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Sustainability, Tourism and Africa: A natural link

Thematic proceedings of ATLAS Africa Conferences

Volume 9

Edited by

René van der Duim

Guido Klep

Evangelia Konstantinidou

Wilber Ahebwa

2015 ATLAS (authors)

Association for Tourism and Leisure Education

PO Box 3042

6802 DA Arnhem

The Netherlands

[email protected]

ISBN: 978-90-75775-75-4

mailto:[email protected]


3

Sustainability, tourism and Africa: A natural link

Thematic proceedings of ATLAS Africa Conferences

Volume 9

Contents

Preface

5

List contact details authors

7

Introduction René van der Duim, Guido Klep and Evangelia Konstantinidou

13

Challenges to sustainable sports tourism development in a non-metropolitan region in Kenya: A case of Iten township Joseph Muiruri Njoroge, John Akama and Liza Buyeke

18

The ‘romance’ of mining in light of tourism: a case study of soapstone in Tabaka, Kisii County, Kenya John Akama, Liza Buyeke and Joseph Muiruri Njoroge

33

The efficacy of small and medium scale tourism enterprises (SMTEs) as tools for poverty alleviation: the case of the North-Rift region in Kenya John Akama, Polycarp Oluoch and Dominic Rotich

44

The benefits of ICT on service delivery within the hospitality industry, a case study of selected hotels in the coast region Mbitha Angore and Josphat Belsoy

60

Determinants of expenditure by international tourists, a case study of the North coastal region of Kenya Isabella Cheloti-Mapelu, Pius Odunga and Timothy Sulo

72

Gastronomy as a tool for social integration among ethnic communities in Kenya Frimar Kiama, Isabella Cheloti-Mapelu and Thomas Bor

83

Relationships between gender representation in the hospitality industry and tourism entrepreneurial activities in Kenya Geoffrey Koome, Nehemiah Kiprutto and Judy Kibe

91

Commercial home accommodation potential for rural tourism enterprises in Uasin Gishu County-Kenya Jacqueline Korir, Loice Maru, John Korir and Rose Burugu

102


4

Political ecology of tourism & livelihood in Zanzibar Godwin Adiel Lema, Huruma Sigallah, Richard Sambaiga, Vendelin Simon and Emmanuel Shemaghembe

110

From Davos to Mombasa, Kenya: a position paper on the adoption of the

‘Davos Declaration’ by hotels

Joseph Muiruri Njoroge and Rita Wairimu Nthiga

123

The efficacy of photographs in marketing of sustainable tourism products Wendy Rop, Walter Masambu, Tabitha Mugo, Vincent Ng’eno and Rose Burugu

137

Entrepreneurial marketing strategies effects on sustainability of tourism

and hospitality event management ventures in Eldoret Town, Kenya

Jacqueline Cheptepkeny Korir, John Korir Kimeli, James Muchira and Kamwea, Rita Ndunge Schulz and Geoffrey Amusala

149


5

Preface

Tourism plays a significant role in the development of Africa. To promote education and

research in tourism in the African continent, in 2000 Atlas founded an African chapter during

its inaugural conference in Mombasa, Kenya1. After the conference in Mombasa, Atlas Africa

organized seven other conferences:

- Community tourism: options for the future, Arusha, Tanzania, in 2003.

- Leadership, culture and knowledge: gateway to sustainable tourism in Africa,

Pretoria, South Africa, in 2004.

- Contested landscapes in tourism: culture, conservation and consumption, Mombasa,

Kenya, in 2006.

- Tourism and wealth creation, Kampala, Uganda, in 2007.

- Tourism for Development: Environmental Sustainability, Poverty Reduction and

Empowering Communities, Gaborone, Botswana, in 2009.

- Sustainable tourism and environmental education, a natural link, Kampala, Uganda,

in 2011.

- African Tourism in Global Society: Central or Peripheral?, Kigali, Rwanda, in 2013.

The proceedings of the conferences in 2003, 2004 and 2006 were published in 2007 in three

volumes2. Proceedings of the conferences of 2007 were published in 2008 in Volume 4 and

53, and the proceedings of the conferences of 2009 were published in 2010 in Volume 6 and

74. Volume 8 and this Volume 9 consists of the proceedings of the conference in Kampala5.

The 2011 Conference was organized jointly with the University of Makerere, Kent State

University, the University of North Texas, the Uganda Wildlife Authority, Nature Uganda, the

Nature Palace Foundation, and the Uganda Tourist Board.

These nine volumes present the current state of the art of predominantly applied research in

tourism in Africa.

-------------------------------------------- 1 The papers of this conference have been published in Akama, J. and Sterry, P. (eds) (2002) Cultural

Tourism in Africa: Strategies for the new millennium. Arnhem: ATLAS, and are now also available online: www.atlas-euro.org. 2 See Kloek, M. and van der Duim, V.R. (2007) Tourism and Nature in Africa (Vol. 1), Local

communities and participation in African tourism (Vol. 2) and Aspects of Tourism in Kenya (Vol. 3). Arnhem: Atlas. 3 See Kloek, M. and van der Duim V.R. (2008) Tourism, Nature Conservation and wealth creation in

Africa (Vol. 4) and Kloek, M. and van der Duim, V.R. (2008) New Avenues for tourism and wealth creation in Africa (Vol. 5). Arnhem: Atlas 4 See Zellmer, K., van der Duim, V.R. and Saarinen, J. (2010) Tourism for development:

Environmental sustainability, poverty reduction and empowering communities (Vol. 6) and Saarinen, J. van der Duim, V.R. and Zellmer, K. , Tourism, tourists and sustainable development in Africa (Vol. 7). Arnhem: Atlas 5 See also Klep, G., Manyisa Ahebwa, W. and van der Duim V.R. (2013) Tourism Nature and

environmental education in Africa (Vol. 8). Arnhem: Atlas

http://www.atlas-euro.org/


6

Acknowledgments The board of ATLAS Africa would like to express its gratitude to all the organizers of the

Kampala conferences, and especially to Wilber Ahebwa of Makerere University and to

Leontine Onderwater and Jantien Veldman of the ATLAS Secretariat, for their continued

secretarial support.

This new volume with conference papers provides valuable insights in the development of

tourism in Africa, and again is a source of inspiration for all researchers, practitioners and

lovers of tourism in Africa.

On behalf of the board of ATLAS,

René van der Duim

Wageningen University

The Netherlands


7

List contact details authors

Joseph Muiruri Njoroge

Kisii University College

Kisii, Kenya

[email protected]

John Akama


Kisii, Kenya

[email protected]

Liza Buyeke

Kisii, Kenya

[email protected]

Polycarp Oluoch


Kisii, Kenya

[email protected]

Dominic K. Rotich

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

Mbitha Angore

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected] Josphat S. Belsoy Moi University Eldoret, Kenya Isabella M. Cheloti-Mapelu Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Pius O. Odunga

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

E-mail:

Timothy K. Sulo

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya








8

Frimar W. Kiama

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Thomas Bor

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Geoffrey Koome

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Nehemiah Kiprutto

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

Judy Kibe

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Jacqueline Korir

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Loice Maru

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

John Korir

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Rose.W. Burugu

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Godwin Adiel Lema

University of Dar es Salaam

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

[email protected]










9

Huruma L.Sigallah



Richard F. Sambaiga

University of Basel

Switzerland

[email protected]

Vendelin Simon



Emmanuel Shemaghembe



Rita Wairimu Nthiga

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Wendy Rop

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Walter Masambu

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

Tabitha Mugo

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Vincent Ng’eno

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

James Muchira Kamwea

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]

Rita Ndunge Schulz

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]








10

Geoffrey Amusala

Moi University

Eldoret, Kenya

[email protected]



11

Introduction

René van der Duim Guido Klep

Evangelia Konstantinidou

The Netherlands

According to the World Tourism Organization, African tourism has been booming the past

few years from 26 million tourist in 2000 to 56 million in 2014 and this trend is expected to

continue in the next decades (UNWTO, 2015). According to the World Bank (2013) the

number of tourists arriving in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has grown over 300% since 1990,

with 2012 marking a high of 33, 8 million tourists who visited the region. Income generated

from tourism has also climbed: receipts from hotels, tours and other attractions in 2012

amounted to over US$36 billion and directly contributed just over 2,8% to the region’s GDP.

Now one in twenty jobs in SSA is in tourism and women manage more than 50% of

hospitality businesses in SSA (World Bank, 2013).

At the same time, the expansion of tourism in SSA faces a number of obstacles. According to

the World Bank (2013) issues such as land ownership and availability, and how land rights

are transferred, are central to business and tourism development. Limited access to finance

for investors, taxes on tourism investments, low levels of tourism skills among Africa’s

population, lack of security, safety and high crime, limited business relations between private

and public partners, poverty, unemployment, low revenues, insufficient infrastructures of

accommodation and problematic internet connections are some other issues to consider.

The World Bank report examined the potential of African countries to improve and expand

their tourism sector, and suggested that 33 of Sub Saharan Africa’s 48 countries currently

have the capacity for tourism success through establishing strong political support for

developing the industry and attracting increased private investment to help finance and

sustain it. The report mentions successful examples of countries including Kenya, Namibia,

Rwanda, South Africa, and Tanzania amongst others who have simplified their tourism

policies, liberalized air transport and diversified tourism while protecting their communities

and environments, which created a positive investment climate for tourism development

(World Bank, 2013).

Indeed, not only infrastructure and supporting policies, including communities and protecting

the environment are also key prerequisites for tourism development in SSA. As the World

Bank (2013) frames it, Africa has the potential with its cultural and natural resources to

outpace other regions in attracting valuable tourism dollars. Recently Van der Duim, Lamers

and Van Wijk (2014) analyzed the relation between tourism, conservation and development

and showed how in the 1990s a more market-based approach developed in which

partnerships between public, private and civic actors were actively promoted. In their book

they clearly illustrated that all of the institutional arrangements aiming to make use of tourism

for conservation and development in SSA, with the exception of trophy hunting, are relatively

new and set off in the 1990s. They all aim to safeguard large pieces of land for conservation

outside national parks and reserves, have varying development impacts, and increasingly

stretch throughout sub-Saharan Africa. For example, although trophy hunting has existed for

long, it now takes place in 23 countries in Africa, primarily in Southern Africa where the

industry is escalating. According to Lindsey, Roulet, & Romanach (2007) at least 140 million


12

hectares is now used for trophy hunting in sub-Saharan Africa, which outstrips the land area

covered by national parks. Trophy hunting also underlies the expansion of private game

reserves in South Africa and conservancies in Namibia. According to Van Hoven (2014), the

number of private game reserves in South Africa increased from a mere 10 in the 1960s and

5000 in 2000, to 11,600 today, covering 22 million hectares or 18% of the land surface.

Trophy hunting also plays an important role in the development of conservancies in Namibia.

In 2012, 79 registered conservancies contributed to the livelihood of one of every four rural

Namibians and covered 16 million hectares. Over 55 joint-venture lodges and community

campsites provide employment, training and social services, as well as generate economic

spin-off activities for people living in the conservancies. The national Namibian CBNRM

program supports a total of 45 community-based organizations, comprising of 123 villages

and a total population of over 283,000 people. The CBNRM experiences in southern Africa

also inspired the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) to develop conservation enterprises in

the domains of tourism, fisheries, livestock and agriculture. Over the past 15 years, AWF has

launched 60 conservation enterprises across the continent of which 35% relates to

agriculture and animal husbandry and 65% to tourism. Together, these enterprises have

generated more than USD 2 million per year for communities around these enterprises

(Elliott & Sumba, 2010).

All these examples illustrate the necessity of employing tourism and conservation hand in

hand. In their article, ‘’Understanding Success Factors for Ensuring Sustainability in

Ecotourism Development in Southern Africa’’, Parker and Khare (2005: 32) therefore suggest

three main factors which can lead to a more profitable outcome for tourism businesses. In

addition to a in-depth understanding of “market principles and business fundamentals, the

entrepreneur must build strong, lasting and equitable partnerships with local communities,

protect the environment, and operate in sometimes adverse national and local conditions. In

evaluating the potential sustainability of an ecotourism project the entrepreneur must

understand the critical success factors for the project (Parker and Khare, 2005: 32). Their

paper provides a methodology of evaluation for the three major categories of critical success

factors: (1) environmental (environmental quality, site boundaries, water and opportunity

costs), (2) community (community partnerships, community definition, community dialogue,

and poverty and social inclusion) and (3) economic (national political environment, adequate

legal systems and security, infrastructure and government policy).

Similarly, the Africa Travel Association (ATA) argues that sustainability is a key element for

promoting tourism. A sustainable environment can support economic growth, development of

local communities and can decrease unemployment by creating new jobs and diminish

poverty in rural and urban areas. Close cooperation between the public and private sector,

partnerships between local citizens, private sector and governments is what African needs

(see: www.africatravelassociation.org/)

This volume

The papers in this volume are based on the ATLAS Africa Conference that was organised in

Kampala, Uganda, from the 6th to the 8th of June, 2011. The first paper by Njoroge, Akama

and Buyeke focuses on formal and non-formal small and medium size tourism

accommodation facilities in the Iten region that is famous for sports training highlighting

major challenges attributed to the lack of strategic planning approaches and coordinated

efforts among stakeholders. Most governments have focused only on metropolitan regions

http://www.africatravelassociation.org/


13

neglecting the non-metropolitan regions despite their potential and possible contribution to

the economy.

They argue that the accommodation sector plays a great role in the tourism industry by not

only providing catering for tourist hospitality needs but also as a source of revenue for

government. The increase in demand for the accommodation sector has led to the

development of accommodation facilities, especially in the regions that are strategic to

tourism demand. The paper finally suggests that there is need for sustainable approaches to

develop tourism activities that occur in non-metropolitan regions in order to promote local

livelihood, conserve the environment and to ensure long term economic benefits of sports

related travel in the region.

In the second article Akama, Buyeke and Njoroge discuss soapstone mining in Kenya.

Soapstone mining in Kenya is, especially in the Kisii region, historical and its exploitation has

been conducted from time immemorial. Their paper therefore looks at the links between

soapstone mining in Kisii and tourism with a view of enhancing the earnings of the mines

from tourism. A major challenge for the soapstone mining area to attract tourists was the

absence of a centralized museum for all the artefacts. It was also observed that the earnings

from soapstone were low because of middlemen who bought arts from the locals at low costs

and sold them to tourists and made much of the profits. Finally the tourists indicated

harassments, high prices, lack of accommodation facilities and poor quality services when

they visited areas with soapstone mining activities, and thus they were discouraged. This

study therefore demonstrates low linkages between tourism and soapstone mining, which

limits full exploitation of the soapstone and low revenue from tourism. The authors

recommend enactment of mining policy to protect the locals and enhance maximum

participation of the tourists as possible partners in the soapstone mining industry.

The third paper by Akama, Oluoch and Rotich overviews the vital importance of small scale

tourism enterprises (SMTEs) in the alleviation of poverty in poor communities, particularly in

resource scarce Third World countries. At the initial stages of tourism development in an

emerging destination such as the North-Rift region of Kenya, it is the SMTEs that often

support micro-scale tourism activities before major multinational investors gain interest and

confidence in the area to put up major tourism and hospitality facilities and infrastructure.

Moreover, it is these enterprises that can be said to support pro-poor tourism initiatives since

to a large extent these forms of micro-scale business initiatives are quite often owned and

managed by community members. The authors argue that the role of tourism SMEs in

poverty reduction should not be looked at in isolation from other existing socio-economic

initiatives such as micro-scale agricultural production, bee keeping and animal husbandry.

This is due to the fact that it is a mosaic of such grassroots initiatives that can promote

sustainable community socio-economic development and overall community empowerment.

It is particularly suggested that appropriate planning, policy and management initiatives

should be put in place by both government and private entities in collaboration with local

communities with an aim of integrating tourism SMEs with other forms of local socio-

economic initiatives that are in line with the Millennium Development Goals.

Angore and Belsoy examine the benefits of Information and Communication Technology

(ICT) on service delivery in the hospitality industry. ICT not only speeds up the services

being provided but also ensures that guests are satisfied and can therefore bring about

repeat purchases. Various hotels in Mombasa and the Coast were selected for this study.


14

The results indicate that there was indeed utilization of information and communication

technology in the hospitality industry. Overall the findings suggest that the hotels have

focused on employing technologies that improve productivity and enhance revenue, however

it has not given strategic priorities to technologies designed to improve guest services. The

authors suggest that to enhance competitive advantage, managers will need to incorporate

more guest-service technologies within their key offerings to customers or be left behind.

In their paper, Cheloti-Mapelu, Odunga and Sulo establish determinants of expenditures by

international tourists in the North coast of Kenya. The aim of the study is to find out the

aspects that played a role in determining the amount of money a tourist spend while on

holiday. To guide the study, there are three objectives; to establish the demographic profile

of international tourists visiting the Kenyan coast, to find out the expenditure levels of

international tourists visiting the Kenyan coast, and to establish factors which influenced

tourist expenditure. A multiple regression model was developed in order to establish factors

that greatly influenced the expenditure patterns and levels of international tourists. According

to the multiple regression model for international tourists, expenditure was increased by

factors such as nationality, marital status, age, level of education, occupation, number of

previous visits and the net monthly income. Length of stay had a negative impact on

expenditure. In this regard expenditure levels of tourists was enhanced by nationality where

European tourists were the highest spenders, marital status with those who were married

spending more, age with those above forty spending more, by the level of education where

those with university level education were able to spend more, by occupation where the

higher the individual income the more they were able to spend, by the number of previous

visits where repeat visitors spend more and by the net monthly income where the higher the

income the more the tourists were willing to pay. In conclusion, sustainability of tourism in the

northern coast according to tourist enterprises and members of the local community was

determined by the ability of tourists to spend more within the host community and therefore

improving livelihoods of the locals.

The purpose of the study by Kiama, Cheloti-Mapelu and Bor is to find out the influence of

traditional food on social integration among ethnic communities in selected cultural theme

nights, in Nairobi, Kenya. Food embodies culture and has a major role in bringing people

together as a model of reconciliation through acceptance of each other’s traditional food.

This could promote cohesion and integration rather than ethnic rivalry that is often exhibited

among ethnic groups in Kenya. The target population entailed four ethnically selected

cultural theme nights in Nairobi; Kikuyu theme night, Kalenjin theme night, Luo theme night

and Luhya theme night. Social integration was found to significantly correlate to traditional

food acceptance. However, traditional food culture did not significantly correlate to social

integration, which meant that culture did not hinder integration. The model was able to

explain 58% of the variation in the dependent variable where the value of R2 (R square) was

0.575. The study therefore shows that social integration can be fostered in Kenya by

promoting inter-ethnic cultural theme nights, festivals, food demonstrations and even forming

a national cuisine.

The seventh paper by Koome, Kiprutto and Kibe examines the level of male and female

employment in the hospitality industry in particular 5-star hotels. The purpose is to assess

whether there is any significant difference between the number of male and female

employees working in the hospitality industry. Because tourism is a means of employment for

Kenyan citizens, it is vital to evaluate the participation by both males and females especially


15

with the avocation of women globally to participate in formal employment among other

economic activities. Gender was found to have a significant relationship to the potential of

initiating entrepreneurial activities especially in the tourism sector. The authors conclude that

employment in the hospitality industry is unbalanced with regards to gender. This shows that

despite the strides made for the push towards women in the workplace and entrepreneurial

activities there are still disparities in their representation giving room for better policies and

funding for women’s groups.

The study of Korir, Maru, Korir and Burugu specifically answers three objectives: first, it aims

to establish the extent to which commercial home accommodation could contribute to growth

of rural tourism enterprises. Secondly it examines the acceptability of potential entrepreneurs

in providing commercial accommodation services. Third, the study explores potential

challenges that can be faced by entrepreneurs in the provision of commercial home

accommodation. The results reveal that entrepreneurs opined that home accommodation

can be instrumental in development of rural tourism. The cost of investment seems relatively

low and the enterprise seems not to put great demands on the entrepreneur. However, it was

clear that entrepreneurs are reluctant to embrace it for fear of exposing their families to

external influences and deprival of privacy. The findings also reveal that entrepreneurs are

willing to meet the challenge for economic gains. The findings from this study may be

beneficial to entrepreneurs in Uasin Gishu County in that, entrepreneurs can exploit the

opportunity while the county can benefit from improved standards of living and resultant

increased revenue from taxes.

In their paper, Lema, Sigallah, Sambaiga, Simon and Shemaghembe provide a critical review

of literature and fieldwork findings on the nature of tourism and how it influences the

livelihood of the local communities in Zanzibar. Zanzibar has recorded a significant growth in

tourism development. Since the 1990s large tourist resort hotels have been built on the

island. The dominant discourse, tactically claim that tourism development has significant

impact on improving and sustaining people’s livelihood through, employment opportunities

and improved wellbeing. The paper argues that the expansion and growth of the tourism

industry does not create benefits to the poor. Although, there are potentials for tourism to

contribute to poverty-alleviation, sustainable tourism in Zanzibar remains naught unless there

is transformation of the dominant thinking among political and economic elites who currently

consider tourism to be pro-poor while it is not.

The paper of Njoroge and Nthiga seeks to evaluate the adoption of the ‘Davos Declaration’

among selected Mombasa hotels in terms of water, energy and waste management. The

second international conference on climate change and tourism, held in Davos, Switzerland,

2007, provided guidelines for hotels in relation to water, energy and waste management as

areas by which hotels can contribute to the reduction of their contribution to climate change.

The impacts of climate change have been identified as a major challenge in the achievement

of sustainable development especially for developing countries like Kenya. Although the

tourism and travel industry is not a major contributor to the causes of climate change, there

has been a wide acknowledgement that there is a need for long term strategies for the

industry players to reduce their contribution to climate change in line with other industries.

Results of the study indicate that despite wide knowledge among hoteliers on the impacts of

climate change and the role hotels can play in its mitigation, most hoteliers are slow in

adopting the mitigation measures.


16

Rop, Masambu, Mugo, Ng’eno and Burugu study the efficacy of photographs in marketing

sustainable tourism products. Good photography is the basis for an effective marketing and

promotional tool in any tourism organization, to show and ‘tangibilise’ to your customers what

you as a business have to offer. Website visitors want to be wowed by what they see and will

quickly move on if they’re not immediately “wowed” by your photos. The authors go on to

explain the relationship between photographs and tourism, and how tourists like ‘to own’ the

places they visit through photographs. As many respondents of the study indicate they have

photo albums of the places they have visited, tourists need photographs for different

purposes and situations. Photos also influenced tourists’ decisions on which places to visit.

The paper concludes that all indicators in this study show that photography as a tourist

practice carries an important attribute in terms of marketing the sustainable tourism product.

The final paper by Korir, Kimeli, Kamwea, Schulz and Amusala explores the effects of

entrepreneurial marketing strategies on sustainability of tourism and hospitality event

management ventures within Eldoret Town, Kenya. Marketing assist entrepreneurs achieve

their business plans, goals and objectives by providing customers with tailored solutions,

thus enhancing customer satisfaction. Marketing strategies select a target market and

develop a marketing mix to satisfy a market’s needs hence, the choice of strategies

employed can determine the sustainability of an enterprise. Their study answers three

specific objectives. Firstly, it establishes the extent to which unethical marketing strategies

affect sustainability of tourism and hospitality event management ventures. Secondly it

investigates the effects of pricing strategies on sustainability of tourism and hospitality event

management ventures. Lastly, it examines how growth as a strategy affects sustainability of

tourism and hospitality event management ventures. Findings reveal that the marketing

strategies used by entrepreneurs such as lowering prices for products and services and

discrediting competitors were detrimental to the growth and survival of the ventures.

Consequently, as entrepreneurs engaged in cut-throat competition, they failed to maximize

profits and return on investment was not realized as they continued to play undercutting

tactics thus, resulting to unsustainability of ventures.

References

Elliott, J. & Sumba, D. (2010). Conservation enterprise – What works, where and for whom? London:

International Institute for Environment and Development.

Lindsey, P.A., Roulet, P.A. & Romanach, S.S, (2007) Economic and conservation significance of the

trophy hunting industry in sub-Saharan Africa. Biological Conservation 134 (4): 455–469.

Parker, S., & Khare, A. (2005). Understanding success factors for ensuring sustainability in ecotourism

development in southern Africa. Journal of Ecotourism, 4(1), 32-46.

UNWTO: http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2015-02-03/investour-2015-africa-needs-stronger-

brand

Van der Duim, Lamers and Van Wijk (2014) Institutional arrangements for conservation and tourism in

eastern and southern Africa: a dynamic perspective. Dordrecht: Springer.

Van Hoven, W. (2014) Private game reserves in Southern Africa. In: Van der Duim, Lamers and Van

Wijk (2014) Institutional arrangements for conservation and tourism in eastern and southern Africa: a

dynamic perspective. Dordrecht: Springer.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00063207/134/4

http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2015-02-03/investour-2015-africa-needs-stronger-brand

http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2015-02-03/investour-2015-africa-needs-stronger-brand


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World Bank (2013) Tourism in Africa: Harnessing Tourism for Improved Growth and Livelihoods.

Washington: World Bank.


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Challenges to sustainable sports tourism development in a

non-metropolitan region in Kenya: A case of Iten township


John Akama

Liza Buyeke

Kenya

Introduction

Sports related Travel traced to 776 BC Olympics (Baker 1982; Davies 1997 and De knop

1999). According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (2010), tourism has

been one of the major contributors to the global economy and employment. In 2008 World

Travel and Tourism contributed to approximately USD 5,890 billion and a 9.9% Gross

Domestic Product which is expected to rise to 10.5% in 2018 (UNWTO, 2008). One

important form of tourism contributing to this growth is sports tourism. Recently the

conference on sports tourism convened by the UNWTO acknowledged the contribution of

sports related travel and tourism estimated at USD 600 billion

(www.worldsportsdestinationexpo.com).

A more important role that tourism plays is its contribution towards GDP in most developing

economies. UNWTO estimates that tourism accounts for about 45% of tourism exports

among least developing countries (UNWTO, 2010).

In Kenya, tourism is a key economic sector and a major contributor to Kenya’s Gross

Domestic Product (12.6%) and represents 14.7% of foreign exchange earnings (Kenya

Institute of Public Policy Research and Analysis, 2009). A large part of Kenya’s tourism

product revolves around Safari tours as Kenya boosts for its great National Parks and Game

Safaris. Among the least exploited is sports tourism, despite its great potential.

Similarly, the sports sector has a major economic impact to Kenya’s economy, contributing to

both the economy and providing employment to hundreds of Kenyans. Moreover, sports, and

professional runners especially, occupy a central place in Kenya’s culture and identity based

on their achievements in medium and long distance running. It is therefore not surprising that

both active and aspiring athletics are now trooping Kenya to train with the ‘‘champions’’.

Historically, sports in Kenya have experienced major setbacks due to poor management of

clubs and sporting associations, including local football. However, other better managed

sports have continued to flourish both locally and abroad, in athletics especially.

Background

Iten and its environs is the home town for most of Kenya’s legendary medium and long

distance runners. The city hosts one of the accredited International Association of Athletics

Federations (IAAF) High Altitude Training Centre. The High Altitude Training Centre is

located 30km East of Eldoret town in a non-metropolitan town of Iten, which has been a

famous spot for both local and international runners. This study focuses on problems linked

http://www.worldsportsdestinationexpo.com/


19

to the lack of strategic tourism planning and development. Noticeably is the growth of small-

medium sized accommodations facilities in the Iten municipality and its surrounding areas

whose operations do not formally contribute to national tourism growth or development. Such

facilities cannot be relied upon to bridge the demand and supply gap for accommodation in

the area. Camps range from informal camps to formal camps sponsored by major Athletics

sponsors including PUMA, FILA, and others. Furthermore a lack of coordinated efforts

between and among stakeholders is also noticeable. The ministry of Sports and the IAAF

have championed in promoting ITEN as one of the best high altitude training regions,

however the ministry of tourism has shown little interest of strategically developing the

region. Moreover there is a lack of appropriate enterprise data concerning sports camps and

accommodation facilities. On the other hand the region hosts a number of sponsored events

aimed at recruiting professional athletes. Such events bring together athletes’ managers both

local and from abroad, sponsor teams, Athletics organizations, teams and individuals. While

these events provide athletes with an opportunity to run for some of the best clubs, the

social-economic and cultural values of such organised events to the Iten community are not

yet evaluated. While sports business continues to thrive, local operators are faced with a

number of challenges related to development of quality facilities to meet the growing demand

for their services.

The region is faced with problems linked to the lack of sustainable strategic sports tourism

planning and development. Noticeably is the growth of small-medium sized accommodations

facilities in the Iten municipality and its surrounding areas whose operations do not formally

contribute to regional tourism growth and development. Such facilities, both formal and

informal, cannot be relied upon to bridge the demand and supply gap for accommodation in

the area. The location of Iten town also presents an environmental challenge. The town is

located at the edge of the escarpment where most operators prefer development along the

edge which provides beautiful scenery of the rift valley. A lack of proper land use planning

presents the risk of uncontrolled development and serious damage to the natural and cultural

environment.

With limited strategy and policy intervention among stakeholders the entrepreneurs cannot

realise the potential of their businesses.

Sports tourism

An earlier definition for sports tourism was captured as travelling for non-commercial reasons

to participate or observe sporting activities away front the home range (Hall, 1992). A latter

definition defines sports tourism as all forms of active and passive involvement in sporting

activity, participated in casually or in an organised way for non-commercial or

business/commercial reason that necessitates travel away from home and work locality

(Standeven and De Knop, 1999). In these two definitions it is clear that the motivation behind

such travels are sports related and may be to actively ‘participate’ or ‘observe’ a sporting

activity. See table 1 below for further definitions.


20

Dimension Definition and source

Sports tourism Travel for non-commercial reasons to participate or observe sporting activities

away from the home range (Hall, 1992a: 194)

An expression of a pattern of behaviour of people during certain periods of

leisure time – such as vacation time, which is done partly in specially attractive

natural settings and partly in artificial sports and physical recreation facilities in

the outdoors (Ruskin, 1987: 26)

Holiday involving sporting, activity either as spectator or participant (weed and

Bull. 1997b: b)

Leisure-based travel that takes individuals temporarily outside of their home

communities to participate in physical activities, to watch physical activities or to

venerate attractions associated with physical activity (Gibson, 1998:5)

All forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity, participated in

casually or in an organised way for commercial or business/commercial

reasons, that necessitates travel away from home and work locality (Standeven

and De Knop, 1999:12)

Sport tourist A temporary visitor staying at least 24h in the event area and whose primary

purpose is to participate in a sports event with the area being a secondary

attraction (Nogawa et al., 1996:46)

Individuals and/or groups of people who actively or passively participate in

competitive or recreational sport, while travelling to and/or stay in places outside

their usual environment (sports as a primary motivation to travel) (Gammon and

Robinson, 1997)

Tourism Sport Person travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment and

participating in, actively or passively, a competitive or recreational sports as a

secondary activity (Gammon and Robinson, 1997)

Source: Tom Hinch and James Higham (2001)

Tourists are drawn to a destination by attractions. Highen and Hinch (2003) cite sports as an

attraction for cultural tourists. In Leiper’s popularly cited framework for defining tourist

attractions, three factors considered as ‘elements’ include: (a) the ‘human element’ (tourist),

‘central element’ (nucleus) and (c) ‘Informative element’ (markers), (Leiper 1990). This

framework can be used to understand sports as an attraction. The above elements can be

interpreted in this case as: the tourist being people travelling as participants, spectators,

officials, media and others; informative element as all marketing activities through media

whose main aim is to draw the human element to a destination and the nucleus or the central

element. An attraction comes into existence when above elements come together (ibid).

Sports and tourism planning, policy and cross sectional linkage

One of the means that most governments have done to promote rural economies is through

tourism (Luloff, 1994). But, in order for any tourism destination to gain maximum benefits and

minimise negative impacts at the destination it must be well planned. It is also vital to

integrate sporting activities with other tourism products at the destination so that the sporting

activity can contribute to the overall tourism development (Chalip, 2001) as the existence of

sports tourists at the destination not necessarily deliver economic gain to the host community

(Weed, 2008).

Although tourism studies are currently well established as a field of research, development of

tourism policy process remains limited in research (Weed, 2008). However some


21

researchers have contributed exceptionally in the area of policy leisure policy process

including Henry (1993); Houlihan (1991, 1997) and Hall (1994), but their work is limited on

cross sectional liaison (Weed, 2008). Sports and tourism have been considered as different

spheres even in events where sports have attracted sports enthusiasts in a given destination.

This notion is not only limited to practice but also in literature where researches on sports

and tourism have existed as parallel fields of research. It is inevitable that more benefits can

be gained by linking the two spheres of research as indicated in literature (Redman, 1991;

Jackson and Glyptis, 1992; Bramwell, 1997). While there are a few incidences where the two

sectors have worked together in promoting sports tourism such arrangements has existed in

ad hoc (Weed, 2008). Weed’s (1998) earlier work suggests that linking the two sectors

depends on factors that include: ‘ideology’, ‘government policy’, ‘organizational structure’,

‘organizational culture’ and ‘key staff’.

