CAMS/HIST 180CAMS/HIST 180CAMS/HIST 180CAMS/HIST 180

Ancient WarfareAncient WarfareAncient WarfareAncient Warfare

PossibilitiesPossibilitiesPossibilitiesPossibilities ““Operational” definition would Operational” definition would require adanced organizationrequire adanced organization Warfare unlikely before NeolithicWarfare unlikely before Neolithic

““Attitudinal” definition Attitudinal” definition allows Palaeolithic warfareallows Palaeolithic warfare Issue of population densitiesIssue of population densities

Can these propositions be Can these propositions be tested against prehistoric tested against prehistoric evidence?evidence? risks circularity of argumentrisks circularity of argument

““Operational” definition would Operational” definition would require adanced organizationrequire adanced organization Warfare unlikely before NeolithicWarfare unlikely before Neolithic

““Attitudinal” definition Attitudinal” definition allows Palaeolithic warfareallows Palaeolithic warfare Issue of population densitiesIssue of population densities

Can these propositions be Can these propositions be tested against prehistoric tested against prehistoric evidence?evidence? risks circularity of argumentrisks circularity of argument

ArchaeologyArchaeologyArchaeologyArchaeology No written records before ca. No written records before ca. 3000 BC3000 BC

Prehistory restricted to Prehistory restricted to physical remainsphysical remains

Three classes of evidence for Three classes of evidence for early warfareearly warfare Human remains with traumaHuman remains with trauma Weapons/imagesWeapons/images fortificationsfortifications

No written records before ca. No written records before ca. 3000 BC3000 BC

Prehistory restricted to Prehistory restricted to physical remainsphysical remains

Three classes of evidence for Three classes of evidence for early warfareearly warfare Human remains with traumaHuman remains with trauma Weapons/imagesWeapons/images fortificationsfortifications

Human TraumaHuman TraumaHuman TraumaHuman Trauma Very ancient damaged bones are Very ancient damaged bones are knownknown Breaks, fractures, puncture woundsBreaks, fractures, puncture wounds Evidence for warfare?Evidence for warfare?

Some wounds correspond to size and Some wounds correspond to size and shape of stone artifactsshape of stone artifacts

HowHow was wound inflicted? was wound inflicted? Animal attack?Animal attack? Ritual?Ritual? Clumsy accident?Clumsy accident?

Violent death in groups is bestViolent death in groups is best

Very ancient damaged bones are Very ancient damaged bones are knownknown Breaks, fractures, puncture woundsBreaks, fractures, puncture wounds Evidence for warfare?Evidence for warfare?

Some wounds correspond to size and Some wounds correspond to size and shape of stone artifactsshape of stone artifacts

HowHow was wound inflicted? was wound inflicted? Animal attack?Animal attack? Ritual?Ritual? Clumsy accident?Clumsy accident?

Violent death in groups is bestViolent death in groups is best

Ofnet, Germany (Mesolithic)

Ofnet, Germany (Mesolithic)

Jebel Sahaba (10,000 BC)Jebel Sahaba (10,000 BC)

Jebel Sahaba StatsJebel Sahaba Stats

AgeAge

children (6 children (6 mos-12 yrs)mos-12 yrs) 11 11adolescentadolescent 2 2young adultyoung adult 5 5adultadult 15 15middle-agedmiddle-aged 1818oldold 8 8

SexSex

female female 21 male 21 male

20 20

undetermined: undetermined: 1818

Violent DeathViolent Death

w/ artifacts w/ artifacts 28 (4 28 (4 uncertaiuncertain)n)

w/out artifacts w/out artifacts 31 31

Talheim Deposit (5000 BC)Talheim Deposit (5000 BC)Talheim Deposit (5000 BC)Talheim Deposit (5000 BC) Excavated in 1983-1984 in Excavated in 1983-1984 in GermanyGermany

34 skeletons (18 adults, 16 34 skeletons (18 adults, 16 children)children)

Skeletons Skeletons Showed signs of violent death, Showed signs of violent death, most from behindmost from behind

