A TECHNIQI]N FOR THEMEAST]REMENT OF ATTITT]DESBYREI{SISLTT(F'B1,Ph.D.NEW YORKUNIVERSITYARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGYR. S. WOODIYORTE,EorronNo. 140firch;npt nI ?syrL.l5yVr(v^e zz (n5z -3s)((' s-s5i\iNEWYOITKJune, 1932TABLEOF CONTENTSII. ProblemIII. ProcedureIY. Results 2L1. The Sigma Method of Seoring.. .2L2. The SimplerMethodof Scoring. . .253. The Reliabilityof the Scales. . .284. The Validity of the Scales325. Comparisonof the SimplerMethod withthe ThurstoneMethod of Scoring. . .33V. PsychologicalInterpretationPageo11YI. SummaryAppendix,42The Method of Constructing an Attitude4454ScaleBibliographyA Technique for the MeasurementofAttitudesI. INTRODUCTION*Attemptsto measure the traits of character and personalityare nearlyas old as techniques for the measurement of intel-lectual capacity,yet it can scarcely be claimedthat they haveachieveda similarsuecess.Part, at least, of the difficultyhas lain in the statistical difficultieswhich are encounteredwhen everydayaspectsof soeial behavior, ordinarilyhandledas qualitativeaffairs,are treated from the mathematicalpointof view. Thepresent study, although part of a larger in-vestigationundertaken in L929 by Gardner Murphy, aimsprimarily at the solution of a technical problem whichhasarisenin relationto the quantitative aspectsof the study ofsocial attitudes.Thehistory and present statusof researchupon personalitytraits in general, and social attitudesin particular, have beenso thoroughly surveyedby Murphy (21, pp. 381-386, and 22,pp.558-690), Bain (4), Vetter (41), Katz and Allport (16),W'atson (43), and others, that no usefulpurpose would beserved in attemptingsuch a study here.Nevertheless,amongthe hundredsof effortsto measuresocial attitudes during the Iast few years, the careful pro-ceduresdeveloped by Thurstone(34, 38) havenaturallyandrightly received speeial attention.These are characterizedby a special endeavorto equalize the step-intervalsfrom oneattitudeto the next in the attitude scale,using the familiarmethods of psychophysicsfor such determinations.The Thurs-tonemethods have been shown to yield a satisfactoryrelia-bility, and, in terms of correlationsbetweenscoresand casehistoriesas evaluated by judges, a satisfactoryvalidity(Zg).Manyobviousaffinitiesappearbetweenthe present studyand thoseof Thurstone, yet in a sense the presentreport_ * This studyis oneof a seriesunderthegeneral directionof ProfessorGardner Murphy.5il\,I'j'1,ili'constitutes a radical departurefrom the conceptswhichThurs-tone has published, as, for example,in the use of judges.A numberof statistical assumptionsare made in the ap-plication of his attitude scales,-e.g.,that the scale valuesof the statementsare independentof the attitudedistributionof the readers who sort the statements(38, p. 92),-assump-tions which, as Thurstonepoints out, have not been verified.The method is, moreover,exceedingly laborious.Itseemslegitimate to inquirewhetherit actually doesits workbetterthan the simplerscales whichmaybe employed,and in thesame breath to ask also whetherit is not possible to constructequallyreliablescaleswithout making unnecessarystatisticalassumptionis. Since so much is being published about attitudemeasurement,it seems worth whileto raise these questionsand to report on some results relativeto the problem. It isfeared that some will mistakenly interpretthis article as an"attack" on Thurstone'smethods. Itherefore wish to em-phasize in the strongest terms that I am simplyendeavoringto call attentionto certain problems of method, and that Iam very far from convincedthat the present data closethequestion.richThurs-rdges.in the ap-rale valuesistribution-assump-:n verified.Itseems'ork betterrnd in thel constructstatisticalut attitudequestionsem. It is;icle as ansh to em-rdeavoring,nd that I, close theII. PROBLEMFrom an historical point of view onefact deservesemphasis,namely the extraordinary interest in recent years in the prob-i.* of the "gererality" or "specificity" of character traits-aproblemwhich in its simplestformhasto do with the questionof ttr. functional independenceof socialhabits. Roughlyspeaking, the speciflcity theorywould define personalityas,-.o*po.ite of many independenthabits, while thosewho em-phasize the relativeunityof character pointto signiflcantgeneral factors which make for effective predictionfrom be'havior in one situationto behavior in a differentsituation.It seems to the presentwriter that the problem of specificityhas been greatlymisunderstoodby manywriters upon socialattitudes andthat the value of such contributionsas the pres-ent may lie chiefly in redirecting attentionto thoseaspectsof the speciflcity-generality problemupon which quantitativeresultsare clear-cutand psychologicallysigniflcant.It willbe well first to consider brieflythe logic of the specificity-gen-erality problem, thento present and evaluate our data, andfinallyto undertaketo flnd the psychologicalsignificance ofour datain relationto the problem raised.Ifan attitudebe definedby the social psychologistas atendencytoward a particularresponsein a particular situa-tion, it is clear that the numberof deflnable attitudesexistingin a given person at a given time will dependuponthe rangeof stimulito whichhe is subjected.But since it is possibleto group stimuliin almost any conceivablemannerand toelassify and subclassifythem indefinitely,it is strictly truethat the numberof attitudes which any givenperson possessesis almostinfinite.This resultis statisticallyas well as psycho-logically absurd. Exactly the sameabsurdity and the sameobstacleto research is offeredby those definitionsof attitudewhich conceivethem merely as aerbalerpressions or as in-dicationsof assentto or dissentfrom particularverbal expres-sions.The number of possible verbalcombinationsis, ofcourse, infinite andthe numberof attitudesmust on this basislikewise be so. It is clear then that those who have definedattitudes in the above two r,vays have not meant exactly what\ii8A TECHNIQUEFORTHEthey have said. They havereally intendedto indicatenot theactuallydiscriminabletendencies to oVertaction or the verbal-response patternsbut certain discernible groups of socialresponses. Within each group a family resemblance of thevariousresponses is assumed, and each group of attitudes issupposedto showsome distinguishabledifferencefrom everyother group. If the analysis is pressed far enough,this turnsout to meanthat the attitude is a habit sufficiently compactand stableto be treated as a unit. It will, of course, be recog-nized that variationsof an individual's responsewithin thissphere of a given "attitude," togetherwith differences betw'eeneachattitude and the next,are involved. If it is my "attitude"to regard the