Methodology

In order to investigate the challenges faced by the entrepreneurs a survey was performed.

First a focus group was used to brainstorm some of the challenges faced by local

entrepreneurs. A list of those challenges was made and used for the survey. A total of 150

questionnaires were issued and 60 filled questionnaires were returned, representing 40% of

the total questionnaires issued. Data was collected, coded, and analysed with SPSS and

Excel. A follow up was also done by interviewing government officials on emerging themes.

Officials from three authorities were interviewed, including municipality officials, officials from

the ministries of sports and from the regional tourist office. Descriptive statistics was chosen

to give an overview of some of the challenges that entrepreneurs face in the region in light of

overall regional sports tourism development.

The geographical area in tourism context

Eldoret is a western Kenya city in the rift valley province. It is the 5th largest and the fastest

growing city. Eldoret and its environs is the home town for numerous legendary and current

outstanding Kenyan professional runners like Kipchoge Keino. The major economic activity

in the region is agriculture. It is also an important rout for travellers wishing to experience

western Kenya tourist attractions. The wider Eldoret is blessed with both natural and cultural

attractions including Kakamega forest, Mt Elgon National Park, Kerio Valley National

Reserve and a number of viewpoints for travellers wishing to view the Great Rift Valley from

the Highlands. Also within its proximity is the famous hot springs of Lake Bogoria, Lake

Baringo and Lake Victoria in the far west.

One important region for Kenya’s athletics in the wider Eldoret region is Iten town. Iten town

is a non-metropolitan town that hosts one of the accredited International Association of

Athletics Federations (IAAF) High Altitude Training Centre. It has been a famous spot for

both local and international runners wishing to train in a high altitude region and has

continued to attract athletes from all over the world.


22

Figure 1: Iten region location

Findings

A total of 63 accommodation owners participated in the survey. They included guest and

rental houses, lodging properties and sports camps. Most popular were the rental houses

(68%), which they ranged from a single room house to a three bedroom house. See table 2

and figure 2.

Table 2: Accommodation facilities by type

Types of accommodation No. Percentage

Star rated hotels 1 2%

Guest houses 3 5%

Lodgings 12 19%

Rental properties 43 68%

Camps 4 6%

Total 63 100%


23

Figure 2: Accommodation facilities by type

This research report highlights some of the issues that entrepreneurs considered as a

challenge in the region. The majority (90%) felt that a lack of national sports policy has

limited the region in benefitting from sports tourism, while 77% felt that the lack of planning

limited sports tourism development in the region.

On the other hand issues of coordination were raised. The majority (87%) felt lack of

coordinated efforts among players including the ministries of sports and tourism as a factor

that limits development of sports tourism in the region.

At the operational level, the majority (73%) of entrepreneurs felt that their land had been

‘invaded’ by rich westerners. This has led to land (value) inflation as believed by 65% of the

respondents. Access to capital was also an issue that has limited entrepreneurs wishing to

expand their businesses.

The majority of local entrepreneurs (90%) felt that the government and the local authorities

have neglected the region in terms of promoting investments while 77% of the respondents

felt that the government is doing little to market the region as a sports destination.

Below is a list of issues and their respective levels of percentage count for those issues

raised. See table 3 and figure 3.

2% 5%

19%

68%

6%

Star rated hotels

Guest houses

Lodgings

Rental properties

Camps


24

Table 3: List of issues raised by entrepreneurs in the region

Challenges

No. of

Valid

Counts Total Percentage

Lack of access to capital to establish quality facilities 35 60 58%

Inflation of land prices 39 60 65%

Limited land for expansion 43 60 72%

Little or no marketing of the destination 46 60 77%

Poor road networks 49 60 82%

Neglection by the government 54 60 90%

Lack of land demarcation for long distance running 38 60 63%

Poor road networks especially when rainy 47 60 78%

Lack of access to gym facilities 54 60 90%

Lack of quality field track 48 60 80%

Tricky sports agents 12 60 20%

‘‘Invasion’’ by the rich westerners actively buying land in Iten leading to

inflation 44 60 73%

Congestion 42 60 70%

Lack of coordinated efforts among players 52 60 87%

Lack of clear policies on athlete agency 48 60 80%

Lack of land demarcation i.e. sporting zones, 32 60 53%

Lack of National policy on sports 54 60 90%

Lack of adequate planning for the municipality 46 60 77%

Figure 3: Issues raised by entrepreneurs in the region

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Lack of access to capital to

establish quality facilities

Limmited land for expansion

Poor road networks

Lack of land demarcation for long

distance running

Lack of access to gym facilities

Tricky sports agents

Congestion

Lack of clear policies on athlete

agency

Lack of National policy on sports

Series1


25

Attitude towards government authorities’ efforts

This research also sought to highlight entrepreneurs’ attitudes towards the authorities’ efforts

in promoting sports tourism by both national government and the local government.

Respondents were asked to respond on a 5 level likert scale: 1=’Not at all’, 2= ‘To some

extent’, 3= ‘To a moderate extent’, 4= ‘To a great extent’ and 5= ‘To a very great extent’.

When the respondents were asked if they believed that the national government was doing

enough to promote sports tourism, the majority (47%) felt that the government was not doing

anything at all, 27% said ‘To some extent’, 12% said ‘To a moderate extent’, 5% said ‘To a

great extent’, and 4% said ‘To a very great extent’. See table 4 and figure 4 for the graphical

representation.

Table 4: Entrepreneurs’ attitude towards the government

Figure 4: Entrepreneurs’ attitude towards the government

When the respondents were asked if they believed that the ministry of sports was doing

enough to promote sports tourism in the region, the majority (53%) felt that the ministry was

not doing anything at all, 27% said ‘To some extent’, 10% said ‘To a moderate extent’, 5%

To what extent Do you think the government is doing enought to promote sports

tourism?

28 46.7 46.7 46.7

16 26.7 26.7 73.3

7 11.7 11.7 85.0

5 8.3 8.3 93.3

4 6.7 6.7 100.0

60 100.0 100.0

Not at all

To some extent

To a Moderate extent

To a great extent

To a v ery great extent

Total

Valid

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulativ e

Percent


26

said ‘To a great extent’, and 5% said ‘To a very great extent’. The attitudes towards the

ministry of sports and the national government were similar in such a way that in both

instances the majority believed that both institutions were not doing anything at all to promote

sports tourism in the region. See table 5 and figure 5 for the graphical presentation.

Table 5: Entrepreneurs’ attitude towards the ministry of sports


When the respondents were asked if they believed that the ministry of tourism was doing


not doing anything at all, 10% said ‘To some extent’, 3% said ‘To a moderate extent’, 3%

said ‘To a great extent’, and 3% said ‘To a very great extent’. Respondents also felt that the

role for promoting sports related travel was vested in the ministry of tourism as believed by

the majority (90%) of the respondents. See table 6 and figure 6.

To what extent Do you think the ministry of sports is doing enough to promote sports in

the region?

32 53.3 53.3 53.3

16 26.7 26.7 80.0

6 10.0 10.0 90.0

3 5.0 5.0 95.0

3 5.0 5.0 100.0

60 100.0 100.0

Not at all

To some extent


To a great extent


Total

Valid


Cumulativ e

Percent


27


To what extent do you think the ministry of tourism is doing enough to promote sports

tourism?

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Not at all 48 80.0 80.0 80.0

To some extent 6 10.0 10.0 90.0

To a Moderate extent 2 3.3 3.3 93.3

To a great extent 2 3.3 3.3 96.7

To a very great extent 2 3.3 3.3 100.0

Total 60 100.0 100.0


When the respondents were asked if they believed that the local government was doing


not doing anything at all, 18 % said ‘To some extent’, 6 % said ‘To a moderate extent’, 0 %

said ‘To a great extent’ and 6% said ‘To a very great extent’. See table 7 and figure. 7.


28



In general the government and their authorities received very little trust among the

respondents in terms of their commitment towards promoting sports tourism in the region.

The calculated means indicates a very low mean of 2 or less. See table 8.


To what extent Do you think the municipality is doing enough to promote the

municipal ity as a sporting destination?

41 68.3 68.3 68.3

11 18.3 18.3 86.7

4 6.7 6.7 93.3

4 6.7 6.7 100.0

60 100.0 100.0

Not at all

To some extent



Total

Valid


Cumulativ e

Percent

Statistics

60 60 60 60

0 0 0 0

2.02 1.82 1.40 1.58

Valid

Missing

N

Mean

To what

extent Do you

think the

government

is doing

enought to

promote

sports

tourism?

To what extent

Do you think

the ministry of

sports is

doing enough

to promote

sports in the

region?

To what extent

Do you think

the ministry of

tourism is

doing enough

topromote

sports

tourism?

To what

extent Do you

think the

municipality

is doing

enough to

promote the

municipality

as a sporting

destination?


29

A follow up interview was done and below is a profile of the interviewees.

Table 9: Interviewee profiles

Interviewee Profile

1. District sports officer Has wide knowledge in the development of sports policy in the

region

2. Chairman sports committee Has wide knowledge of sports organization in the region

3. Regional tourism officer Has wide knowledge in region’s tourism planning, development

4. District tourism officer Has wide knowledge on the development of tourism within the

district and has vast information on visits by sports tourists in the

region

5. Councilor Iten town council Has wide knowledge on leadership in the municipality and is well

informed on the local municipality policy

6. Chairman Iten town council Has wide knowledge on the local town planning, policy

development and implementation

Sports tourism development in the region received mixed reactions from officials from

different authorities and they commented on the need for proper planning, policy formulation

and implementation in relation to sports tourism development. This concern is common

among all officials. As one official who has worked for over 15 years in the town puts it:

‘’There are no collaborative efforts among all players in the region. What sports ministry has

been doing is to promote athletics and the athletes but we don’t see the ministry of sports

promoting the region as one of the best training highlands for athletics!’’.

A local council official reiterates that:

‘’There is lack of proper local priority on sports. That’s why we have not realised the

potential of sports tourism. Sports in the region have been growing at fast pace while the

local authorities have failed to match this growth through strategic plans. We see foreigners

coming from abroad to train here and we know it is an opportunity for our entrepreneurs,

especially in the accommodation sector to earn an extra shilling from their business, but we

have not planned on how ‘to plan’? (the town)’’.

A local official from the sports department added to that:

‘’The region has a great potential but we have not set our priorities right. While sports

are a multi-billion dollar sector, ‘are yet’? to develop right policies both at national and local

levels. We have also emphasised a lot on our safari, sea, sun and sand, and forgot other

sectors like sports. We would wish to have collaborations in developing the region and

market it as a sports destination, but we don’t have a working formula on how to link the two

ministries and the local authority’’.

In summary the interview confirmed the lack of strategic planning, proper policy and

collaborative efforts among stakeholders as factors derailing or challenging sports tourism

development in the region. These factors further constrain the local entrepreneurs in terms of

promoting their businesses.


30

Discussion and conclusion

This research highlights three critical issues related to sports tourism development in a non-

metropolitan destination. In this report three emerging themes are realised. The first critical

issue to note is the lack of a strategic planning in non-metropolitan regions. In order for any

tourism destination to realise maximum benefits it must be planned adequately. Through

planning negative impacts will also be minimised. The case of Iten region shows it is evident

that planning has been adversely neglected. The development of accommodation facilities

have been done in an ad hoc manner. This has led to the growth of many sub-standard

accommodation facilities that cannot be relied upon to bridge the gap of demand for quality

tourist accommodation facilities. On the other hand, with limited land resources the

authorities have failed to create land for sporting related activities.

The second critical issue is the lack of policies that govern sports development both at the

national and local level. There is a need for the authorities to come up with workable policies

for sports tourism. The sporting ministry may have championed the development of sports in

the region, but who will cater for sports travellers at the destination in terms of

accommodation and other hospitality services? How should the destination be marketed to

the world? Such questions and other related questions can be well addressed through

workable policies.

Finally, there is the issue of cross sectional linkage among players. Understanding the

relationship between tourism and sports policy is important for a sustainable sports tourism

development. Wright (1998, pp.609-610) suggests basic ‘rules of the game’ as desirable

behaviours for policy makers. In this report these players include: the ministry of sports, the

ministry of tourism and the county council authorities. It is evident that the roles played by

these authorities are not clear on who should do what. While s sectional linkage may rip

much more benefit this fact is yet to be explored. Perhaps previous works on the link

between sports and tourism (e.g. Bramwell, 1997; Gibson, 1998; Glyptis; Jackson & Glyptis,

1992) should guide future policy makers. The three players need to work together in the

process of planning, policy formulation and implementation. This will reduce possible friction

and help the region to realise much more benefits.

The above emerging themes confirm neglect of non-metropolitan destinations despite their

potential in tourism product development. Could this mean that it confirms the observations

by Weed (2008) that sports tourism is at cross roads?

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33

The ‘romance’ of mining in light of tourism: A case study of

soapstone in Tabaka, Kisii County, Kenya

John Akama

Liza Buyeke


Kenya

Introduction

Mineral products are at the core of today’s civilized world that we live in. The manufacturing

sector, the high technology industries and even the resource industries are all dependent, in

one way or the other on the mining industry. According to geological surveys there is

approximately 22 billion tons of soapstone in the Kisii Hills (Kenya Geological Survey, 2008).

Mining the stone is all done by hand with hammers, picks and chisels. The stones are made

into the approximate shapes with machetes, axes and handsaws. The stones are then

carried by manpower out of the mines. Different mines have different colours and densities of

stones. The carver will often go down into the mine himself to find what he needs. In order to

achieve national and industrial development, any country including Kenya requires

processing their minerals.

In the past century, Kenya has become renowned for its soapstone (called Kisii stone in

Africa) carvers (http://www.kisii soapstone/kisiisoapstones/kisiionline.com). Soapstone

carving didn't catch on in Kenya until the 1940s, after Indian labourers arrived to build the

railroad from the Kenyan coast to Uganda (Mong’are, 2006). Soapstone is actually a variety

of talc, a soft mineral of a soapy feel and a greenish, whitish, or greyish colour, usually

occurring in foliated masses. It is a hydrous silicate of magnesia and forms by alteration of

these magnesium-rich rocks and minerals at low temperatures and high pressure. Rocks

consisting mainly of talc are known as steatite or soapstone, and are soft enough to carve

into various shapes. In fact, soapstone is the softest mineral on the Mohs hardness scale

(soapstone being a 1, or the softest and 10 being the hardest, i.e. diamond). Kisii stone

typically exhibits coloration ranging from creamy white to yellow to red to dark grey,

depending on the mineral(s) present in the stone.

The soapstone in Kisii stone is only available in the Tabaka Hills of Western Kenya and the

stone is carved by the community. The stone is mined using hoes, picks, axes, shovels, iron

rods and pangas (which are large knives used to chop the stone into smaller pieces). Most of

the carvers are not professional carvers, but are actually subsistence farmers who carve

mainly in the evening and in the dry season. Soapstone has created some of the most

beautiful images in the world. These images have been continuously sold to the local

communities sometimes at a very low price. Although some of the Kenyan arts including the

chiondo, kikoi and other carvings are instant tourism attraction, this same has not been said

of the soapstone mines in Kisii. This study was therefore designed to explore the unexpected

the ‘romance’ of soapstone mining and tourism in Kisii, Kenya.


34

Methodology

Study area

The study was conducted in the Tabaka areas of the Kisii district ( Figure 1). The district

shares common boundaries with Masaba South district to the north, Rongo district to the

west, Trans Mara district to the south and Gucha district to the east. The district covers an

area of 200.2 km2 and is located between latitudes 0°30’ and 0°58’ South and longitudes

34°42’ and 35°05’ East (Kisii District Development Plan 2008-2012) and has a population of

150,049 people (KNBS, 2010). The area contains numerous soapstone mines that are

exploited by the local community members.

Figure 1: Map of Kenya, identifying the location of the study area. The shaded region

represents the geological survey projections of the area under soapstone mines (Kenya

Geological Survey, 2008)

Study design

This was a cross sectional survey and involved investigations regarding the association

between soapstone mining and tourism.


35

Study population

The study population consisted of adults aged above 18 years in the Kisii soapstone mining

industry and tourist visiting Kisii. Currently there are a total of 1200 people working in the

Kisii soapstone mining area and the number of tourists visiting the area is currently estimated

at 200 per year (KTB, 2010)

Sample size and its determination

To determine the sample size, the Yamane (1967) formula was used:

2

1 Ne

Nn

Where:

n = required responses

N = Sample size

e2 = error limit, e = 0.05

Placing the formula for the Kisii District (N = 1200) yielded a sample size of 300 for the local

community members and 133 tourist. In the final analysis, only 221 questionnaires for the

local community members and 71 from the tourists were found useful translating to response

rates of 73.7% and 66.7% for the local community and tourists respectively.

Data collection tools

Structured pre-tested questionnaires and scheduled interviews were the quantitative data

collection tools systematically used to collect primary data from the respondents. These

questionnaires were administered by the two trained enumerators. To counteract the

potential of reporting bias, the questionnaires were developed and validated from previous

studies.

Validity and reliability of the instruments of research instrument

Validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data actually

represents the phenomenon under study (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). The instrument was

rated in terms of how effectively it samples significant aspects of the purpose of the study.

The researcher discussed the contents of items in the instrument with the experts and

content adjusted accordingly to reflect true reflections of the situation to expect.

Reliability of a test refers to the ability of that test to consistently yield the same results when

repeated measurements are taken of the same individual under the same conditions (Koul,

1993). To establish the reliability of the questionnaire, the brown prophecy test (described in

Kothari, 2005) was used. A reliability coefficient of 0.87 was obtained and judged to be good.

Data collection procedure

The research assistants were supplied with the needed research materials that were needed

to conduct the study. Deployment of the research assistants followed in readiness to start

collecting samples. At the stone mining sites, each research assistant provided sample


36

questionnaires and translated the content in Ekegusii to the local who did not understand

English. During the time, interviews were also conducted and responses recorded down.

Data analysis and presentation

After data collection, responses from all questions were crosschecked to facilitate coding and

processing for analysis using Statistical Programme for Social Sciences (SPSS v.13.5)

computer package. Statistical analyses of data were done by inferential and descriptive

statistics. Chi-square (2) test

E

EO2

2)(

Where: O is the observed and E the expected ranges used respectively in the sample for

analysis. The findings were presented using tables, charts, percentages, tabulations, means,

modes and central tendencies. Tables were used to summarize responses for further

analysis and facilitate comparison. For all statistical analyses, significance was accepted at P

< 0.05.

Results

Background information

Among the local community members, 13.3%, 20.0%, 15.0%, 15.0% and 5.0% were aged;

21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60 and above 60 respectively. For tourists the age brackets were

10.0%, 13.0%, 23.3%, 21.7%, and 25.0% correspondingly. Age for both the tourists and local

community members differed significantly (P <0.05). For gender, 58.3% and 41.7% were

male and female respectively. The tourists were 50.0% male and 50.0% female. The gender

response differed significantly for local community members (2= 9.32, df = 2, P = 0.002) but

not among tourists (2 = 0.19, df = 1, P = 0.067). Educational levels of the local community

members showed that 50% had college education, while 78.3% of tourists obtained college

education levels. This differed significantly (P<0.001).

Table 1: Background information of the local communities and tourists visiting the Tabaka

area of Kisii

Variable Local community members

(n = 221)

Tourists

(n = 71)

Age

21-30 13.3 10

31-40 20 13

41-50 25 23.3

51-60 25 21.7

>60 8.3 25

Gender

Male 58.3 53.3

Female 41.7 46.7

Level of education 100 100

Primary 8.3 1.7

Secondary 34.5 16.7

College 50 78.3

University 7.2 3.3


37

Potential tourist attractions in the Tabaka area of Kisii

There were several potential attractions for tourists in the Tabaka area of Kisii. Some of the

photographs of potential tourists’ attraction artefacts taken in the area are presented in

Figure 2. Several artefacts were available that could potentially attract large spending tourists

to the area.

Figure 2: Potential artefacts attracting tourism in the Tabaka region of Kissi

Role of Tabaka soapstone mining areas in promoting tourism

The role of Tabaka area of Kisii in promoting tourism is shown in Figure 3 below. Six roles of

Tabaka region were identified in enhancing the visits by tourists. These methods included:

increased local marketing (32.1%), tax incentive to the tourists (22.4%), improving of road

network (22.1%) and offering unique product base (20.4%).

Figure 3: Activities undertaken by Tabaka area of Kisii to promote tourism

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

Improve

roads

Provide

security

Unique

product base

Increased

marketing

Provide

funds

Tax

incentives

Activitivities

Per

cent

age

freq

uenc

y .


38

Apart from offering tangible economic modes of promoting tourists, they were also using

cultural methods to enhance tourism visits (Figure 4). The major cultural attraction used by

the establishment is songs and dances (50.1%). Many of these songs and dances are

traditional based. Other traditional attractions used, but in lower proportion were dances

alone (25.2%), artifacts (15.1%) and souvenirs (9.6%).

Figure 4: Cultural methods of attracting and promoting tourists in the Tabaka region of Kisii

The tourists were asked how they knew of Tabaka area of Kisii (Figure 5). The most

dominant methods included through normal conversation while visiting the country (25%),

attractive packages by KTB (23%), promotion of the area (16%) and brochure (10%), media

(7%).

Figure 5: Methods used by the tourists to know of Tabaka region, in Kisii

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Songs and

dances

Artefacts Dances Souvenirs

Cultural resources

Per

cen

tag

e fr

equ

ency

.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Med

ia

Co

nv

ers

ati

on

Bro

ch

ure

s

Med

ia a

nd

Bro

ch

ure

s

Tele

vis

ion

Sale

s

pro

mo

tio

n

Att

racti

ve

pack

ag

ing

Marketing modes

Perc

en

tag

e f

req

eu

ncy

.


39

Ratings of the facilities/services to the tourists while in Kisii are shown below ( Figure 6).

Infrastructure, diversity of tourism activities, bird watching and cultural orientation were

ranked low. Prices, friendliness of the locals, swimming and lodging facilities were rated as

good by the majority of the tourists.

Figure 6: Ratings of services offered by Tabaka area of Kisii by tourists

Areas that required urgent improvements are depicted in Figure 7. The majority of the

tourists would prefer improvements on animal diversity, research, poor infrastructure and

transport facilities.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Infr

astr

uctu

re

Pri

ces

Fri

endl

ines

s of

peo

ple

Var

iety

of

tour

ism

act

iviti

es

Bir

d w

arch

ing

Sw

imm

ing

Cul

tual

ori

enta

tion

Lod

ging

fac

ilitie

s

Services

Per

cent

age

freq

uenc

y of

res

pond

ents

.

Good

Poor


40

Figure 7: Areas that need to be improved in Tabaka area to attract more tourists.

Discussion

Promotion of the Tabaka area of Kisii as a tourist attraction was achieved by a variety of

methods. The first method involved increased marketing of the artefacts for tourists. The

photographs that were collected contained large collection of artefacts that can form a

potential museum of artefact collection, which can form the basis of tourists viewing. As

suggested by Sindiga (1996), these artefacts are only individualistic because they are not

under one roof, but a common museum can be constructed for all the artefacts to be

collected under one roof; then tourism can be a real business in the region. Marketing was

also achieved through several means including increased marketing strategies, tax incentive

and trying to improve the road networks by the government. These modes of marketing are

traditional modes of promotion that have always proved to be very effective in attracting

visitors from far and wide. Aggressive marketing could also be the best method of marketing

because in as much as it targets the local visitors, international guests are also included.

Aggressive marketing also gives a competitive edge over other rivals. Akama (1997) has

reported that most business ventures that market aggressively tends to have very diverse

visitor bases. That is why the Kenya Tourism Board (KTB) has been at the forefront of

marketing Kenya tourism establishments in other non-traditional Kenya tourism markets adds

Sindiga (1996). Promoting tourism within the area was not only limited to marketing artifacts.

The roads were upgraded hence improving the dilapidated infrastructure. This was found to

be particularly important in areas where roads become impassable during rainy seasons.

Such unique roles encouraged visitors to make year round visits to the hotels regardless of

the prevailing weather conditions or seasons. Abele (2003) has also reported that in Kenya

the road network is in poor state and any endeavor to improve them will be rewarded by

sustained tourist visits.

Unique product base and tax incentives to the visitors were the other role played by the

Tabaka area of Kisii to attract more tourists. Diversity of product bases has been reported by

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Lo

w a

nim

al

div

ersi

ty

Lac

k o

f

rese

arch

Po

or

qu

ality

infr

astr

uct

ure

Lac

k s

po

rtin

g

faci

lities

Lac

k o

f

spac

es

Lo

w c

ultu

ral

tou

rism

Hig

h c

ost

of

go

od

s an

d

serv

ices

Suggestions .

Per

cen

tag

e fr

equ

ency


41

Achiron and Wilkinson (1999) as one major factor that attracts and retains tourists in most

establishments. Barasa (2005) attest to this by comparing Kenya and Tanzania tourism;

where he concludes that tourists are more likely to visit Kenya than Tanzania because Kenya

offers a wide tourism base of products. This is particularly important because in an area with

diversity, tourists are likely to enjoy the wide range of products without getting bored. These

products apart from being diverse and unique are also important when charged low prices

especially after tax incentives. In natural economic theory, prices advantages are usually a

major driving factor of tourists’ visits, especially low and middle spenders. High spenders on

the other hand would prefer to get a quality products base but at a high price.

Apart from playing a direct role in direct influence to the tourists, cultural activities (resources)

are major roles of Tabaka area of Kisii in attracting visitors. Several cultural activities were

practiced; songs and dances, artifacts and souvenirs. In areas where culture is still of

significance, more tourists are likely to visit in order to have first-hand experience of the local

culture (Gekahu and Waithaka, 1992). This has been reported to be the case with the

Maasai community who attract more tourists to Kenya due to their unique culture base

(Sinclair, 2000). There were also the marketing of premises as well as landscape as tourists’

attraction facilities. This provided the direct link between tourists and the hotel together with

interaction with the locals to promote tourism.

Several services were offered by the hotel to encourage visits. These services included

cultural orientation, landscape, wildlife and bird watching as well as lodging and swimming

facilities. The importance of cultural values and norms to visitors cannot be gainsaid. Since

African culture is perceived to be unique in the world by most tourists, they would be more

interested to view the culture in premises offering them. Landscape, wildlife and bird

watching have been exhaustively discussed by several workers (Sindiga, 1995; Sindiga,

1996; Jafari, 1997; Akama, 1997) as the main tourist attractions in Kenya. If such services

are offered in Tabaka, then they stand proper chances of attracting more tourists. A case in

point has been highlighted by Kwena (1997) in Kericho District within the tea estates. The

beautiful scenery offered by the tea estates attracts several thousands of both domestic and

international tourists, who spend a chunk of their money in the local hospitality

establishments.

In as much as tourists are accepting to pay visits to Kenya, they were limited by the quality of

services, which seems to limit the duration of their stay. If no urgent measures are taken to

rectify some of the key points raised by the tourists, then repeat guests and more arrivals are

likely to diminish considerably. Among the services that were highly rated by tourists as good

were the prices, friendliness of the staff, swimming and lodging facilities. The hotel seems to

offer a very competitive or low price as mentioned earlier due to the tax incentive. Matters

touching on finance often lead to very high increases in visitors’ base as long as quality is not

adversely affected (Sindiga, 1997). The friendliness of the employees was the other bonus

for the hotel establishment in attracting more tourists to the area. However, hostility by the

locals will definitely encourage visitors to take a quick flight back home. Friendliness of the

local environment is one factor that seemed to encourage more tourists to visit Kenya

especially to the coast. In most of these sites “brotherhood” and “sisterhood” is encouraged

and every visitor is welcomed home like a brother/sister. This is what has encouraged growth

of beach tourism along the Kenyan Coast.


42

Facilities that seemed to hinder development of tourism locally in Tabaka area of Kisii

included poor infrastructure, lack of product variety, bird watching and cultural orientations.

Poor infrastructure such as roads has been reported by several researchers who argued that

the quality of roads is often pathetic that an hour’s journey can last for up to 5 hours. Such

poor quality roads often lead to discomfort during the course of the journey, which does not

seem ‘to eager well for the tourists. The cost of ware and tare could also result to increased

overhead costs for private companies which have to be used by the tourists. Development of

tourism promotion by any enterprise can be bogged down by the presence of certain

perturbations and challenges that may eventually impede the progression in the tourism

promotion. Several challenges key among them, lack of finance, harsh government policies,

poor marketing, lack of staff motivation and lack of technical expertise seemed to limit full

achievement of their promotional status of tourism by the Tabaka area of Kisii. ‘

In conclusion, this study indicated that the Tabaka area of Kisii has large artefacts that can

promote tourism but is still receiving low tourists numbers, currently at about 200 per year.

However, there were aspects of enhancing tourists’ visits including: aggressive marketing,

improving infrastructure, provision of unique product base. Cultural practices through songs,

dances and artifacts and souvenirs were also major activities that enhanced the status of the

Tabaka area of Kisii. Other facilities provided to tourists that enhance the area as tourists’

establishments were landscape, attractive packages and sales promotion. The nature of

services offered to tourists by the Tabaka area of Kisii in its endeavor to self-promotion

included; cultural orientation, landscape, wildlife and birds watching as well as lodging and

swimming facilities. Such combination of services was ideal to attract a broader base of

tourists. Major constraints facing the Tabaka area of Kisii in promoting its activities to tourists

to encourage increased visits are; lack of capital, poor government policies and council by-

laws, lack of motivation and expertise as well as poor marketing skills.

Since the area has high diversity of cultural groups and various communities each with

unique cultures, there should be closer collaboration between the management of the

Tabaka area of Kisii, locals and other groups of people in order to increase cultural

diversities that is richly abound in the area. Since the world is growing rather rapidly into a

global village, where traditional methods of marketing are becoming outdated, the

management of the Tabaka area of Kisii should consider introducing and using Internet to

market themselves. Such marketing strategy is likely to attract large customers’ base and not

few locals. Finally the hotels should liaise with local government representatives to

encourage the change of the archaic laws such as high and double taxation. There is also an

urgent need to look for expertise in managing the affairs of the hotels, especially handling

marketing matters.

References

Achiron, M. and Wilkinson. K. (1999). The last Safari: Will Africa Wilderness Turn into a strong of

glorified game parks? Newsweek 32: 20-23.

Akama, J.S. (1996). Wildlife conservation in Kenya. A political – Ecological analysis of Nairobi and

Tsavo region. Washington DC. African Development Foundation.

Akama, J.S. (1997). Tourism in Kenya: Problems and Policy Alternatives. Progress in Tourism and

Hospitality Research. 3: 95-105.


43

Barasa L. (2005). Special Report; “Its Park Or New Suburbs Says KWS. The Daily Nation. pp. 11.

Gakahu, C. and Waithaka, H. (1992). Visitor attitudes, perception, norms, and use patterns influencing

visitor carrying capacity. In C. Gakahu (ed.) Tourist Attitudes and Use Impacts in Masai Mara National

Reserve. Nairobi: English Press.

Jafari, J. (1987). The Tourism System: Socio-cultural models for theoretical and practical application.

Problems of tourism. 10(3): 3-17

Kenya Geological Survey, 2008. Survey of Geological landscape in Kenya. Government Printers,

Nairobi, Kenya.

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2010). Population census results of Kenya by the year 2009.

Government Printers: Nairobi, Kenya: http://www.afdevinfo.com/htmlreports/org/org_33469.html.

Kombo K.D. and Tromp A.L. (2006). Proposal and Thesis Writing. An Introduction, Nairobi, Kenya

Paulines Publications Africa.

KTB (2010) Kenya Tourism: A newsletter of The Kenya Tourism Board. Issue No. 12 January – March

2010.

Kwena, E. (1997). Kenya fears huge drop in peak Tourism. The East African: Nation Centre.

Mong’are, T.N. (2010). Historical development of Kenyan mining industry: Western Kenya mines.

Paper presented at the 10th Geological Mining Conference in Nairobi, Kenya. Accessed 27

th

September 2010.

Sinclair, M.T. (2000). Tourism Development in Kenya. Washington D.C: World Bank.

Sindiga, I. (1996). Domestic tourism in Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research 23 (1), 19–31.

http://www.afdevinfo.com/htmlreports/org/org_33469.html


44

The efficacy of small and medium scale tourism

enterprises (SMTEs) as tools for poverty alleviation:

The case of the North-Rift region in Kenya

John Akama, Polycarp Oluoch Dominic Rotich Kenya

Introduction

Small and medium scale tourism enterprises (SMTEs) are businesses whose headcount or

turnover falls below certain envisioned limits. The term small and medium-sized businesses

or SMBs is predominantly used in the USA. EU member states, traditionally, have their own

definition of what constitutes an SME; for example the traditional definition of SMTE in

Germany has a limit of 250 employees, while in Belgium the limit is set at 100 employees.