Multiple blows were commonMultiple blows were common All buried jumbled up, entagledAll buried jumbled up, entagled no grave goodsno grave goods

Excavated in 1983-1984 in Excavated in 1983-1984 in GermanyGermany

34 skeletons (18 adults, 16 34 skeletons (18 adults, 16 children)children)

Skeletons Skeletons Showed signs of violent death, Showed signs of violent death, most from behindmost from behind

Multiple blows were commonMultiple blows were common All buried jumbled up, entagledAll buried jumbled up, entagled no grave goodsno grave goods

ArtifactsArtifactsArtifactsArtifacts Stone tools: axes, arrow- and Stone tools: axes, arrow- and spearheads, javelins, spear-spearheads, javelins, spear-throwers (throwers (atl-atlatl-atl), bows), bows

All could be used for huntingAll could be used for hunting Two exceptions:Two exceptions:

MaceMace DaggerDagger

BUT, could be ceremonialBUT, could be ceremonial Iconography (from ca. 25,000 BC)Iconography (from ca. 25,000 BC)

Stone tools: axes, arrow- and Stone tools: axes, arrow- and spearheads, javelins, spear-spearheads, javelins, spear-throwers (throwers (atl-atlatl-atl), bows), bows

All could be used for huntingAll could be used for hunting Two exceptions:Two exceptions:

MaceMace DaggerDagger

BUT, could be ceremonialBUT, could be ceremonial Iconography (from ca. 25,000 BC)Iconography (from ca. 25,000 BC)

HuntingBowmenHuntingBowmen

Hunting AccidentHunting Accident

Cougnac, ca.

13,500 BC

Cougnac, ca.

13,500 BC

Cougnac DetailCougnac Detail

Castellon, Spain (7-4,000 BC)Castellon, Spain (7-4,000 BC)

Castellon, Spain

Castellon, Spain

Castellon, Spain

Castellon, Spain

IconographyIconographyIconographyIconography Seems to be incontrovertible evidence Seems to be incontrovertible evidence for warfarefor warfare

““Pincushioning” attested in other Pincushioning” attested in other culturescultures

But we do not know exactly how to But we do not know exactly how to read these imagesread these images

We do not know conventions of We do not know conventions of neolithic iconographyneolithic iconography

How would our art be interpreted by How would our art be interpreted by scholars 6-9,000 years from now? scholars 6-9,000 years from now?

Seems to be incontrovertible evidence Seems to be incontrovertible evidence for warfarefor warfare

““Pincushioning” attested in other Pincushioning” attested in other culturescultures

But we do not know exactly how to But we do not know exactly how to read these imagesread these images

We do not know conventions of We do not know conventions of neolithic iconographyneolithic iconography

How would our art be interpreted by How would our art be interpreted by scholars 6-9,000 years from now? scholars 6-9,000 years from now?

Jericho (7000 BC)Jericho (7000 BC)

Jericho (site)Jericho (site)

Jericho’s WallsJericho’s Walls

Jericho: Tower

Jericho: Tower

Jericho’s WallsJericho’s Walls

Jericho:

Flints

Jericho:

Flints

Çatal Hüyük (6500 BC)Çatal Hüyük (6500 BC)

Çatal HüyükÇatal Hüyük

Çatal Hüyük: headless (?) corpses and

vulture

Çatal Hüyük: headless (?) corpses and

vulture

Kuruçay

Archaeology AgainArchaeology AgainArchaeology AgainArchaeology Again Evidence open to multiple Evidence open to multiple interpretationsinterpretations

Less evidence => more possible Less evidence => more possible interpretationsinterpretations

No written sources to guide usNo written sources to guide us Lack of clarity about cultural Lack of clarity about cultural context of depositscontext of deposits

Danger of circular reasoningDanger of circular reasoning Evidence for intraspecies Evidence for intraspecies killing IS securekilling IS secure

Evidence open to multiple Evidence open to multiple interpretationsinterpretations

Less evidence => more possible Less evidence => more possible interpretationsinterpretations

No written sources to guide usNo written sources to guide us Lack of clarity about cultural Lack of clarity about cultural context of depositscontext of deposits