eating of starchesas a dietetic monstrosity,either an inherited dislike for such foods or a bundle of ac-quired tendencies directed towards bread, potatoes, rice,etc.,must be assumedto exist. Whether we take the attitudethereforeas an entityinnate or learned, it is in eithercase notan inflexible and rigid elementin personality(if, in fact, any. such elementsexist), but rathera certainraruge witltin whicltrl)esponseslnoae.On this basis oneof our cardinal problems is to find whethersocial attitudes,in this sense,can be shownto be measurable,andif an affirmativeanswer is forthcoming,a serious attemptmust be made to justify the separation of one attitude fromothers. For if there are no family differeneesbetweenatti-tudes,there is simplyone infinite seriesof attitudes. On thisbasis the measurementof attitudes could never mean any-thing morethan the determinationof an amount of someonetendeneypresent, but whatthis one tendency aetually is couldnever be defined.Perhapsvaguelyrealizing this difficulty, many investigatorsin the fleld of attitudemeasurementhave assumed a sharpdistinction between different familiesof attitudes,and per-fect resemblanceor indeedidentitybetweenthe membersofany given family of responses. Take,for example,the fre-quentraisingof questions as to whether there is a relationbetweeninternationalismandeconomicliberalism.Suchtermi-nology is based upontwo assumptions: first, that there is anentityto be called internationalism, the boundaries of whichcan be so defined as to separateit from economicliberalismand permit one to tell whichis which-otherwise the state-rte not the;he verbal-of socialrce of thettitudesisrom everythis turnsy compact, be recog-irithinthis:s betwben"attitude"onstrosity,rdle of ac-, rice, etc.,re attitudegr case notr fact, anythi,nwhiclt,rd whetherreasurable,us attemptItudefrom;weenatti-s. On thismean any-f someonelly is couldvestigatorsrd a sharpl, and per-rembersofle, the fre-a relationiuch termi-there is ans of whichliberalism, the state-x If an exactDictionary andpersons viewedtentions, etc.',MEASUREMENTOF ATTITUDESment is tautological-, second, it is assumed that witluin thesphere of internationalistic responsesthereis good predictionfrom one response to the next. Internationalismis treatedas an entity such that the defining of a person's international-ism on a givenissue woulddeflne his internationalismon allothers.We have not been concernedup to the present, to define theterm "attitude," sincethe logic of the above argumentseemsto be the samewhen applied to either of two prevailing defi-nitions of attitude. Contemporarydefinitionscluster abouttwo chief conceptions:first, that_attitUdeg-_a_rg dispositionsioward-overtaglion ; second,thfthey uru *rUat if^6-sTifutesfor overt action.The former usage seemsto the presentwriter to be preferable.* The verbal declarations of opinionand attitude are regardedas an indirectmethodof measuri,ngdispositiozswhich are most easily signifledand expressedinverbal form. It is desirable,however,to point out that thesame considerationsregardingspecificity and generality applyto the verbal declarationsas to othersocial habits. The sameproblemof group factorsand specialfactorsappearsevenwhen dealing with paper and pencil behavior.consequentlywhether attitudes be defined in termsof un- 'derlyingdispositionstoward overtactionor in termsof mereverbal declarations, investigators have proceeded almostwith-out question upon the assumptionthat social attitudes aregrouped in patterns or clusters.A seriesof verbal proposi- -rtions dealing with the same general social issue are assumedto be moreor less equivalent,or at least to be closely relatedso as to permit prediction from a knowredgeof a subject,sattitude on one issueto the same subject,sattitudes o, oth."aspects of the same issue.similarly,overt behaviorfavorable rrto or in oppositionto a racial, national,religious,or economieLgroup, is assumedto have some predictive value in relation toconduct in the future when the sa.megroup or class is againinvolved. Speakinggenerally, attitudes may be conceived as.r"clustered"or linked together; a generalpro-Japanese atti-\tude,for example,may show itself in a seriesof pro-JapaneseE.$T'ffit$, rldefinitionbe. regardedas useful,the following(CenturyCgclopedia,1904-1906,I, 974)iipreferred: n'reiation oias the expressionof, or as affecting, feeling,opinion,- in-10verbaldeclarations or a series of pro-Japanese overtacts.Instatisticallanguage,a group factor is assumed at the outset.Now just as the student of mentalorganization recognizesgroup factors which vary greatly in their magnitudeandsigniflcance,so the student of attitudestends to think of rela-tively important group factors occurringin some attitudeareasand relatively unimportantones in others.Here, how-ever, the agreement among the investigatorsends. In thefew short yearsduring whichany serious statistical sophis-tication has existedin attitude research, much acrimony hasbeenevident between those who are concernedto regard thegroup factors as slightand unimportant,and those who regardthemas largeand signiflcant.Thus we flnd Bain (4) insist-ing that attitudes cluster togetheronlywhen they constitutealternative verbalizations of the same conative tenclencyinrelation to a speciflcallydeflned social situation. The variousstudies in the speciflcityof charactertraits have led to a wide-spreadand, it mustbe admitted,highly uncritical acceptanceof the view that verbal propositions have no predictive valuefor anythingelsein life exceptsimilarverbal propositionsconfronted by the same subjectunder the sar,e -ircumstances.On the other hand, an excessively general view of charactertraits is naivelyassumedwith almost equal frequencybywriters who have discussedradicalism and conservatism,someof whom have deflnedthe characteristicsof radicalsand con-servatives,suggestingevidenceas to the psychologicalmech-anismsmaking for such general trends. Thus as early as1924, H. T. Moore (20) deflnedflve basic psychological char-acteristics predisposing towards radicalismas contrastedwithconservatism, and as recentlyas 1929 and 1930 G. W. All-port (2, 3) has arguedfor a clusterof traits, chieflyintellec-tual, which makefor radicalismon political, economic, andother social issues.It seems to be hish timeto cut through the statisticalcon-fusionwhich has resulted from the whole speciflcity-generaiityargument,to bring out the actualpoints of disagreementwhich separatetheserival groupsof psychologists, to makeclear the statisticalassumptionsinvolvedin all such methodsof reasoning,and above all to test empirically in an extensiveway the actual coherenceor clustering of attitudeson a varietyof public issues.acts. In) outset.cognizesude