However, in recent years, the EU has started to come up with a standardized definition of the

SME concept. In its most recent definition, EU categorizes companies with fewer than 50

employees as "small", and those with fewer than 250 as "medium". In contrast, in the United

States, when a smallscale business is defined by the number of employees, it often refers to

those businesses with fewer than 100 employees, while medium-sized business often refers

to those with fewer than 500 employees. Both the USA and the EU, generally, use the same

threshold of fewer than 10 employees for small offices (SOHO) businesses. Another

example, in South Africa the term SMME, for Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises, is used

to refer to small and medium scale business enterprises. Elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa,

the phrase MSME (Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) is used.

Hence, as the above examples indicate, the size threshold conceptualization of small and

medium scale businesses vary from country to country and/or region to region. Kenya has

tended to adapt the EU definition of SMEs. All in all, it should be stated that the lack of a

universal definition of SMEs has over the year made conducting coherent research as relates

to SMEs more difficult and unsystematic (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/).

SMTEs as tools for pro-poor tourism development

Reduction of poverty, especially in Third World countries such as Kenya where it is

widespread, is a universally agreed priority and targets have been put in place to reduce

poverty level by one-half by 2015 (see for example, UN Millennium Development Goal).

Governments and aid agencies acknowledge that whilst economic growth is essential for

poverty reduction. However, in itself; it is insufficient to ensure a significant reduction and/or

redistribution of wealth. Growth that is specifically pro-poor is a pre-requisite for any

significant progress towards achieving agreed targets for poverty reduction.

In this regard, tourism has many characteristics that make it potentially pro-poor:

It is a diverse industry, which increases the scope of widespread participation,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_%28employment%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_business

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_office

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa


45

In most instances, the customer comes to the product site, which provides opportunities

for economic linkages, (i.e., souvenirs sales, indigenous art performances and cultural

displays),

It is highly dependant on natural capital (wildlife and scenery) and cultural assets that

marginalized community in Third World countries, particularly in Africa, ‘have in pretty’,

It offers labour-intensive and small-scale opportunities compared with other economic

sectors (Deloitte and Touche, 1999),

More benefits tend to go to women, for instance, it has been noted that the tourism

industry employs a high proportion of women and the youth (Ashley, Boyd and Goodwin,

(2000); Roe and Urquhart (2001),

In most countries with high levels of poverty, tourism is a significant sector or the industry

is growing at higher rates compared to other sectors of the economy.

Moreover, it should be made clear that small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the

backbone of most economies in most parts of the world, and are a key source of economic

growth, dynamism and flexibility even in advanced and industrialized countries, as well as in

emerging and developing economies. In this regard, SMEs constitute the dominant form of

business organization, accounting for between 95% to 99% of enterprises depending on the

country; particularly, it has also been noted that small businesses are particularly important in

bringing innovative products or techniques to the market (OECD, 2006).

Global wealth has almost doubled since 1990, but nearly half the world’s population subsists

on less than US$ 2 per day. Poverty remains a major challenge to sustainable development,

environmental conservation and global stability in the currently globalized economy. The key

to poverty alleviation is economic growth that is inclusive and reaches the majority of people

in peripheral regions of the world. Improving the performance and sustainability of local

entrepreneurs and small and medium enterprises (SMEs), which represent the backbone of

global economic activity, can help achieve this type of growth. Most SMEs quite often have a

vested interest in community development. Being local, they draw upon the community for

their workforce and rely on it to undertake most of the businesses. They are an important

source of employment, particularly for low-skilled workers, as well as women and the youth,

who usually make up the largest proportion of the poor and economically marginalized

segments of society, particularly in Third World countries such as Kenya (SNV and WBCSD,

2007). This is the case for small scale tourism enterprises which in most instances are

usually owned by, employ and provide increased income for the poor communities. These

are the issues that are elucidated in this study using the case of the North Rift Region of

Kenya.

Study area and methodology

Tourism in Kenya has grown to become a major foreign exchange earner, second to the

agricultural sector (KNBS, 2008). As such, Kenya’s national policy blueprint “Vision 2030”,

identifies tourism as a leading sector in moving the country forward in terms of economic

growth and overall development. This is to be realized by turning the country into one of the

leading long haul tourist destinations, creating new high value niche products, and investing

in new and diverse tourism products and services (Kenya Government Vision 2030). There

has been continued growth of tourism in Kenya both in visitor arrivals and tourism earning in

recent years. Specifically, the tourism earnings increased from KShs. 48.9 billion in 2005 to

KShs. 56.2 billion in 2006. The tourism revenues increased by 16.4% annually, reaching an


46

all-time high of KShs. 65.4 billion in 2007. The tourism earnings, however, slummed in the

first quarter of 2008 due to political wrangling resulting from the disputed Presidential

election. According to the Kenya Tourist Board (KTB), international tourist arrivals dropped

by a significant 36% to 561,313 in the first quarter of 2008 compared to 873,433 in the same

period in 2007 (Business Daily, July 31st 2008). However, from the mid 2008s, there has

been an upwards surge in the number of international tourist arrivals mainly due to

aggressive marketing by KTB in major tourist source countries especially in Europe, North

America, Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Attractions

The North Rift region is undoubtedly endowed with diverse attractions and features including

beautiful scenery, rich local culture, natural spars and hot springs, unique wildlife and

remarkable sporting talent. For the case of this study, the region covers four administrative

districts of Baringo, Keiyo, Koibatek and Marakwet. It has an estimated population of about

one million people, with 43% earning less than US$ 2 a day. As a consequence, in most of

the North Rift region, the level of poverty is indeed alarming and excruciating to any casual

observer. For instance, in Baringo District, it was estimated that in 2001, about 57% of the

popu1ation lived in absolute poverty. Furthermore, the relatively high fertility rates of over 7

children per family and high population growth rates of over 3% per annum are unlikely to

diminish the poverty situation in the North Rift region as a whole (North Rift Inter-Council

Forum, 2005). The region has got four major touristic features: Lakes Begonia and Baringo,

the deep gorged and crocodile invested Kerio River and the unique winding and cascading

Rift Valley system. It also has an assemblage of rare species of wild game and birds, rich

cultural heritage and fantastic sporting activities. However, it should be noted that most of

these touristic attractions still remain under-utilized and/or untapped due to the undiversified

nature of Kenya’s tourism industry which is mainly arched on wildlife safari in a few game

parks and beach tourism at the coast (North-Rift Inter-council Forum-2005).

Minimal benefits

Notwithstanding, from the great achievements of the Kenyan tourism industry in the last 20

years, especially in terms of international tourist arrivals, the North Rift region has managed

to bag only a marginal share of the benefits. For example, in 2007, with the country recording

an impressive occupancy of 6.939 thousand bed nights, the Western Kenya tourist circuit

where North Rift is situated received a minimal share of 234 thousand bed nights (KNBS,

2008). This underperformance has been attributed to several factors including insecurity,

negative publicity, limited marketing efforts, poor coordination among stakeholders and low

community participation (SNV, 2008). This has been made worse by the recent post-election

violence that rocked the country after the 2007 general elections. According to a survey done

by SNV, tourism earnings dropped by a massive 98% in Lake Baringo and Lake Bogoria

National Reserves (which are major tourist herbs in the North Rift) between January and

March 2008.

Methodology

The study sought to identify the opportunities, contributions and challenges facing small

scale tourism enterprises as contributors to poverty alleviation. It mainly applied participatory

approaches and field observatory methodologies to elicit problem-oriented, field-based


47

information from key stakeholders, particularly representatives of the local communities

inhabiting the North Rift Region. These included direct observation, semi-structured and

structured interviews and focused group discussions. Key interviews were undertaken in the

study area over a six month duration (August 2008–January 2009) with a diverse range of

stakeholders, including officials of a local NGO (North Rift Tourist Forum), county council

officials, wildlife reserve wardens, conservation officials, government officials, members of

parliament, managers of tourism facilities, tour operators, tourism officers, members of

community tourism organizations and community project participants. The study used a

census-oriented approach to target all the small medium tourism enterprises in the region. A

quantitative baseline survey was also carried out to determine the current status of tourism in

the region in terms of revenues, arrivals, employment levels and visitor characteristics.

These methods were deliberately chosen as they were deemed to be more efficient and easy

to elicit information especially in a rural Third World setting where the use of structured

methodologies would not have elicited the requisite in-depth responses concerning various

aspects of tourism development and its impact on poverty reduction and social

empowerment of the local people and other key tourism stakeholders in the region. Hence,

direct participation and observation was a key method in bringing out the practical issues on

the ground, some of which could not be captured by use of other methodologies.

Research results

Brief classification of SMTEs in the region

It was established that most tourism enterprises (55 in number) in the region (i.e.,

accommodation, curio shops, boat and camping facilities) fall within the classification of

SMEs. However there was a variance in the scale of operations and activities of these

enterprises. There are those that are actively involved in tourism activities, most of which are

accommodation service providers with less than ten engaging in curio and boat operations.

The majority of these active enterprises is under private ownership and/or family

establishments, and is not specifically owned by whole communities. In this regard, only 5

out of 55 enterprises surveyed are community owned. The second category includes those

that are not fully engaged in tourism activities and incorporate other activities for income

generation.

Employment opportunities

SMTEs in the region employ a total of 1.359 people and out of this; only 552 were directly

and engaged fulltime in tourism activities while the other 807 are only partially involved in

tourism. The people who are partially involved are mainly engaged in community owned

enterprises including women self-help groups, youth groups and local cultural groups. Their

main activities included production of curios, cultural art performances, music and dance,

cultural artifacts, and community environmental conservation. (See annex 1 and 2)


48

Income generation

It was noted that the majority of the SMTEs could not establish how much income they

generate from tourism because of a lack of proper bookkeeping and minimal financial

management skills; this was particularly noted in those enterprises that are community

owned. They have weak administrative and financial management structures and capacity to

establish proper record keeping and financial accounting. As a consequence, in some cases

they were only able to provide rough estimates on how much revenue they generate and

how they normally share the income. Notwithstanding these shortcomings it was estimated

that the first cluster of SMTEs (those that are privately owned) generated approximately

KShs 148.2 Million (US $ 1,976,000) from Tourism in 2007 representing 0.23% of Kenya’s

Total Grossing Earnings from the tourism industry during the same period -KShs 65.4 Billion

(US$ 872 Million) (KNBS, 2008). More specifically, about KShs 120.7 Million was earned

from accommodation, followed by KShs 17.7 and 9.7 Million respectively from gate entry

fees, cultural art performances, and other forms of service provision (i.e., curio and other

forms of indigenous handicraft sales, boat operations and transport and transfers services

among others.

Perhaps also worth noting is the fact that, most of the SMTEs sought to diversify their

activities to supplement their income. Activities engaged in include crop production, animal

husbandry, cultural performances in political gathering and social events, selling traditional

handicraft and dance performances in the Kenya National Agricultural Shows, bee keeping,

transportation (ownership of vehicles and motorcycles for hire and public transport), and

participation in athletic events, among others

Other forms of benefits

Perhaps more importantly, the study established that tourism has brought poor communities

together to form partnerships and collaborations that have opened doors for other

opportunities. For instance, through (Rotating Savings and Credit Associations) ROSCAs

and (Accumulating Savings and Credit Associations) ASCAs and (Savings and Internal

Lending Communities) SILCs, members of community tourism enterprises have been able to

save and access finances for various livelihood activities, individual emergencies and

community investment opportunities. Particularly, various women groups have been able to

save and lend each other while sharing benefits accrued from such saving and lending

according to each member’s contributions. Through such savings, they have been able to

access financial services from local and regional micro-finance institutions. Moreover, they

get advice on investment and other development activities from each other and from financial

institutions and development partners, such as SNV.

The challenges

The main challenges confronting SMTEs in Mid-Rift are as follows:

Unfavorable business environment: This include insecurity in some parts of the

destination blocking some of the most significant routes such as the scenic Lake Baringo

region and the cascading Samburu Hills containing unique ecological and cultural attractions,

poor road network in some parts of the destination and non-vibrant mainstream tourism

sector to boost informal tourism ventures in the destination.


49

Poor linkages and partnerships: Major tourism players in Kenya, both public and private,

have not acknowledged the business potentials pertaining to creating partnerships with the

small scale partners, mainly community based tourism SMTEs. Worse yet, in recent years

some major hotel chains have started businesses that are in direct competition with the small

scale community ventures by providing in-house services such as boat excursions, curio

shops and ‘cultural centers’. This tends to deny the small scale tourism ventures the

opportunity for development and business expansion. Another gap in this linkage is when

tour driver-guides from mainstream private companies refuse to stop at some curio shops

and community owned cultural centres unless they pay commissions on every purchase plus

a fixed stop-over fee. Also major Kenyan and overseas tour operators have not ventured into

the area due to limited quality accommodation facilities and problem of inaccessibility to

major tourism attractions in the region. On this subject, there exists no consented effort to

establish linkages and collaborative partnerships between major players in the burgeoning

Kenyan tourism industry and existing SMTES in the Rift Valley region to assist in product

enhancement, improvement in service delivery and increase collaborative marketing

initiatives both in the local and international tourist generating regions.

Access to finance: SMTEs in the region face a problem of accessing financial support for

product development, service delivery, and marketing and promotion. The majority of these

small-scale businesses are unable to access bank loans from major financial institutions due

to weak administrative and management structures and the overall characterization of

minimal credit worthfulness as enunciated by major formal financial lending institutions.

However, even when SMTEs are able to access credit the loan interest rates are usually high

causing problems in services the loans.

Human resource development and capacity gaps: An assessment of capacity building

and training needs established that there existed a wide range of capacity gaps, particularly

in those SMTEs that are community owned and managed. While people working in the

privately owned enterprises such as hotels and lodges have some basic training those

working and managing community owned SMTEs lack training in key areas of product

development, service delivery and marketing. Other skills gaps were identified in the

following areas: bookkeeping, customer relationship, foreign languages, tour guiding, and

institutional management and administrative skills among others. Particularly four key areas

were consistently mentioned by most interviewees as requiring urgent training intervention;

these areas included service delivery and management, writing of business plans and

marketing of tourism products and services.

Discussion

Contribution of SMTEs to poverty alleviation

SMTEs are vital as tools for poverty reduction in poor communities, particularly in resource

scarce Third World countries such as Kenya. Particularly, at the initial stages of tourism

development in a destination such as is currently being witnessed in the North-Rift region of

Kenya, it is the SMTEs that often support tourism activities before major investors can gain

interest and confidence in the area to put up major tourism enterprises. A census of the

SMTEs in North-Rift established that most of them fall within the aforementioned definition of

SMEs. However, some of the SMTEs are more active in tourism activities and employees are

engaged full time in various operational activities; this is particularly so in the privately owned


50

enterprises. Whereas community owned SMTEs tend to combine tourism ventures with other

livelihood initiatives in order to sustain themselves both in the short-term and in the long-run.

As stated elsewhere, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the backbone of most

economies in different parts of the world and are a key source of income generation and

economic growth. SMEs demonstrate important traits such as dynamism and flexibility in

both advanced industrialized countries, as well as emerging and developing economies such

as Kenya (OECD, 2006). While these assertions are to a certain extent true, in some cases

such as the North-Rift, only a few SMTEs are actively involved and directly benefit from

tourism. Furthermore many SMTEs may be ill equipped in terms of competent product

development and service delivery that are essential in the highly competitive globalized

tourism industry. Due to these constraints they may not optimize their capacity in revenue

generation and overall wealth creation which are important ingredients in poverty reduction.

As a consequence, in a Third World country, such as Kenya significant amounts of the

tourism earning tend to go to the well-established large scale tourism establishment that are

situated in the country’s well established destinations such as beach tourism in the Kenyan

coast and the famed wildlife safari tourism in the world renowned wildlife sanctuaries such as

Masai Mara, Amboseli and Tsavo National Park. The situation is further aggravated by the

fact that there is no deliberate government policy to assist in the development and promotion

of micro-scale and medium range business initiatives.

Worse yet, government tourism policy tend to favour the large scale tourism conglomerates

through such policy initiatives such as the provision of concessionary loan facilities and tax

exception and marketing strategies which focus on beach and safari tourism where most of

the multinational tourism businesses are concentrated. Whereas tourism products and

services such as indigenous art performance, rural tourism, cultural performances,

indigenous music and dance, curio dealing and agrotourism are rarely marketed in the major

tourist generating regions by the Kenya Tourist Board (KTB) (a quasi-government institution

in charge of marketing and promotion of Kenya tourism products in the domestic and

international arena) and other private mainstream tourism ventures. As a consequence the

playing ground of the Kenyan tourism industry as is the case with most Third World tourist

destinations especially in Africa is not level and/or is skewed in favour of large scale

multinational tourism and hospitality establishments that are in most instance foreign owned

and serves the interest of multinational tourism investors who control the global tourism

industry.

Capacity building and development

Of particular importance, if SMTEs are to be real agents of poverty alleviation and socio-

economic empowerment, there is urgent need to build human resource and financial

capacities and enactment of tourism policy that favour the specified tourism products and

services of the small scale business enterprises. These initiatives should aim at making

SMTEs effective tools for poverty reduction and overall socio-economic development. In this

regard, improving the performance and sustainability of local entrepreneurs and small and

medium enterprises, which represent the backbone of global economic activity, can help

achieve this type of sustainable development and enhancement of the livelihood of the major

of the populace in Third World countries languishing is extreme poverty and social

deprivation. This is particularly due to the fact that quite often most SMEs have a vested


51

interest in community development; because they tend to be grassroots based, they draw

upon the community for their workforce and rely on its products and services to do business.

As a consequence, they are an important source of employment and income generators,

particularly for low-skilled workers, as well as women and the youth, who usually make up

the greatest proportion of the marginalized and disempowered people (SNV and WBCSD,

2007).

Integrated development initiatives

Faced with low income earning and the problem of seasonality, most SMTEs have opted for

integrated economic activities besides the tourism initiatives in order to supplement their

overall earnings. They engage in agricultural production, livestock rearing, transportation,

and traditional art performances in political venues and other social gatherings such as

agricultural shows and entertainment galas among other socio-economic initiatives.

Regarding this, tourism is generally an additional livelihood diversification strategy for poor

communities, and/or may not be a substitute to their core livelihood activities such as farming

and animal husbandry. However, it should be noted that whether tourism clashes with and/or

complements the seasonality of agriculture, livestock management or fisheries is often a key

issue (Ashley, 2002) that require major policy, planning and management interventions.

Jennison Bentley (2007) contends that privately owned business has the potential to provide

their owner-manager with substantial economic rewards and a controlled and balanced

lifestyle. However it should be noted that many of these micro-scale businesses are not as

well managed as they should be and consequently the potential rewards are not always

achieved and/or optimized.

Nonetheless, there is always a down side to these forms of grassroots based economic

arrangements. Whilst there are many benefits in owning and managing your business, it

usually means that your personal financial position is inextricably linked to your business,

your career progression is limited (to what your business can offer) and often there is a less

than acceptable quality of life. It can also mean you live in a world where your business life

and personal life boundaries are indeed blurred, while the need for more economic rewards

and personal lifestyle gains such as taking care of families requirements are the major

reasons for integrating economic activities, the former is paramount in North-Rift. They have

devised ways to manage these multi-economic activities while maximizing on income and

balancing their personal lifestyles. By doing so for instance, the men are able to attend to

their livestock, whereas the women can take care of their families and they can also take

care of their subsistence farms that are situated close to their home-states. Some

enterprises involve fully in other activities and only engage in tourism on a part-time

basis. Such include initiative include dance and song groups. Others engage fully in

tourism, but work in shifts to allow members to engage in other activities. Such

initiatives include curio operators like the Equator Curio Self Help Group, and boat

operators such as the Lake Baringo Boats and Excursions business venture. Another

model is where community groups hire a team of operators or delegate from among

them, people to manage and run their enterprises on full time basis while the majority

of other community members engage in other forms of livelihood initiatives. These

include the Emsos campsite and Netbon Ecotourism Center.


52

More than tourism

As already stated, SMTEs are to a larger extent appropriate agents of poverty reduction

since they enable poor communities earn incomes from micro-scale tourism ventures. In

addition, they play an extant role in poverty alleviation by bringing together groups of people

from poor communities and presenting them with other forms of alternative opportunities for

livelihood enhancement and sustainable development. In the North-Rift for example, as

stated elsewhere, groups that were originally composed for tourism businesses have

strengthened their capacities by learning and gain innovative business idea from amongst

each other and/or from development partners and are now more empowered economically

and socially. They learn on new investment and management skills and have employed

these skills in improving their livelihoods. Furthermore, social education on issues such as

family planning, education and HIV/AIDS have enabled them to become well sensitized

people who are able to effectively confront their individual and communal challenges and

hence minimizing instances of poverty often resulting from uncontrolled births, diseases and

high illiteracy levels. This kind of sensitization has been made easier by approaching

organized groups brought together by SMTEs.

Enabling business environment

An enabling business environment is an important prerequisite for successful development of

SMTEs. However, it should be stated that most SMTEs in North-Rift are faced with what can

be regarded as un-enabling business environment as presented below:

First, there is low level or non-existence collaboration between the Kenya mainstream

tourism players, particularly in the public and private domain, and most SMTEs in the North

Rift region. This has led to unfavourable business environment and such minimal marketing

of the North Rift region by the key tourism players, particularly the government, as general

lack of awareness of the unique tourism potential of the region. As a consequence there is

low tourist visitations and minimal follow of the tourism revenues compared to major tourism

herbs such as the Kenyan coastal region and the Southern Kenya region where most of the

popular wildlife parks such as Masai Mara, Amboseli and Tsavo are situated. In this

connection, it is generally agreed that pro-poor tourism and other forms of alternative tourism

initiatives cannot survive on its own if mainstream tourism is not vibrant and that it cannot be

developed without latching onto an existing tourism product or transit market (Ashley 2002).

This low level collaboration with mainstream tourism has been attributed to insecurity in

some parts of the destination and poor transport network and inaccessibility to existing tourist

attractions, and lack of appropriate government policy that supports and favours the

development and promotion of SMTEs in different parts of the country.

Second, there is poor linkage and partnerships amongst various tourism enterprises in the

destination and, with outside suppliers and/or tourism middlemen (tour operators) that source

tourists from major tourist generation regions within and outside Kenya. Meyer (2003)

explains the significance of tour operators to a destination. Meyer contends that substantial

‘tour operator support’ (i.e., financial payments from the National Tourist Authority to the tour

operators and/or joint advertising and marketing) is often required to convince mainstream

tour operators to include packages and/or products in their itineraries, which would otherwise

not feature. Lea (1988) and Meyer (2003) further contend that few opportunities exist for

Third World host communities to cut out the intermediary linkages between formal and local


53

organizations and other forms of oligopolies that control the global tourism industry. To give a

specific example from the study area, host communities in the North Rift region who own

cultural villages and curio shops constantly complain that tour guides from major tour

companies in Nairobi and other Kenyan major cities who bring international tourists to the

region quite often discourage the tourists from stopping at their stalls and curio centre. When

they stop they expect a ‘stoppage fee’ from the local suppliers whether there is a purchase or

not and an extra commission if the tourist makes any purchase. Community owned cultural

centers also alleged that big hotels discourage tourists from visiting their centers and even

thwart efforts to establish arrangements where the tourists would visit the indigenous cultural

villages as part of the experience while staying at these hotels. Instead, some hotels have

gone ahead to construct their own ‘cultural villages’ within the hotel premises. Some

accommodation facilities offer their own boat excursions. These acts lock the local people

out of business and discourage SMTEs from gaining net benefits from tourism. Moreover,

major tour operators have not ventured into the area due to limited quality accommodation

facilities and problem of access to major tourism attraction in the region. Furthermore, there

has been no effort to provide linkages and partnerships for product quality improvement and

increase collaborative marketing activities.

The third reason that makes the business environment unfavourable for the SMTEs is the

lack of finances for product expansion and quality improvement. The difficulty to access bank

loans and the high interest rates charged by most financial institutions has made it difficult for

the SMTEs to access funds for the improvement of the quality of their products and expand

their product range in order to compete effectively in the local and international tourism

arena. As a consequence, they lack the capacity to engage in any meaningful marketing

initiatives and to build better recreational and hospitality facilities. As it is well known, tourism

will only thrive where there are a sufficient supply of quality products and services (Ashley,

2002). All these factors tend to make the North Rift region unattractive to international tour

operators who could have brought in substantial market volumes and more valuable

segments to the destination.

Finally, there is lack of proper policy and strategy to encourage SMTEs to acquire financial

incentives and protect them from over-arching exploitation by formal financial institutions and

to build their service provision capacities in order to compete effectively in the local and

global tourism industry. Even though, recently, the local authorities in the North Rift region

have established limited partnerships with NGOs, particularly SNV, to sensitize SMTEs and

train them on tourism product development, packaging and marketing there is little and non-

existent support from the national government to promote SMTEs development.

Human resource development/capacity gaps

Availability of appropriate human resource capacity is significant for the success of SMTEs.

When there are knowledge and skills gaps in the management of SMTEs, they are unlikely to

achieve their objectives and goals. Specifically concerning the North Rift SMTEs, skills gaps

existed in product development, service delivery, customer relationship, marketing skills, tour

guiding and interpretation, and group, team management competencies, acquiring and

dissemination of appropriate information among others. Relating to the lack of appropriate

skills and competencies, by most SMEs, Jennison (2007), for instance, states that the lack of

reliable and timely management information skills creates many problems and challenges for

SMEs. He attributes, at least in part, the tendency for SMEs to make decisions on an ad-hoc


54

basis to the general lack of good management information systems and requisite pertinent

skills. Jennison further states that decisions need to be made in all areas of the business,

and this is only possibly if there is appropriately trained human resource in a destination.

Recommendation and conclusion

As the study of the North Rift region shows, most SMTEs in emerging destinations are

characterized by high incidences of poverty, minimal product development, marketing and

service delivery capacity and low business levels due to non-existence mainstream tourism

initiatives. As consequence, due to minimal numbers of guest arrivals and resultant low

tourism earnings, SMTEs should be encouraged to participate in integrated and/or diverse

economic activities and developmental initiatives, hence providing a ‘double edged sword’ to

assist in cutting the poverty thread that bind them to high levels of poverty and overall socio-

economic deprivation. However, this is only possible if a favourable policy and business

environment exists in emerging tourist destinations such as the North Rift.

In this regard, this study proposes that the central and local governments in collaboration

with the private sector and existing NGOs should initiate appropriate arrangement and

institutional capacity to provide short term to medium range and long-term policy framework

with in-built implementation mechanism for achieving higher economic growth based on

SMTE sector development and integration with other sub-sectors of the economy. Perhaps

more importantly, key tourism player in the private and public sector should have the tourism

policy framework incorporate all aspects of SMTE development including establishing an

enabling business environment, access to finance, human resource development, and

support for use of appropriate technology in product development, marketing and service

delivery.

In addition, there should be improved partnerships and linkages based on mutual benefits

between the mainstream tourism and SMTES if the general objective of greater positive

impact on poverty reduction is to be realized. In reference to, appropriate and systematic

linkage with major tour operators and other major suppliers of tourism services is of quite

crucial importance. Appropriate linkages and collaboration between Small and Medium-Sized

Enterprises (SMEs) and affiliates of Transnational Corporations (TNCs) can potentially

improve development and poverty reduction capacities especially for the low-income groups

that own the micro-scale and medium rage business in Third World countries such as Kenya.

These forms of linkages quite often assist in enhancing productivity and efficiency in serviced

delivery and marketing resulting in increased income and enhanced multiplier effect and

employment creation. For instance, appropriate linkage and development funds from the

mainstream tourism establishment that are based on sound principles can be an appropriate

avenue promoting overall productivity and service delivery for local owned SMTEs (Dirk

Willem te Velde, ODI, 2002).

Last but not least, of capacity building for SMTEs should be done to enable them run the

enterprises competitively and profitably. Specifically concerning the North Rift region, even

though partnerships already exist that tries to build the capacity of SMTEs especially

involving SNV and Moi University (a premier learning institution in the North Rift region which

for many years has been offering tourism training, consultancy and community extension

services) more partnerships and effort are needed to enhance the capacity of local

entrepreneurs in various aspects of tourism development including planning, design and


55

development of tourism products, information gathering and communication skills, overall

service delivery, networking skill, and product marketing and promotion. Both local and

national government can contribute in capacity building through the provision of vocational

training, by creating municipal-level agencies for SME start-up development and

management, such as “Enterprise Advice Bureaus”, and by encouraging SMEs to engage

with large corporations.

Last but not least, this study establishes that SMTEs are vital in the alleviation of poverty in

poor communities, particularly in resource scarce Third World regions. At the initial stages of

tourism development in a destination such as the North-Rift region of Kenya, it is the SMTEs

that often support tourism activities before major investors can gain interest and confidence

in the area to put up major tourism enterprises. Moreover, it is these enterprises that can be

said to support pro-poor tourism initiatives since to a larger extent, these forms of initiatives

are quite often owned, run by and employ community members most of whom are living in a

situation of poverty and social deprivation. This also results in little expatriation of revenues

associated with enclave tourism. However, it emerges that SMTEs can be grouped into two

clusters: One comprising of the established and active tourism enterprises that earn most of

the tourism revenues received in this underdeveloped destinations but employ a lower

number of people. The second cluster comprises small scale, and often community owned

enterprises that are relatively less active and receive a smaller share of the tourism revenues

despite employing a larger number of the poor in the community. Most of the

employees/members of the second cluster are normally not participating on full time basis in

these businesses.

These small scale enterprises opt to engage in integrated economic activities to supplement

their incomes. It is therefore argued that the role of tourism SMEs in poverty reduction should

not be looked at in isolation from other existing socio-economic initiatives such as micro-

scale agricultural production, bee keeping and animal husbandry. This is due to the fact that

it is a mosaic of such grassroots livelihood initiatives that can promote sustainable

community socio-economic development and overall community empowerment. Within this

context, it is particularly suggested that appropriate planning, policy and management

initiatives should be put in place by both government and private enterprises in collaboration

with local communities aimed at integrating tourism SMEs with other form of local socio-

economic initiatives that are in line with the Millennium Development goals and objectives.

References

Ashley, Caroline. (2002), Methodology for Pro-Poor Tourism Case Studies, PPT Working Paper 10,

ODI, UK

Ashley C., Goodwin H. and Roe D.,( 2002), The Tourism Industry and Poverty Reduction: A Business

Prime , Pro-poor Tourism Briefing No 2., Available at www.propoortourism.org.uk

Bentley Jennison, (2007), Challenges Facing SMEs, PDF.