Danger of circular reasoningDanger of circular reasoning Evidence for intraspecies Evidence for intraspecies killing IS securekilling IS secure

Ethnography: UseEthnography: UseEthnography: UseEthnography: Use One approach: ethnographic dataOne approach: ethnographic data Researchers look to modern Researchers look to modern “primitive” societies for “primitive” societies for patterns that explain patterns that explain archaeological evidencearchaeological evidence ““Pincushioning”Pincushioning” Yanomamo and MaringYanomamo and Maring Kelly’s “attitudinal” modelKelly’s “attitudinal” model

All of these assume modern = All of these assume modern = AncientAncient

One approach: ethnographic dataOne approach: ethnographic data Researchers look to modern Researchers look to modern “primitive” societies for “primitive” societies for patterns that explain patterns that explain archaeological evidencearchaeological evidence ““Pincushioning”Pincushioning” Yanomamo and MaringYanomamo and Maring Kelly’s “attitudinal” modelKelly’s “attitudinal” model

All of these assume modern = All of these assume modern = AncientAncient

Ethnography: ProblemsEthnography: ProblemsEthnography: ProblemsEthnography: Problems Some critics of this approachSome critics of this approach Hard view: all observation Hard view: all observation changes behaviorchanges behavior A version of the Heisenberg A version of the Heisenberg Uncertainty PrincipleUncertainty Principle

Modern “primitives” not cavemen, Modern “primitives” not cavemen, bypassed by evolutionbypassed by evolution

Behavior deeply influenced by Behavior deeply influenced by contact with settled populationscontact with settled populations

Environment also has changed Environment also has changed (constrained)(constrained)

Response: What is being compared?Response: What is being compared?

Some critics of this approachSome critics of this approach Hard view: all observation Hard view: all observation changes behaviorchanges behavior A version of the Heisenberg A version of the Heisenberg Uncertainty PrincipleUncertainty Principle

Modern “primitives” not cavemen, Modern “primitives” not cavemen, bypassed by evolutionbypassed by evolution

Behavior deeply influenced by Behavior deeply influenced by contact with settled populationscontact with settled populations

Environment also has changed Environment also has changed (constrained)(constrained)

Response: What is being compared?Response: What is being compared?

Sociobioly & EthologySociobioly & EthologySociobioly & EthologySociobioly & Ethology Universality of war is striking Universality of war is striking

of 563 known cultures, 8 are warlessof 563 known cultures, 8 are warless Cultural and contextual explanations found Cultural and contextual explanations found to be wantingto be wanting

Humans not the only violent animal Humans not the only violent animal (ant wars)(ant wars)

Perhaps violence and war are Perhaps violence and war are hardwired behaviors?hardwired behaviors? Sociobiology; E.O. Wilson (1975)Sociobiology; E.O. Wilson (1975) EthologyEthology

Jane Goodall, Gombe Chimpanzee Jane Goodall, Gombe Chimpanzee Reserve, tanzania Reserve, tanzania 1960s - present1960s - present

Universality of war is striking Universality of war is striking of 563 known cultures, 8 are warlessof 563 known cultures, 8 are warless Cultural and contextual explanations found Cultural and contextual explanations found to be wantingto be wanting

Humans not the only violent animal Humans not the only violent animal (ant wars)(ant wars)

Perhaps violence and war are Perhaps violence and war are hardwired behaviors?hardwired behaviors? Sociobiology; E.O. Wilson (1975)Sociobiology; E.O. Wilson (1975) EthologyEthology

Jane Goodall, Gombe Chimpanzee Jane Goodall, Gombe Chimpanzee Reserve, tanzania Reserve, tanzania 1960s - present1960s - present

Chimp WarsChimp WarsChimp WarsChimp Wars Chimps closest ancestorChimps closest ancestor

We share 98% of their genetic codeWe share 98% of their genetic code Shared ancestor ca. 5 million years agoShared ancestor ca. 5 million years ago

Internal violence and huntingInternal violence and hunting In 1974 remarkable discoveryIn 1974 remarkable discovery