andof rela-attitudere, how-In theI sophis-rony hasgard thero regard1) insist-ronstitute.clency ine various;o a wide-cceptance;ive valuerpositionsmstances.characteruency byism,somel and con-cal mech-i early asiical char-astedwithl. w. A11-.y intellec-,omic, andsticalcon--generalitYagreementr, to makerh methodsr extensiven a varietYIII. PROCEDUREThe project conceived in L929by Gardner Murphyand thepresent writer aimed flrst of all to presenta wide arcay ofproblems having to do with these flve major "attitude areas":international relations, race relations,economiecoirflict, po-litical conflict and religion.The attitude areas bestcovered inthe questionnaireare thoseof race relations,internationalre-lations, and economic conflict.It wasour convictionthat veryhigh specificity would exist among the elements used in ourquestionnaire, exceptinsofar as the questions clearly dealt*ittr the same issues.On the basisof resultsobtainedbyC. W. Hunter (15), for example,in the field of Negro-whiterelations, it was believedthat attitudestowardsegregation,toward eatingwith the Negroand toward lynching would beindependent, and that in general any one speeiflcattitude to-wardthe Negro wouldbear no clear relation to the attitudeson other issues.This,of course, does not meanthat we ex-pectedto obtair: the rather ideal specificity which wouldbeindicated by a zero reliability (by the split-halfmethod)whencomparing pro-Negro attitudeson some itemswith pro-Negroattitudeson others. It does mean,however,that we expectedfifteen attitudesdealingwith nearlyfifteen different issues inwhich the Negrois involved, to give exceedinglylow split-half reliability, and that in order to obtainanything like atrue "scale" for the measurementof such a thing as pro- oranti-Negro feeling, onewouldhave to employdozens or evenscores of questions.In the same w&y, the specificityof opin-ions on internationaland economicissues was assumed to beso great that an enormous number of items wouldhave to beused in order to give a satisfactoryreliabilityfor any scalewhich could be constructed. Itis important to emphasizetheseexpectations at the outset,since the results, although insome respects confirmingour belief, have in generalyieldedremarkably clear-cut group factors, groupfactors which inthe light of the small number of items usedmust be regardedas having, for the studentsubjectsused, a statusas clearasthat enjoyedby groupfactors of immediate memory,verbal11ability, and the likecalledattention.TECHNIQUE FOR THEto r,vhich a numberof statisticians haveThe methodby whichthe questionnairewas constructedwasas follows. Havingdeterminedto studyintensivelythe mat-ter of international,inter-racial and economicattitudes, and,to a minor degree, political and religious attitudes, amonglarge numbersof collegestudentsat typical American uni-versities, a surveywas made of the questionnairesalready ad-ministeredby other psychologists for these purposes.Amongthose which proved especiallyhelpful were those of G. B. Neu-mann(23), C. W. Hunter (15) and R. W. Georse (9).Inaddition, about two hundred newspapersand magazines were. rapidlysurveyedduring the autumn of 1929, declarationsofYXrpinion beingculledfor consideration,special emphasisbeinggiven to the more dogmatictypes of opinion frequentlyfoundin editorials.A smallnumber of questionswere in-cluded from books, addressesand pamphlets, and a numberweremade up by the experimenters.Whereverit was possibleto use questionnaire material whichhad previously been ex-tensively tried out, andwhere, in a sense,"norms"wereavail-able, we preferred to usethe questions exactlyas they stood.In a few cases,it was necessaryto abbreviateand simplify\the questionsin order to make sure that only one issuewast involved and that ambiguity was avoided.In those instances'in whichwe made up our own questions,we sought to empha-sizesimplicity,clarity, and brevity.. Without exception,the questions were presentedin such a '\form as to permit a "judgmentof value"ratherthan a "judg-' ment of fact." Phrasessuch as "TheUnitedStatesshould,"or "We ought to," or "No man should be allowed"constantlyreappeared.In a few instancesit may seemon first inspec-tion that a question has to do with a questionof fact, butcloser analysiswill revealthe highly arbitrary character ofsuch"facts." Perhaps the least desirableof all the questionsused was the following: "Is war at presenta biological neces-sity?" Such a question appearsto many minds to be categori-callya factualone;for example,from a neo-Malthusian pointof viewit may be regardedas capable only of an affirmativeanswer.The term "necessity," holvever,refershere moretothe student'sattitudes toward various wants than to any ofthose types of necessity whichare discussed by physicists or12Ltt\havel wasmat-, and,mongr uni-ly ad-.mong, Neu-). In-, wererns ofbeinguentlYre in- *umberrssibleen ex-avail-stood.mplifyte was,taneesrmpha-such a ""judg-rould,"stantlyinspec-ct, butcter ofestions. neces-rtegori-n point'mativenore toany ofsists orNTEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDESlogicians. This is not offered in defense of the use of this.,r*i.otur item, which is regarded as one whichshouldhave;;;, omitted; this explanation is offered only to make clearinut ut least in the great, majorityof cases and, we hope, inall, the inquiry has to do with the wants,desires, conativedispositions of the subjects, not with their opinionsregardingmatters of fact.One further generalizationmay be offered regardingtheplan underlying the choicesof questions. Sincevalue judg-ments are required,it was conceivedthat every issue mightbe presented in sucha way as to allow the subject to take sidesas between two clearlyopposed alternatives.Furthermore-,.each issuewas so drawn that two conflicting groups of per- 'sons wereeither namedor implied,and the subjectallowedto affiliate himself with oneor with the other group.In thestruggle of the Negro, for example,to attain economic, politi-cal, or socialequality,where the white man resists suchequality, the subjecthas an opportunityeitherto take or to,.for" to take the Negrostandpoint. In the caseof the con-flict of relativelyunfavoredeconomie groups againstthose ;who enjoy special opportunities, and in the case of weakernations which demand greater territorialor economic ex-pansion than is at presentpermitted them,the same oppor-tunity to ally oneselfwith one or the other of two opposingfactions is involved. Again,it is not asserted that we havein all casessucceededin framing an ideal "conflict issue."Wewouldurge, however, that the great majorityof conflict issuescovered in our survey are empiricallyimportant issues,inwhichstudents at American universities actually do haveopportunityto