Business Daily, (2008), Tourism Earnings Take a Beating from Poll Chaos, July 31st 2008, Page 6

Caroline Ashley, (2008), Measuring the Impact of Business on Development, Opinion, ODI, UK, PDF

http://www.propoortourism.org.uk/


56

Chemelil M., Kisoyan P. and Maritim Z., ( 2008), Report on Reconnaissance Survey of Tourism

Resources and GIS Mapping of Mid-Rift Region, MRTWF

Department for International Development (DFID) 1999, Tourism and Poverty Elimination: Untapped

Potential. London, DFID, cit

Government of Pakistan SMEs Policy, (2007), SME Led Economic Growth- Creating Jobs and

Reducing Poverty, PDF

Kenya National Bureau of Statistic, (2008), Economic Survey 2008, Government Printer, Nairobi

Lake Bogoria Tourism Stakeholders Forum Proceedings, June, 2008

Meyer Dorothea.,( 2003),The UK Outbound Tour Operating Industry and Implications for Pro-Poor

Tourism, PPT Working Paper 17, ODI, UK

North Rift Inter-Council Forum, (2005), North Rift Tourism Circuit Development Project Proposal

OECD, (2006), Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs, PDF

Roe D., and Khanya P., (2001), Pro-Poor Tourism: Harnessing the World’s

Largest Industry for the World’s Poor, World Summit on Sustainable Tourism, IIED, UK

SNV and WBCSD, (2007), Promoting Small and Medium Enterprises for Sustainable development,

Development Focus Area Issue Brief, PDF

The Standard Newspaper, (2008), The Great Rift: Why the North is Cut Off the Tourism Circuit,

August 14th 2008, Page 12- 13

Tourism Sector Strategy, Volume 1, (2006), The Dimensions of Poverty in Greater Mekong sub-

region, Pro-poor Tourism Paper, ADB, GSM, PDF


57

Annex 1: List of SMTE’s surveyed

Business Name Type No. Emp

Registratio

n

Status

Date

Keiyo District

Too Guest House Accommodation/Home stay 4 (Family) Yes

2002

Kimbia Athletic-Boulder

Training Camp

Athletics camp 50 Yes Early

1990’s

Ushanga Women Group Cultural Dance & Curio Operators 24 Yes 2002

Keiyo Aerial Barak Resort Camping and Sightseeing 1 (Family) No

Koibarak Campsite and

Home stay

Campsite & Home stay 1 No

Lelin Campsite Accommodation and Nature walks 3 Yes 2001

Rimoi Community

Campsite

Comm., Campsite, Cultural group 150 No

Cheptarit Women Group Women group - Dance, Tour

guiding

33 Yes 2005

Rimoi Conservancy

Campsite

Campsite 26 Yes

Kerio Training and

conference center

Accommodation and conference 19 Yes

Kerio Tingwa Campsite, picnic and nature walks 15

Marakwet District

Tot Women Group Women group - Bead work, Cultural

Exhibitions

35 Yes 1983

Chelaba Women Group >> 22 Yes 1997

Kimisto Women Group Women Group 20 Yes

Chabaibai Youth Group Youth Group - Drama

Songs, Exhibitions

25 Yes

Baringo District

Tugen Cultural Center Cultural Center 5 Yes 2009

L. Baringo Bio-Diversity

Conservation Group

Boat Tour operations and

Conservation

27 Yes 2008

Friends of Nature Baringo >> 15 Yes

Marina Tour Boat

Excursions

Boat Tour Operator 6 No

Community Tours Boat

Operators

>> 10 Yes 1997

Koibatek District


58

Equator Curio Self Help

Group

Curio Operator 16 Yes 2002

Lembus Comm. Cultural

and Heritage Center

Cultural and Nature Conservation Open Yes 2004

Emsos Fisheries

Campsite

Campsite 50 Yes

Netbon Ecotourism

Center

Comm. Ecotourism Group-

Accommodation, Curio, Nature

Walks and Cultural dances

250 Yes 2003

Annex 2: List of active tourism organizations surveyed for the baseline

ORGANIZATION CONTACT PERSON DESIGNATION

L. Bogoria N. Reserve Titus Amdany Chief Warden

Bahari Lodge(Mama Lina) Mama Lina Owner

Ilchamu’s Community Cultural Center Jennifer Koipiri Project Assistant

Island Camp Cyrus Accountant

Iten High Altitude Athletics Training camp Monica Kiplagat Manager

Kabarnet Hotel Kandie Manager

Kerio View Lodge Joseph Mwangi/M.

William

Manager/Director

KWS Keiyo/ Marakwet Mohamed Mandera Deputy Warden

L. Baringo Boats and Excursions/ Biodiversity

Group.

Joseph Employee

L. Baringo Reptile Park Agnes Kapkwony/W.

Komen

Employee

Loboi Gate Curio Shop Richard Tuitok Owner Manager

Netbon Ecotourism Center Michael Kimeli Manager

Sports Line Hotel David Manager Rooms

section

Zakayo’s Hotel Lomuk Manager

Equator Curio Self Help Group Anne Keter Group

Representative

L. Bogoria Spa Resort Fredrick/Diana/Argut Team Leader

L. Baringo Club Clare/Simon Manager

L. Baringo N. Park/ Tourist’s Information Center Philemon Ole Nachuru Warden

Lelin Overland Camp Kosgei Manager

Marigat Inn Edwin/Amos Kandie Manager

Mid-Rift Tourism and Wildlife Forum Elijah Letangule Forum Manager

Mogotio Tourist Information and Operations William Kimosop Chief Warden


59

Center Koibatek

Roberts Camp Caro Director

Samatian Island >> >>

Sego Safari Lodge Kandie Abraham Manager

Sinkoro Hotel Njuguna Manager

Sitet Hotel Rose Dickson Receptionist

Soi Safari Lodge Stephen Marigi/Peter

Chebii

Manager

Kerio Training and Conference Center(Cheptebo) Joseph Kimeli Manager

Tugen Cultural Village Joseph Cherotich Founder/ Manager

Valley Inn Kipruto Mike Rooms Manager

Weaver’s Lodge Amos Manager

Annex 3: Map of tourism resources in Mid-Rift region


60

The benefits of ICT on service delivery within the

hospitality industry, a case study of selected hotels in the

coast region

Benedict Angore Josphat Belsoy Kenya

Introduction

Overview

Information and Communication Technology (ICT), is the processing and distribution of data

using computer hardware and software, telecommunications, and digital electronics. The use

of ICT in the hospitality industry has changed greatly over the years. The launch of low cost

personal computers in the early 1980s started an explosion in the use of technology that is

still continuing today. Technology still in development, such as truly integrated hotel systems

and internet-based reservations subsystems will have a profound effect on how hospitality

organizations transact their business and perhaps even on the structure of the industry itself.

For hospitality business it is no longer a question of whether to computerize but which

system will give the most benefits and should be adopted first (O’Connor, 2004).

The role of computers in the hospitality management and operations has become

increasingly complex. Many different types of hardware and software are used and it can be

difficult even to begin to understand the array of technical terms that can be encountered.

Computing is not just about PCs anymore; it’s about connectivity, networking and

communication. Integrating this connectivity poses one of the greatest challenges for the

future. The pace of change is also very swift and thus it can be difficult to keep up to date on

what is happening in the area. That being said, knowledge of both the capabilities of

computer systems and the benefit that can be gained by using them is essential for every

hospitality manager (Sheldon et al., 1997).

Statement of the problem

In today’s competitive business world, the establishment of an appropriate information

technology infrastructure provides organizations with the flexibility and responsiveness to

adapt to the ever-changing business environment.

The hospitality industry as one of the service industries faces the greatest challenge of the

need to increase the productivity of service and delivery of quality services. With changes in

lifestyles and priorities, time has become an important commodity. This has led to service

expectations of a different nature, where speed is increasingly important. Because of these

consumer expectations, time has become an important focus for competitive activities.

Problems of guest dissatisfaction, low consumer turnout, poor quality service delivery,

ineffective management, low productivity and failure to reduce costs in the hospitality

industry are prominent issues requiring attention. These can be addressed by the use of ICT

(Desinano et al., 1996).


61

Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of ICT on service delivery in the

hospitality industry.

Objectives of the study

1. To examine the extent and the various computerized application systems in use within

the hospitality industry.

2. To explore the benefits of ICT on service delivery within the hospitality industry.

3. To find out the challenges brought about by utilizing ICT within the hospitality industry

and how to address the challenges.

Research questions

1. What is the extent of ICT utilization within the hospitality industry?

2. What are the various computerized application systems in use within the hospitality

industry?

3. What are the benefits/impacts of ICT on service delivery within the hospitality industry?

4. What are the challenges faced when using ICT within the hospitality industry?

5. What can be done to overcome these challenges?

Literature review

ICT and the hospitality industry

The world is experiencing some of the most dramatic changes in its history. Borders are

dissolving and countries, people and firms are connecting more and in different ways than

they ever have in the past. The increase of international trade agreements, global business

activities, telecommunication networks, personal and education travel is linking the world

together like never before. These linkages are being forged and supported essentially by two

of the largest and fastest growing industries in the world today, tourism and information

technology (Sheldon, 1997).

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the technology required for information

processing in particular the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert,

store, and process, transmit and retrieve information. Although there has been a rapid

increase in the volume of electronic commerce, we are still in the early stages of the so-

called Internet revolution. Experts continue to disagree on what its ultimate impact will be.

What is clear is that many customers are choosing to move away from the traditional

commerce setting into more remote contacts anywhere, anytime (Lovelock, 2002).

Human interaction remains the foundation of most traditional relationship. Waiting days for a

response to a more traditional form of communication has come to be tolerable but it does

not do much for the productivity and customer satisfaction.

Technology has increased efficiency in the hospitality industry. Use of computers has

enabled organizations to store, process, manipulate and distribute information. They have

enhanced utilization to store, process, manipulate and distribute information. They have


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enhanced utilization of staff in the hospitality service and guest contact points. This has led to

improvement of productivity and service quality in hotels. Application of computers in hotels

spread across the establishment. They are used in marketing and distribution front office

back office as well as food and beverage control (Sheldon, 1997).

Hotel computer application systems

Other applications software is both industry–specific and function-specific. Applications of

this type are highly specialized, and can only be used for a very specific set of tasks. Some

examples from hospitality industry as categorized by O’Connor, (2004) include;

Central reservation systems/offices (CRS/CRO)

Individual hotels or properties receive growing number of telephone calls, letters and telexes

from potential customers wanting to book accommodation. Large clerical squads are needed

to sort mail, type letters, send telegrams and handle other requests. Bottlenecks are

frequent, administration costs are skyrocketing high and experienced staffs are in short

supply. To solve the inefficiencies of the existing systems, the best way to serve the

customers, and at the same time provide a valuable service to the hotel or chains, is to

centralize the reservations functions into central reservation offices or systems

(CROs/CRSs).

Centralizing the reservations function also brings other advantages. Bottlenecks are reduced

while at the same time, reservations agents are used more intensively than would be at unit

level as centralization helps to average out the busy and slack period. A more professional

level of customer service is possible because of the use of dedicated well trained staff, and

service quality is also more consistent as centralization makes it easier to monitor and

control.

Unit level reservation systems

The use of dedicated computer systems for day -today support in hotels has become

commonplace. Most hotels continue to maintain a reservation system at the property level,

despite the benefits of single image inventory. This manages the room inventory for the

individual hotel, tracking availability, helping to sell individual and group reservations and

generate reports such as arrival lists, reservation forecasts, travel agents commission due

and pre – registration cards. Unit level reservation systems

Although its importance will decrease as usage of electronic distribution grows, direct

reservations are still the most important source of business for most hotels and thus it makes

sense to have a reservation system at the property. Where the hotel is part of a chain or

consortium, the unit level system should be interfaced or integrated with the central

reservation system to help increase coordination and reduce confusion.

Property management systems (PMS)

A property management system helps manage the front office interaction and at the

same time acts as an information hub for other computer systems. The functions of a

PMS may be broken down into the following systems;


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Registration: Allocating vacant rooms to incoming guests and marking those rooms as

being occupied.

Housekeeping: Tracking which rooms are occupied, waiting to be cleaned, and be

inspected or ready to be passed back to the front desk for allocation to incoming guests.

Guest accounting: Tracking all guest charges and payments and producing the final

guest bill.

Night audit: Automatically performing end - of - day routine such as posting room

charges to each guest folio.

Ancillary systems

These are systems which although not being part of the PMS itself, interface with it and

increase efficiency and control. Many of these systems generate valuable incremental

revenue for the property, while in other cases the provision of the system becomes a

differentiator in the mind of the guest, helping to make the property stand in the sea of similar

looking hotels all providing the same facilities and amenities. As a result, the number and

complexity of ancillary systems is growing.

(i) Electronic Door Locking Systems

An electronic door-locking system uses small plastic cards instead of metal keys. The

combination that opens the door can be recorded on these cards in a variety of ways; either

by puncturing holes in the card, by storing into a magnetic strip on the rear of the card or

storing it on the embedded chip of a smart card. Because of the way the system works, it

does not matter if the guests forgets to return the key at check out as the combination in the

door lock is changed and a new unique key is issued for each new guest.

(ii) Energy management systems

Most guest rooms have a TV, a hairdryer, a refreshment centre, business equipment and

many other in-room facilities, more electricity is being used throughout the hotel and

managing energy costs have become a priority. By using technology-based system hoteliers

can now take control of room lighting, temperature and electricity and minimize energy use

while at the same time maintaining guest comfort and control. Electrically controlled systems

allow more accurate control to be maintained over temperatures, which can lead to further

energy savings.

(iii) Call accounting and telephone systems

Telephone systems are one of the common uses of technology in hotels. Direct dial-facilities

from the guest bedrooms are provided by a piece of equipment known as the Private

Automated Branch Exchange (PABX). This is basically a computer system that connects the

hotel’s internal telephone system to the outside world and manages the allocation of lines to

incoming and outgoing calls. Another system works alongside the PABX to provide direct dial

facilities.

The call accounting system records the number dialled from each extension, its duration and

calculates the charge for each call. This data can be printed onto paper and then manually

posted onto the guests account or in the case of integrated system, automatically posted

directly onto the guest’s bill. The main advantage for the hotel is increased control. Most

systems will also not allow calls to be made from unoccupied rooms, which helps prevents

fraudulent use of the telephone system.


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Catering computing systems

(iv) Recipe costing systems

A recipe costing system uses up-to-date prices and calculates an accurate cost of food and

beverage products. Based on these costs, selling prices that guarantee a particular level of

profit can be established. Computerized recipe costing reduces the amount of time and effort

needed to keep recipe costs up to date by automatically recalculating costs whenever

ingredient prices change. Every recipe that contains an ingredient whose price has changed

is accessed and its cost updated in seconds. As a result, recipe costs are always accurate,

meaning that profit margins are guaranteed.

(v) Stock control systems

A stock control system helps manage and control the flow of stock through an organization

by recording the value of each stock item in different locations (such as the central stores,

dry store, cold rooms and the kitchens) and tracking stock movements into, out of and

between each of these locations. The concept of stock control is based on the accounting

principle that an items opening stock, plus its purchases must be equal to its closing stock

plus the amount consumed. Carrying out stock control annually is very labor intensive and

time consuming.

(vi) Electronic Point-of-Sale Systems (EPOS)

In looking at the use of technology-based systems in this area, it is important to differentiate

between EPOS and the electronic cash registers (ECR) that proceeds them (but which are

still widely used). ECRs are primarily stand-alone units that add up prices for customer bills

and hold daily/periodic sales totals. EPOS systems, on the other hand, have a more

comprehensive range of capabilities including keeping track of current food and beverage

orders, transmitting orders electronically to the production area, helping to ensure the

accuracy of guest bills and, in the case of interfaced systems, automatically posting charges

into the PMS account folio of guests registered in the hotels. The two biggest controllable

expenses in restaurant operations are labor cost and food cost, and the right EPOS system

can help operators to lower costs in both areas while at the same time enhancing customer

service.

(vii) Conference and banqueting systems

Conference and banqueting assist in managing and controlling reservations and billing in the

hotel’s banqueting department. Such systems are important are each event handedly the

conference sales offices is potentially worth thousands of pounds in revenue (not only in

terms of room hire, but also in terms of associated food beverage and accommodation

sales). The use of a computerized conference and banqueting system makes the complex

task of event management easier. Accidental overbooking is eliminated. All charges are

automatically posted to the clients bills.

(viii) Computerized mini-bars

The system ensures that the guest is changed for every item consumed, and using the

system to make restocking easier. Without a computerized system, each unit must be

checked each day and the missing items replaced. The mini-bar system, on the other hand,

provides a summary list of the items needed to restock all the units.


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Back-office systems

These are the administrative- focused computer systems commonly found in a hotel and

catering computer operation. These systems generally work behind the scenes and are

designed to automate key business functions rather than serve the customer directly.

(ix) Payroll systems

These are computerized packages that assist the calculation of payroll figures. The main

benefit gained is that the time needed to complete the task is greatly reduced. In many

cases, the entire process can be shortened from days to hours. As a result, where wages are

paid frequently, major savings of time (and, as a result, cost) are possible.

(x) Human resource systems

Because of the link between the payroll and the human resource department, their computer

systems tend to work closely with each other. Human resource systems typically store a

variety of information about each employee. However, such systems are still relatively

uncommon in the hotel and catering industry. This could be because they give most benefits

in businesses that employ a large number of people as individual hotels or restaurants tend

to employ a relative small number of staff, and thus using complex computer systems to help

manage personnel might therefore be unproductive.

(xi) Accounting systems

The traditional, paper-based method of accounting involves recording transactions in three

ledgers; a sales, a purchases ledger and a nominal ledger. Because a ‘double-entry’ system

is used to help ensure accuracy, entries have to be made in multiple ledgers to record each

transaction. Computerized accounting packages simplify the process by completing

transactions in a single step. In addition, electronic links to other computer systems allow

many of the postings to be made automatically.

(xii) Sales and marketing systems

Marketing is a very broad subject area that focuses on identifying and satisfying customer

needs. A variety of computer applications can be used to help achieve these very broad

objectives e.g. Guest - history system which track the personal details and preferences of

customers who had stayed in the past, in an effort to develop a welcoming atmosphere

where the guest was ‘remembered’ and treated like ‘an old friend’. Computerized systems

help by allowing much more information to be stored and accessed more quickly and easily.

(xiii) Yield management systems

Yield management is a room management technique which has been adapted from the

airlines to suit the hotel industry. Its main purpose is to maximize room occupancy while at

the same realizing the best room average rate.

A computerized yield management system enables the reservation staff to make the best

choices as to what rooms to sell and at what price. The system gives the ability to instantly

analyze the profit potential of each booking. This is done by adjusting the room rate to suit

the need for room at any particular time.


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(xiv) Entertainment systems

These systems provide cable television and interactive games. Movies-on-demand and

internet access on the television in the room is also possible through these systems.

Conceptual framework

Figure 1: Information systems planning

Source: O’Connor, 2004

Target population

The research targeted hotels at the Coast. Different hotels with different star ratings were

selected. The sample represented a wide scope of hotels with different ICT devices and

utilization. A sample of 45 hotels was selected using the simple random method. The

respondents were the IT department section heads, the respondents were identified using

the Quota sampling method.

Data collection

Both primary and secondary data was collected. Primary data was generated through

questionnaires and personal interviews. Questionnaires were administered to the

respondents. Personal interviews were carried out to the IT heads to respond on the benefits

achieved and the challenges encountered when utilizing ICT as well as what could be done

in order to overcome the challenges.

Secondary data sources were also reviewed to generate secondary data. The literature

included; software manuals, standard operating procedures, software checklist, IT

performance reports, internet, textbooks and other works related to the subject of study.

Communication

Reduced costs Increased productivity and service Improved control

Enable better decisions, fast response and improved communication

Hardware Software E-commerce

Computer types

Processors

Memory

Input device

Storage devices

Output devices

Trends

Operating System

Office Applications

Utility software

Web browsers

EPOS

Reservation systems

Stock Control

Telecommunication

Networks

Wiring

Interfaces

Internet Technology

Intranet/Extranet

Business models

Reservations

E-Procurement

Wired Organization


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Data analysis

In order to make deductions and references, statistical methods of analysis was used. SPSS

and Microsoft Excel were used for the analysis of data. The frequency of facts in form of

percentages was used to interpret and present the information using appropriate graphical

diagrams.

Findings

The study was to examine the benefits of information and communication technology on

service delivery within the hospitality industry.

Findings and discussions

Extent of ICT use and computerized hotel applications in use

The results indicated that there was indeed utilization of information in the hospitality

industry; overall the findings suggest that the hotels have focused on employing technologies

that improve productivity and enhance revenue, e.g. reservations systems, telephone/call

handling systems, stock control, and electronic point of sale systems, financial accounting

and payroll systems, as well as, to some extent recipe costing. However, it has not given

strategic priorities to technologies designed to improve guest services e.g. electronic door

locking systems, in-room minibar and in-room entertainment etc.

It was established that despite the many computerized systems available for use in the

hospitality industry, most of the hotels used the following hotel application systems;

reservations systems, telephone/call handling systems, stock control, electronic point of sale

systems, financial accounting and payroll systems as well as to some extent recipe costing.

These systems were considered to be the most vital in the running of a hotels operation.

There is some preliminary support for a pattern of ICT adoption usage that begins with

productivity improvement, moving to revenue enhancement and then to the implementation

of guest – services technologies. The research further established that efforts to employ ICT

to enhance guest services e.g. In-room entertainment, EMS, In-room mini-bars, electronic

door lock systems were underutilized in many of the hotels in Mombasa.

The study further established that, when purchasing computer software, there was a mixture

of the three basic choices i.e. Bespoke, packaged or customized. Bespoke (or customer

written) software is most likely to meet the information needs of an organization as it is

written specifically to automate them (30%). Packaged software on the other hand, is usually

available immediately and because of its potential mass market, is likely to be much cheaper

(49%). Such software is usually already in use in other companies and is well tested and

thus more reliable. A third possible strategy is to customize an existing package by changing

it to more closely match the needs of the organization (21%). The source of the

computerized systems is important because it determines the extent of ICT utilization and

cost of ICT.


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Benefits of using ICT on service delivery in the hospitality industry (positive impact)

Despite the well documented challenges associated with achieving satisfactory return on

investments in technology, hospitality companies today continue to spend vast amounts of

money on information and communication technology (ICT) in the constant effort to improve

their competitive position. With IT spending on the rise, there is little doubt that being able to

wring value out of these investments is of paramount importance (Sheldon et al., 1997).

The study found out that there was an increase in client turnout to the establishments,

because with the use of ICT, customers anywhere can be able to access promotional

material at a time that is convenient for them and make the necessary bookings even without

going to the sales people. Above all the increase in client turnout was attributed mainly to the

improved services as rendered by the staff. The accuracy of computers helps to reduce

mistakes, which leads to increased guest satisfaction and better control over operations.

The research also found out that the hotels utilizing ICT had an increase in revenue, due to

better operational control, where with the use of ICT production processes are easily

traceable, and also because of the reduction in operational costs as well as reduction in

administrative costs has led to savings which in turn increase the revenue. The use of

chargeable internet access to guests has also led to increased revenue as well as the

charges resulting from the use of the business centers. The use of websites to mainly

provide information to prospective and potential clients may also lead to increase in revenue

in the long run.

The study further established that there was considerable reduction in administration costs

because the use of ICT leads to reduction in staff which can be translated into cost saving by

reducing staff numbers. Further reduction was achieved due to the reduction in many of the

clerical jobs and much paperwork eliminated hence savings in stationary and related

usables. Because of the call accounting systems in use there has been a greater saving in

telephone costs.

The research also found out that there was labour flexibility because staff utilizing ICT are

capable of doing other related jobs, which led to reduction in staff numbers and due to the

fact that the staff are multi-skilled.

The study further established that there was a great improvement in quality and service

rendered to the clients, because technology has increased efficiency in the hospitality

industry. Since the use of computers has enabled organizations to store, process,

manipulate and distribute information. They have enhanced utilization to store, process,

manipulate and distribute information. They have enhanced utilization of staff in the

hospitality service and guest contact points. This has led to improvement of productivity and

service quality in hotels. ICT also plays a critical role in improving performance because it

allows for altering relationships and the flow of information to the right parties.

Likewise the research established that hotels benefited from the ease in implementation of

changes, since the use of ICT has made it easier for changes to be effected as compared to

manual systems. Changes due to globalization of the hotel industry are easily implemented.

However, the degree to which service organizations are embracing ICT as a means of

building new business capacities varied widely.


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Finally, computerization promises many benefits to hospitality organizations including

improved service quality, enhanced profitability and efficiency, better integration of

departments, speedier communications and reduced costs. As a result, hospitality

organizations have adopted a wide variety of technology-based systems, a phenomenal rate,

with most now using multiple systems to automate different functions (O’Connor, 2004).

Challenges faced when using ICT (negative impact)

The study established that expensive rectification of breakdown for both the systems and

associated machines was the biggest challenge; computers and associated components

may at any time malfunction due to various causes, and when they do they required a large

financial expenditure to return them to normal operation.

With the utilization of ICT, it was further established that occurrence of expensive

restructuring was another big challenge, where some ICT components required a special

customized environment, as well as restructuring of the labour force, which may include

training or retraining of staff. In the same line the purchase of the ICT related components

are costs oriented and expensive.

The study also found out that retrenchment was another challenge, especially during the

initial adoption of ICT, where staff is rendered redundant due to the use of ICT in the

functions that they initially performed. The cost of retrenching these staff is high, and in some

cases it led to industrial disputes which were sometimes expensive to settle.

The research further established that regular changes in ICT components was a key

challenge, newer and more improved computerized systems are developed on a regular

basis as well as changes in hardware components. This becomes expensive since other

current systems are rendered nonfunctional and may require overhauling.

The results also indicated that there was a challenge in replacing human aspect of service

with ICT, where due to hospitality services being interactive in nature between the consumer

and the service provider, a problem rises which may make the fully computerization of

certain aspects impossible. A further finding related to the human aspect was the possibility

of slow human operation in case of a system breakdown.

Solutions to overcome the challenges

The results indicated that staff training on the use of ICT and related aspects was prudent.

The training also includes training staff on the benefits of ICT so that they may not have a

negative attitude towards ICT. Staff and other ICT users need also to be trained on how they

may spot a malfunction in order to necessitate a check-up to prevent breakdowns.

The study also further established that strategic installation of ICT machines was paramount

in order to overcome the occurrence of expensive restructuring by identifying the key areas

that needed to be computerized and funds dedicated to that area before embarking on other

aspects.


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The research further indicated that upgrading of software and ICT machines could be a

solution to the regular changes in ICT components, although there was the indication that

this may be an expensive venture.

The results also indicated that regular maintenance of ICT machines could be the solution to

expensive rectification of breakdown, this enabled problems to be identified and corrected

early enough.

The provision of a safe and secure ICT use environment was also found to be a solution

where an operational condition for ICT machines is maintained.

The study also established that the solution for the heavy expenditure involved in ICT

utilization was to spread the ICT cost over years, in which just a fraction of the total

expenditure is actually charged during the current financial year and the rest in the

subsequent periods.

Finally, the research indicated that acquiring ICT components from reliable companies was

indeed vital so as to be assured of reliable updates and or repairs in case of a breakdown of

the systems.

Conclusions

Information and communication technology is used to take advantage of slower moving

competition by providing better service, improved decision making and increasing revenue.

In the hospitality industry there is continued development of information and communication

technology with a special emphasis on computer reservation systems (As proposed by

Haywood, 1990).

The pace of technological change is presenting the hospitality industry with many new

opportunities and the management of information and communication technology will be a

key business activity in the future. Automation within the hospitality industry will continue to

be an important technique to reduce the expenses of doing business. The automating of IT is

an exciting frontier with many potential paybacks (This was according to Haueisen et al.,

1982).

Unfortunately, many hoteliers are slow to invest adequate amounts on technology at a

regular basis. This may be because the functions automated by hospitality systems are

generally once where previous capital expenditure lasted for a very long time. However, new

products, new technologies and new features are constantly evolving, and systems needed

to be continually updated to take advantage of the benefits that such development can offer

(This was true according to Sheldon et al., 1997).

Recommendations

To enhance competitive advantage, managers will need to incorporate more guest-

service technologies e.g. electronic door locking systems, in-room minibar and in-room

entertainment, within their key offerings to customers or be left behind. The infusion of

technology to provide personalized services, service recovery, and other guest-service

needs is the next wave and potentially the most sweeping new use of IT to affect the

hospitality industry.


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To enable successful adoption of IT: the IT managers should include, (1) gaining support

of top management, (2) involving marketing and operations personnel in IT decisions, (3)

providing adequate training, and (4) selecting flexible systems that can be modified and

upgraded easily to maximize return on investment.

There is a need for the hotels to adopt and use systems such as conference and

banqueting systems, electronic door locking systems, energy management systems,

yield management systems as well as sales and marketing systems. These systems will

improve the hotels operational capabilities.

There is also a need to adopt and use the e-commerce more so e-procurement in order

to enjoy benefits as provided by the use of the tool.

Recommendations to other researchers

How IT decisions can create a competitive advantage in areas such as productivity,

revenue enhancement, and guest service.

Establish whether there is generally, an effective use of Information Technology in

Kenya’s hotel and hospitality industry.

Effects of globalization and internationalization on the hospitality industry as far as IT are

concerned.

References

Buhalis, D. (1991) SWOT Analysis for the Small and Medium Tourism Enterprises. The case study of

the Aegean Islands, Greece. Hospitality Management Education, Birmingham

David et al., (1998) The Market Planning Guide, Dearborn Financial Publishing Inc. Great Britain

Desinano et al., (1996) Developing Information Technology: Options in the Hospitality Industry, The

Value Chain Approach, John Wiley and Sons. New York

Haueisen et al.,(1982) Microcomputer Systems for Small Businesses, Prentice Hall. New Jersey

Haywood, M. (1990) A Strategic Approach to Managing Technology, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant

Administration Quarterly, 31(1): 39-45

Lovelock, C.H. (2000) Service Marketing: People, Technology, Strategy, Prentice Hall. New York

Marko and Moore, (1980) How to Select a Computer System Part 1, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant

Administration Quarterly, 21(1): 60-71

O’Connor, P. (2004) Using Computers in Hospitality, Prentice Hall. New York

Pool, A. (1993) Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies, CAB International. Oxford

Sheldon et al., (1997) Tourism Information Technology. Biddles Ltd. London

Stanford et al., (1994) Communicating in Business: An Action-Oriented Approach, Longman. New

York

Website: www.magicalkenya.com

http://www.magicalkenya.com/


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Determinants of expenditure by international tourists, a

case study of the North coastal region of Kenya

Isabella Cheloti-Mapelu

Pius Odunga

Timothy Sulo

Kenya

Background information

Tourism plays a great role towards the global economy according to world travel and tourism

council and as a result generates 11 percent of gross domestic product, 207 million jobs, 8

percent of total employment and 5.5 new jobs per year and this is projected to continue until

the year 2010 (Crandall, 2006). According to Crespo & Diaz, 1996, World Tourism

Organization (WTO) report shows that international tourist arrivals increased by 3.6% in 1995

and by 4.5% in 1996, and will continue growing by 4.6% per year until the year 2010, while

international tourist expenditures will grow at a pace of 6-8% above inflation.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development points out that tourism is one

of the three main sectors of trade in international services, as higher education, more leisure

time and consistent growth of employment and personal income are inducing more people to

travel and to explore new regions. The world’s top tourist destinations in 1996 were France,

United States, Spain, Italy, and China. International tourist arrivals in France reached 61.5

million, 44.8 million in the United States, 41.3 million in Spain, 35.5 million in Italy, and 26.0

million in china. In a revised forecast announced mid-1996, the WTO Predicts that

international tourists, which amounted to 566 million in 1995, will grow to 702 million in 2000

and to 1,018 million in 2010, while tourist international expenditures will climb from $393

billion in 1995 to $526.5 billion in 2000 and 4620.5 billion in 2010.

Locally, Kenya provides a good example of a developing country that has embraced tourism

as a tool for socio-economic development (Sindiga, 1999; Odunga, 2006; Akama & Kieti,

2007). Tourism is a leading foreign exchange earner and has overtaken tea and coffee and it

contributes immensely to employment generation. Kenya has become a popular tourist

destination for visitors from Europe, North America and emerging tourist generating regions,

particularly South East Asia. Tourism also leads to income generation, provision of resources

for investment and generation of government revenue through taxation (Sindiga, 1999).

From the Economic Survey of 2008, Kenya’s economy has been on a recovery path since

2003, after a slump in the late 1990s and early 2000. The renewed expansion has mainly

been on account of the economy’s resilience, improved business confidence, stable macro-

economic environment, and a rebound of the global economy. Real Gross Domestic Product

is estimated to have expanded by 7.0 per cent in 2007 compared to a revised growth of 6.4

per cent in 2006 (Kenyan Government 2008). The Kenya Tourism sector performed very well

in 2007 earning the country an estimated Ksh. 65.4 billion representing a 16.4 per cent

increase over the Ksh. 56.2 per cent earned in 2006. This made tourism not only a socio-

economic driver but one of the largest categories of international trade. This was in part as a

result of 23.6 percent expansion in foreign travel earnings from Ksh. 49.6 billion in 2006 to


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Ksh. 61.3 billion in 2007. The volume of international arrivals grew by 13.5 per cent from

1,600.6 thousand recorded in 2006 to 1,816.8 thousand in 2007. This was attributed to

continue aggressive marketing in the traditional markets and in the Far East. The

improvement was also supported by the growing conference tourism and the launch of new

tourism circuits as value addition to compliment the traditional products of beach and wildlife.

In this regard, Kenya has realized the need to stir the country to rapid economic growth in the

coming decades and therefore has come up with Kenya Vision 2030 (Republic of Kenya,

2007). This is the new country’s development blue print covering the period 2008 to 2030. It

aims at making Kenya a new industrializing, “middle income country providing high quality

life for all its citizens by the year 2030.” The vision has been developed through an all-

inclusive stakeholder consultative process, involving Kenyans from all parts of the country.

The vision is based on three “pillars” namely; the economic pillar, the social pillar and the

political pillar. This vision’s program plan comes after the successful implementation of the

Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation (ERS) which has seen

the country’s economy back on the path to rapid growth since 2002, when GDP grew at 0.6%

rising to 6.1% in 2006. Tourism as an industry has been chosen among the sectors that are

expected to steer the country’s economic growth. In this regard tourism will be a leading

sector in achieving the goals of the Vision. Kenya aims to be among the 10 long haul tourist

destination in the world offering a high-end, diverse, and distinctive visitor experience that

few of her competitors can offer (Republic of Kenya, 2007). There are three specific goals for

2012, including: To quadruple tourism’s GDP contribution to over KSh 80 billion; To raise

international visitors from 1.8 million in 2006 to 3 million in 2012, while raising average spent

per visitor from the present Kshs. 40,000 to at least KSh 70,000; To increase hotel beds from

40,000 to about 65,000.

