1SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844 e-mail: [email protected]/[email protected] m Tel.: 603-89467088

1SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844

e-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]

m

Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844

e-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]

m

2

INSTRUCTOR:INSTRUCTOR:

DR. SITI NOR BINTI YAACOBDEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES

FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY

INSTRUCTOR:INSTRUCTOR:

DR. SITI NOR BINTI YAACOBDEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES

FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY

SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

COURSE SYNOPSIS COURSE SYNOPSIS

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Processes of physical, cognitive, social and emotional growth and development from conception through adolescence. Emphasis on the major aspects at each stage of development. Processes and outcomes of interaction between the child-adolescent and the environment.


COURSE OBJECTIVES COURSE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the course students will be able to: • Identify ecological processes of physical, socio-

emotional and cognitive development of children and adolescents.(C2)

• Explain the effects of genetic, environment, and genetic-environment interactions influences on children-adolescent development. (C4, A3, CS)

• Explain the effects of children-adolescent interactions with the environment on children-adolescent growth and development. (P3, CTPS, TS)

By the end of the course students will be able to: • Identify ecological processes of physical, socio-

emotional and cognitive development of children and adolescents.(C2)

• Explain the effects of genetic, environment, and genetic-environment interactions influences on children-adolescent development. (C4, A3, CS)

• Explain the effects of children-adolescent interactions with the environment on children-adolescent growth and development. (P3, CTPS, TS)


About the course

Part One: Introduction - Concepts, Theories & Research

Part Two: Child PsychologyPart Three: Adolescent

psychology



COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITSCOURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS

Unit 1: Introduces major concepts, principles and

theories of child and adolescent development. Unit 1 also covers various alternative methods researchers use to

explore questions or obtain information on child and adolescent development.

Unit 2: Highlights the prenatal development of the

unborn child.

Unit 1: Introduces major concepts, principles and

theories of child and adolescent development. Unit 1 also covers various alternative methods researchers use to

explore questions or obtain information on child and adolescent development.

Unit 2: Highlights the prenatal development of the

unborn child.

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Unit 3: Postnatal Development – Birth & Infancy

Unit 4: Covers physical, intellectual, language and socio-

emotional development of children (early – late childhood).

Unit 3: Postnatal Development – Birth & Infancy

Unit 4: Covers physical, intellectual, language and socio-

emotional development of children (early – late childhood).

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Unit 5: Covers significant aspects of adolescent development

such as physical, cognitive, personality, moral and vocational planning. Specific developmental problems during adolescence are highlighted.

Unit 5: Covers significant aspects of adolescent development

such as physical, cognitive, personality, moral and vocational planning. Specific developmental problems during adolescence are highlighted.

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LECTURE TOPICSLECTURE TOPICS

1. Introduction

2. Prenatal development

3. Postnatal development

4. Physical development in children

5. Cognitive development in children

6. Language development in children

7. Socio-emotion and values development in children

1. Introduction

2. Prenatal development

3. Postnatal development

4. Physical development in children

5. Cognitive development in children

6. Language development in children

7. Socio-emotion and values development in children

8. Adolescents’ physical development

9. Adolescents’ cognitive development

10. Adolescents’ socio-emotional development

11. Adolescents’ vocational and career development

8. Adolescents’ physical development

9. Adolescents’ cognitive development

10. Adolescents’ socio-emotional development

11. Adolescents’ vocational and career development


AssessmentsAssessment %

Assignment 1 (Week 1 – 7) 10

Mid semester test 20

Assignment 2 (Lab)

1. Prenatal development report

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2. Lab project for children 20

3. Lab project for adolescent 15

Final exam 30



Derived from Latin words: psyche & logos Psyche = soul/emotions (feelings)

Logos = knowledge/field of studies Broad definition:

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive processes. It describes thinking and behavior and looks at the relationships between them (“the what”) and tries to explain the causes for them (“the why”)

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DEFINITION OF CONCEPT

What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)?What is Development

(Perkembangan)?


GROWTH

Growth is a quantitative process of change ex. change in weight/height – i.e. changes in size and structure, physical and mental aspects.

Changes can be measured & assess - from one stage to the other.