take sides and with regardto which the greatmajorityhave heardrepeateddiscussions;secondly,that theresults constitutein themselvesan empirical checkon thedegreeof successwith which a tendency to take the side of agivengroup does enter into our questionsin such a wayas tobe empiricallymeasured.High speeiflcitywould have meant,amongother things, that we had certainlyfailedin finding anygeneralpro-Negro, anti-Japanese,etc. attitudes, and wouldhaveled to statisticaldifficultiesof varioussorts in handlingincoherentmassesof unrelatedmaterial. The clear-cut gen-erality of certain attitudes, sueh as pro-Negro,international-ism, etc., shows that it is preciselyin the fleld of affiL'iation\t\13u,,t*-k!iA TECHNIQUEFOR THE\\witll or againsf certain social groupsthat the most deflniteresults are obtained.Throughcollaborationrvith instructors,the attitudestestswere given to undergraduates(chiefly male)in nine universi-ties and collegesextendingfrom Illinoisto ConnecticutandfromOhio and Pennsylvaniato Virginia. (The namesof theinstitutions cannot appropriately be printedhere,only theColumbiaCollegedata, Group D, being identifled.)The totalnumber of individuals participatingwas somewhat above2000 but the data here intensivelyanalyzed werederivedfromonly 650* persons. The attitudestest, calleda SURVEY OFOPINIONS,was first given in the late fall of 1929 (to allgroups exceptGroupC and Group F which were given the testin 1931)and, by arrangement with instructors, a retest given30 days later. Some items from the first test and manynewitems were included in this secondtest. The flrst test requiredon the average about40 minutes and the retesta slightlylonger time.Thekindof questionnairematerialto be reported here fallsinto four main classes. In the first, questions were to be an-swered by a Yes, a questionmark,or a No, as for example,"Do you favor the early entrance of the United Statesinto the'Leagueof Nations?"YES ?NO. Next came a seriesofmultiple-choicequestionsin which one of flve possible answerswas to be selected,for example: "Usingthe term 'armaments'to meanequipmentdevisedfor war ratherthan for policepurposes, our policy should be to favor: (a) absolute and im-mediatedisarmamentof all nations, (b) rapid and drasticreductionof the armamentsof all nations, (c) slow but steadyreductionof all armaments,(d) maintenancefor a long timeof approximatelythe present military and naval strengthofall the powers,(e) our free military and naval expansionun-embarrassedby agreementswith other nations." Third, therewas a series of propositions to be respondedto by the words(a) stronglEa,pproae, (b) approae,(c) undeci,ded, (d) dis-approae, (e) strongly d'isapproue,for example: "All menwhohave the opportunity should enlist in the CitizensMilitary* These650casesrepresent a randomsamplefromsevenof the groupscomprisedin the study. The dataon two of the nine collegeshave not asyet been analyzed.Of course, only those individualswere usedfor whomwehave completedata.t4deflnite:s testsniversi-:ut ands of thenly thehe total; aboveed from,EY OF(to allthe testst givenrny newrequiredslightlYere fallso be an-:xample,into theseries ofanswersnaments'rr policeand im-I drastic-rt steadYong time'ength ofrsion un-.rd, therehe words(d) dis-'All men, Militarythe grouPsravenot asI for whomYES.(4)MEAST]RE'MENT OF ATTITUDES 15Training camps." Fourth, a series of abbreviatednewspaper"rirrtf*s about social conflicts, terminating in a sentenceI.r.ri5ing the outcome of this conflict,the studentbeing askedil-i"airute his response to this outcome,for example:"Agrorpof Japanese truek-farmers in Southern California,it roogf, their industry and lowerstandardsof living, are ableto undersell their American competitors.The Americanfarm'CTS iNSiSt thAt IT IS THEDUTY OF ALL WHITE PEOPLETO PURCHASE ONLY FROM WHITEFARMERS."ThiSIast form of questionmakesuse of the same set of five re-Sponses mentioned above,strongfu approye'approue,unde',:i d,, d,, d,isappr oa e, andstr atr' glu di'sapp r oa e'THE ATTITUDESCALESThe different scales presentedhere have been given theirrespective namesmerelyfor convenience in referring to them.The names given them seem the most plausible, but to avoidany "jingle fallacy"it should be recognizedthat the scalesmeasure merely what the different statementsincludedinthem involve.In the SURVEYOF OPINIONS the statementsdid notappear consecutivelyas shown in the followingscalesbut werel-scatteredamong many statements having to do with otherattitudes.I NtnnN.o,rroNAlrsMScu.pThe numbersin parenthesesbelow or at the side of the differentalter-nativesshowthe numericalvalueassignedto themin the finalscoring.Thesenumberswere, of course,not present uponthe SURYEYOFOPINIONS when taken by the subject.1. Doyou favorthe earlyentrance of the UnitedStates intothe Leagueof Nations?YES(412. Oughtthe United Statesto consultother nations in makingher im-migrationlaws??(3)3. Should theUnitedStates give naval demonstrations in the Pacific??(3)NO(2)NO(2)NO(4)NO(4)YES(2t?(3)4. Is war at present a biologicalnecessity?YES(2)?(3)16 A TECHNISUEFOR THEShouldthe United States recognizethe Soviet government?YES?NO(4)(3)(z',)Shouldthe Treaty of Versaillesbe reconsidered, with greater leni-encygiven to Germany?7.YES(4)Should the United States cancela large part ofin returnfor concessionsas to disarmamentstructionabroad??(3)YES?(4)(3)Shouldthere be a nationalreferendumNO(2)the Allied war debtandeconomicrecon-9. Do you look with suspicionuponthe ideaof a Super-State as thefuture hope of internationalgovernment?YES(4)YES(2)YES(4)YES(4)?(3)?(3)?(3)?(3),!(3),NO(2)on every war?NO(2)NO(4)NO(4)NO(2)NO(2)YES(2)10.Is it an idle dreamto expect to abolishwar?11. Are you in sympathywith the movementfor the outlawingof war?12.Shouldthe United Statesenterthe'WorldCourt?(c)(d)(e)14. How(a)13. How much military training shouldwe have?(a) We need universalcompulsorymilitary training.(1)(b) We need CitizensMilitaryTraining Campsand ReserveOfficersTrainingCorps,but not universal military train-ing. (2)We needsome facilitiesfor trainingreserveoffieersbutnot as much as at present.(3)We need only suchmilitary trainingas is required tomaintain our regular army.(4)All military trainingshould be abolished.(5)largeshould our navy be?We should maintain the "two-power standard"formerlymaintainedby GreatBritain (i.e. ours should be asstrongas any two others).(b) We should maintaina considerablemargin overournearest competitor.(c) Weshouldshare first place withanotherpower as atpresent.(d) We should attemptonlyto maintain secondplace.(e) We shouldnotbe especiallyconcernedwith our rank as anaval power.(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)15.IVIEAST]REMENT, OF ATTITUDESL7'"iffi#",i?ffi ;?'