Therefore, it can be ascertained that, Kenya recognizes tourism as a key to the country’s

economic growth. However this can only be achieved if the country targets high niche

tourists with a lot of spending power and also strives to ensure tourism flows are not

dependent on seasons to the detriment of tourism enterprises.

Mombasa is the second largest city of Kenya after Nairobi and it is the provincial

headquarters of Coast Province. Mombasa is also the leading tourist centre in Eastern

Africa, with the highest concentration of tourism and hospitality facilities and infrastructure.

Mombasa and adjacent townships receive over one third of international tourist arrivals to

Kenya (Kenya Government, 2004). However, Mombasa in particular and the Kenyan coastal

region in general is classified by the government as one of the region with a high incidence of

poverty and poor living conditions for local people (Kenya Government, 2004). It has been

estimated that over 50% of the residents in Mombasa live below the poverty line, earning

less than one dollar per day. The poverty line in Kenyan context means individuals’ income

does not meet a minimum standard required to meet his or her basic needs such as food,

shelter, sanitation and clean water supply (Kenya Government, 2004). Over half of

Mombasa’s 500,000 residents cannot afford a decent meal, do not have access to clean

water or basic sanitary facilities and can neither afford basic health care nor pay school fees

for their children. Often the people living below the poverty line have no regular employment,

their income is small and irregular and they lack basic capital to start micro-scale business

enterprises in tourism and other sectors.


74

Therefore there is need to determine why after continued visits by tourists in large numbers

the locals don’t seem to benefit economically.

Objectives

1. To establish the demographic profile of international tourists visiting the Kenyan coast,

2. To find out the expenditure levels of international tourists visiting the Kenyan coast.

3. To establish factors which influence tourist expenditure.

Methods

Survey design was used to determine the expenditure levels of expenditure and

determinants of expenditure of international tourists visiting the Kenyan coast. A total number

of 302 international tourists were sampled for purposes of research using the systematic

sampling technique.

The type of data collected was both qualitative and quantitative. The main instrument for data

collection was the self-administered questionnaire.

Data analysis was carried out in order to draw meaning from the information collected from

research subjects.

Multiple regression method was used to do the analysis. Multiple regression is a linear

composite of explanatory variables in such a way that it has maximum correlation with a

criterion variable (Kothari, 2008). This technique is appropriate when the researcher has a

single, metric criterion variable which is a function of other explanatory variables. In this

study, we have a single metric criterion variable which is expenditure patterns of tourists

which is a function of explanatory variables including length of stay, gender, socio-economic

status, age, and the type of tour package. Therefore the level of the dependent phenomena

was determined through multiple regression analysis models from the given independent

variables. In multiple regression, the regression model is of the form:

Y= βo + β1X1+ β2X2+ ……………………..βn Xn+ ε

Where: Y – is the dependant variable

X1-n – are the independent variables

β0 – is the constant

β1-n – are the regression coefficients or change induced in Y by each X

ε – Is the error

In this case Y= f(X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7,)

Where: Y= Total tourist expenditure while on holiday

X1= Gender

X2= Length of stay

X3= Age

X4= Tour Package


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X5= Nationality

X6= Trip Characteristics

X7= Net monthly income

Therefore tourist expenditure while on holiday= f (Gender, length of stay, age, tour package,

nationality, trip characteristics and income).

Results

Besides money spent on the tour package the respondents were asked to state any

additional money they used while on holiday. The expenditure was put in different categories.

Among the items in the categories were accommodation, food and beverage, transportation

costs incurred while going for sightseeing and visiting cultural villages, expenditures on

airport transfer, expenditures on entertainment and recreation, expenditures on gifts,

souvenirs and other purchases, and finally on communication. Communication encompassed

telephone, internet and postal services.

Expenditure of international tourists who travelled as tour packaged tourists

(expenditure excludes charges of the tour package)

Tourists on a tour package were asked to indicate other expenses they incurred apart from

that of the tour package. The results are as indicated in appendix 1 and discussed below.

Accommodation

There was no significant difference in expenditure by international tourists on

accommodation 2 = 0.000, df = 1, p = 1.000). This is because very few respondents spend

any extra money on accommodation besides that which they had paid for as part of the tour

package. The expense was paid as bed and breakfast.

Food and beverage

The respondents were asked to indicate how much money they had spent on food and

beverage besides that which was inclusive of the tour package. There was a significant

difference among respondents on the money spent on food and beverage besides that

inclus df = 5, p < 0.0005). From the

responses, the highest number of respondents (n =118, 52.9%) spend between $50-100, (n

= 75, 33.6%) spend less than $50, while (n = 19, 8.5%) spend between $101-150. Very few

respondents (n = 11, 4.9%) spend an average of between $ 151-300. Therefore besides the

money paid for the tour package on food and beverage in the form of bed and breakfast,

lunch and dinner, tourists had another expenditure set aside which was used on special

dinners or what was commonly referred to as sun downer.

Transportation to go for sightseeing and visiting cultural villages

Another category of expenditure was the amount used on transportation while going for

sightseeing and visiting cultural villages. This was an extra amount used by tourists besides

that which had been paid in the form of local tours.


76

There was a significant difference among respondents on the amount of money they had

s showing

that (n = 60, 34.3%) of the respondents spending an additional between $ 101-200 on

transportation to go for sightseeing and visiting cultural villages, another (n = 49, 28%) used

an extra between $ 201-300 while (n = 27, 15.4%) spend an extra between $ 401-500. Also

(n = 16, 9.1%) of the respondents used an extra between $ 301-400 while those who spend

an extra between $ 501-1000 made up (n = 18, 10.3%) of the responses.

Airport transfers

The respondents were asked to indicate if they had used additional money on airport

transfers besides the amount which had been used as part of the tour package. This is

because the respondents may have been staying at the Kenyan coast but they could create

time to go and look at other attractions hence the need to find out how much they spend.

There, difference in expenditure from the respondents did not show any significant difference

which could be attributed to the low number of people (n = 5) who needed these services.

Hence, most tourists who visited the coast region visited the attractions found around and

therefore did not need to take a flight.

Entertainment

Another category was expenditure on entertainment and recreation. This forms an important

expenditure category as almost all respondents indicated to having spent some money on

entertainment. There were significant differences between respondents on the money they

= 99, 36.8%) had used an additional between $ 51-100 besides money spend on the tour

package, (n = 90, 29.8%) had used between $ 101-200, while (n=42, 13.9%) had used

between $ 101-150 on entertainment.

Gifts and souvenirs

The results showed a difference among the tourists on the amount of money used on gifts

since it is expected that tourists would like to buy items either as mementoes when they

return home or as presents for friends and relatives left behind. Hence, the need to

determine how much was spend in this category. From the responses, the highest number of

tourists (n = 89, 29.5%) spend between $ 51-100 on gifts and souvenirs, another (n= 75,

24.8%) spend between $ 151-200, while (n = 48, 15.99%) between $ 101-150. There was a

relationship between additional expenditure and the nationality of international tourists

number of gifts and souvenirs, followed by the French (n=57, 23.7%) then the Italians (n=34,

14.1%), and the Germans (n=34, 14.1%).

Communication

There was need to find out from the respondents the amount of money they had spent on

communication. These included costs of browsing the internet, making telephone calls or

postage costs. This is because it is expected of tourists to have a need to communicate with

friends and relatives. There was a significant difference in expenditure on communication ( 2


77

= 12.065, df = 4, p = 0.017) with almost three quarters of the respondents (n = 176, 72.7%)

spending an average of less $ 50 on communication, another (n = 65, 26.9%) spend

between $50-100 while the rest (n = 1, 0.4%) spend between $101-150. Therefore when

tourists are on holiday the need to get in touch with friends and relatives makes them to set

some money aside for communication.

Water sports

Another category of expenditure was water sports. This was an important category of

expenditure considering that target the research was being done at the coast. There was

need to find out whether water sports were popular, the type and the amount of money

spend. From the responses the most common type of water sports were deep sea fishing,

snorkeling, deep sea diving, wind surfing, Jet Ski riding, and boat skiing. The results showed

p =

0.062) with slightly more than a quarter of the respondents (n = 8, 26.7%) spent between $

101-150, almost an equal number (n = 7, 23.3%) spent between $201-250, (n = 6, 20%)

spent less than $100, while the rest (n = 4, 13.3%) spent more than $251 on water sports.

Tips

Though not included as a category, most respondents indicated tips as one of the main items

df = 5, p<0.0005) with most respondents (n = 67, 38.5%) indicated they spend an average of

between $21-40 while a quarter of the respondents (n = 45, 25.9%) spend between $61-80

on tips. Almost the same number (n = 38, 21.8%) spend between $ 41-60 while (n = 18,

10.3%) less than $20. The rest of the respondents (n = 6, 3.4%) spend more than $81 on tips

alone.

Other miscellaneous expenditures

There were some expenses which could not be captured under the above categories and

therefore the respondents were asked to indicate these expenses under the category

miscellaneous. However from the responses there was no significant differences among the

Variations of tourist expenditures across different expenditure categories among international

tourists

There was need to find out from the results attained whether the difference in expenditure

among the different expenditure categories. Therefore, one-way between-subjects Anova

were carried out (Brace et al, 2003). According to the results (Appendix II) there were

variations in expenditure among different expenditure categories of international tourists in

relation to food and beverage (F(8,214) = 14.474, p < 0.0005), transport to go for sightseeing

and cultural villages (F(8,166) = 13.477, p < 0.0005), entertainment and recreation (F(8,222) =

16.097, p = 0.0005), gifts and souvenirs (F(8,232) = 15.910, p = 0.0005), communication (F(8,233)

= 5.703, p = 0.0005) and amount paid for tips (F(8,165) = 2.983, p = 0.004). Variations of tourist

expenditure among the different expenditure categories were not observed in airport transfer

(F (2,2) = 0.500, p = 0.667), in the other category of expenditure which included shopping (F

(7,24) = 1.045, p =, 0.427), and expenditure on water sports (F (6,23) = 1.734, p = 0.158). This


78

implies that the mean expenditure on airport transfer, shopping and on water sports did not

vary much among the international tourists.

Determinants of expenditure by international tourists

This study therefore used categorical regression, one of the options in SPSS, to circumvent

these problems. Categorical regression is essentially similar to OLR but with the ability to

also accommodate nominal and ordinal variables. It transforms nominal and ordinal variables

to interval scales, upon which multiple regression analysis can be performed.

Initially, ten independent variables were entered into the model. These were Nationality,

Gender, Marital status, Age of tourist, Educational level, Occupation, Mode of travelling,

Purpose of visit, Number of nights in Kenya, number of trips taken in the past and net

monthly income of tourists. To simplify the model, the independent variables that were not

significant in the prediction of the dependent variable (Total expenditure) were sequentially

removed from the model. The final model is summarized by the following (Appendix III).

The independent variables that could significantly predict total expenditure of the tourists in

the final model were Nationality, Marital status, Age, Education level, Occupation, Nights

spend in Kenya, number of trips taken and the net monthly income.

The model summary was multiple R = 0.864, R square was 0.747, and adjusted R square

was 0.597. Multiple R is the multiple correlation coefficient between all the predictors and

total expenditure. Since it value ranges between 0 and 1, a multiple R of .864 shows that the

predictors in the model were highly correlated to the dependent variable. Thus the model

accounts for 86.4% of variance in tourist expenditure. Therefore, the specification of the

factors to be included in the model was appropriate.

R square measures how much variability in the dependent variable is accounted for by the

predictors. The R2 in this model was found to be 74.7%, which means that the seven

predictors could explain about 75% of the variation in total expenditure. Since R2 values

above 40% are considered high, this model could therefore explain a lot of the variation in

the dependent variable which was almost 60%. In other words, we can predict, to a great

degree, the expenditure of international tourists by using the eight independent variables.

The remaining unexplained variation in total expenditure could partly be attributed to other

factors not specified in the model and partly to the error term in the regression equation.

Adjusted R square provides information on how well a model can be generalized in the

population. If this model had been derived from the population rather than the sample, then it

would have accounted for approximately 60% of the variance in the dependent variable.

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Appendix IV), also called the overall regression F test, is

used to test several equivalent null hypotheses: that there is no linear relationship in the

population between the dependent variable and the independent variables, that all of the

population partial regression coefficients are 0, and that the population value for multiple R2 is

0. This study found a significant regression equation, (F (28,47) = 4.960, p < 0.0005). Therefore,

there was likely to be a linear relationship between “Total expenditure” and the predictors in

the population, at least one of the population partial regression coefficients of the predictors


79

is not 0, and the population value for multiple R2 is not 0. The table below shows the

regression coefficients of the model.

According to the multiple regression model for international tourist expenditure was

increased by factors such as nationality (β = 0.406, p < 0.0005), marital status (β = 0.257, p <

0.0005), age (β = 0.220, p = 0.012), level of education (β = 0.180, p = 0.019), occupation (β =

0.247, p < 0.0005), number of previous visits (β = 0.179, p < 0.0005) and the net monthly

income (β = 0.363, p < 0.0005). However there was negative effect on expenditure by the

length of stay (β = -0.358, p < 0.0005), which means that the longer the tourists stayed the

less money they spent.

In this regard the type of nationality increased tourist expenditure by approximately 41%,

marital status by 26%, age by 22%, level of education by 18%, occupation by 25%, number

of previous visits by 18% and the net monthly income by 36%. On the other expenditure was

reduced by length of stay by 36%.

OLR uses t-tests to test the significance of each of the β coefficient obtained. If the test is not

significant, then the β coefficient of that particular variable in the population might be zero i.e.

the variable is not a significant predictor of the dependent variable. If the test is significant,

then the β coefficient in the population is not zero i.e. There was likely a relationship between

that particular variable with the dependent variable. Categorical regression provides F values

instead of t values. Since, F is simply t squared, the F values perform a similar function. In

this model all predictor variables had p values < than 0.05, which meant that in the

population, all the partial regression coefficients were unlikely to be zero. In other words, all

of the predictor variables are significant in explaining the variation in the dependent variable.

For each independent variable, tolerance is the proportion of variability of that variable that is

not explained by its linear relationships with the other independent variables in the model.

When tolerance is close to 0 there is high multi-colinearity of that variable with other

independents and the beta coefficients become unstable. In this model, tolerance values for

all variables are quite high, suggesting that multi-colinearity was not a problem.

Discussion of results

The main determinants of expenditure by international tourists were age. This implies that

the more advanced the tourist was in age the more money they were likely and willing to

spend while on holiday. This is in line with the findings of (Odunga, 2006) who established

that among other demographic characteristics of tourists, gender and age were great

determinants of expenditure. In this case the more advanced in age was the tourist the more

money they were likely to spend. Other authors (Thrane, 2000; Anderson & Littrel, 1995)

contribute by asserting that another demographic characteristic that determines expenditure

is gender. In this case, overall females spend less than males for the simple fact that females

always opt for organized holidays but they may spend more on souvenirs. Age also

determines expenditure since as some people advanced in age they became economically

empowered, some would be feeling stable either in their careers or businesses hence they

had the means and the confidence to spend more compared to younger people who were

just starting life either in their careers or as entrepreneurs.


80

Another factor that determined expenditure in this study was the length of stay of the tourists

at the Kenyan coast. This implies that if domestic tourists stay longer they were likely to

spend more compared to international tourists. In fact the length of stay was the highest

contributor to expenditure levels at 61%. This contrasted a lot with international tourists

where length of stay reduced expenditure levels by 36%. This corroborates with what was

raised by (Nesc, 2007) who affirms that despite the increase in the number of international

tourists as well as their length of stay the average spend per tourist per day has been low

compared to competing destinations.

Among the international tourists determinants of expenditure were nationality of the tourists.

Kenya’s source market of tourists is Europe of which the key countries whose citizens visit

the country include Britain, France, Germany and Italy. Another source country is

Switzerland. This corroborates with researches done by (Sindiga, 1999; Odunga, 2006;

Akama & Kieti, 2007 and Maru, 2010) who assert that among other destinations Europe still

remains the highest source market for tourists in Kenya.

Another determinant of expenditure by international tourists is the marital status of the

respondents. In this case those who are married or are living with a partner are more likely to

spend more. This may be attributed to the fact that if both of them are on a steady income

then they have more disposable income compared to those who visit the country as singles.

Age of the respondents’ international tourists also determines the expenditure level. In this

case those who are older spend more compared to young people. This could be attributed to

the fact that some have more disposable income in the form of pension, are higher in the

career ladder therefore are earning more and therefore are willing to spend more.

The level of education was another determining factor of the amount of money a tourist was

able to spend. This is because with better education, there are better chances of getting into

professions that pay well and therefore more money is available for spending. Also with

better education people are better aware about different services of which they can spend

money on which contributes to the individual level of expenditure. Mill and Morison (2002)

also add that another socio-economic factor that contributes to travel choice and expenditure

levels of tourists is the level of education. This is because it influences preferences for

certain holiday attractions, facilities and activities. However, more educated tourists tended to

be sophisticated in their tastes even though they may not be high spenders.

Occupation also contributes to expenditure of international tourists. This is because

depending on the type of profession if there is better remuneration, there will be higher

wages leading to more disposable income and therefore a higher level of expenditure.

The number of repeat visits also determines the level of expenditure by international tourists.

This is because the more trips a tourist makes the more discoveries they make of the

destination and the more they are willing to spend on the tourism products they discover.

The net monthly income of the tourists also determines the level of expenditure of the

tourists. The more income a tourist earns the more disposable income they had and

therefore the more they willing and able to spend.

However, length of stay reduced the expenditure levels of tourists by a whopping 36%. This

could be attributed to the fact that the longer the tourist stayed the less disposable money


81

they had and therefore the less they spend. Also it could mean that the longer the tourists

stayed the less they needed to see any more attractions and therefore saw no need to incur

more expenditure. In this case the law of diminishing returns would then apply.

Conclusions

The study has established firstly that most of the tourists who visit the country are on a tour

package. This is the scenario where tourists chose a tour company and then pay for all the

expenses while in the home country. In turn the tour company makes the itinerary plan for

the anticipated travel which includes means of travel, meals and accommodation and the

sites to be visited. The main disadvantage with this kind of arrangement is that since the tour

company and accommodation facilities are owned by foreigners, very little income is accrued

to the host country. On the other hand the most economically beneficial mode of travel

arrangement to the host country is the independent travel arrangement. However, as the

study established an insignificant number of tourists use this mode which could be attributed

to lack of enough information to make the tourists move around unassisted. It could also be

related to issues of insecurity especially when tourists are attacked and either mugged or

even killed common incidences which have often been reported.

Considering that most of sampled tourists were travelling on a tour package it was

established that the tour package mainly catered for bed and breakfast, lunch, dinner, airfare,

and entertainment.

Secondly, the study established several factors which influenced expenditure levels of

tourists. They included age, whereby the older the tourist the more they were likely to spend.

Age increased the level of expenditure by 22%. This could be attributed to the fact that

among the sampled tourists, there were retirees who had received their pension and

therefore had a lot of disposable income. Another determinant of expenditure was the

nationality of the tourists accounting for 41% of the level of expenditure. Since the source

market for tourists visiting Kenya is Europe and more specifically Britain, France, Germany

and Italy, they had big influence on the level of expenditure. Also, the marital status of the

tourists influenced their level of spending by 26%. This could be attributed to the fact that for

those who are married there are more sources of income especially if both of them are on a

regular income and this influences the level of spending. One’s level of education also

determined how much they could spend with the study finding out that it contributed to 18%

of the level of expenditure. This is explained by the fact that in most cases with better

education one was able to get a better paying job and this availed more disposable income

for those with good education. Occupation influenced the level of expenditure by 25% which

means that depending on the type of profession that one was engaged in, if it had good

remuneration, there was a lot of disposable income which influenced expenditure. The

number of repeat visits made by a tourist influenced the level of expenditure by 18%. This

could be attributed to the fact that those tourists, who were willing to come back, already

appreciated the country, could stay longer and had discovered different aspects on which to

channel their expenditure. This included different types of attractions. Income was another

very important determinant of the level of expenditure. It contributed to expenditure levels by

36%. This is because the more the net monthly income the more the disposable income and

therefore the higher the levels of expenditure. On the other hand, the level of expenditure by

international tourists was reduced by 36%. This could be attributed to the fact that the longer

the tourists stayed the less disposable income they had, thus reducing the level of


82

expenditure. Also it could be attributed to the law of diminishing returns whereby, the longer

the tourists stayed, the less interest they had in visiting attractions and therefore the less they

were willing to spend. Among the domestic tourists, contrary to international tourists length of

stay influenced the level of expenditure by 61%.

References

Akama, J.S. & Kieti, D. (2007) Tourism and Socio-Economic Development in Developing Countries: A

Case of Mombasa Resort in Kenya in Journal of Sustainable Tourism Vol. 15, No. 6, Britain: Channel

View Publications

Crandall, S. (2006) Critical Issues in Tourism U.S.A: Blackwell Publishers

Crespo, N. & Diaz, S. N. (1996) Cuban Tourism in 2007 Economic Impact

Kenya Government (2004) Economic Survey Nairobi: Central Bureau of Statistics



Kothari, C. R. (2008) (2nd

Ed) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques New Delhi: New Age

International (P) Ltd Publishers

Mill, R. C., & Morrison, A. M. (2002). The tourism system. Kendall Hunt.

Odunga, P.O. (2006) Determinants of the Average Daily Expenditure Levels of Kenya’s International

Tourists in Africa Journal of Business and Economics. Volume 1, No.1 Eldoret: SBE

Sindiga, I. (1999) Tourism and African Development England: Ashgate Publishing Limited.


83

Gastronomy as a tool for social integration among ethnic

communities in Kenya

Frimar Kiama

Isabella Cheloti-Mapelu

Thomas Bor

Kenya

Introduction

Food in its various guises, contexts and functions, can signal rank and rivalry, solidarity and

community, identity or exclusion, and intimacy or distance, (Mennel et al, 2000). Food has

always been one of the key elements of the culture of any society, but there is no doubt that

there is an increased interest in traditional food in contemporary society. The hospitality

industry is an institution that encourages traditional food consumption, providing avenues

such as cultural theme nights, for the different communities in Kenya to celebrate their

ethnicity while at the same time providing them with their preferred authentic traditional

dishes, with the distinct features, which make their cuisine unique. In the twentieth century,

food has come to play a prominent part in the development of cultural identities including-on

the one hand-the formation of -we- images, used as symbols of national pride and identity

and on the other hand, negative stereotyped - they images of other nations and cultures

(Bruegel and Laurioux, 2002). More recently we can observe that food culture has become

an important link among societies which have normally been divided by their manners,

languages and/or religions. Numerous examples can be found in the export of some distinct

food traditions, reaching well beyond national borders, like in the Mediterranean or the Nordic

countries and regions, which have aroused interest in –their eating and drinking specialties.

Restaurants offering "foreign cuisine" are already outnumbering those with indigenous

menus (Petrini and Carlo, 2007). Traditional recipes are gradually being brought into the

marketplace by "grandma" style restaurants.

It could be reasonable to make use of such experiences when it comes to counteracting

prejudices against foreigners or ethnic minorities. It is in this latter scenario that we can begin

to explore concrete ways in which food or culinary culture can effectively integrate such

principles as identity and diversity.

Every African society and in particular Kenya has its own set of traditional foods prepared

and presented in a way that is particular to that community. The manner of preparation and

presentation of these foods may not necessarily be pleasant to people from other

communities. The cultural background determines what is eaten as well as when and how

(Mead et al., 2004). A people‘s culture has a lot of influence on the kind of foods people eat

in each community. The post-colonial era has however witnessed increased interaction

between communities on various fronts including sampling of foods from other communities.

This study adopted the concept of developing the social identity of food in early human

societies. This concept says that members of different societies learned to develop and

prepare foods in ways that provided them with distinctive self-identity, which either drew

them closer to or separated them from their neighbors. Those who wished to associate with

other societies often adopted their neighbor‘s food habits (Kittler and Sucher, 2004). Those


84

who wished to separate themselves from their neighboring societies often identified a certain

food as a staple of that community and avoided that food to show that they were different

(Harris and Ross, 2000, Kittler and Sucher, 2004). Therefore, as people from different

cultures continue to mix particularly in cultural theme nights, they become more adventurous

in taste and choose unfamiliar traditional foods. Simultaneously, they become more likely to

adopt foods that meet their nutrients needs while establishing social ties with neighboring

societies (Fieldhouse, 2003).

Literature review

Food acceptance and choices

According to, Fieldhouse (2003,) the quality and quantity of food available to humans and

human’s food choices have changed over the course of human history. They have been

influenced by several cultural factors. Culture represented the means for identifying foods

that were appropriate to eat. Fieldhouse (2003) further stated that as human population

grew, environmental constraints affected the means of food acquisition, ultimately affecting

food choices. Humans further adapted to their surrounding environments and began to

cultivate and domesticate animals instead of relying on hunting and gathering. Over time, as

humans began to have more contact with each other, additional factors such as economic,

political and psychological developed that enabled humans to further discern between foods

that were “for me and my family” and foods that were “for you or strangers”. Once an

adequate and secure food supply was better achieved through agriculture and domestication

of animals, greater food security allowed for more diverse food choices and food sharing

both internally, within the family unit and externally, with friends and neighbors (Fieldhouse

2003). A more secure supply and sharing of food are thought to have strengthened the social

ties between individuals and developed a sense of trust within the community (Harris and

Ross, 2000, Fieldhouse, 2003) (see Figure 1).

1. What “I” eat

2. “Family” eats

3. “Neighbor” eats

4. “Society” eats

5. “They” eat


85

Figure 1: (a) Social construction of food choices. What they eat is kept away from what I eat

and is not acceptable for me. (b) Effects of acculturation on social construction of food

choices. Relocation of individuals and families enable cultures to mix and share traditional

foods and methods of preparation. Note that not all individuals participate in this exchange.

(a). (b).

Source: (Harris and Ross, 2000; Fieldhouse, 2003)

Role of culture in relationship formation

Styles and Ambler (1996) argue that research has shown that key factors contributing to long

term relationships are communication, shared norms, co-operation and reputation – in each

of these cultures plays a role. Ahmed et al., (1999) go on to argue that culture is a

moderating variable between the antecedent variables of a relationship and the degree of

commitment to that relationship.

Commitment to a relationship in turn, involves trust which is the glue that binds networks of

relationships together. Nguyen, (2002) found from her investigation of the relationship

between Vietnamese exporters and importers in developed countries, though not in the

context of this study, that culture impacts not only on the flow of information between

exporter and importer but also in the way the information is interpreted. She found that the

greater the cultural differences the more likely there were to be misunderstandings, barriers

to communication and problems with the relationship (Schwartz and Bardi, 2001). Therefore,

this forms the model which supports the study.

Role of food in social integration

Food is a cultural resource which brings people together at the same time reflecting their

heritage, manners and way of life. It plays an important role in both traditional and public

diplomacy (Coats, 2002) and can also be used as a tool for cultural diplomacy. The

assumption is that sharing cultural values through exchanges and education can be a

dynamic instrument of public diplomacy (Nancy, 2003). Just as touring ballet companies and

traveling exhibitions are key ways through which different countries share their culture with

the world, so to be cooking a powerful form of cultural expression and heritage that every

nationality is proud of, representative of an art of imagination and taste. Ethnic food is a

model for successful reconciliation, a signifier for a shared future (Warren, 2002). Similarly to

clothing and language, food is of primordial importance for the social and personal

5

4

4 3

2

5

4

4 3

2

5

4

4 3

2

5

4

4 3

2


86

development of identity. It is as much a part of our everyday lives as it is connected to

special occasions and also a social signifier embedded with many layers of meaning. The

production, preparation, and consumption of food touch upon many aspects of our lives. The

sensory aspect of food triggers memories and initiates storytelling. Who cooks, who eats and

how much tells us a lot about gender, social, and often ethnic and racial relationships. Food

embodies culture, it brings people together, and sometimes it also marks disagreements and

misunderstandings.

Many countries use cuisine as an important representation of their national character at

international exchanges, festivals and other events. For just one example, the annual

Singapore Season in London (a multi-agency government effort to promote the city state in

the UK) this year included - a showcase of our favorite local delights at the Singapore Food

Festivals, (Anthropology of food, 2006). Food has also played a major role in Australia‘s

cultural diplomacy efforts with its neighbors in Southeast Asia. Food can even be an analogy

for a national character (Dasgupta, 2005). India improved its relations with Pakistan after the

Pakistanis changed their attitudes towards the cuisine of India. Food itself can be used as an

element of strategic public diplomacy. Regardless, carrying international favor and support

through food aid is quite common place. In the 1993 conflict in Somalia, for example, as in

countless other humanitarian and military operations, food distribution has been a key part

not only of the humanitarian campaigns themselves, but of the psychological operations

employed in the field by the US and others. Food has also been used to reconcile religious

groups. In Israel, a group of Jews, Muslims and Christians came together to preach peace

using food as their symbol. Known as chefs for peace, their dishes and restaurants have

highlighted the spirit of togetherness. Food brings the worst of enemies together. When the

members of the different cultures socialize around food, they start to talk about their lives,

hence reducing the social barriers around them (Karim, 2008).

The relevance of food and cuisine today as indices of integration in Europe stems particularly

from the well-established fact that people have traditionally been rather conservative in their

acceptance of "other tastes" and have in fact been quite resistant to change; at least until

recently (Petrini and Carlo, 2007). The creation of tools such as a "food based index of

tendencies toward social, economic and cultural integration" could be used not only to

demonstrate changes in taste and styles of eating (which form a particular sensitive indicator

of cultural integration), but in fact, go well beyond the realm of food, and head towards

establishing the conditions for stronger interaction and even mutual adaptation of European

national or regional cultures. While, "eyes" from outside of Europe (e.g. from the USA or

Japan) look on the development of its eating and drinking habits and the images connected

with such practices, strategies to build understanding and intercultural relations, which

otherwise could be interfered with by other political or economic influences, could be created

(Wallerstein and Immanuel, 1999 ). One might, therefore, go as far as to consider a

"European cultural food policy" (perhaps an integral element of international cultural

relations) an interesting, possibly even important addition to the set of policies of the

European Union and /or of the Council of Europe, United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) or the Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD) aiming at a closer European integration.

Around Africa, cuisine is central to people’s sense of identity and hence there is a

preoccupation with food as a marker of difference (Caplan, 1997:8). It has become a prime

element in the cluster of traits popularly understood as ethnicity, and thus the popular usage


87

of the phrase ethnic food. For the Ethiopians, meals are one of the most significant arenas

for negotiating identity. The construction of their national cuisine was built upon an ancient

Ethiopian cultural base reflected in the regional culinary traditions and vibrant local market

systems. Moreover, since Ethiopia was never colonized, its rulers had to promote national

identity and unity throughout the last three centuries (Stein, 2000). It is possible that this unity

in diversity included an appreciation of the unique qualities of Ethiopian cuisine.

Data and methodology

Primary data was obtained directly from the field through administration of questionnaires.

The target population included traditional food consumers from all ethnic communities in

Kenya. The research targeted 230 traditional food consumers in cultural theme nights from

all ethnic groups in Kenya. However, the research concentrated on cultural nights from four

ethnic groups (Kikuyu, Luhya, Kalenjin and Luo). All other ethnic groups present in these

cultural nights were catered for under an ‘any other’ category in the questionnaire.

Secondary data was obtained from various published and unpublished works such as text

books, internet articles and precious research reports. To uncover the relationships between

different types of variables, Pearson’s correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) was used. T-tests

were used to determine the statistical significance of the β coefficient obtained, and allow the

rejection or acceptance of the hypotheses.

Results

Relationship between traditional food acceptance and social integration

A Pearson correlation was carried out to establish the degree of relationships between the

variables as are shown on Table 1 below. Social integration which was the dependent

variable is represented by (Y). The independent variables traditional food acceptance is

represented by X1, and traditional food culture is represented by X2. According to the results

on Table 1 below, there was a very strong correlation between social integration (Y) and

traditional food acceptance (X1), (approximately 75%) as per Table 1. This means that the

more ethnic communities adopt foods from different ethnic communities, the more they will

establish social ties with the neighboring communities. However, the results show that

traditional food culture(X2) was slightly correlated to social integration (only 9%). This

relationship was not significant (p = 0.173), (see Table 1) This indicates that traditional food

culture does not at all affect relationships or interaction of different ethnic groups.

The study investigated the influence of traditional food acceptance on social integration

between ethnic communities in Kenya because food acceptance is the initial step towards

integration which involves individuals learning to adjust their diets and sampling different

types of food for easier coexistence. The study further showed that most traditional foods

from selected ethnic groups were acceptable across ethnic borders; with majority of the

traditional foods receiving over 80% levels of acceptability (see Table 2 below).Therefore,

when appreciation of traditional food increases, social integration increases and vice versa.