Growth will reach its peak once a person mature.


DEFINITION“ Growth is an individual

development in body size, for example changes in muscles, bones, hair, skin & glands. [Karl E. Garrison]

“Growth is a change that can be measured from one stage to the other, and from time to time” [Atan Long]

“Growth as an increment in a person external attributes. For examples in terms of size, height and body weight” [D.S Wright & Ann Taylor] 14SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ


WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

Development is change. Child development is a scientific study of processes

of change and stability from conception through adolescence.

It involves changes in physical, social, emotional and intellectual functioning over time.

Changes include alterations in size, shape and function. It can be either progressive or regressive.

Development occurs in the context of the significant social environment of life process (family, school, peer group, community).

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The study of children is concerned with two primary types of change over time: Quantitative change: refers to the easily

measurable and sometimes obvious aspects of development (including physical growth – height & weight, vocabulary, frequency of communication & years of education)

Qualitative change: refers to variations and modifications in functioning. It is a change in kind, structure or organization.

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Behavioral change as a developmental changeThree general condition/criteria

The change is orderly or sequential.The change results in a permanent alteration of behavior.

The change results in a new behavior or mode of functioning that is more advanced, adaptive or useful than prior behaviors.


Thus….Child Development is….A scientific study of understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence

A part of a larger discipline known as developmental psychology or human development, which includes all changes experienced throughout the lifespan


Developmental stagesPrenatal Infancy (0-2 years) & Toddlerhood (2-3

years)Early childhood(3-6 years) Middle childhood (6-10 years)Adolescence (11-19 years)

Early (11-14 years)Middle (15-17 years)Late (18-19 years)

Adulthood(≥ 20 years)Early (20-30 years)Middle (40-50 years)Late (60 years and above) 19SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ


DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENTDOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

Change & stability occur in various domains of the self. These domains are intertwined – each affects the others. 3 main domains:

Physical – growth of the body & brain, sensory capacities, motor skills & health.

Cognitive – change & stability in mental abilities (learning, memory, language, thinking, moral reasoning & creativity).

Psychosocial - change & stability in personality, emotional life & social relationships.

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Influences on Development: Factors that can influence

development are:-Nature (sejadi)

Genetic (Warisan/baka/genetik)Nurture (Asuhan)

Environment (Persekitaran)Food intake (Pemakanan)Health (Kesihatan)


Major Contextual InfluencesNormative Influences

Normative age-graded influences/event, i..e. biological or socialExample = puberty or entry into formal

schoolingNormative history-graded event, i.e. cohort (a

group of people who share a similar experience)Example = living during the Great

Depression/Tsunamii.e. Atypical events, e.g. having a birth defect

Non-normative InfluencesIndividual events that impact the person Events can be traumatic or happy 23SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ


HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Children of antiquity Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries) The Reformation (16th centuries) Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th

centuries) Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development Birth of Scientific Methodology Mental Testing Movement

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Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries) Infants/newborn are regarded as miniature, already

formed adult Age was unimportant in medieval custom No concrete theories on children’s uniqueness or

separate developmental periods There exist some awareness of the vulnerability of

children (child protection laws & special clinical care)

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The Reformation (16th centuries) Belief on original sin Children were born evil and stubborn and

had to be civilized toward a destiny of virtue and salvation

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Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) John Locke (1632-1704)

British philosopher who introduced “tabula rasa” Children begin with “nothing at all” Environments shape them Children are viewed in “passive”, “mechanistic”

term Ideas on “nurture” (parents as rational tutors)

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Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Children as “organism” - active shapers of their own destiny

Ideas on “nature” – development determined by their own innate nature

Innate-goodness view

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Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) Theory of Evolution 2 important & related concepts: natural selection &

survival of the fittest Emphasizes the adaptive value of physical

characteristics/surroundings/ environment and behavior Researchers were prompted to study all aspects of

children’s behavior The birth of “the science of child psychology” or child

study

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Birth of Scientific Methodology Baby Biographies

Charles Darwin (1877) Emphasizes observations on own children

and relatives From rudimentary observations to

improved methods

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Beginning of 20th century G. Stanley Hall pioneered the study of child

development Use questionnaire to study children Use scientific method Focus on adolescent development

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Mental Testing Movement Alfred Binet (1857-1911) Binet & Theodore Simon took a normative

approach, to find a way to identify children with learning problems who needed to be placed in special classes

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - 1916

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An emerging consensusAll domains are interrelated.Normal development includes a wide range of

individual differences.Children help to shape their own development

and influence others’ responses to them.Historical and cultural contexts strongly

influence development.Early experience is important, but children

can be remarkably resilient.Development in childhood is connected to

development throughout the rest of the lifespan.