#fi H"ilH;::#,".iJ,"$J,:':f:il:f,"."fftJux:(a) absolute and immediate iisarmament of all nati-ons.(5)iUi "rpiA anddrasticreduction of the armamentsof all na-'-' tioirs.G)r"l =iL* but steadyreduction of all armaments.(3)iiimaintenance for a long time of approximatelythe pres-t-' entmilitaryand navalstrengthof all the powers.(2')(e) our free military and naval expansionunembarrassedby'-' ag"""*ents with other nations.(1)All menrrho have the opportunity should enlist in the CitizensMilitary Training CamPs.StronglYApprove(1)The UnitedStates,whethera memberor not, should co-operatefullyin the humanitarianand economic programs of the LeagueofNations.StronglyApprove ApproveUndecided Di- (5)(4)(3)18. In the interest'of permanentpeace, we shouldbe willingto arbitrateabsolutely all differenceswithother nationswhich we cannot read-ily settle by diplomaey.StronglyStronglyApproveApproveUndecided DisapproveDisappiove(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)19. A personwho loves his fellowmenshouldrefuse to engagein anywar,no matterhow seriousthe consequencesto his country.StronglyStronglyApproveApproveUndecided DisapproveDisappiove(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)The united statesshouldhave the largestmilitary and navalairfleetsin the world.StronglyUndecided DisapproveDisapprove(3)(4)(5)StronglyoveDisapprove(1)StronglyDisapprove(5)ter leni-wardebtric recon-rte as theg of war?(1)ieserve'train-(2)ers but(3)ired to(4)(5)ormerlYIbeasver our:r as ate.ankas aApprove(2\Approve(2)Undecided(3)StronglyApprove(1)StronglyApprove(5)16.t7.21.,osappr(2)StronglyApproveApproveUndecided Disapprove(1)(2)(3)(4')we shouldbe willingto fight for our country whetherit is in therightor in the wrong.Strongly StronglyApqlgveApproveUndecided DisapproveDisappio?e(1)(2)(3)(q(tt)we muststrivefor loyalty to our country beforewecan affordtoconsiderworldbrotherhood.(1)(z)StronglyDisapproveDisapprove(4)(5)(3)(4)(5)23. our countryshouldneverdeclare war againunderany eircumstances.Approve Undecided Di(4)(3)StronglyoveDisapprove(1)sappr(2).*-:ew*A TECHNIQUE FOR THE24. Moving pictures showing military drill andnaval manoeuvresshouldbe exhibitedto encourag:epatriotism.NEGROSCALE(Statement Number4 was not inciudedin the odd statementsor theevenstatementswhen finding the split-ha1f reliability.)1. Would mostnegroes,if not heldin their place,become officious,over-bearing, and disagreeable?YES"1.NO(4)sat down,and thenwouldyou leavetheNO(4)NO(2)(2) (3)4. Do youdisapproveof the use of the term "nigger"?YES?NO(4)(3)(2)5. Ifyou heard of a negrowho had boughta homeor a farm wouldyoube glad?2. If you went into a cafeteriain a northern city,realized you were at the tablewith a negro,table?YES '1.(?',)(3)3. Would youshake hands with a negro?YES'1.(4)(3)StronglyApprove Approve(1)(2\StronglyDisapproveDisapprove, . (4)(5)NO(2)(3)extreme(2)a white(1)tracleeducation)go?(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)rvhites, a negroUndecided(3)?(3)6. In a communityin which the negroes outnumber the whites,underwhat circumstancesis thelynchingof a negro justifiable?(")Never.(5)(b) In very exceptionalcases wherea speciallybrutal crimeagainsta_whitep-erson calls for swiftpunishment.(4)(c) As punishmentforanybrutalcrime againsta whiteYES(4',)(a) excusedor ignored.(b) reprimanded.(c) fined and jailed.(d) not only fined and jailed,ment(rvhipping,etc.).(e) lynched.(5)(4)(3)but alsogivencorporal punish-7.person.(d) As punishmentfor any gross offense (feiony orinsoience) committed againsta whiteperson.(e) As punishmentfor anyact of insolenceagainstperson.How farin our educationalsystem (asidefromshouldthe most intelligentnegroes be allowedto(a) Grade school.(b) Juniorhighschool.(c) High school.(d) College.(e) Graduateand professional school.In a communitywhere the negroes outnumberthe'whois insolentto a whiteman shouldbe:(2)(1)wes shouldStronglYDisaPProve(5)nents or theficious, over-rn. and thenrou leave therrm wouldYouwhites, under,able?(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)education)(1)(2')(3)(4)(5)whites, a negro(5)(4)(3)rral punish (2)(1)r extremest a whitertal crime:nt.; a white:acleo?9. All negToessame way'StronglYAPProve(1)10. Negro homesStronglYMEASUREII/IENT OF ATTITUDESbelong in one class and should be treated in about theStronglyApprove Undecided DisapproveDisapprove- (zl(3)(4)(5)shouldbe segregatedfrom thoseof white people.iil;e;6 Approve Undecided Disa(3)Strongly,pprove Disapprove(4)(5) (2)rpp(5)(1)1.r trlrherethere is segregation,the negro section shouldhavethe same" equipment in paving,lvater, and electric light facilities as are foundin tliewhitedistricts.Strongly StronglYlpprJve ApproveUnd.ecidedDisap^prove Disapprove- irt (4)(3)(2)(1)72. If. the same preparationis required,the negro teachershould receive--' thesamesalarY as the white.Strongly StronglyApprove ApproveUnd.ecidedDisap_proveDisappiove- tst (4)(3)(2)(1)18. Practically all American hotelsshouldrefuseto admitnegroes.StronglyStronglyApprove ApproveUndecided DisapproveDisappiove- (1)(zt(s)(4)(B)14. No negroshould be deprivedof the franchiseexcept for reasonswhichwouldalso disfranchisea whiteman.Strongly StronglyApproveApprove Undecided15. InApproveAppr.oveUndecided DisapproveDisappiove(5)(A',)(3)(2)(1)-a community. -of 1,000- whites and50 _negroes, a drunkennegroshoots andkills an officerwho is tryingto arresthim.TtrEWHITE POPULATIONIMMEDIATELY DRIVEALLTHENEGROESOUT OF TOWN.StronglyStronglyApplgveAppr.oveUndecided DisapproveDisappiove(1)(2)(3)(4)(tr)2. Shouldour forces be withdrawnfromIMPERIALISMSCALEStates grantcompleteindependence to the philip-date?NO(2)Nicaragua?NO(2)1. Shouldthe Unitedpines at an earlyYES(4)YES(4',),!(3)?(3)3. Thepolicy of the united states in maintainingthepossession ofthe PhilippineIslands:(p) t. exactly what it shouldbe.(1)(b) has on the wholemore to be said for it than againstit. (Z\(q) las -alout as ryany-good points as badones. - (S)(d) is difficult to justify. (ai(e) is a disgraeeto our country.(fi204. Economicexploitationof territoriesand colonies by great powers:(a) is totally unjustifiable.(b) has some justification, but is on the whole wrong.(c) hasabout as manyuniustifiableaspectsas justifiableones.(d) hassome questionableaspeets,but on the whole is right.(e) is entirelyreasonableand right.