That is, the more ethnic communities accept and appreciate traditional food from a different

community, the better the relationships and increased interaction. The results of the study

concurs with Harris and Ross, (2000); Fieldhouse, (2003) who were earlier reviewed in

literature as saying that sharing of food and its subsequent appreciation, are thought to have


88

strengthened the social ties between individuals and developed a sense of trust within the

society.

Culture on the other hand is an important variable in relationship creation and network

formation. It is likely to influence the formation of relationships. Of all the cultural symbols

that humanity has acquired, appropriated and developed over millennia, those around food

must be the most potent. This is not only because food is necessary for human survival, but

also as a source of pleasure; that it can be a social signifier, a means of bonding or

separation. Therefore as a means of bonding, the culture associated with communities’

traditional food should not be typically salient or the norms are in opposition (Schwartz and

Bardi, 2001). This is to avoid social conflict. Therefore it was important to look at the

influence food culture had on social integration in Kenya. The results show that indeed food

culture in Kenya does not come in the way of social integration.

Conclusion

Social relationships that develop while eating traditional food in cultural theme nights with

other communities build a sense of community and belonging. Therefore we can make a well

integrated community by meeting the people of Kenya openly and share positive ethical

virtues and values of their traditions and cultures through social and cultural contexts within

inter-ethnic contexts. With peace and reconciliation initiatives being put in place, traditional

food should be on the forefront of the agenda. The findings of this study have confirmed that

traditional food can indeed be used as a tool for social integration in Kenya. The influence of

TF acceptance on social integration was significant (t=17.558, p< 0.001). The influence of TF

culture on social integration was however not significant (t= -0.075, p= 0.940). Therefore, in

this study there was increased inter-ethnic traditional food acceptability and minimum

influence by traditional food culture in social relations among communities for facilitating

social integration.

Appendix: tables

Table 1: Correlation results showing the relationship between traditional food acceptance,

traditional food culture and social integration

N=230 **Correlation is sig. at 0.01. Source: Survey data 2010

Y (social integration)

X1TF acceptance X2 TF culture

X1 Pearson Correlation

Sign. (2-tailed)

.758**

.000

1 .123

.062

X2 Pearson Correlation

Sign. (2-tailed)

.090

.173

.123

.062

1


89

Table 2: Distribution of respondents according to their acceptance of selected traditional

foods

Traditional foods Acceptable Not acceptable Total

% n % n %

Mursik 74 (170) 26 (60) 100

Bussaa 41 (94) 59 (136) 100

Sojot 83 (191) 17 (39) 100

Ighokho 95 (219) 5 (11) 100

Mushenye 72 (166) 28 (64) 100

Tsiswa 50 (115) 50 (115) 100

Murenda 87 (200) 13 (30) 100

Wimbi Ugali 79 (182) 21 (48) 100

Githeri 94 (216) 6 (14) 100

Mukimo 85 (196) 15 (34) 100

Nduma 97 (223) 3 (7) 100

Njahi 81 (186) 19 (44) 100

Omena 65 (150) 35 (80) 100

Obambla 64 (147) 36 (83) 100

Okwon 100 (230) 100

Source: (Survey data 2010)

N=230

Note: Figures in brackets are numbers of respondents

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pp.2-23.

http://www.israel21c.net/


91

Relationships between gender representation in the

hospitality industry and tourism entrepreneurial activities

in Kenya

Geoffrey Koome

Nehemiah Kiprutto

Judy Kibe

Kenya

Introduction

Tourism in Kenya is the third largest foreign exchange earner after tea and horticulture and

raked in Ksh 62.46 billion in revenue for the year ended 2009 (Ministry of Tourism, 2009).

However due to the current upward trend of international tourism this position (3rd) is likely to

change in the not too distant future. Tourism is seen as a major source of employment for

the destination countries. However, the perception of tourism employment is rather split with

people viewing the industry to possess a certain image of glamour, while on the other hand

deemed to be of low status and of low skill (Mathieson & wall 1982).

Tourism involves processes which are constructed out of complex and varied social realities

and relations that are often hierarchical and unequal. All parts of the process embody

different social relations of which gender relations are one element. The Longman dictionary

of Contemporary English (1992) describes gender as the fact of being either male or female,

whereas the term imbalance refers to not being equal. However, Hesse-Biber & Carger

(2000) views gender as being determined socially; it is the societal meaning assigned to

male and female. Each society emphasizes particular roles that each sex should play,

although there is wide latitude in acceptable behaviours for each gender.

Shaw (1995) notes that women and especially the African women have been known to play a

negligible role as far as economic development is concerned and that it is not only until very

recent that some acknowledgement has been given on the contribution of women to

economic growth. Such improvements have been highlighted by the CERT Employment

Survey (2001) in Ireland showed the male/female ratio in employment to be 48 percent/52

percent. At managerial level, the survey showed that women account for over 40 percent of

the total employed. They hold 42 percent of management positions (52 percent in hotels and

33 percent in restaurants).

However, this situation has not been completely addressed especially in the hospitality

industry the trend appears to be the same. This is despite of the view that women appear to

be suitable for this industry due to their hospitable nature and most of the work tends to be

similar to household chores. Male employees have dominated the hospitality industry

although there have been some considerable gains in the levels of female participation. It is

mainly through properly laid down policies and rules that women participation can be

increased. Some countries have taken initiatives to try and increase the number of females in

the workplace. In Japan, for instance, the constitution provides for legal equality between

men and women in terms of equal opportunity in job recruitment, firing, placement and


92

promotion (Nozawa, 1994). Some of the restrictions lifted included those that prohibited

overtime and night work.

Cunningham & Siga (2006) notes that in Brazil a country with a moderate minimum wage, an

increase in the minimum wage leads to greater job loss for women, young, and low-skilled

workers whose wages are clustered around the minimum as opposed to male, prime aged

and skilled workers. As a result, of job losses they engage in entrepreneurial activities so as

to sustain their economic wellbeing. This follows Lazaer’s (2005) opinion that in economics

prior labour market experience is argued to be an important motivator of new entrepreneurs.

Greater participation of women in entrepreneurial activities inclusive of tourism related

activities like curio shops, restaurants or cafés serve to improve the standards of living in

many homes, especially whereby mothers are single parents. However, the level of women

involvement in various facets of the economy has generally been seen to be relatively small.

With women forming the majority of Kenya’s population, it is greatly expected they would

form the bulk of employees in various sectors of the economy including tourism. This is

because of the stereotype that women are recruited into work which is deemed to represent

an extension of their traditional domestic responsibilities for which they are inherently skilled

(Kinniard, 1996). However, this may not be the case especially with regards to the hospitality

industry. A variety of issues have been raised as impediments to equal representation of

employees with respect to gender. Education level, presence of organizational rules and

regulations either formally laid out or impliedly that restricted participation of particular

gender in employment are some of the areas pointed out. Limited employment opportunities

and the lack of job security especially for the low skilled manual jobs with respect to a

developing economy like Kenya leads to engagement in entrepreneurial activities which can

be linked to past job experiences (Lazaer, 2005).

To check whether this still holds for tourism related enterprises necessitated this study. The

research was primarily focused on the hospitality industry because the dominance of the

hospitality sector and difficulty in drawing the boundaries of tourism encourage the view that

the magnitude of tourism can be estimated from data on the hospitality sector (Riley &

Ladkin, 2002). Therefore, the goal of this study is to evaluate the influence of gender on the

choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities. It aims to determine the proportion of

employees in the organization(s) by gender; determine the number of male and female

employees with regards to hotel departments; and evaluate the influence of gender on the

choice tourism related entrepreneurial activity. As such, the study seeks to answer questions

relating to representation of employees by gender, and whether or not gender influences

choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities.

Literature review

Ester.B, (1970) argues that sex proportions in developing countries towns continue to reflect

the principles of selection which the Europeans used in their recruitment of indigenous

labour. In regions where only males were recruited the towns had large surplus of men, for

instance, before independence Nairobi had 5 men to each woman. Women were confined to

homes therefore the streets, factories offices, hotels and cinemas became a male world with

enormous supply of men over women. Hence tourism involvement was mainly male

dominated. The tourism industry ranks high on the list of the most stressful environments

(Law, 1987).This was a major reason for women not preferring to work in the industry. The


93

work conditions are mostly unfavorable to female workers and it produces job dissatisfaction

and personal exhaustion. Other reasons are that the pay is insufficient, antisocial working

hours and the requirement to deal with the public on a daily basis.

Walby, (1988) argued that an understanding of the origins of gender segregation and its

maintenance at work is the key to explaining women’s subordinate position in the workforce.

Even when there is evidence of women and men starting with equal skills, qualifications or

experience, the distribution of higher status and higher paid grades remains uneven. Cultural

theories suggest that women make a rational choice about the type of work they pursue and

that their choice derives from an adherence to the values associated with femininity and

domesticity.

The governments which participated in the Beijing Conference for women in 1995

recognized that the status of women had improved in some respects, but that progress has

been uneven, inequalities between men and women have persisted and major obstacles

remain with serious consequences for the wellbeing of all people (UN 1995). Women are

recruited into work which is deemed to represent an extension of their traditional domestic

responsibilities for which they will be inherently skilled (Kinnard, 1996). Women take up

mainly manual jobs related to their domestic chores. Great strides have been made with

regards to championing female rights especially with regards to top jobs. However, this has

not been devoid of controversies. Shere (2000) argues that there are hidden reasons as to

why few female executives are at the top of corporations has to do with sexual politics. Male

executive does not want to be pointed out as one who hired or promoted a female executive,

as he may be accused of having a sexual affair with her (“and this is why he promoted her”).

This has an effect of stifling female representation in management positions.

Many countries in the modern society have embraced gender representation in their

workplaces. However, the Director of the Fawcett Society commented “one of the main

barriers we face is the assumption that equality has already been achieved” (EOC, 2001).

This assumption is belied by continuing horizontal and vertical gender segregation between

and within many professions. Despite the potential improvements in the economic status that

women may attain as a consequence of involvement in tourism-related employment, strong

cultural barriers, poor availability of government initiatives and the lack of organization

among the women workers themselves constrain them from aspiring to political and

communal leadership roles, (Kinniard, 1996). It is mainly through taking up leadership roles

that reforms can take place. Hence, if there is minimal representation of women in such

positions the pace of reforms may be curtailed. One way of increasing female representation

in income generating activities is to engage in entrepreneurial activities.

Entrepreneurial activities

Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something new with value by devoting the

necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks,

and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence

(Hisrich et al., 2005). Entrepreneurship plays an important role in the economic growth and

development of a nation. It is a purposeful activity that includes initiation, promotion and

distribution of wealth and service.


94

An entrepreneur can be assigned different meanings to different people. Hisrich et al., (2005)

highlights to an economist, an entrepreneur is one who brings resources, labour, materials,

and other assets into combinations that make their value greater than before. In addition, one

who introduces changes, innovations, and a new order. To a psychologist, such a person is

typically driven by certain forces the needs to obtain or attain something, to experiment, to

accomplish, or perhaps to escape the authority of others. To one businessman, an

entrepreneur appears as a threat, an aggressive competitor, whereas to another

businessman the same entrepreneur may be an ally, a source of supply, a customer, or

someone who creates wealth for others, as well as finds better ways to utilize resources,

reduce waste, and produce jobs others are glad to get.

It has always been likened that employees in smaller firms often work closely with the firms

managers and/or founders and could therefore be exposed to entrepreneurial learning

(Gompers et al., 2005).A contrasting view would be that employees of large bureaucratic

firms (such as big hotels) are pushed into entrepreneurship because their employers have

little patience for their entrepreneurial ideas. Managerial ability has also been a reoccurring

theme in the entrepreneurship literature. Lucas (1978) develops a model in which individual’s

managerial ability is positively related to the individual’s propensity for entrepreneurship. In

light of this one may choose to enter into a particular line of business that has grounding on

their previous employment. For instance, an employee in the hospitality industry may choose

to participate in a tourism related business venture. Tourism related entrepreneurial activities

may include setting up curio shops, restaurants, fast food cafes, motels, lodgings, travel and

tour agencies, guides (hiking), entertainers (dancing groups) among other ventures that have

direct impact in the promotion or facilitation of the tourism industry (either domestic or

international).

Recent estimates of the number of self-employed men and women in Kenya shows an

upward trend, especially in the 1990s. Between 1991 and 1999, for instance, male self-

employment had increased by 30 per cent. The number of self-employed women, however,

increased by a higher rate – 70 % (CBS, 1998, 1999). Women now account for nearly half of

the self-employed in Kenya. This provides an indication that more and more women are

engaging in entrepreneurial activities.

Methodology

This study whose aim was to establish gender representation in the hospitality industry was

conducted between December 2010 and January 2011 by using descriptive survey design of

Nairobi hotels. Nairobi being the capital city was chosen as the study area due to its

expansive infrastructure and facilities. It boasts of numerous hotels and restaurants and is

the business hub of Kenya. Nairobi has the highest urban population in East Africa,

estimated at between 3 and 4 million (according to the KNBS (2009) Census, in the

administrative area of Nairobi, 3,138,369 inhabitants). Therefore it is an ideal location to

support entrepreneurial activities. It also has a number of attractions with Nairobi national

park as its jewel (the only national park located in a city).

This study was conducted through descriptive survey. Cooper & Schindler (2008) identifies a

survey as a measurement process used to collect information either by personal or

impersonal means. This research design seeks to collect data from members of a population

in order to determine the current status of the population with respect to one or more


95

variables in a relatively short period of time. The target population consisted of fourteen (5-

star) hotels in Nairobi. These hotels have a substantial amount of personnel working in either

permanent or casual positions and this was considered appropriate for providing a focal

point for the study of gender in conjunction with employment. Consequently, four (5 star)

hotels deemed to be representative of the target population were identified through simple

random sampling for the study. These hotels are Nairobi Serena hotel, Safari Park hotel,

Laico regency hotel and The Stanley hotel.

Data was then collected using questionnaires administered to employees. The departments

were classified according to their size and staff numbers. Large departments included

Kitchen, Housekeeping, Front office, Food& Beverage (F&B) and Accounting & finance

departments. Small departments included Transport, Repair and maintenance (R&M) and

Security departments. In addition, smaller sections in the hotel were labeled ‘Others’ and

included Djs, gift shop attendants, staff canteen operators, gym instructors and entertainers.

In each of the large departments 10 questionnaires were administered in the four hotels.

Whereas for every small department three questionnaires were administered at these four

hotels. Questionnaires were also administered to the Heads of department (H.O.D) in each

of the four hotels. The total sample size was 32 H.O.Ds and 236 employees.

Finally, both descriptive and inferential analyses were performed using SPSS. Descriptive

statistics included frequencies and means which were expressed in bar graphs and pie

charts. Inferential statistics of including the Chi square test of independence was used to test

on for relationship between gender, present employment and the choice of entrepreneurial

activities. Cramer’s V was used to check on the strength of the association.

Results

The main objective of this study was to determine the proportion of employees in the four

selected hotels by gender and evaluate the influence of gender on the choice tourism related

entrepreneurial activity. Out of a total number of 268 questionnaires administered, 232 were

returned (HODs-32 and employees-200) and used for analysis, which accounted for about

87% response rate.

Gender representation among the employees

Of the 200 employees respondents, 64% were males compared to 36% females. This

depicted a wide disparity in the employment status of with regards to gender.

A further analysis of how the employees were spread at the departmental level was

performed.


96

Figure 1,0: Graph of male and female employees against hotel departments

Source: Survey data (2011)

The front office had the highest percentage of female employees (58%). This is mainly

because of the perception women are deemed to be warm and welcoming, thus making the

guest feel at ease. The Repair and Maintenance department had the least population of

female employees (3%) as opposed to male employees (97%). This is primarily due to the

technical nature of the job. Majority of the female workforce lack technical skills, a feature

highlighted by Vegso (2006) that indicated in recent years, women earned fewer than 20% of

computing and engineering degrees in the US.

The Kitchen and the Housekeeping and Laundry department had 65% and 60% of its

employees respectively being male which gives the impression that what traditionally was

seen as household chores are actually being performed by men as opposed to traditional

belief that they are more suited for women. In the Accounts and finance department 32% of

the employees were female. This can be attributed to level of acquired skill that is still fairly

low with respect to women as opposed to men. In the F&B department 64% of the

employees were male. This is because the HODs viewed male employees to be more agile

and can withstand standing and waiting on tables for more hours as opposed to their female

counterparts. The security department comprised of 88% male employees and 12% female

employees. This is primarily due to risk factor associated with the job. This deters women

from applying for jobs in this sector. However, hotels tend to have a few slots for ladies in

this department so as to cater for their female clientele in cases like body searches.

The transport department comprised of 89% male employees and 11% female employees.

This because driving normally brings about movement of a person from his usual

surrounding and in the case of long haul drivers for long periods of time. This has an effect of

separating someone from his family hence frowned upon by a majority of the women. The

management (HODs, hotel managers and assistant manager) was comprised of 70% male

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Front

offi

ce

Houseke

eping

&Laund

ry

Accou

nts

F&B

Securit

y

Trans

port

Repair&

Mai

nten

ance

Kitche

n

Man

agem

ent

Oth

ers

% of Males

%of Female


97

employees and 30% female employees. Finally, males accounted for 65% of the ‘Others’

category (Figure 1.0).

Relationship between gender and choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities

Employee respondents were asked to indicate whether or not they could engage in tourism

entrepreneurial activities, and their responses analyzed in relation to their gender to establish

whether or not the latter influences the former. The results revealed a significant association

or relationship between gender and choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities,

χ2=32.690, df=4,p < .001 (Table 1.2). Additionally, the strength of association was .404 which

is moderate. Andy (2006) indicated that the Cramer V statistics is most useful with strength

being measured between 0 and 1, with 0.1 having small effect, 0.3 having medium effect, 0.5

having a large effect, and > 0.5 as having a very strong effect(Table 1.2).

Table 1.1: Chi square test for gender & choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities.

Value df

Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 32.690a 4 .000

Likelihood Ratio 34.368 4 .000

Linear-by-Linear

Association

26.425 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 200

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum

expected count is 9.20.

Table 1.2: Strength of relationship between gender& choice of tourism related

entrepreneurial activities

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi .404 .000

Cramer's V .404 .000

N of Valid Cases 200

However, the study findings showed that there was no relationship ((r=.037, p=.601)

between the current department and choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities

(Table 1.3). In contrast, there was a significant relationship (negative) between age and

choice of tourism related entrepreneurial activities (r= -.292, p<.001) shown in Table 1.4.

This meant that younger respondents were more likely to venture into tourism related

entrepreneurial activities.


98

Table 1.3: Pearson’s r correlations between Dept currently employed and choice of tourism

related entrepreneurial activities.

Dept currently

employed Entrepreneurial choice

Dept currently

employed

Pearson

Correlation 1 .037

Sig. (2-tailed) .601

N 200 200

Entrepreneurial choice

Pearson

Correlation .037 1


N 200 200

Table 1.4: Pearson’s r correlations between age and choice of tourism related

entrepreneurial activities.

age

Entrepreneurial

choice

age Pearson Correlation 1 -.292**


N 200 200

Entrepreneurial choice Pearson Correlation -.292** 1


N 200 200

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Presence of organizational rules limiting gender participation

The majority of the heads of departments (66%) indicated that their departments did not

have any rules implied or otherwise that limited the participation of either gender, which

matches with their supplementary response (66%) that they did not believe that rules limiting

gender participation exists in the industry.


The hospitality industry is mainly a service industry therefore the Housekeeping & laundry

department, Food and beverage and kitchen department form the largest departments. This

is because business focus is on the sale of beds, food and catering services. However, the

distribution of employees by gender is not even with male employees forming the majority.

This is despite the societal norm that the duties undertaken in these departments reflect

household chores and thus should be frowned upon by men and should be taken up by

women.

The study also showed that younger employees are more inclined to take up tourism related

entrepreneurial activities (r= -.292, p<.001). This can be attributed to the government efforts


99

for the youth to take up business and the provision of funds and programmes like the Youth

enterprise fund.

Security departments had the least number of employees because the hotels mainly had

outsourced these services, for example Group4 Security (G4S). The hotels had also

invested in the use of surveillance around its perimeter, thus reducing the number of people

required to guard the entire building. The female employees formed 12% of the workforce in

this department. This is primarily due to risk factor associated with the job. This deters

women from applying for jobs in this sector. However, hotels tend to have a few slots for

ladies in this department so as to cater for their female clientele in cases like body searches.

In contrast, the front office had 58% of its employees as female. This is because the

department provided the first contact a client had with the organization. Therefore receiving

guests and making them comfortable is paramount. This holds in the societal perception of

the woman’s role in receiving and welcoming guests in the homestead.

Despite the societal gains in educating the girl in Africa and specifically in Kenya there are

still disparities in the departments that require highly skilled or technical staff, for instance,

Repair and Maintenance department comprising of electricians, engineers, carpenters and

mechanics. A majority (97%) of its employees were male.

In retrospect there is some indication that participation of a particular gender is being

hampered by the existence of some organizational rules, implied or otherwise. This is

illuminated by the fact that 34% of the Head of department actually identified with this. An

example of a rule is one which involves maternity especially for casual labourers, whereby if

they go for maternity there place is filled hence no chance of them returning to their posts.

Similarly, the management (H.O.Ds, hotel managers and assistant manager) was comprised

of 70% male employees, hence the implication of some of these rules in recruitment process

may be experienced.

Conclusion and recommendations

Employment in the hospitality industry is overtly gender imbalanced. The industry is male

dominated and they form the majority in the management position even though there have

been strides made in the education sector but unfortunately this has not been translated in

the working environment. The presence of organizational rules (mainly implied) have been

seen to hinder female participation, for instance, the issue of maternity leave has been

greatly exploited by the management to employ men. This is because they view maternity

leave as a waste of company’s time and resources since they have to employ and train

casual employees to fill these positions. However, it has been noted that more and more

women are venturing into entrepreneurial activities with the number of self-employed

women, increasing by a higher rate – 70 % (CBS, 1998, 1999). Therefore, for women having

prior work experience in the hospitality sector should result in them venturing into tourism

related entrepreneurial activities.

It is then recommended that educative forums to ease the societal pressures on the role of a

woman especially in the working environment, for example driving. This would increase their

participation in the hotels transport department, whereby tour guides double up as drivers. In

addition, employees should also establish trade unions especially for casual labourers

whose rights are virtually trampled upon by employers. These trade unions will fight for the


100

employees against injustices at work and advocate for better working conditions. There

should also be adequate implementation of the existing laws governing equal opportunities.

The judiciary should play its role by providing quick rulings that are just and fair, pertaining to

the discrimination and harassment in the workplace, for example, the Sexual Offences Bill.

This would form a basis for increased women participation.

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Ester,B (1970).Women Role in Economic Development. St.Martins Press Inc. USA.

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and the Genesis of New Ventures, 1986-1999, Journal of Finance 60, 577-615.

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World Bank (1993).The political economy of Poverty, Equity and Growth. World Bank: Oxford Press.


102

Commercial home accommodation potential for rural

tourism enterprises in Uasin Gishu County-Kenya

Jacqueline Korir

Loice Maru

John Korir

Rose W. Burugu

Kenya

Introduction

A commercial home enterprise is where the home or a home construct is used for the

purpose of generating income through accommodation letting. It generally involves

demeaning (house) work (Oakley 1974) and ‘dirty work’, where staff must deal with guests’

‘intimate bodily functions’ (Guerrier and Adib 2000: 261). The host’s motive is ulterior (to

secure a profit) and the money exchange absolves the guest from any feeling of mutual

obligation and loyalty (Lashley 2000a).

Opportunities for entrepreneurial activities are now increasingly available in traditional as well

as non-traditional areas. However, the supply of entrepreneurs has not been increasing at

the same pace. Small business enterprises play an important role in the economic

development of a country. The development of these enterprises, both in the formal and

informal economic sectors, is proposed as a way to achieve sustainable socio-economic

development and eliminate poverty (Bhargava, S. 2007). Commercial hospitality activities

provide, potential entrepreneurs with business opportunities in which they feel they already

possess the key skills or a setting to exercise their hospitality skills and a personal need to

be hospitable (Lee-Ross and Lashley 2009).

In some cases, hosts accept and treat paying guest as they would family and friends. In

other words, there are few ‘no go areas’; guests and hosts dine together, use the same

sitting room and sleep in bedrooms still adorned with family bric-a-brac. At the other end of

the scale, guests and hosts occupy different parts of the property, eating in separate dining

rooms, sitting in different rooms and guest sleep in bedrooms which have been made to be

depersonalized (Lee-Ross and Lashley 2009).

It would be the entrepreneurs, generally, who have acted as hosts, provided accommodation,

food and drink to guests who either visited or stayed in their home. In turn, they themselves

will typically have been guests in other people’s homes and received these ‘hospitality

services’ from other hosts as friends, relatives or other acquaintances. So for many new

entrants to the industry, there is no perceived skill deficit which might hamper their decision

to pursue an entrepreneurial decision to buy a guest house, hotel, bed and breakfast, pub,

Inn, restaurant or café (Lee-Ross and Lashley 2009).

Furthermore, individuals with domestic dwellings of the right size, location or structure have

been able to consider turning part of their domestic space over to commercial activities.

Accommodation services, in particular, lend themselves to this commercialization of the

home, or parts of it, to commercial activities. But there are also examples of individuals using


103

domestic premises to provide food and beverage services through outside catering,

banqueting and contract catering in workplaces. Licensing restrictions over the sale of

alcohol, will in many countries, limit the conversion of the domestic space to commercials

bars and pubs, but many of these licensed premises were originally domestic dwellings (Lee-

Ross and Lashley 2009).

Problem statement

Rural residents of Uasin Gishu County are endowed with large farms in which they have

large houses built in them. However, in the past, several residents dwelt in the rural parts but

recently, many of them seek opportunities in towns and cities which have left the houses half

utilized. In addition, several residents who depended on farming as their source of livelihood,

have with the changing times and interest, migrated to urban areas to seek more lucrative

jobs and business ventures which have left the large houses almost unoccupied. With high

inflation and hard economic situations, desperate times call for desperate solutions. Hence,

commercial home accommodation offers a perfect opportunity for rural home users to seize

by converting homes to commercial settings.

Objectives

To examine the acceptability of potential entrepreneurs in providing commercial home

accommodation.

To establish the potential contribution of commercial home accommodation to rural tourism

enterprises

To explore potential challenges that can be faced by entrepreneurs in provision of

commercial home accommodation.

Literature review

Rural tourism may be defined very broadly as the entire tourism activity in a rural area

(Keane 1992; OECD 1994) or else as a quite specific tourism form or product, closely related

to and motivated by features of ‘rurality’. An example is ‘agri-tourism’, which may be

considered a specific segment within rural tourism (Wilson et al. 2001). Lane (1994)

suggests that rural tourism is that which is: located in rural areas; functionally rural; rural in

scale; traditional in character, organically and slowly growing; and controlled by local people.

The significance of rural tourism for the development of rural areas may be outstanding, due

to potentially significant multiplier effects (Walmsley 2003). Additionally, tourists may

increase the areas’ attractiveness in the eyes of the local population, enhancing their pride

and self-esteem (Kastenholz 2004). Correspondingly, rural tourism, through promoting

endogenous development based on natural and cultural heritage, may contribute to the

preservation of heritage as well as to the retention of residents in poorly developed rural

areas (Lane 1994; Gannon 1994; OECD 1994). That is why rural tourism, if carefully

planned, managed and marketed, may significantly enhance economic, social and cultural

development (Page and Getz 1997).

The commercial-home paradigm

Several historical accounts of the use of the commercial home for tourist accommodation

note that it has a long history in many countries, but that in the second half of the twentieth


104

century the use of commercial homes for tourist accommodation has varied greatly across

different geographical regions (Ames 1999; Kaufman et al. 1996; Lanier 2000; Sakach 2004).

More specifically, it has been suggested that in the United Kingdom and Europe there has

been a continuing tradition of commercial home use as a budget form of accommodation.

In the United States, Canada, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, however, the commercial

home has only recently been taken up again as a form of tourist accommodation. In these

settings this type of accommodation is typically more expensive than standard forms of

accommodation and is seen as an alternative or specialist type of experience (Ames 1999;

England Research 2005; Kaufman et al. 1996; Lanier 2000; Lubetkin 1999; McGehee and

Kim 2004; Pearce 1990; Sakach 2004).

The sector is dominated by micro-firms often based on owner management with few, if any,

employees outside of family members. Many decide to offer commercial-accommodation

services because there are perceived to be low barriers to entry. For guests, there may be

the perceived attraction of staying with a ‘real’ family in a domestic setting, but the reality is of

‘private’ areas exclusively for family members and guest areas which have been

depersonalised to make the accommodation look more like professional hotel areas.

Commercial domain hospitality is distinguished by its ‘market driven relationship which allows

a customer a freedom of action that individuals would not dream of demanding in a domestic

setting’ (Lashley 2000a: 12).

The hotel has been the dominant paradigm that has long determined, and served as, a

commercial accommodation role model. Its counterpoint, the private home, is often

represented as the antithesis to the hotel (Douglas 1991; Ritzer 1993). Recently, however,

the commercial home enterprise has been proposed as a distinctive alternative to both the

hotel and the private home whilst simultaneously acknowledging hotel and private home

influences (Lynch 2003; 2005a; 2005b; 2005c; Lynch and MacWhannell 2000). Development

of these enterprises, is proposed as a way to achieve sustainable socio-economic

development and eliminate poverty. (Bhargava, S. 2007).

Home is a space free from public scrutiny, political engagements and non-familial

relationships. It is a space of security, intimacy and regeneration (Allan and Crow 1989). In

the commercial home, the host and/or family do not need to live on the premises all the time.

The visitor may nevertheless be very conscious of the presence of the host family through,

for example, furnishings, locked cupboards, choice of reading material and music, or the

presence of notices, say, on operating the boiler. The important feature in such cases is the

presence of the host in absentia, i.e. evidence of the emotional engagement (Lynch 2000a)

or personal expression of the host (Lynch 2005c: 535).

The concept of the home is identified as a powerful physical, cultural, emotional and

temporal construct (Lynch 2005a). It is the home concept that distinguishes commercial

homes from other forms of accommodation such as those hotels where the host’s private

home is not on the premises, and where the boundaries distinguishing public space, which is

open to staff and visitors, from private space, which is open to staff only, are relatively

distinct. For instance, selfcatering cottages may share the fact of being a private home but

not that of a host/family living continuously on the same premises.


105

Commercial homes differ according to the degree of host/guest separation:

1. Commercialised hospitality within the private home where the owners live on the

premises and public space is shared by visitors and the owner’s family – this category

may be subdivided by the degree of integration of the visitor with the family and their

activities, for example, private house bed and breakfasts, host families.

2. Commercialised hospitality where the owner lives on the premises and the unit is also the

family home but where public space for the visitor is separated from that of the family, for

example, small hotels, town houses, guesthouses and some bed and breakfasts.

3. Self-catering where the home owners live off the premises … [and] the home is usually a

second home.

(Lynch and MacWhannell 2000: 104–5)

Figure 1: The commercial home enterprise

Source: Lynch, 2005c: 549.

Methodology

The study was undertaken in Uasin Gishu county in Kenya. The study targeted 500 potential

entrepreneurs and was based on a descriptive survey design. Cluster sampling was used to

select the study area while judgemental, convenience and snowball sampling techniques

were used to identify the respondents. The sample size comprised of 60 potential

entrepreneurs of commercial homes. Data was collected using questionnaires containing

both structured and unstructured questions administered to the potential entrepreneurs.

Descriptive statistics was used to analyse data.


106

Findings of the study

Personal information

The majority of the respondents, 56% were female while male were 44%. This was mainly

because the study was carried out during the day and most women were at their homes. The

age of the respondents were 18-25 yrs (12%), 26-30 yrs (27%), 31-35 (15%), 36-40 (22%),

Above 40 (24%). Most of the respondents had attained secondary education (46%) which

was closely followed by those who had attained primary education (40%) while only 14% had

attained college education. With regard to the occupation of the respondents, 78% were

engaged in farming activities, 14% engaged in business while a small percentage of 8%

were not involved in any occupation.

Acceptability

As shown on figure 2, the majority (60%) of the respondents felt that they were acceptable to

use their homes for commercial accommodation. The reasons for this is as shown in figure 3.

Figure 2: Acceptability of commercial home accommodation as an enterprise

Reasons for acceptability

The majority of the respondents gave various reasons for their acceptability to use their

homes for commercial accommodation. Improved standards of living resulting from income

generated and perceived low risk of the venture were rated as the highest reasons for

acceptability by 77% of the respondents. Respondents felt that the increased number of

visitors would provide a market for locally produced goods and services. This was followed

71% of the respondents being acceptable to the venture by the fact that the venture would

enable the respondents work from their homes and in effect no rent payment for use of their

homes. Not worthy is the fact that the residents in Uasin Gishu county prefer residing in their

rural homes. 65% of the respondents felt that commercial home accommodation would

60%

40%

yes

no


107

provide a source of income and give them an opportunity to meet new people hence their

acceptability for the venture. According to them meeting new people may open opportunities

for scholarships, employment for their children and sponsorship for various projects. Some

felt that they could get a chance to send their children abroad at one point in time. However a

minority of 39% seem not to enthusiastic about interacting with tourists maybe due to fear or

an inferiority complex.