1970-1973: Chimps fractured into two bands1970-1973: Chimps fractured into two bands Border patrolsBorder patrols Organized raids of 6-8 males; marked by Organized raids of 6-8 males; marked by stealthstealth

Any “neighbor” chimp caught alone was Any “neighbor” chimp caught alone was brutally killedbrutally killed

One band wiped out neighbors in three One band wiped out neighbors in three yearsyears

Chimps closest ancestorChimps closest ancestor We share 98% of their genetic codeWe share 98% of their genetic code Shared ancestor ca. 5 million years agoShared ancestor ca. 5 million years ago

Internal violence and huntingInternal violence and hunting In 1974 remarkable discoveryIn 1974 remarkable discovery

1970-1973: Chimps fractured into two bands1970-1973: Chimps fractured into two bands Border patrolsBorder patrols Organized raids of 6-8 males; marked by Organized raids of 6-8 males; marked by stealthstealth

Any “neighbor” chimp caught alone was Any “neighbor” chimp caught alone was brutally killedbrutally killed

One band wiped out neighbors in three One band wiped out neighbors in three yearsyears

Reading Chimp WarsReading Chimp WarsReading Chimp WarsReading Chimp Wars Violence of chimps is establishedViolence of chimps is established Is brutality hardwired into us?Is brutality hardwired into us?

““Male coalitional violence”Male coalitional violence” Problems:Problems:

Contrast with Bonobo chimps, where females Contrast with Bonobo chimps, where females are equal; no violenceare equal; no violence

Does modern chimp = 5/6 mill. ancestor?Does modern chimp = 5/6 mill. ancestor? 15 years before violence erupted at Gombe15 years before violence erupted at Gombe Modern chimps constrained, hunted (Gombe Modern chimps constrained, hunted (Gombe is 12.35 sq. miles)is 12.35 sq. miles)

““Naïve” chimps found at Goualougo Naïve” chimps found at Goualougo Triangle, Congo in 1999Triangle, Congo in 1999

Violence of chimps is establishedViolence of chimps is established Is brutality hardwired into us?Is brutality hardwired into us?

““Male coalitional violence”Male coalitional violence” Problems:Problems:

Contrast with Bonobo chimps, where females Contrast with Bonobo chimps, where females are equal; no violenceare equal; no violence

Does modern chimp = 5/6 mill. ancestor?Does modern chimp = 5/6 mill. ancestor? 15 years before violence erupted at Gombe15 years before violence erupted at Gombe Modern chimps constrained, hunted (Gombe Modern chimps constrained, hunted (Gombe is 12.35 sq. miles)is 12.35 sq. miles)

““Naïve” chimps found at Goualougo Naïve” chimps found at Goualougo Triangle, Congo in 1999Triangle, Congo in 1999

ConclusionsConclusionsConclusionsConclusions Hardwired argument is unprovenHardwired argument is unproven

In all cultures, warfare needs In all cultures, warfare needs justificationjustification

Interesting that chimps and humans Interesting that chimps and humans react with coalitional violence when react with coalitional violence when circumscribed and resources are scarcecircumscribed and resources are scarce

Violence and war => propensity Violence and war => propensity elicited by circumstanceelicited by circumstance Not an inevitable destinyNot an inevitable destiny

Archaeology shows intraspecies killing Archaeology shows intraspecies killing goes back millenniagoes back millennia

Definition of warfare resurfaces to Definition of warfare resurfaces to constrain conclusionsconstrain conclusions

Hardwired argument is unprovenHardwired argument is unproven In all cultures, warfare needs In all cultures, warfare needs justificationjustification

Interesting that chimps and humans Interesting that chimps and humans react with coalitional violence when react with coalitional violence when circumscribed and resources are scarcecircumscribed and resources are scarce

Violence and war => propensity Violence and war => propensity elicited by circumstanceelicited by circumstance Not an inevitable destinyNot an inevitable destiny

Archaeology shows intraspecies killing Archaeology shows intraspecies killing goes back millenniagoes back millennia

Definition of warfare resurfaces to Definition of warfare resurfaces to constrain conclusionsconstrain conclusions