(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)by6.5. An Americandoing businessin ChinaChineselaw.StronglyUndecided(3)Approve Approve(5)(4)should be willing to abideStronglyDisapproveDisapprove(1)wheneverneededtoStronglyDisapprove(5)Undecided Disapprove(3)(2)StronglyDisapprove(5)Chinabe lostStronglyDisapprove(1)StronglyUndecided DisapproveDisapproYe(3)(4)(5)crimein Shanghaishouldbe triedby a(2)We should usemilitary forcein SouthAmericaprotectAmericaninvestments.StronglyApprove ApproveUndecided Disapprove(1)(2)(3)(4)7. In case of severe politicaland economic upset in China,western na-tionsshould maintain sufficientmilitaryforcesin Chinato protectall interestspreviously acquired by their citizens.Undecided Disapprove(3)(4)W'e shouldbe willing to let Americaninvestmentsinratherthan be drawn into armedconflictwithChina.StronglyApprove(1)Approve(2)8.9. Our army and navy shouldbe usedwhen necessary to defend Ameri-can propertyrights in Mexico.StronglyApprove Approve(5)(4\StronglyApprove Approve(1) (z',)10.An AmericancommittingaChinese judge.StronglyStronglyApproveApproveUndecided DisapproveDisapprove(5)(4)(3)(21(1)11.We shouldco-operateas fully as possible with Latin-Americancoun-tries, treat themas equals,and stop regarding ourselvesas theirleaders and proteetors.StronglyStronglyApprove ApproveUndecided DisapproveDisapprove(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)12. As a result of inflammatory pressdispatches,mobs in a small Latin-Americancountry have repeatedly attackedUnitedStatesflags andtorn themto shreds.TheUnited States citizensfeelthat theirlives are in danger.MARINESARE SENT TO PROTECTTHELIVESANDPROPERTYOF THESECITIZENS.r:ttronglyDisapproveDisapprove'(4)(5)StronglyApprove ApproveUndecided(1)(2)(3)powers:(5)(4)ifiable(3)rieht. t?ito abide bYStrongIYDisaPProve(1)er needed toStronglYDisaPProve(5), western na-na to ProtectStronglYDisaPProve(5)China be lostStronglYDisaPProve(1)defend Ameri-StronglYDisaPProve(5)1 be tried bY aStrongIYDisaPProve(1)American cgu+-rselves as therrStrongIYDisaPProve(1)StronglYDisaPPro're(5)n a small Latin-States flags -anot*"dhit'i h'firs.IV. RESULTS1. The Sigma Method of ScoringIn order to compare one type of statementwith anothersuch as the "multiple choice" with the "strongly approve,"itwas necessary to devise some techniquewherebythey mightbe made comparable. In attemptingto work out sucha tech-nique, it was noticedthat a great number of the five-pointstatements, i.e. the "multiple choice"or "strongly approve"statements (in each case the subjectbeing offered five alterna-tives from which to choose), yieldeda distribution resemblinga normal distribution.TABLE IpmCpNraCpOr INuvIDUALSCnuCxrNCtnuDTTTERENT Aitrm,NnrrVUS.boonrurm Fnonn Saupr,n %lrl$#*i.T, Ar,r Me.ro, Fno*r e SrNcr,uAltenmtiuesStatententNuntberNegroNegroImperialism8704831532627142.{o+rf78312911STRONGLYAPPROYE STATEMENTSAlternatiuesStronglyApproaeApprooeUn-Dis-Stronglydecided&pproaeDisappro'ueInternational-ismNegroImperialismNegroImperialism102213111344o,7.JD43L752492713332241016I51062L7410t7L7Table I showssometypical distributionsobtainedwith theflve-point statements.These percentages are based on asample of 100cases,all male, from one university. Of the twodistributions which were quite skewed, number7 of the Negroscale,was the more skewed. The otherwas number6 of theNegroscale.It is interestingto note that if a group of South-ern studentsare includedin these distributionsthey become22A TECHNIQUEFORTHElessskewed. Thus,for statement number7 of the Negroscalethe percentagesfor 100 male studentsfrom a collegeinVirginiaare,respectively,4, 3, L7, 18 and 58. Statementsnumber 5 and 6 of the Imperialismscaleare illustrativeof aslight bi-modality r,vhichwas found in a few of the "stronglyapprove" type of statements.On the basis of this experimental evidence and upon theresults of others (8, pp. 542-548,28, pp. 7L-91),itseemsjustifiable for experimental purposes to assumethat attitudesare distributedfairly normallyand to use this assumptionasthe basisfor combiningthe different statements. The possibledangersinherent in this assumptionare fully realized. Thisassumptionis made simplyas part of an experimental ap-proach to attitude measurement.It is a step which it is hopedsubsequent work in this field will either make unnecessaryorprovejustifiable. Perhaps this assumptionis not correct;itscorrectnessor incorrectnesscan best be determinedby furtherexperiment.The percentage of individuals that checkeda given positionon a particular statementwas converted into sigma values.This was done for each of the five-point statementswhich inour opinion had to do with internationalism.Table 22 ofThorndike'stables (30) greatly facilitated this calculation.Thesetables assume that one hundredper cent of the casesfall betwssn -g and f 3 sigma. The values given in the tableare the averagesigma valuesof intervals represefited bythe stated percentages, the originconsidered to be at the mean.The sigma deviations were always taken from the meanandthe positive valuewasassigned to the end which se'emedtofavor internationalism,the negativebeing assigned to theend whichfavored nationalism. To avoid using negativevalues the arbitraryzeromay be plaeed at -3 sigma ratherthanat the mean. Thesesigns were designatedin an arbitraryfashionand thenverified objectively (see pages 48-52). Thesigmavalues were computed from percentagesobtainedfroma sample of 1"00cases,all male, selected from one particularuniversity. Table II showsthe percentage of individualscheck-ing each of the different alternativesand the correspondingsigma values for statementnumbersixteen of the Internation-alism scale.The statementsselectedwere checked for internalconsist-.he Negrocollege initatements:ative of a, "stronglYI uPon the, it seemsrt attitudesumPtion as)he PossibleIized. Thisimental aP-r it is hoPedrecessary orcorrect; itsl by furtherven Position,gma values'nts which inTable 22 ofi caleulation'of the casesn in the tablepresetted bYl at the mean'he mean andch se'emed torigned to thesing negativesigma rathern an arbitrarY; 48-52). Theobtained fromone Particularividuals check-corresPondinghe Internation-MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDESTABLEIIDer.a, ron Sra.rpMENT NUMSEB16 op tnp INTpnNATIONALISUSCa'r,UStronglYUn-Dis-StronglyAltetnati'ueApproab Ayproaedeciiled,dpproaeDisuppiobe23PercentagecheckingCorresPondingsigma valueCorresPonding1 to 5 valuet3%432L 13-.43 +.43+.ee+1.7610-1.631ency or "clusterill9," by flnding the reliability,using oddstatements vs. evenstatements.The fourteen five-pointstate-ments used yielded moderatelyhigh reliabilitieswhen triedon three different groups with between 30 and 35 subjectsineach group. Trvo of these groupswere from the same uni-versity, the third was from anotheruniversityin an entirelydifferent geographical area. Theseresultsindicatea "cluster"or attitude variablewhich we are justifled in treating as aunit, so far as these three groups are concerned.The relia- 'bilities obtained for these groups are given in Table III. Theseresults and the followingconsiderations seem to justify thestatement that the sigma scoring techniqueis the most satis-factory now available for attitudemeasurement.It not onlyseemsto avoidmany of the shortcomingsof existing methodsof attitudemeasurement,but at the same time retainsmost ofthe advantages presentin methodsnow used. !TABLE IIIBpr,resrr,rryCoprrrcrpNrs-SrcvrlSconrNcMmnon-FouRrpoN Srnrp-ITENTS Dng,rNcwITH INrnRNntroNALIsMOddsvs. Evens (7 itemsvs. 