Legend for figure 3 (X axis)

1. Improved Standard of living

2. Source of income

3. Interacting with tourists

4. Opportunity to meet new people

5. Ability to work from home

6. No rent paid for use of house

7. Perceived low skills required

Figure 3: Reasons for accepting use of home for commercial purposes

Contribution from commercial homes to rural tourism enterprises

Figure 4: Contribution of commercial homes to rural tourism

77%

65%

39%

65% 71% 71%

77%

9% 6%

29% 32%

6% 6% 6%

14%

28% 32%

3%

23% 23% 17%

Very

A little

Not at all

68% 72%

62%

15% 15% 18% 17%

13%

20%

Very

A little

Not at all

Build cultural homes, Nature trails, Traditional foods

6 7 5 4 3 2 1


108

Results from figure 4 indicate that the majority (72%) of the respondents felt that commercial

home accommodation ventures would encourage preservation of culture and packaging the

same as a tourist attraction. Tourist attractions to keep the visitors such as agro-tourism

activities would be developed and in the process other forms of tourism would be packaged

and sold. In addition, respondents felt that they would build cultural homes to display their

culture, cuisine and lifestyles, hence become an income generating venture and thus

develop rural tourism. From the findings, 62% of the respondents felt that nature trails would

be developed to encourage rural tourism. Noteworthy is the fact that some flora and

vegetation are still in their natural state thus with encouragement, regenerating it would not

be difficult.

Challenges of commercial home accommodation

Respondents were asked to mention some of the anticipated challenges of adopting

commercial home accommodation. Some of the responses include:

Insecurity reasons especially towards visitors not from their ethnic community and male

visitors. Hence, they expressed that they would feel more secure with visitors from their

ethnic affiliation and were gender bias towards women or if male, should be accompanied

by females.

Not having their home to themselves but with visitors around hence, lack of privacy

Fear of not meeting the visitors anticipated standards of service

Interference with morals resulting from children emulating behaviour, actions they see

from visitors and trying to be like them

Family time interrupted

Accountability of guest security and fear of any consequences thereto

Inferiority complex on the part of the hosts which may affect service delivery and eventual

visitor satisfaction

Overlap of space

Working for 24 hours as it may be difficult to control the visitors times

Language barrier and inability to effectively communicate with visitors

Not confident of whether they can cook for the guest

Conclusion

Entrepreneurs opine that home accommodation can be instrumental in development of rural

tourism due to the fact that the cost of investment seems relatively low and the enterprises

seem not to put great demands on the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs are willing to beat the

challenge for economic gains as it provides an opportunity for entrepreneurs to exploit which

can improve standards to living and increase revenue. Despite the possible benefits,

entrepreneurs are cautious about embracing the venture for fear of exposing their families to

external influences and deprival of privacy. They are also uncertain about their ability to meet

and satisfy tourists in terms of hospitality and communication.


109

Recommendations

The Ministry of Tourism should embrace commercial home accommodation and come up

with standards and policies to guide the sector. Consequently, they should facilitate

training of entrepreneurs on the same to ensure that quality service is provided to tourists

There is need to sensitize entrepreneurs on the benefits to enable them accept the

concept

Academicians and researchers should visit countries that have embraced the same in

order to borrow a leaf.

References

Ames, E. (1999) What is Bed and Breakfast. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.

bluemontbb.com/bb/whatis.htm (accessed 17 December 2006).

Douglas, M. (1991) ‘The idea of a home: a kind of space’, Social Research, 58(1): 287–307.

England Research (2005) Rural and Farm Tourism, London: Visit Britain.

Guerrier Y. and Adib A. (2000) ‘Working in the hospitality industry’ in C. Lashley and A. Morrison (eds)

In Search of Hospitality, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Kaufman, T.J., Weaver, P.A. and Poynter, J. (1996) ‘Service attributes of B&B operators’, Cornell

Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 37(4): 29–33.

Lashley, C. (2000a) ‘Towards a Theoretical Understanding’, in C. Lashley and A. Morrison (eds) In

Search of Hospitality, Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.

Lashley, C., and Morrison, A. (Eds.), In Search of Hospitality: Theoretical Perspectives and Debates.

Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

Lubetkin, M. (1999) ‘Bed-and-breakfasts: advertising and promotion’, Cornell Hotel &

Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 40(4): 84–90.

Lynch, P., and MacWhannell, D. (2000) Home and commercialized hospitality. In:

Lynch, P. (2000a) ‘Setting and it’s significance in the homestay sector explorations’, in A. Roper and

Y. Guerrier (eds) A Decade of Hospitality Management Research, Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.

—— (2003) ‘Hospitality, space and social control in the homestay sector’, unpublished PhD thesis,

Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh.

Lynch, P. A. (2005). Reflections on the home setting in hospitality. Tourism and Hospitality Planning and Development, 12(1).

McGehee, N.G. and Kim, K. (2004) ‘Motivation for agri-tourism entrepreneurship’, Journal of Travel

Research, 43: 161–170.

Ritzer, G. (2007) ‘Inhospitable hospitality?’ In: Lashley, C., Lynch, P., and Morrison, A. Eds.),

Hospitality: A Social Lens. Elsevier, Oxford.

Sakach, D.E. (2004) Bed & Breakfast and Country Inns, American Historic Inns.

http://www/


110

Political ecology of tourism & livelihood in Zanzibar

Godwin Adiel Lema

Huruma L.Sigallah

Richard F. Sambaiga

Vendelin Simon

Emmanuel Shemaghembe

Tanzania

Introduction

Zanzibar has recorded significant growth in tourism development in the last three decades.

Large tourist resort hotels were built on the island from the 1990s, partly due to the decline of

agriculture particularly clove cultivation after the establishment of Structural Adjustment

Programme SAPs in the 1980s and associated free market economy and liberalization

policies. Hotels increased from less than 10 in the 1980s to about 250 hotels by 2010 (ZTC,

2010). The number of international tourists rose from 19,368 in 1985 to 134,954 in 2009.

Natural and cultural resources and their environs are increasingly targeted as prime tourism

attractions and are increasingly protected or conserved, primarily for tourist seeks/tourism

purposes. Pro-poor tourism proponents hold that tourism is benefiting and sustaining local

people’s livelihood, the claim is supported by the WTO- seven ways through which tourism

contribute net benefits to the poor (WTO, 2006). Empirical evidence to substantiate the claim

is less clear, the claim affirmed by critical perspective and post structuralists. Poverty and

inequality is increasing in the rural areas, as such, hope for sustainable tourism livelihood

policy and practice is dwindling.

Tourism infrastructure development dominate Stone Town which is the UNESCO World

Heritage Site, Kiwengwa, Nungwi, Matemwe and the south-east coast i.e. the villages of

Paje, Bwejuu and Jambiani (Honey, 2008). The dominant narratives, tactically claim that

tourism development in this area have significant impact on improving and sustaining

people’s livelihood through employment opportunities, increased income and improved well-

being. Government supports tourism for mainly economic motives as tourism contributes

significantly on tax revenue and foreign exchange earnings (BOT et al, 2007). Apolitical claim

also uphold that tourism development in the rural areas complements other livelihood

strategies, as the livelihoods of the people of Unguja have traditionally relied on subsistence

fishing, agriculture, forestry which seems to decline in the recent decades. However, the

prevalence of poverty among the local communities is on increase particularly in rural areas,

the area with valuable lands, pristine beaches, important fishing grounds and other natural

resources which are targeted by tourism investors and tourists (Nelson and Honey, 2007;

Honey, 2008 Gössling, 2003; 2006; Gössling & Schulz, 2005). The mismatch between

growth in tourism investment and improvement of local people’s livelihoods raises questions

on the nature and extent of local communities’ participation, ownerships of, control over and

access to tourism investments and associated costs and benefits. The government policies

and international communities have seldom prioritised to address the preceding problems.

This paper therefore provides a critical review of literature along with fieldwork findings on

the nature of tourism and how it influences the livelihood of the local communities in

Zanzibar.


111

Conceptual framework

Political ecology mainstream power relations among various stakeholders involved in the

tourism industry (Stonich, 1998). It entails struggles over meanings as well as over land and

resources (Robbins, 2004; Benjaminsen-Personal Communication 2010). Local cultural

dynamics, international exchange relations, the past and present relationship between policy,

politics or political economy in general and the environment needs to be explicitly addressed

(Park & Greenberg, 1994). It encompasses the concept of relative power at many levels of

environmental & ecological analysis (Robbins 2004). As defined by Park and Greenberg

(1994), political ecology is a historical outgrowth of central questions asked by the social

sciences about the relationships between human society, viewed in its bio-cultural-political

complexity, and a significantly humanized nature. Argument: Different classes have different

class interests and hence each is likely to promote policies in its own favour i.e. some ideas

and interests are incorporated in the policies while others are not-why? We need to question.

As such, we have to acknowledge that there are unequal costs and benefits, winners and

losers between and among various actors, interests, and institutions mediating the tourism

industry and its consequences on the livelihood of coastal communities.

Escobar (1996) noted that political ecology studies the relationships between society and

nature in contexts of power—particularly from the perspective of political economy including

a consideration of the discourses and practices through which nature is historically produced

and known. His paper examines the complex cultural and discursive articulations between

natural and social systems established by capital and technoscience, particularly through

discourses of sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. Escobar (1996) also

emphasized analysis for imagining alternative productive rationalities in conjunction with

social movements as an important tradition in political ecology.

Political ecology is explicitly normative i.e. embrace values on justice, human rights, pro-poor

and marginalized groups. It embraces a post-structural structure and actor-oriented

approaches and focusses on linking the local to the global, on conflicts and on understanding

actors’ rationality in a political, social, and environmental context (Benjaminsen, 2010).

Political ecology is also sensitive to poverty and explicitly wishes to judge the efficacy of the

contemporary poverty reduction initiatives in an unequal world. The political ecologists also

appreciate power embedded in the vulnerable social groups in informing necessary changes

in the societies and consequently in the ecosystem and its manifestation in terms of

grassroots movements and local resistance against conflicting global markets development

discourses. These authors, therefore, are of the view that proactive political and socio-

economic activism in both theory and practices makes researches, policies and actions

informed by political ecology philosophical outlook more fruitful in promoting equity,

sustainable utilization, conservation and management of coastal resources among others.

In this paper, we argue that it is important to contextualize tourism and livelihood of

communities in Zanzibar within the framework of power relations. We acknowledge that there

are unequal costs and benefits, as well as competing stakeholders including winners and

losers between and among various actors, interests, and institutions mediating tourism

investments in Zanzibar and its consequences on the livelihood of coastal communities.

Indeed, political ecology provides a point of departure for better understanding of how

unequal power relations are reflected in competing discourses and knowledge claims in the

context of tourism and livelihood of coastal communities. In the next section we review briefly


112

major contradicting theories that explain complex interrelationships between tourism

development and livelihood of coastal communities.

Major four contradicting theories-tourism livelihood nexus

The role of tourism as a development tool is highly controversial. The pro-poor tourism

discourse claim that tourism reaps net benefits to the poor and the sector fits well with pro-

poor growth (UNWTO, 2002; 2006; 2007), whilst a counter discourse from critical theorists

hold that poor people and non-Western countries are highly disadvantaged by what tourism

can offer (Scheyvens, 2007; Schilcher, 2007). Theoretical perspectives on tourism and

development range from liberal/neo-liberal, critical, alternative development and post-

structural perspectives (Scheyvens, 2007; Jafari, 2001). Liberal and neo-liberal proponents

believe that tourism contribute to modernization through economic growth, employment

generation, foreign exchange and the exchange of ideas and that benefits will trickle down to

the poor (Scheyvens, 2007). The proponents of this perspective encourage foreign

investments and private sector development for tourism as a strategy to overcome poverty

and inequality. Critical perspectives argue that tourism is associated with enclave

development, dependence on foreign capital and expertise, growing social and economic

disparities, and repatriation of profits. As such, tourism undermines local cultures, social

networks and traditional livelihoods. In contrast, alternative development perspective argues

that tourism offers poor communities a means of diversifying their livelihood options. The

proponents of this perspective encourage grassroots development, participation, equity,

gender-sensitivity and empowerment, development of ecotourism, community based tourism

and sustainable tourism initiatives in LDCs for the local residents to play an active role in

tourism planning and decision-making forums in order to sustain their livelihood (Cattarinich,

2001; Hall, 2007; Ashley et al., 2000; Zhao and Ritchie, 2007; UNWTO, 2006; 2007). This

perspective has been widely criticized since experience from empirical studies in the third

world destination has reported limited trickle down of tourism benefits to the poor households

(Scheyvens, 2007). It is important to consider other perspectives.

An emerging perspective that is also shared among political ecology proponents is the post-

structural perspective. The perspective sees tourism as a complex system in which local

people may be able to resist, subvert, manipulate, or transform tourism to their benefits. This

perspective embraces detailed studies of systems, processes, places and interactions

between people, in order to understand how culture and power influence the actions of

tourism stakeholders (Scheyvens, 2007). Regrettably the government actors usually up hold

the apolitical claim similar to the neo-liberal and the alternative development perspective on

the expense of local livelihood systems. This tendency has been criticized as limitation

inherent to political and economic elites who take for granted ecoscarcity (Malthus),

modernization and win-win approaches (Robbins, 2004).

Indigenous communities in the third world destinations are consistently challenging tourism

and the pro-poor tourism thought, in particular. A closer examination of local narratives from

the poor justifies the argument. Indigenous communities’ voices and interests have at various

degree represented by scholars who adhere to the critical and poststructuralist perspectives.

Critical perspectives argue that tourism is associated with enclave development, dependence

on foreign capital and expertise, growing social and economic disparities, and repatriation of

profits. As such, tourism undermines local cultures, social networks and traditional

livelihoods. This school of thought is, however, also criticized for completely declining any


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benefit from tourism. A more open perspective (poststructuralist perspective) sees tourism as

a complex system in which local people may be able to resist, subvert, manipulate, or

transform tourism to their benefits. Poststructuralist emphasises about scholarly knowledge

on tourism. Based on this platform researchers are interested in a holistic view of the

structures and functions of the tourism industry, rather than focusing on impacts (Scheyvens,

2007). This line of thinking is also supported by the political ecology approach. The approach

also recognizes the power embedded in indigenous or grass-root movements or power of

local resistance in transforming tourism at the spatial and temporal scale. This requires

among other things, detailed studies of systems, processes, places and interactions between

people, in order to understand how culture and power influence the actions of tourism

stakeholders (Scheyvens, 2007; Mouforth and Munt, 2008).

Tourism and livelihood in Zanzibar

Tourism investment in Zanzibar is purely a political phenomenon. It embraces many forms

ranging from international and domestic tourism, privatization of coastal environment, foreign

direct investments, and competition over coastal resources and private property rights.

Tourism investment development opportunities, infrastructures and services like hotel,

lodges, shops, mall, and travel companies are mainly confined within local people’s common

lands albeit the outsiders claim total ownership and benefits. The key actors in the tourism

industry which are impacted differently include the private sector, governments, Aid donors,

civil society, tourists and local communities (Zhao and Ritchie, 2007). Although Honey (2008)

report that local people in Bwejuu shehia owned 50% of the tourism business, she also

observed that villagers and town people in Zanzibar are compelled to sell their properties to

tourism investors, as such villagers have lost access to land and resources found on that

land, while tourism provides employment for outsiders and unemployment raised to 25%.

Coastal economy and livelihood in Zanzibar has relied on subsistence fishing, agriculture

and trade for quite some times. It is also important to note that Zanzibar has been exposed to

the global economy since the beginning of the human history given its strategic location to

the Middle East, Far East and the hinterland of eastern Africa. However, the challenges

brought by tourism on the coastal economy and livelihood are very complex to uncover.

Changes brought by the tourism investment have complex impact on the coastal people and

their environment. Documented impacts by the available empirical studies at the community

level include change in access to land and fishing grounds, changing access to fish for

nutrition, threatened sustainability of fish resources, changing relations of production,

increased dependency of the coastal communities on the private sector and employment/

unemployment (Käyhkö et al, 2008; Honey 1999; Honey & Nelson, 2008; Kulindwa et al,

2001; Mustelin, 2007; Gössling & Schulz, 2005; Gössling, 2006). Such a situation

destabilizes the livelihood of the communities. Käyhkö et al. (2008) observed that the tourism

industry with its large spacious beach hotels takes over more and more of the coastline and

local space of the communities. The traditional fishing villages find themselves squeezed

between holiday resorts which slice the village into sections and deny the inhabitants a free

movement from section to section. We experienced such situation in Urowa village. This

distracts people’s social interaction and thus weakens or destroys the coherence of the

community. As such, it is apparent that tourism development represents a socially and

culturally unsustainable element in the landscape (Käyhkö et al., 2008).


114

Similarly, the tourist establishments claim space beyond their legal rights. The intertidal zone

and the sea are namely public areas in Zanzibar but the hotels limit people’s access to these.

Tourists’ resorts and hotels take possession of the indigenous coastal land via corruption and

politically skewed tourism investment policies and regulations that make villagers powerless.

Tourism in Zanzibar is mainly guided by the 2004 tourism policy statement (RGZ, 2004).

Section 4.12 of the policy statement embraces local benefits but implicitly revealed in bullet

three the actual impact of tourism on the local people: direct compensation to the residents

who are displaced by tourism and fishers excluded from and islet allocated to a developer.

The problem with such policy statement is the fact that, it is not explaining why tourism

should displace the local residents and why fishers should be excluded from the islet

allocated to a developer. We presume that, it could be that local residents should displace

tourism because the islet belongs to the residents. However, as observed by Robbins, (2004)

apolitical ecologists and their proponents tend to suggest an apolitical answer to a purely

political question in order to empower some actors and while disempowering others (Noe,

2009). Compensation for the acquisition of land for tourism investment is neither fair nor

adequate. Compensation for the land (Zanzibar Tourism Policy Statement, RGZ 2004) may

be made for example by constructing something for the community, which often opts for a

mosque, a school, road or water well (Käyhkö et al., 2008). So, the built places of worship

may improve and become more visible. Also water and electricity services may improve,

since the hotel development brings the power lines and water pipes nearer to the villages.

This is in line with government’s effort to improve the tourism facilitating infrastructure

especially in the eastern coast of Zanzibar (Käyhkö et al., 2008; Honey & Nelson, 2008). At

the same time, when villages lose their territory, their public structures improve and thus the

centres become more prominent (Käyhkö et al., 2008).

Overall, tourism causes contest over cultural space. In the local Islamic culture people follow

certain codes of conduct, which the tourists drastically break by bringing in their own cultural

space into the hotels enclaves often at the middle or edge of the villages. Emigrants and

immigrants from the mainland and from the neighbouring countries respectively, who follow

the tourism-related income earning opportunities and whose cultures differ from the Zanzibari

culture, claim their cultural space near to the hotels and within the villages. Although the

tourist hotels mark their physical territories quite clearly the border between local and

immigrant spaces are more diffused and may thus be a stronger challenge to the local

culture (Käyhkö et al., 2008).

The rise of tourism industry has modified the traditional ways of life. Shortage of firewood

and construction wood as well as degradation of the natural environment is being attributed

to the rapid growth of local population, as such, apolitical claim from the dominant narratives

hold that the economic activities in the community level should be diversified by new income

generating activities such as eco-tourism and sea weed cultivation (Nelson & Honey, 2007;

Honey, 2008). However, empirically, traditional subsistence-based livelihood activities are

competing with the commercial seaweed cultivation as well as formal and informal activities

of the tourism industry in Zanzibar (Käyhkö et al., 2008). At the individual level, the diversity

of the activities is decreasing. Subsistence economic systems, which is based on the use of

local resources is experiencing gradual impoverishment. This is evident to the ultimate

coastal poor. On the contrary, market-oriented, based on the provision of services for the

tourism industry and the trade of local resources and associated tourist investors has

benefited gradually. BOT et al. (2007) appreciate the latter in the support of the growth of the

tourism industry but ignore skewed access to resources for the local residents: mutual


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linkages between local communities and tourism establishments, for example, provision of

local supplies needed by establishments is assumed as a strategy to eliminate poverty

among the locals. This apolitical claim by BOT represents oversimplification and abstraction

of social reality which is used purposefully to hide the truth thus impoverishing the locals.

Chumbe Island and Mnemba Island Lodge are reported to have excluded local fishers from

the designated areas while the land for agriculture and settlement is scarce and traditional

fishing is declining (Käyhkö et al., 2008; Honey, 2008). The extent to which tourism induce

changes on ownership of, access to, and control over the livelihoods assets and how local

communities and other tourism stakeholders are responding to these phenomena over time

and space deserves further explanation from a political ecology perspective. Research

findings from Chwaka and Kizimkazi reinforce the preceding observation.

Findings from selected study sites

Primary data were collected from two local political administrative units in Unguja Island in

Zanzibar, namely Chwaka and Kizimkazi Shehia. Both study sites have general

characteristics of townships than village conditions; due to their long history from Zanzibar

sultanate and emerging urbanization as induced by recent tourism development and

investment. Chwaka and Kizimkazi Shehia contain fertile soils for agriculture and very rich

coastline and continental shelf with famous biodiversity in terms of fishery and other marine

resources. In both Shehias, agriculture and fishing have been important livelihood activities

for many centuries.

The study employed in-depth interviews, focus group discussion and literature reviews to

capture local narratives and discourses. Interviews were tape recorded and transcribed to

ensure novelty of the findings. On the other hand, observation and photographs enabled

capturing landscape features, tourism investment and livelihoods activities in selected study

sites. In addition to the qualitative data, structured questionnaires were administered to the

respondents toward the end of the study to capture quantitative data for selected variables.

At the end of the study, major research findings were presented at the meeting with the local

communities. This allows community feedbacks, potential intervention and reliability of the

findings which is the essence of participatory action research.

Kizimkazi Shehia

Six tourist hotels were found in Kizimkazi by the year 2010 when we last visited there.

However, the entire coastline of the shehia and its beach front has been here marked for

tourism venture. Dolphin tourism is becoming a dominant livelihood activity, as opposed to

agriculture and artisanal fisheries. Menay Bay Conservation Authority favour dolphin tour

(Whale Watching) as an incentive to reduce local fishing efforts. The authority also gets

revenue from dolphin tourism (25,000TZS per boat of dolphin tours). The conservation

authority is in conflict with artisanal fishers who have been restricted to use illegal fishing

gears. Also, the menay bay coastline which has been a traditional fishing ground for many

centuries has recently been here marked as Menay Bay Conservation Area where fishing is

exclusively probative. Fishers question the ability of the authority to curb illegal fishing. Since

tourism is a seasonal activity artisanal fishing remain an important livelihood activity along

with small holder farming, trade, employment in tourism and public sectors. Researchers

from the Stockholm University and the University of Dar es salaam are studying the


116

humpback whales that are found in Kizimkazi to establish their conservation status and

optimize their tourism potential.

Despite tourism being the dominant economic activity advocated by the government policy

and legislations, in Kizimkazi, only two hotels could expose the number of people they

employed (Table 1.1). It was also difficult to identify actual owners of the Hotel in Kizimkazi

during the social survey.

Table 1.1 Employment from Tourism Hotel in Kizimkazi

Name of hotel

Local employee

Within Zanzibar

Employee from

mainland (TZ)

Foreigners

Swahili Beach Resort

30 10 2

Kizidi Beach Rest & Bungalows

12

Total

42 10 2

Source: Fieldwork Data, 2010

Chwaka Shehia

Comparatively, as Civic United Front (CUF) strong hold, Chwaka has resisted tourism

investment for about the past two decades (1995-2010), see also Honey (2008). For all these

years, CUF Election Manifesto was against tourism development on the Island. As such,

fishing, seaweed farming and agriculture remain the dominant livelihood activities in the

shehia in Chwaka. Until the time we conducted the social survey, there were only three

tourist hotels been established in Chwaka Shehia (one of the hotels was closed, the other

one was not operating-due to season). Only one hotel (Chwaka Bay Resort) was actively

serving tourists. The owner of the hotel is cooperative and works friendly with the local

authority “Sheha”.

Unlike many Shehias in the East Coast of Unguja, People’s settlements is established at the

edge of the coastline/water front in Chwaka shehia, areas presumably could be occupied by

hotels and resorts, as it was the case in Kizimkazi Shehia. The terrestrial land in the shehia

is left for agriculture, forestry and occasionally dotted settlements. Unlike Kizimkazi where

tourists and tourism activities intermix with nearby homesteads, in Chwaka there is a clear

demarcation between tourism hotels/resorts and local peoples households. Tourist

hotels/resorts are located a few meters away from long established local people’s

households.

Employment and ownership of the hotels in Chwaka Shehia

The owner of the Chwaka Bay Resorts identified himself to the authors. He was a Zanzibaris

by birth and upbringing, albeit with Asia-Persian origin. He claimed to have invested all his

money to develop the resorts but the payback is not promising due to limited customers and

seasonality of the industry (See number of employee in Table 1.2). However, he was

determined to invest again on publicity because Chwaka is not a famous destination in the

east coast of Unguja.


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Table 1.2

Name of Hotel Local employee Employee from the

Mainland (TZ)

Foreigners

Chwaka Bay Resort

45 15 5

Source: Fieldwork Data, 2010

Type of employment in the tourism sector in both Kizimkazi and Chwaka Shehia

Very few individuals who get a job in the tourism industry are employed as tour guide, chef,

watchman, receptionist waiter and rarely entrepreneur. Local Zanzibaris raised concerns that

even the few employment opportunities avail by tourism were seasonal, low paid and casual

works. They are not in managerial positions as people from outside Zanzibar. Local

Zanzibaris were seasonally recruited in construction of tourist hotels as daily laborers.

Tourism is attracting migrants to Chwaka and Kizimkazi. The population of Maasai who work

as guards/watchmen was on increase (15 out of the 43 employees in Chwaka Bay Resorts

were the Maasai guards from the mainland Tanzania). A total of 238 respondents were

randomly involved in the social survey in Chwaka and Kizimkazi Shehia. Out of these 31

(13%) respondents revealed to have been employed in the tourism industry, mainly menial

jobs (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Types of works local Zanzibaris do in tourism industry

Source: Fieldwork data, 2010

Employment in tourism

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Tour guide Chef Watchmen Receptionist owner of

tourist

enterprise

onther

Types of works

Nu

mb

er o

f resp

on

den

ts


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Discourse and narrative analysis

Discourse analysis

Tourism policy and legislations represent dominant discourse in the following way:

“Tourism supports employment, income, market opportunities, education, social services and

economic infrastructure, conservation incentives and government revenue.” As such

Zanzibar Commission for Tourism (ZCT) has three important tasks; “1st Marketing Zanzibar

to the World; 2nd Facilitating sustainable tourism development through the creation of a world

class destination; and 3rd Attracting tourism and investment to benefit Zanzibaris and

contribute to economic growth”.

In an interview with Karibu Magazine Hon. Samia Suluhu, a former Minister of Tourism,

Commerce and Investment for the 2005-2010 tenure, described the following as the biggest

achievements of the ministry:

“The biggest achievement we have made is making the tourism sector in Zanzibar publicly

promoted and privately driven. We have promoted and improved infrastructure to allow better

access to more remote places on the island; we have implemented plans to improve the

electricity situation; we are opening up Pemba as a purely eco-tourism destination; the

airport regeneration and future extension plans will allow bigger airlines to fly direct to

Zanzibar along with plans for a new international terminal; the water supply has been

improved, giving hotels access to clean water; and peace and security has been improved

with no major travel alerts for Zanzibar. We have also reviewed organizations such as ZATI,

ZATO, ZATOGA and the Chamber of Commerce, as well as introducing the Zanzibar

Business Council, which will be represented by both the public and private sector to meet

and discuss problems and come up with appropriate solutions. There has been tremendous

change in the last five years. In the past, tourism as a concept was not understood by the

local people, they had no faith that this industry could benefit the island. Through education

and watching tourism grow, they now see that the industry can sustain our economy”.

From the preceding discourse, it is interesting to note that the minister has been very specific

to explain achievements at macro level strategies but she has avoided being specific about

problems. As regards to benefits, she tactically uses/d general terms i.e. “the island” and “our

economy”. She pretends to be apolitical (neutral) by using the general terms, while she is

not. In the process, however, she has managed to hide grassroots claims regards negative

impacts of tourism on the local peoples’ livelihood, at least in the policy fore. However, she

has again failed to hide the fact that water supply has been improved, giving hotels access to

clean water. In this regards, local people were not mentioned, implying that their interests is

likely bypassed in favour of tourist’s facilities and services. Consideration of local narratives,

however, provide a very clear picture of tourism impact on local peoples livelihood.

Local narratives

Followings are local narratives captured via in-depth interviews and focus group discussions

from both Chwaka and Kizimkazi Shehia:


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“Tourism is affecting agriculture negatively. Someone has 30-40 acres plated ‘mivinje’ (for

the construction of tourist hotel). Previously such big land area could be designated for

producing food crops by not less than 20 people”

“Tourism is restricting local’s access to beaches, regular cleaning of beaches for tourist fans

is jeopardizing productivity of important traditional fishing grounds and seaweed’s farms (in

the sea)’’

‘’Tourism growth is increasing cases of absenteeism and school dropout especially for boys

as they are tempted to engage crafting and selling souvenirs to tourists’’

‘’Tourists are not respecting local Zanzibaris islamic norms and traditions. You find them

going naked or half naked along the beaches, youth and children are easily tempered to

adopt these immoralities’’

‘’Inflation of food items is on increase, youth are shunning away from agriculture into tourism

ventures, all lands along the coast with lucrative beaches has been lost to the foreign tourism

investors, marine parks and conservation authority are increasingly restricting local access to

mangrove and important traditional fishing grounds. Artisanal fishers and mangrove

collectors are increasingly being defined as illegal fishers and poachers, respectively’’

Since the preceding local narratives are not explicitly discussed and represented at the

government in place, it is likely that tourism will continue to empower the private sector “the

investors” and tourists along with political elites while impoverishing the local Zanzibaris

livelihood systems.

If the preceding local narratives are not explicitly discussed and represented at the

government’s policy and legislation fore, it is likely that tourism will continue to empower the

private sector “the investors” and tourists along with economic and political elites while

impoverishing the local poor people in the destination areas, despite the decades of pro-poor

tourism initiatives. It is also unfortunate that the poorest of the poor have no association to

defend their rights. In Zanzibar, for instances, we found that there are associations for

tourism investors, Zanzibar Association of Tourism Investors (ZATI), Zanzibar Association of

Tour Operators (ZATO), Zanzibar Tour Guides Association (ZATOGA) to defend the varied

interests of groups and actors within the tourism service industry. Most of the associations

have their offices and members residency, aptly located within Stone Town and nearby

towns. It is important to note here that most of the tourist facilities and attractions are found in

the villages/shehias lands. The government has various ministries and departments (Ministry

of Finance and Economic Affairs, Ministry of Information, Culture, Tourism and Sports,

Ministry of Land, Environment and Water, Zanzibar Revenue Board (ZRB), Zanzibar

Investment Promotion Authority (ZIPA), Zanzibar Commission for Tourism (ZCT) to ensure

that tourism investments generate optimal revenue and foreign currency and that there is a

conducive environment for tourism investment. The government of the United Republic of

Tanzania and the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar are determined to enhance low

volume, high value tourists, for optimal revenue and environmental conservation front (See

also URT, 1999; RGZ, 2004).

At the local levels (villages/shehias), however, there is no association to defend the interests

of the poor (people who did not acquired or received low quality formal education or any


120

other training to enable them serve in the modern tourist industry, they include old people,

youth, women and children). Most of these people wishes to benefit from growing tourism but

they are uneducated “they have no experience with the industry” (emphasis is mine). The

preceding argument is subsisted by the fact that the majority of our respondents indicated to

have attained none or a very low quality formal education. Those who revealed to have not

attended any formal education were the minority percent. This entails that the preceding

social groups in the coast of Tanzania are incapable of competing for any lucrative

employment in the modern tourism industry.

We presume that the less educated Zanzibaris who cannot be employed in the professional

tourism service industry could otherwise supply fish; fruits, vegetables and other farm

produce to the hotels. However, hotels owners are sometime skeptical whether these could

manage to ensure reliable supply. To contain this business risk, investors opt to outsource

supply from formal suppliers or import from outside Zanzibar or mainland Tanzania and

elsewhere around the world. This entails that indigenous fishers or small holder farmers

would sell their catch or farm produce to the locals markets, usually at a relatively very low

price, where suppliers will collect and supply to hotels at a relatively higher price margin. In

this arrangement the likelihood of middle men and investors to benefit more is higher than it

is for the direct fisher or small holder farmer. It is, therefore, logical to question how pro-poor

tourism initiatives are going to incorporate these indigenous vulnerable groups to become

actual tourism beneficiaries?