Theories inDevelopmental Psychology

What is a theory?

A theory is a set of logically related concepts or statements, which seeks to describe and explain development and predict what kinds of behavior may occur under certain conditions.

Hypotheses are tentative explanations or predictions that can be tested by research.

An orderly, integrated set of statements that:

DescribesExplains

behaviorPredicts

Benefits: Explain the meaning of

an event/facts Able to relate these

facts


TheoriesPsychoanalytic

Psychosexual (S. Freud)Psychosocial (E. Erickson)

LearningBehavioral Learning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Social Learning (A. Bandura)Cognitive

Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget)Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky)Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg)

Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)


Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality

Id•Largest portion of the mind•Unconscious, present at birth•Source of biological needs & desires

Ego•Conscious, rational part of mind•Emerges in early infancy•Redirects id impulses acceptably

Superego•The conscience•Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers


PsychoanalyticPsychosexual (S.

Freud)*Psychosexual stages

Psychosocial (E. Erickson)* 8 stages of development

•Oral stageOral stage•Anal stageAnal stage•PhallicPhallic•LatencyLatency•GenitalGenital

• Trust versus mistrust • Autonomy vs shame• Initiative vs guilt • Industry vs Inferiority• Identity vs Identity Confusion • Intimacy versus isolation • Generativity vs stagnation • Integrity vs despair


PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic theory proposes that morality

develops through humans' conflict between their instinctual drives and the demands of society.

Freud identified three parts of the personality that become integrated during five stages of development

IdEgoSuperego


Personality Structure

superego

ego

ID


Personality Structures

ID (unconscious element)the largest portion is the source of basic

biological needs and desires.EGO (semi-conscious element)

the conscious rational part of the personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways

SUPEREGO (The conscious element that function on the basis of morality). the conscience that develops between ages 3

and 6 through interactions with parents, who insist that the child conform to the values of society.


Freud Psychosexual stages:Oral stage [0- 1 year] –

Mouth is the focus of stimulation & interaction. Feeding & weaning are central

Anal stage [1-3 year] –Anus as the focus of stimulation &

interaction. Elimination & toilet training is central


Freud Psychosexual stages:Phallic [3-6year]

The genital is the focus of stimulation. Gender role & moral development are central.

Conflict between id & superegoChildren interested to know more different

sexes, babies etc.2 main conflict:

Oedipus Conflict son attracted to motherElectra Conflict daughter attracted to

fatherPenis envy


Freud Psychosexual stages:

Latency [6-12 year]A period of suspended sexual

activities; Energy shift to physical and intellectual activities. Focus on achievement

Genital [Adolescent – adulthood (12 & above)]Genital are the focus of stimulation

with the onset of pubertyMature sexual relationship develop


Erikson’s Psychosocial stagesLate Adulthood (60 above) Integrity vs Despair

Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s) Generativity vs Stagnation

Young Adulthood (20 -30’s) Intimacy vs Isolation

Adolescent (12-19) Identity vs Role Confusion

Middle childhood (6-11) Industry vs Inferiority

Early Childhood (3-5) Initiative vs Guilt

Toddler (1-2) Autonomy vs Shame/doubt

Infancy (0-1) Trust vs Distrust


Behaviorism & Social Learning

Classical Conditioning

(Pavlov)

Stimulus – Response

Operant Conditioning

(Skinner)

Reinforcers (Reward) and Punishments

Social Learning (Bandura)

Modeling


Behavioral TheoryClassical

ConditioningIvan Pavlov

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

• Stimulus & Response Learning based on

association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.