7 items)Grouqt NRuw Corrected.86.88.86.76.79.'tD303233ABFrternal consist-In the first place,quirement statedby"Ideally,the scaleof the voting only.the sigmascoringmethod meets the re-Thurstone(38, p. 56) :should perhapsbe constructedby meansIt may be possible to formulate the prob-A TECHNIQUEFOR THElemso that the scalevaluesof the statements may be extractedfrom the records of actual voting.If that should be possible,then the presentprocedureof establishing the scale-valuesbysortingwill be superseded."Further, it avoids the difficultiesencounteredr,vhen usinga juclging group to constructthe scale.Anumberofthese difficulties have been pointedout by Rice (27). The fol-lowing quotationdeals with one of the maior shortcomingsofany techniqueemploying a iudging group (27, pp. 190-191):"The difficultiesof building scales similar to Thurstone'sand of applying themto the measurement of the attitudesofsocial grbirps, becomeincreasinglydifficult once we leave theciassroom,the discussion club and the otherslnall, comp_ara-tivelyinfrequentand highly selected groups that_enjgy ]out-ing experimbntstried upon them.Such groSP!alrea_dy. ha-vedeirelopedwaysof making their attitudesarticulate. It is themore numerous work-a-day groupings of society, whichareinaccessibleto his controlledmeasurements, abotttwhoseat-titudesthe soeialscientistis in the most need of information.Studentsmay be required, good naturedacademiciansmay becajoled,and *sundry-needy persons m?y be_paidto sort cards.ortuirirg proposi[ions into eleven piles. But it is difficulttoimaginesecuringcomparalJe jgdgnqents, or.satisfactory meas-urefrentsin the flnal- application,from bricklayers,businessmen, Italian-Americhns, nuns,stevedores,or SeamStreSSeS.And, unlessthe scaleitself is basedupon equ_al-seeming dif-ferencesto a randomsample of the group whichis to be meas-ured,its validity-the degree to whichit measures that whichit purports to mszsurs-foecomes open to question."Anotherdecidedadvantageof the sigma technique is thatit yieldsreliabilities as high as thoseobtainedby other tech-niques, with fewer items. This is possiblebecauseit usesanapproach to the problemsomewhatdifferent from that con-,ru.rtiorully used. Previously attempts have beenmade to findthe scale value of each particular statement alonga con-tinuum; a person'sscore being then determined by the scalevalue of the statementsthat he accepts.In this study,how-ever, each statementbecomesa scale in itself and a person'sreaction to eachstatement is given a score. Thesescores arethen combined by using a medianor a mean.Eggan'sstudyreported by Thurstone (35) Iends furtherevidence to supportthe method presentedhere.v be extractediO to. Possible,,cale-values bYrd when usingA number of(27). The fol'hortcomings of, pP. 190-191):to Thurstone's,he attitudes -ot3e we leave theimall, comp-ara'bhat enjoY -hav-os alreadY ha-ve^rlut.. It is the',ie{v, which areabout lvhose -at-oi iotormatior':micians maylid to sort cai-it i* diffrcultrtisfactoryiiaylrs, uusior seamstress-es'1"uat-seumins dilich is to beiror.* that whi,stion."technique is thated bY other tech-)ecause it usesrt from that cobeen made toent along a con-rined bY the scalen this studY, how-eff and a Person'These scoresrn. Eggan'srvidence to suPil,IEASUBEMENT OF ATTITUDESIn contemplating this method of measuringattitudesit is,*utt io reatiie that the stronger the genericset towardone""iru*u or the other extreme of an attitude continuum,the*"r, it influences the specific reactions.when the generic;;; i,not strong then the speciflc iterns themselveslargelya.t.-*i"e the reaction. In the latter case,however, the re-;;ir" is seldom very intense but rather mildly pro or con.it ut is, the individual's reactions,so far as that particular at-titua. is concerned, do not deviate widelyfrom the average'---it. sigma technique also yields scores the unitsof whichare equal throughout the entirerange. Likewise, the samet irar of *.utores canbe obtained with it as are obtained withother techniques now in existence (38). Thus it is possibleto obtain the most typical measureof an individual'sattitudeand also the range or dispersionof his attitude'Needless to saythe constructionof an attitudescale by thesigma method is much easierthanby usinga judginggroupto place the statements in pilesfrom whichthe scale valuesmust be calculated.Among the excellentcharacteristicsof Thurstone's methodof attitude construction (38) are the objectivecheckswhichhe has devised for ambiguity and irrelevance.Similarob-jectivecheckscan be applied to the sigmateehnique,if desired.Theapplieation of theseobiectivechecksare fully discussedonpages48-52.It is interestingto note that the scoreson the internationalstatementsusingthe sigma technique correlate f .67 with theThurstone-Droba W'ar scale (6) (data fromGroup F). Whencorrected for attenuation,this becomes f .77. This relation-ship is presenteven thoughthe statementson the whole arequite dissimilar.2. Tlre Simpler Methodof ScoringAlthough the sigma technique seemed to be quitesatisfac-tory for the intendeduse, it was decidedto try a simplertechnique to see if it gave resultseomparablewith the sigmatechnique.If it did, the simpler methodwould saveconsider-able work in a generalsurvey type of study of this kind. Thesimpler techniqueinvolvedthe assigning of values of from 1to 5 to each of the five different positions on the five-pointstatements.The ONE end was always assignedto the neg'a-A TECHNIQUEFORTHEtive end of the sigmascale,and the FMendto the positiveend of the sigma scale. (See Table II.)