, psonal knowld, and

cltal knowld (ncldn knowld abot at hstoy and at pactcs).

Ts aspcts o knowld nnc how w ntpt and appcat at (s

Chapt 11). Accodn to th I-SKE amwok, snsaton, knowld, and moton

all contbt to asthtc xpncs, thoh on o two o ths componnts may

b mo mphaszd than oths. I popos that th llst asthtc xpnc s

on that hhtns all th componnts.

By kyn on ths th componnts, a mo balancd appoach to asthtcscnc may b dvlopd. T ppondanc o stds n asthtc scnc has

bn dctd towad snsoy aspcts o asthtcs (s Chapts 7 and 8). Rcntly,

sach has consdd ways n whch atwoks dv motonal sponss

(s Chapt 10). T I-SKE amwok ssts that knowld plays jst as

mpotant a ol n o asthtc xpncs as snsaton and moton. Only a w

nvstatos hav consdd ways n whch knowld dvs o at xpnc

(bt s Chapt 9). Fnally, t s cla that vaos appoachs to at can b takn

om appcatn alsm to dlvn nto concptal, socal, o poltcal sponss

to at. At may o may not ndc ston motons; t may o may not to

objcts n th al wold.

The Beholder

The Artwork

The Artist

Intention

Sensation Knowledge Emotion-- --

igure 1.6 Te I-SKE framework acts as a schema for experiencing art. T Atst

intends to create T Atwok, which is experienced byT Bhold, who uses sensations,

knowledge, and emotion to generate an aesthetic experience. Tese three components o the

beholders psyche drive the art experience.



23/26


what, then, is the phenomenon of interest?

It s cla that mannl advancs n asthtc scnc mst fst dvlop an

appopat and wokabl dfnton o th phnomnon o ntstnamly, what

s aesthetics? I w consd a vy naow dfnton, sch as th on poposd by

Bamatn and chod by Kant, thn th phnomnon o ntst wold ocs

spcfcally on dsntstd lns vokd by batl objcts. As statd n th

bnnn o ths chapt, Bamatns dfnton s mch too naow. On ss

s whth asthtc scnc shold b td spcfcally to th stdy o atwoks.

It s ctanly sl to boadn th concpt and ncld asthtc sponss to any

objct, ncldn natal ons and ons not ntndd to b art. Ts boadnn o

th objcts o ntst s patclaly pdnt o o ndstandn o at, bcas

what s dfnd as at s always chann. T boadnn o accptabl objcts

ass ntstn qstons. Dos o asthtc xpnc d whn w app-

cat a pantn, say o a watall, as opposd to th way w appcat natal

phnomna, sch as an actal watall? Dos an objcts psnc n an at

msm cat a dnt knd o xpnc?

Anoth way to boadn th dfnton o asthtcs s to consd how objcts

vok dnt knds o motonal sponss, ncldn hmo, sadnss, hoo,

and dsst. Many postmodn woks a ntndd to shock o dsst th bhold.

Shold all motons b consdd as lvant o asthtc scnc? It s cla that

concptal appoachs to at dmand a non-motonal, vn ant-asthtc,

analyss o at (s Chapt 6). On cold consd boadnn th concpt oasthtcs to ncld compltly non-motonal aspcts o th at xpnc,

thoh sch a stanc may o too a. I w, as many at ctcs ssts, consd th

at xpnc as on wll byond what many consd an asthtc xpnc,

t may b pdnt not to tth asthtc scnc to at (s Chapts 3).

As poposd al, w mht t asthtc scnc to o ndstandn o th

dimension o hdoncs, om vy postv (batl) to vy natv (dsstn)

o om vy ntstn to not at all ntstn (s Chapt 8). Fom ths pspc-

tv, w cold consd any objct and dv an xplct pnc o ntst

jdmnt: w lk t o w dont, ts ntstn o ts not. Sch pncs cold

b mappd onto motonal (plasant o not) o concptal (ntstn o not)aspcts, and asthtc scnc cold addss th asons why ctan objcts a

mo plasant o ntstn than oths. Hdonc sponss cold b latd to

voltonay actos, sch as analyss abot th ways n whch objcts vok an

appoach vs. avodanc spons (s Chapt 5 and 8). O cos, atwoks hav

on bn catd o th sol ppos o lctn dsntstd hdonc

sponss (.., at o ats sak), and ths t s not nasonabl to consd th

psycholoy o at as a pm sbaa wthn asthtc scnc. Yt many objcts not

consdd as at (.., oods, popl, locatons) vok ston hdonc sponss

and ths sponss may b mappd onto psycholocal pocsss, sch as motva-

ton, dv, aosal, and plas. Moov, ndlyn ban sponss assocatd



24/26

26 Asthtc Scnc

wth ths pocsss a lvant to asthtc scnc. As sch, sach n sch

dvs aas as actv noscnc (.., nal bass o mpathy), noco-

nomcs, and thoy o mnd (.., mo nons) s mpotant o asthtc

scnc to consd.

T das dscssd n ths chapt povd a ondaton o bldn a mlt-

dscplnay appoach to th scnc o asthtc xpncs. T ollown

chapts addss th vablty o asthtc scnc and dscss possbl avns o

ntst. Phlosophcal, psycholocal, and nobolocal appoachs a consd-

d h, wth th ntnton o ntatn a dscsson concnn th bholds

xpnc.

Acknowledgments

I wold lk to thank th John Smon Gnhm Mmoal Fondaton o fnancal

sppot dn th ppaaton o ths chapt. I wold also lk to thank Hln Ettln,

Blak Gopnk, Jlan Hochb, Rch Ivy, Jy Lvnson, Stv Palm, and Lsl Zmsky

o hlpl commnts on al das.

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2

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