•Learning based on reinforcement (punishment) or punishment

• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement

• Punishment• Behavior

modification


Behavioral TheorySocial Learning TheoryAlbert Bandura

Modelling (Role model)Theory that behaviors are learned by

observing and imitating modelsObservational learningModelsImportance of values and thoughts

in imitating behavior of a modelPractical implications?


Behaviorism & Social LearningDevelopment results from learningBehaviorism – a mechanistic theory

Continuous changeQuantitative change

Importance of the environmentAssociative learning


Cognitive TheoryJean PiagetCognitive

Development

Socio-Cultural Theory

L. Vygotsky

• Sensorimotor (0-2)• Preoperational (2-6)• Concrete Operational (6-11)• Formal Operation (11-adulthood)

• Community & culture influence on development Focus is the social, cultural, and historical complex of which the child is part.

• Social Interaction• Zone of proximal

development – The difference between what a child can do alone and with help

• Scaffolding – Temporary support to help a child master a task.


Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryTransmission of culture to

new generationBeliefs, customs, skills

Social interaction necessary to learn cultureCooperative dialogue with more knowledgeable members of societyZone of proximalScaffolding


Cognitive TheoryMoral DevelopmentKohlbergParas 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9

tahun)Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taatHedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik

Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun)Moraliti “budak baik”Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti

Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca KonvensionalMoraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-

undang secara demokrasiOrientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal

dan beretika51SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS APPROACH Human Ecological

SystemU. Bronfenbrenner

View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory

Understanding processes and contexts of development

Micro systemMeso systemExosystemMacrosystemChronosystem


Ecological Systems Theory


RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDYING CHILDREN


Research methods Qualitative and quantitative research Scientific method – system of

established principles and processes of scientific inquiry Identifying a problem Formulating hypotheses Collecting data Analyzing the data Disseminating findings


SamplingGroups of participants chosen to

represent the entire populationThe sample should adequately

represent the population under studyGeneralization

Random selection


Forms of data collection Naturalistic and laboratory

observations Parental self-reports

Clinical interview Open-ended interview Structured interview Questionnaire

Psychophysiological Methods


Systematic Observation Observe respondent in their natural setting

Naturalistic Observation In the “field” or natural environment

where behavior happensStructured observation

Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest

All participants have equal chance to display behavior

Participant observation Incognito

Record dataAudioVideoManual


Interviews

Clinical InterviewFlexible,

conversational style

Probes for participant’s point of view

Structured Interview

Each participant is asked same questions in same way

May use questionnaires, get answers from groups


Basic research designs

Case studies Collect various information about a subject to be

studied (people/event) Make a conclusion about subject understudied.

Ethnographic studies Participant observation

Correlational studies – To examine the relationship between 2 variables

(independent and dependent variables) Research intended to discover whether a statistical

relationship between two variables existsProblems of control and interpretation of

causality Survey - A study on respondent’s views on

certain issuesUse Questionnaires/Structured interview

schedule


Correlation CoefficientsMagnitude

Size of the number between 0 and 1.

Closer to one (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship

DirectionIndicated by + or - sign.Positive (+) means, as

one variable increases, so does the other

Negative (-) means, as one variable increase, the other decreases.


Correlations


Experimental studies

To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena understudied

Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. Independent variable - the condition over

which the experimenter has direct control Dependent variable - the condition that

may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable

Experimental group and control group


Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variableExperimenter changes,

or manipulatesExpected to cause

changes in another variable.

Dependent variableExperimenter

measures, but does not manipulate

Expected to be influenced by the independent variable

Modified Experiments:Field Experiments

Use rare opportunities for natural assignment in natural settings

Natural ExperimentCompare differences

in treatment that already exist

Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible


Designs for Studying Development

Longitudinal

Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages

Cross-sectional

People of differing ages all studied at the same time

Longitudinal-Cross-sectional

Same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages.


Children’s Research Rights

Protection from harmRight to Informed consentKnowledge of resultsBeneficial treatmentsAvoidance of deception

Debriefing, providing a full account and justification of research activities, should take place with children, but does not always work as well

Right to privacy and confidentiality


Documents

1SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844 e-mail: [email protected]/[email protected] m Tel.: 603-89467088