\ After assigning in this mannerthe numericalvalues to the, ) o s s i b I e r es p o n s es, t@t9--f-o-r-ereh- j$ iy_f{-.lal ;y-qg* {9t e r -mined by flryling the ryer3.gg_9flthe*nu-aar-ipal valu_e5 9!.'thepositiansjLhaLhe checteQ.Actually, sincethe numberof state-ments was the same for all individuals,the sum of the nll-merical scoresrglbg1jb4tlrepreanwps used.The reliabilityffis for this meth66-yGidedEentiallythe samevalues as those obtained with the sigma methodof scoring.The scores obtained by this methodandthe sigma method cor-related almost perfectly as will be seen in Table IY.TABLE IVConrrrcrpxTs oF CoRRpr,arroNBETwEruSconrs OsrA.rNroBY THE SrcunMnrHoo,tnp 1-5 Mntuoo,AND THE 1-7 MumrooGroupINTERNATIONAL(15 Statement,s)a as.7-5 1-5 us. 1-7a us.1-7NEGRO(10 Statements)o us. 7-5.991.995.995303233ABF.990.993.990.987.992.997The same resultswere obtained when the valuesof 1, 3, 4,5and 7 were assignedto the different positionscorrespondingrespectivelyto l, 2, 3,4 and 5. In the former case, it will benoted that the extremeswere given slightly greater weight.This method likewisecorrelatedvery highly with the sigmamethod and with the 1 to 5 method as shownin TableIV.Theseresults seem to justify the use of the simplermethodsof scoring since they yield almost identicalresultswith thesigma method and similarlydo not involve any of the errorslikely to be present in any technique in which experts, judges,or raters are used.Furthermore,the 1 to 5 method has the additionaladvan-tage over the sigma method for this paricular study in that itpermitsus to combine the reactions on the three-pointstate-ments in the SURVEY OF OPINIONS with thoseon the five-point statements and thus get a more reliablemeasllreof thestudent'sattitude. A three-pointstatement,it r,vill be recalled,is oneto be answeredby a YES ?NO.re positiveues to theq3"g_deter-qe-g_o!",thelr of state-{Jbsu-reliabilitYr thLesamerf seoring.rethod cor-a rHE SrcvrnNEGROStatements)a us. 7-5cf 1,3, 4, 5respondingr, it will beber weight.the sigmable IV.er methods;s with thethe emorsrts, judges,lnal advan-y in that itpoint state-on the flve-,sure of thebe recalled,.987oo.)MEASURELUIENT OF ATTITUDES27Three methods of scoringthe three-point statementsweretried. The flrst assigned valuesof 2,3 and4 to the alternative,.rpo6.r, the 4 alwaysbeing assigned to the particular re-.oom. which seemed to us most "internationalistic."Thequestion mark, of course, always had a valueof 3. The secondmethod involved the assigning of valuesof 1, 3 and 5 to theparticular responses. The third methodinvolvedthe assign-ing of positiveand negative signsin the samemanner as tvasdone with the sigma technique in the caseof the flve-pointstatements, but here the numericalvalue assignedwas thepercentage of individualswho checkedthe oppositeposition.In this manner the responseswere weightedin termsoftypicality and atypicality muchas was donein the sigmamethod. For example,if60% of the individualscheckedYES, and 25/o checked NO (75% checking ?), and iftheYES is the more international-hencedesignated positive-the score valueof the YES is plus 25 and of NO minus 60. Inthis casethe questionmarks were ignored.It was found that all three methods yielded essentially thesame results.Since this was the case, it was deeidedin thisstudy to use the simpler methodsthroughout.*Using the 2-3-4 methodfor the three-point statementsandthe 1to 5 method for the flve-pointstatements,a.scale wasconstructed for measuring attitudes toward internationalism.In constructingthis scale, not only was the reliabilitydeter-minedin essentiallythe samemanneras wasdone in the sigmatechnique,but the criterion of internal consistencyalso wasapplied. (Seepages 50-52for a discussionof the criterionof internalconsistency.)It was discoveredthat, while therewas considerableinternal consistencybetweenall the state-ments used,there appearedto be two groups of statementswhich showed greaterinternal consistencythan inter-groupconsistency.These two groups of statements when examinedindicatedthat the one group consistedof statementshavingto do morespecificallywith imperialism, while the othergroup hadto do more with other problems in the fleldof inter-nationalrelations.Consequently,a separatescale was con-* It will be noted that the writer beganthisinquiry witha suspiciousattitude towardthe simple computationiusedin rating-scales, andaldoptedthesesimpleprocedures onlyin the light of evidenie showing that-thesimplermethodsgavethe sameresults as the elaborate.:lijl!il11i!i'lILrlI:ii:ti,']iii,icEiit,t1'LEI,28 A TECHNIQUEFOR THEstructedfor each of these attitudes.In constructingthe Im-perialismscale the high or FIVE value was alwaysassignedto the anti-imperialistic point of view; hence, the hisher theindividual score, the lessimperialisticthe individual.In a similarmanner, using all the statementsin the SUR-VEY OF OPINIONSwhichhad to do with Negroes,a scalewas constructedfor measuringattitudestowardthe Negro.TableX on page 50 shows the internalconsistencyobtainedwith the Negroscale. The higher scores are indicativeof an at-titude favorable to the Negro. Some mayquestion whetherthenrimericalvalues assignedto the differentresponsesof a par-ticularstatementare valid, askingifthe numericalvaluesoughtnot be the reverse in order to conformto "favorable."But it is noteworthy that in every casethe assigningof thenumericalvalues to the differentalternative responses wasfound to be consistentwhen checked by item analysisor thecriterion of internaleonsistency.Among the 87 statementsused (24 in the Internationalismscale, 1-5 in the Negroscale,!2 in the Imperialismscale,and 36 in the Thurstone-Drobassalgs-seepages 33-35)not oncewas it necessaryto reversethe numerical valuesarbitrarilyassignedby the experimenterto the alternative responses.If the numerical values assignedto the alternativeresponsesof a statement, for example,of theNegroscaleare questioned,then the values assignedto all ofthe statementsmust be questioned. Judging by the internalconsistencyobtained,the experimenteris either right on allthe statementsor wrongon all of them. To call "favorable"tothe Negro the oppositealternativeof that selectedseemstobe contrary to ordinaryusage.The degree of interrelationship between our three scalesmay be briefly indicated for a groupof 100 Columbia Collegestudents(Group D).The raw eorrelationcoefficient betweenthe Negroand Internationalism scalesis f .40 -+.06, corrected+.46; that between Negroand Imperialism, raw f .34 -+.06,corrected, +.40; that betweenImperialism and Internation-alism, raw, +.63 -+.04, corrected, +.70. Materialfrom threeother universitieshas yieldedvery similar results.3. The Reli,abili,taof tlte ScalesThe reliabilitycoefficients for the threescaleswith thedifferent groups are givenin TableV. A tableof the probablercting the Im-ways assigned,he higher theidual.;s in the SUR-egroes, a scaleurd the Negro.tencY obtained ,cative of an at'on whether the ironses of a par'rmerical valuesto "favorable'",ssigning of the 'responses wasanalYsis or the'e 87 statementsthe Negro scale,lhurstone-Droba)ssary to reverse';he exPerimenterI values assignedr examPle, of therssigned to all ofI by the internatttt., right on allall "favorable"selected seemsour threeColumbia Collegetaterial from threeresults.:oefficient betweeu49 +-.06,correcteilr, raw +.34 -r'06rr and Internation-')e scales with thelble of the ProbableazaH,naeHoatrEI tsFl4Ltl\EEoQEFlHFAlIH&SlsBcadsGYT '\r3q)*)q)iooatsqNertora atr,i sU;-Hopztas*\o\eJsEcar\ q)dsOf|\q)$q)q)ooadE(oAs;E--oF.lIEI