Conclusions and recommendations

Generally, the paper has demonstrated that there are numerous initiatives at global, national

and local scales to promote tourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. However, the

experience in Zanzibar has shown that the expansion and growth of the tourism industry is

not producing increased benefits to the poor (Wood et al, 2010). Although both locals and

foreigners are perceived to have benefited from tourism in Zanzibar, local people receive

less benefit as compared with the foreigners. Most Zanzibaris believe that employment in the

tourism industry favour people from the mainland Tanzania on the expense of local

Zanzibaris.

Inadequate involvement and poor participation of local Zanzibaris in the tourism endeavours

is by and large attributed to the cultural constraints, particularly Islamic religion that regard

tourism venture as a source of immorality and defiance to its fundamental ethics. On the one

hand, the constraint is worth of genuine attention considering that majority of Zanzibaris

belong to the Islamic religion. On the other hand, relatively limited exposure to formal

education among local Zanzibaris, discriminate them from an active engagement in the

tourism industry. Furthermore, large capital involved in establishing tourism ventures such as

hotels and resorts, souvenir and other related hassle procedures to register the investments

coupled with heavy taxation limits indigenous people participation in tourism venture given

their relatively poverty as opposed to the foreigners.

Tourism in Zanzibar is also associated with declining agricultural labour force as the majority

of the young population shun away from agricultural activities and opt for tourism ventures.

This is a problematic phenomenon considering that tourism is more or less a seasonal

activity and given the decline of agriculture, inflation of food items is on increase and food

insecurity especially for the poorest households is increasingly becoming inevitable. Tourism


121

investments in terms of tourist hotels accommodation and resorts, natural attraction including

marine protected areas, beach front recreation and utilities provisions like water supply and

electricity are increasingly discriminating local people access to their basic livelihood assets.

Declining access to land based resources and important fishing grounds are the case in

point. Government policies and legal measures to contain the ongoing controversies are

seldom in place or not enforceable given the growing government official corruption and

nepotism.

It is, therefore, concluded and recommended that although there are potentials for tourism to

contribute to poverty-alleviation, sustainable tourism in Zanzibar remains naught unless there

is transformation of the dominant thinking among political and economic elites who currently

consider tourism to be pro-poor while it is not. Sustainable tourism policies and practices in

Zanzibar should address economic, socio-political and cultural contexts concurrently in

favour of the local communities’ livelihood interests, instead of furthering more investment in

tourist hotels accommodation, resorts and increasing tourists’ numbers on the pretence that

the benefit will trickle down to the poor. Academia, scholars, private sectors and the public

should take into scrutiny the political ecology claims and local narratives while rigorously

questioning the reliability of the existing dominant discourse.

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From Davos to Mombasa, Kenya: A position paper on the

adoption of the ‘Davos Declaration’ by hotels


Rita Wairimu Nthiga

Kenya

Introduction

Background

Climate change is a major development challenge in the 21st Century more so for the

developing countries. Research indicates that tourism contributes 5% of total global CO2 and

it is expected to grow significantly by 2035 (Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall and Gladin 2008).

The industry’s contribution of Green House Gases (GHG) therefore has not been overlooked,

hence there is a need for a long term strategy for the industry to reduce the emission of

greenhouse gasses associated with the industry in line with other industries (IPPC 2007).

Furthermore, tourism continues to be majorly impacted by climate change considering its

sensitivity to weather, climate and dependence on natural flora and fauna which forms the

core of tourism business. The industry also continues to threaten the natural environment it

operates in.

Water and air quality has also been impacted negatively by the tourism industry as a result of

the construction and maintenance of tourism facilities, automobiles and water bound

recreational facilities. In coastal regions and wetlands most ecosystems have been altered

by solid waste disposal from surrounding hotels and resorts (Davies and Cahill, 2000).

The impact of Climate Change on Africa is an issue of concern following global leaders and

activists’ recent revelation at Copenhagen Climate Change Conference in December 2009

suggesting that Africa will suffer most as a result of climate change. Adger et al. (2007) notes

that third world countries are most vulnerable to climate change and it is already affecting

developing countries’ social-economic viability (Stern 2006). Adaptive capacity for these

destinations is thus crucial for their survival. It is also imperative to note that adaptive

capacity varies not only by industry but also by sub-sectors e.g. host communities, tourism

suppliers, tourist, host government (Elsasser & Bürki, Becken & Hary 2007) and therefore

there are potential ‘winners’ and ‘losers’ (UNWTO-UNEP-WMO 2008). However, there is

limited research on understanding adaptive capacity of developing countries (UNWTO-

UNEP-WMO 2008, Becken 2005, Gössling & Hall 2006).

Climate change and the hotel sector

It is estimated that the hotel sector’s impact on the environment is through excessive

consumption of resources, import of non-durable goods, energy and water consumption and

other emissions to the environment (APAT 2002). A study by the International Institute of

Tourism Studies, George Washington University (1999) approximates resource use by

tourism at 72.1 GW hours of energy per year and 93.9 billion gallons per year equivalent to

4% of total US commercial water consumption. An exploratory study by Pryce (2001)


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assessed industry-wide progress on the adoption of Environmental Management Systems

(EMS) revealed that hoteliers were slow in adopting environmental management systems

with only 40% of large hotels chain having had positive commitment to green practice,

among them Marriot group of hotels’ ECHO programme focusing on water and energy

conservation, clean air, waste management and wildlife preservation while others subscribe

to the World Travel & Tourism Council Green Globe 21 International Certification

programme. This programme undertakes evaluations on environmental performance in

waste recycling efficiency in water management (Green Globe, 2007). Wan (2007) argues

that hoteliers least value environmental management as an important management tool. Low

demand for ‘green travel’, poor government policies/regulation and lack of management

know how have been acknowledged as barriers for implementing green ideas.

A research in Sweden estimates an average energy consumption at 198-379kwh of energy

(CHOSE 2001). Further reports on water consumption from some Swedish operators’

estimates are also available. Radison SAS estimates its water consumption at an average of

440l/guest night (Radisson SAS, 2003), Scandic Hotels AB estimates at224l/ guest night stay

(Scandic Hotels AB, 2000) while the International Hotels Environmental Initiative (IHEI)

estimates a range between 120-280 m3 per guest overnight stay/year. Hotel waste is

estimated at 1kg/per day in a typical hotel (IHEI 2002) and up to 60% of this waste can be

recycled (Smith et al. 1993). There is however limited literature and studies estimating the

levels of water, energy consumption and waste disposal from hotels for Sub-Sahara Africa.

The Davos declaration: tourism industry and destinations actions

The “Second International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism”, held in Davos,

Switzerland, in October 2007 acknowledged the reality of climate change and its

interrelationship with tourism. The conference called upon governments, industry and

consumers among other players to prioritise on ‘green actions’. The ‘declaration’ provides

specifications for all stakeholders, however for the purpose of this research, ‘industry and

destination’ call for green action will be emphasised. These actions are captured below.

1. Take leadership in implementing concrete measures (such as incentives) in order to

mitigate climate change throughout the tourism value chain and to reduce risk to

travellers, operators and infrastructure due to dynamic climate variability and shift.

Establish targets and indicators to monitor progress.

2. Promote and undertake investments in energy-efficiency tourism programmes and use of

renewable energy resources, with the aim of reducing the carbon footprint of the entire

tourism sector.

3. Integrate tourism in the formulation and implementation of regional, national and local level

adaptation and mitigation strategies and implementation plans. The Nairobi Work

Programme on Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change, coordinated

by UNFCCC, represents an important opportunity for the tourism sector to enhance

knowledge, increase capacities and stimulate action.

4. Strive to conserve biodiversity, natural ecosystems and landscapes in ways which

strengthen resilience to climate change and ensure a long-term sustainable use of the

environmental resource base of tourism - in particular those that serve as “earth lungs”

(carbon sinks), sequestering GHGs through forest management and other biological

programmes, or that protect coastlines (e.g. mangroves and coral reefs).


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5. Seek to achieve increasingly carbon free environments by diminishing pollution through

design, operations and market responsive mechanisms.

6. Implement climate-focused product diversification, to reposition destinations and support

systems, as well as to foster all-season supply and demand.

7. Raise awareness among customers and staff on climate change impacts and engage them

in response processes.

Davos declaration: call for industry and destination, source: UNWTO 2007

The above action call was succeeded by the development of guidelines that are more

practical and more applicable for the industry captured in the report on ‘Climate Change

Adaptation and Mitigation in the Tourism Sector: Frameworks, Tools and Practices’ by

(Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall and Gladin 2008). These tools provide practical guidelines

for the industry in response to climate change. These guidelines are shown in table 1 below.

Table 1: Frameworks, Tools and Practices for adaptation and mitigation of climate change

a) Establish Environmental

Management Systems

(EMS)

EMS’s help to understand resource consumption and to identify

areas where resources can be saved. They also allow

monitoring, and thus a comparison of environmental

performance over time.

b) Reduce energy use

This can be achieved by replacing old machinery, and installing

power-saving devices, such as switch-cards in rooms.

c) Use renewable energy only Accommodation establishments can either install renewable

energy sources including photovoltaic or solar heating, or they

can buy renewable energy from specialized power providers.

Own renewable energy infrastructure, such as solar heating on

rooftops, can be a visible sign of pro-environmental action, while

the use of renewable energy can be communicated through

other channels to customers.

d) Reduce the use of materials

There are opportunities to substantially reduce resource use,

and in particular packaging. For instance, soap containers can

be replaced with dispensers, and one-way packaging for butter

or jam can be entirely avoided.

e) Recycle wastes Hotels can substantially reduce overall waste produced, as well

as recycle most of the remaining waste.

f) Rethink food in restaurants

Restaurants can make a major contribution to reducing

greenhouse gas emissions by offering locally produced food

with a lower share of meat, and by avoiding environmentally

problematic resources such as shrimps. Imports of food by air

should generally be avoided, which is of particular relevance for

hotels in tropical islands, where storages may have to be built to

move away from just-in-time imports to slower ones by ship.

g) Constructions

Whenever new accommodation establishments are built, they

should be constructed in a way to make them independent of

fossil energy sources – it is now possible to use 100%


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renewable energy for operations if this is considered prior to the

commencement of building. Furthermore, new buildings should

be constructed using a high proportion of low-carbon, recycled

materials, and high levels of insulation to keep rooms cool or

warm.

h) Communicate green action

Accommodation establishments are ideal meeting points to

provide customers with information about pro-environmental

action taken. This can have very positive repercussions for the

image of the establishment and help to strengthen customer

relationships, as well as to win new customer groups.

See: (Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall and Gladin 2008: 86-87)

Conceptual framework for climate change mitigation

While the tourism sector contributes immensely to global carbon emission, the notion of

carbon ‘neutral’ operation has been popularised both in literature and practice. The concept

of carbon ‘neutral’ refers to all efforts including mitigation strategies, policies and activities

aimed at reducing organization’s carbon contribution (Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall and

Gladin 2008). i.e. ‘zero’ emission that was emphasised in the Davos call for ‘green’ action.

This process is conceptualised under four steps that proposed suggested by Simpson,

Gössling, Scott, Hall and Gladin (2008) see Figure1 below. These processes do not follow

any particular sequence but are inter-related.

Figure 1 Four Steps to Carbon Neutrality for Businesses and Institutions

Source: (Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall and Gladin 2008: ).

The above tools find more relevance for the tourism industry in response to Davos call hence

shall form the basis of the study.

Choices

That can be advocated to the supply chain in order to eliminate, reduce, substitute or offset its climate footprint

Influence

A company or institution may have in the consumer’s choices to eliminate, reduce, substitute or offset their climate footprint

Decisions

Related to practical measures a company or institution can take to eliminate, reduce, substitute or offset its climate footprint

Internal Supply Consumers

Eliminate

Reduce

Substitute

Offset


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Methodology

A survey was carried out on climate change and green practices among Kenyan hoteliers.

The respondents comprised management staff from international tourist hotels, local chain

and independent hotels, standard tourist hotels, guest houses and tourist apartments located

in the coastal town of Mombasa, Kenya. A questionnaire survey was conducted between

January and April 2011 to evaluate on overall awareness, attitudes and general green

undertakings by the establishments. The questionnaire variables were drawn from climate

change and sustainable tourism literature with major guidelines form ‘Davos Report’ of 2007

(Simpson, et al 2008).

Table 2: Response received and their categorisation

Valid Front office 21 28,4 28,4 28,4

F&B 10 13,5 13,5 41,9

Sales and Mar. 9 12,2 12,2 54,1

Resident manager 14 18,9 18,9 73,0

General manager 7 9,5 9,5 82,4

House keeping 13 17,6 17,6 100,0

Total 74 100,0 100,0

Accommodation facilities were categorised as International hotels 11%, local chain hotels 9%

, International independent 10%, local chain hotels 16% local independent 41%% and others

18%% (including holiday apartments and guest houses). The star ratings were also

considered: 19% were one star, 22% two star, 16% three star, 17% four star, 8% five star

and 18% unrated accommodation establishments.

Results and Findings

Climate change awareness

The majority of the respondents (94%) agreed the existence or the reality of climate change.

Individual understanding of climate change was however varied with 51% of the respondents

referring to climate change as ‘increased global temperature levels’ and 43% as ‘unpredicted

changes of weather’.

When asked whether they viewed climate change to have affected their business operations,

most respondents (75%) believed that climate change is affecting and/or will affect their

business operations in the long run. However, 13% of the respondents had contrary views

while 10% did not know if climate change had or will ever have an effect on their business

operations.

Their attitude towards the effect of climate change were also measured and the results are

shown in table 3 below. Respondents were asked to what extent they believe that climate

is/will affect your operation on a likert scale of 1 to 5 with 5 representing ‘Strongly believe’ 3

representing ‘Don’t know’ and 1 ‘Strongly don’t believe’.


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Table 3: Attitude towards the effect of climate change

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulativ

e Percent

Valid Strongly believe 15 20.27 20.27 20.27

Believe 23 31.08 31.08 51.35

Dont know 16 21.62 21.62 72.97

Dont believe 10 13.51 13.51 86.49

Strongly dont believe 5 6.76 6.76 93.24

Non-response 5 6.76 6.76 100

Total 74 100 100

Further inquiry sort to understand the risk factors that the respondents were aware of as

associated to climate change. These factors include a resource shortage within the region,

reduced business from western tourists, reduced beach area due to rising water levels and

the dangers of tsunami occurrence see figure 2.

Figure 2: Anticipated effects of climate change at the destination

The study further sought to establish the respondents’ views on the effects of climate change

in terms of tourism resource supply. The responses included aspects related to increase in

food costs, shortage of food supplies, unpredicted sea tides, power rationing among others

as shown in figure 3 below.


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Figure 3: Effects of climate change at the destination

This research sought to report on the adoption of Davos guidelines that give advice to hotel

operators on how to respond/mitigate climate change. The Davos guidelines were developed

to advice hoteliers on simple practical measures that industry players can adopt to mitigate

climate change. Questions were posed regarding these guidelines and reported as follows.

a) Adoption of Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

The adoption of EMS by the establishments was low with majority (97%) of the

respondents indicating that their establishments had not adopted an EMS and further had

limited knowledge of what EMS is. Only 2% of the respondents indicated that their

establishments had adopted an EMS though their understanding of what they referred to

as EMS was not clear.

b) Reduction of energy use and use renewable energy

Results indicate that reduction in energy use was one of the areas that operators had

concentrated more. The majority of the respondents confirmed that they had policies and

practices that were aimed at reducing energy use within their facilities. The use of

electronic key cards was the most used method alongside other methods of such as

‘sensor systems for lighting and heating’, educating staff, use of ‘switch of the light’ signs

and educating guests through ‘welcome letters’ among others as shown in fig 4 below.


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Figure 4: Energy mitigation actions

c) Energy sources

The majority of the respondents indicated that their major source of energy (77%) was the

national electricity grid in conjunction with other sources like solar systems which were used

by some operators (15%) as shown in table 4. However since the country is frequently hit by

energy shortage leading to power rationing, operators always resort to stand by generators

that are powered by fossil fuels.

Table 4: Energy sources

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Local electricity supply 52 70.3 77.6 77.6

Solar energy 15 20.3 22.4 100.0

Total 67 90.5 100.0

Missing 99.00 7 9.5

Total 74 100.0

d) Reduction in the use of materials and recycling wastes

Recommendations by the Davos Declaration on reduction of material use include replacing

soap containers with soap dispensers, avoiding one-way butter and/or jam, use of clean

water dispensers, changing dirty linen less frequently among other measures. With regard to

the above measures, majority (91%) of respondents indicated that their establishments did

not implement any of the above measures. Their argument was that these measures do not

promote high standards of hygiene and would compromise guests’ comfort hence they were

avoided at all costs. Procedures in the house keeping department emphasized on


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replenishing guests’ rooms with clean linen on a daily basis while selling bottled water by the

establishments was seen as a way of boosting sales in the restaurants. Water mitigation

actions were evaluated, see figure 5 below.

Figure 5 Water mitigation actions

e) Sourcing food for the restaurants

The Davos guidelines further encourage hospitality operators to use locally produced food

supplies among other kitchen practices that would help in the reduction of energy among

other benefits. Results indicate that most establishments source their food from the local

community and within the country as shown in figures 6, 7, 8 and 9.


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Clockwise:

Figure 6: From community

Figure 7: From the region

Figure 8: Outside E.A

Figure 9: Within the country

f) Constructions

The majority (95%) of the facilities were over 20 years old and operators at the time of

construction had not considered development of structures and facilities that would promote

resource efficiency especially in terms of energy efficiency. An example is the construction of

big windows and transparent roof at the restaurants and other public places that would

maximise the uses of natural ventilation which were not visible in most of the establishments.

Respondents were asked on whether their management had ever considered renovations

that would improve on natural lighting and ventilation. The majority (45%) of the respondents

did not have near future plans for such structural improvements while only 5% did have plans

for such improvements. See Table 5.


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Table 5: Structural Improvements to improve lighting and ventilation

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid yes 5 6.8 8.5 8.5

no 45 60.8 76.3 84.7

don’t know 9 12.2 15.3 100.0

Total 59 79.7 100.0

Missing 99.00 15 20.3

Total 74 100.0

g) Communication of green action to stakeholders

Communicating green action is viewed as a way to promote sustainable behaviours among

clients and employees of accommodation facilities. The study found that very few operators

have championed communicating green action. Less than 15% of the respondents indicated

that they educate their employees and guests on green behaviors (See figures 4&5).

However, those respondents who do communicate green action consider the use of welcome

letters and signs to educate and or advice their customers on green issues while training of

employees on resource use has considered as one of the tools used to pass the message.

Corporate social responsibility has also been considered as one of the avenues that green

action can been communicated. Some operators have gone a mile ahead to include

reporting on resource use within their facilities in their annual reports. This was evidenced as

few respondents (3%) do report on their resource use while the majority (34%) confirmed

that they do not report while the rest either did not know or did not respond to the question.

The study also sought to establish the existence of strategic plans in the establishment for

the future in line with greening action. Only a few (9%) respondents indicated that their

establishments had put in place strategic plans on energy, water and waste reduction while

(34%) of the respondent said that their establishments did not have any strategic plan. The

majority of the respondents (47%) indicated that their establishments had not made any

strategic plans. Most respondents (58%) were of the opinion that the government was not

doing enough to support green initiatives while only (15%) believed that the government

showed commitment to support green initiatives in the region.


The results indicate moderate knowledge of the existence of climate change amongst

hoteliers in Mombasa, along the Kenyan coast. They further indicate that climate change is a

reality with the majority acknowledging its effects on their operations. Shortage of supplies,

increased costs of supplies, rising sea levels, unpredicted weather conditions and power

shortage are some of the factors constraining their operations as a result of climate change.

Previous recommendations by UNWTO and UNEP (2008) found little relevance to hotel

operations, however a latter report widely known as the ‘Davos guidelines and tools’

(Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall and Gladin 2008) gave recommendations that were more

specific for the industry with practical lessons for hoteliers. However such recommendations


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have found both policy and action challenges which is common for the tourism industry (Hall,

2009) and research also acknowledges the gap between awareness and action (McKercher

and Prideux, 2010). This scenario is evidence for the case of Mombasa where very little has

been done by both the government and the hospitality industry to address issues of climate

change.

The impact of climate change felt by hoteliers at the Kenyan coast are similar to those found

in coastal resort regions. It is therefore important that the destination develops an effective

mix of environmental and business strategies to mitigate climate change and overcome its

adverse effects (Zeppel 2011).

The question of the Africa’s vulnerability to the effects of climate change is also a challenge.

Africa among other developing continents has the highest levels of vulnerability to climate

change (UNWTO, 2008) and they lack resources to adapt to climate change. Government’s

role in developing capacities for sensitive industries like Tourism is vital. Respondents did not

have confidence with the government’s role in promoting green initiatives. Lack of proper

government policies and interventions are viewed as a derailing factor in green initiatives

especially considering that some actions like adoption of EMS, renovation of establishments

and green technologies are capital intensive initiatives. It is therefore important for the

government to consider tax breaks to such initiatives.

Finally, it is worthwhile to mention on the challenge of doing an evaluative research on the

adoption of Davos guidelines. There is lack of a framework to do such an evaluation hence it

is hard for researchers to bench mark their findings. However, the findings were able to give

a general picture on the adoption of climate change measures.

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The efficacy of photographs in marketing of sustainable

tourism products

Wendy Rop Walter Masambu Tabitha Mugo Vincent Ng’eno Rose Burugu Kenya

Introduction

Good photography is the basis for an effective marketing and promotional tool in any tourism

organization, be it hotels, restaurants, parks and reserves or recreation activities. In these

age of technology and in particular the internet, e-marketing is key to selling any

establishment and to showcase what you offer there is a hundred percent chance that one

would put photographs to “tangiblise” the services and products that are being offered.

Different tourism establishment host website which portrays the establishments and The

Kenya tourist Board is no exception. It hosts a website showcasing the different tourist sites

in capture and the photographs are meant to entice the potential visitor to choose Kenya as a

Destination worth visiting. It’s equally important for getting media attention and creating

effective printed collateral. Website visitors want to be wowed by what they see and will

quickly move on if they’re not immediately “wowed” by your photos. Email newsletters, blogs,

and postcards are equally strengthened by the quality of your pictures. Compelling

photography produces reservations.

Sustainable tourism

Sustainable tourism as defined by the organization of Eastern Caribbean States is ‘ the optimal

use of natural and cultural resources for national development on an equitable and self-

sustaining basis to provide a unique visitor experience and an improved quality of life through

partnership among government, private sector and communities (Benedetto and Bojanic, 1993).

Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of the present tourists and host regions

while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future . It is envisaged as leading to

management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be

fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, and biological

diversity, and life support systems.

Sustainable tourism as defined by Hunter (1995) on the basis of definition of sustainability in the

Brundtland Report is as follows; Sustainable tourism development should meet the needs and

wants of the local host community in terms of improved living standards and quality of life,

satisfy demands of the tourists and the tourism industry, and continue to attract them in order to

meet the first aim , and safeguard the environmental resource base for tourism, encompassing

natural, built and cultural components; in order to achieve both preceding aims.

Akama(1999) has suggested that sustainable tourism does not have to be advertised as

environmentally or culturally sensitive in order to succeed. Research has shown that profits may

be increased simply by adopting some general environmental principles, such as recycling


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waste planning for long term sustainability and seeking local partnerships for resort

management. If these actions result in cleaner, less crowded, holiday resorts then they are in

effect sustainable tourism without being labelled so.

The achievement of sustainable tourism therefore depends in part on providing the right

incentives for the companies and resort managers to reduce the negative impacts of tourism,

and then a variety of coastal practical steps (such as limiting numbers, or zoning land use) to

reduce these impacts. But in the long term, the ultimate achievement of sustainable tourism also

requires tourists and companies to think more about how tourism may impact on other people’s

homes and livelihoods. Marcel Proust once wrote that most tourists seem to want to travel

through one hundred countries with one pair of eyes, whereas the best journey would be to

travel through one country with a hundred pair of eyes. By seeking more diversity and depth in

holiday destinations, tourists may help avoid the impacts of tourism on destinations and also

achieve a more satisfying experience.

It is not marketing ploy, or is it scenic or nature- based travel. It is an approach that creates a

variety of quality tourism products that are: environmentally and ecologically sustainable,

economically viable, socially and psychologically acceptable. The result of which reflect: an

integrated and holistic approach to product development, capacity building in host communities,

a sense and uniqueness of place commitment to the greening of the tourism industry.

Using photos as graphics in marketing your business

Photography is the process, activity and art of creating still or moving pictures by recording

radiation on a sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or an electronic sensor. Light

patterns reflected or emitted from objects activate a sensitive chemical or electronic sensor

during a timed exposure, usually through a photographic lens in a device known as a camera

that also stores the resulting information chemically or electronically. Photography has many

uses for business, science, art, and pleasure.

More and more businesses are seeing the value of photography in marketing their business.

Websites, html emails, business cards, banners. Many memorable moments would be lost

and long forgotten without photography. Tourism being intangible products need to be

remembered and photographs serve to do just that. It creates a sense of ownership.

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On

Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of

photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community. It has

been concluded that photography is a subjective discipline, "to photograph is to appropriate

the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that

feels like knowledge, and therefore like power." Photographers decide what to take a photo

of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo. Along with the context that

a photograph is received in, photography is definitely a subjective form.

One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and

photography combine to create a "tourist gaze" in which local inhabitants are positioned and

defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse

gaze" through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a

shallow consumer of images.


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Tourism pre-dates photography; but it is striking that the rise of Thomas Cook, the ‘father of

modern tourism’ who led his first ‘Tartan Tour’ to Scotland in 1846, should have coincided

with the first decade of the new medium. Today, the two practices are closely intertwined,

each shaping and stimulating the other, with photography serving tourism as advertisement,

commodity, instruction, and mementoes; and tourism serving photography as subvention,

vehicle, justification, and structuring activity. Each of these complex undertakings influences

each of the others, and the meaning and intention of each shift constantly.

Photographs promote tourism when they appear in newspaper and magazine

advertisements, in brochures, on billboards, railway stations, websites, and in television

commercials. They often serve the same purpose in feature stories, informational

travelogues, calendars, coffee-table books, museum exhibitions, and the like.

Tourists buy photographs before, during, and after their travels. Differing in use from

advertisements and brochures, these images are commodities in their own right, functioning

as means of instruction, gifts, or complex mementoes and validations. As early as the 1850s

tourists could buy individual prints or albums depict popular sites from hotels, stationers,

booksellers, and street vendors. Today, postcards, posters, souvenir publications (including

videos and DVDs), and photo-decorated T-shirts, plates, and ashtrays are on sale wherever

tourists gather. Some images offer tips on local codes of behaviour, or incorporate brief

information on the sites or monuments they depict. In general, images marketed to tourists

are limited to a repertoire of instantly recognizable iconic subjects.

Amateurs travelled with cameras long before photography was easy or accepted, but the

advent of roll-film made it much simpler, cheaper (by middle-class standards), and more

commonplace. It also came just in time for the bicycle boom of the 1890s, and by the

year.1900 bicycles (and, more gradually, automobile) tours were featuring in many a

snapshot album. Hotels responded to the surge of self-propelled amateurs by offering

darkroom facilities. Early tourist snapshots often resembled the professional ‘view scraps’

long available for sale, but the shift from buying photographs to making them gradually made

photography a major component of the tourist day, both as a pastime and a means to

infiltrate, occupy, understand, and control alien space. Flirting and larking about also became

a recordable aspect of the holiday or honeymoon experience. In the early 21st century,

against the background of mass tourism's vast expansion since 1945, photographers are

often given signposts to the best vantage point for a successful picture; ‘Hula shows’ and

similar performances are structured for photography (and may even be sponsored by camera

manufacturers); film cartons litter popular sites; and organizers of ‘camera safaris’ and

photographic workshops in scenic locations advertise photograph taking as the rationale for

the trip.

When tourists return home, their photographs become complex mementoes, evidence of a

journey that condenses a multifaceted experience into sets of discrete rectangles to be

sorted, shared, and organized into an idealized narrative. As in the 19th century, some

narratives may take the form of carefully edited and captioned holiday albums. Many more

pictures will remain structure less and loose in shoeboxes or envelopes or, unprinted, on CD-

Rs, doomed to be forgotten or discarded. The social or sharing aspect of tourist photography

remains significant, with the slide show or office hand-round giving way to the digital video

display or the Internet website or weblog. But considerations of status, and of various kinds

http://www.answers.com/topic/roll-film

http://www.answers.com/topic/internet


140

of social transaction, still apply. And, like the unwritten rules of tourist picture taking, those of

the ‘return’ phase have tended to remain remarkably stable. Airport delays, medical

emergencies, or arguments with teenage children, if recorded at all, are unlikely to be shared

with colleagues and friends. The conventions of tourist seeing are thus deeply established in

society, replicated, and passed on as expectations to future vacationers.

It is commonly recognized that destination image, “the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions

that a person has of destination” (Crompton 1979, p. 18), is an important aspect in

successful destination marketing. Some researcher’s relate the importance of proper image

development to the overall success of a destination in tourism (Chen and Kerstette1999;

Crompton 1979; Dadgostar and Isotalo 1992; Hunt1975).

Image formation

Image formation is defined as a construction of a mental representation of a destination on

the basis of information cues delivered by the image formation agents and selected by a

person (Alhemoud and Armstrong 1996; Bramwell and Rawding 1996; Court and Lupton

1997; Gartner 1993;Gunn 1972; Young 1999). There are two ends of information

transmission in destination image formation: the destination and the receiver. MacKay and

Fesenmaier contend that destination image is a “composite of individual inputs and marketer

inputs” (1997: 559). Information essential to destination image formation comes from a wider

spectrum of sources than those for consumer products or other services(Alhemoud and

Armstrong 1996; Echtner and Ritchie 1991;Gartner 1993; Murphy 1999; Selby and Morgan

1996).Destination image literature reveals three sources of image formation agents: (1)

supply-side or destination, (2) Independent or autonomous, and (3) demand-side or image

receivers. Destination marketers engage in promotional efforts to establish a positive image

or to change an existing image through advertising and other forms of publicity (Koller 2002;

Human 1999; Iwashita 2003; MacKay and Fesenmaier 1997; MacKay and Fesenmaier 2000;

Young 1999). However, the projected image is not always the same as the received image.

The original message may be altered by the very source communicating the message

(Bramwell and Rawding, 1996; Young1999), it can be modified by the perceiver (Court and

Lupton, 1997), and most important, destination-originated messages are not the only

messages reaching the perceiver. Image formation arises through personal experience

(Baloglu and Brinberg 1997; Baloglu and McCleary 1999; Chen and Kerstetter 1999;

Walmsley and Young 1998); it can be formed solely through information sources (Bojanic

1991; Court and Lupton 1997; Gartner 1993), or even in the absence of any commercial

information (Alhemoud and Armstrong 1996).

Photography and tourism

Photography and tourism are widely considered to be intrinsically linked. Photographs play a

crucial role in the promotion of tourism destinations, working through a range of media

including brochures, television commercials, and picture postcards. Meanwhile the practice

of photography is often held to be intimately related to the condition of being a tourist. Urry

(1990) links these two phenomena, suggesting that they may constitute a self-reinforcing

“closed circle of representation” in which tourist photographs both reflect and inform

destination images. Using an innovative research approach combining visitor-employed

photography with content analysis and quantitative statistical techniques, this article presents

an empirical test of Urry’s theory. Mixed evidence is found, suggesting that while in many


141

respects the circle of representation may indeed be at work, in certain other respects it may

not be. This suggests that a more fine-grained and nuanced understanding of the circle of

representation is required the nature of the relationship between tourism and photography.

Photography has long interested academics (e.g. Albers and James 1988; Chalfen 1979;

Cohen, Nir, andAlmogor 1992; Crang 1997; Feighey 2003; Garlick2002; Haldrup and Larsen

2003; Jenkins 2003; Markwell 1997; Teymur 1993). There is widespread recognition that this

relationship is very close in many respects. Thus, Markwell (1997, p. 131) argues that the

“Stereotypic image of a tourist weighted down by cameras, lenses, tripods and other

photographic paraphernalia, although a cliché nevertheless highlights the strong, almost

inseparable connection between modern recreational travel and photography.” Haldrup and

Larsen (2003, pp. 23-24), meanwhile, note that “taking photographs is an emblematic tourist

practice . . . it is almost unthinkable to travel for pleasure without bringing the lightweight

camera along and returning home without snapshot memories.”The primacy of the visual

representation of places in the construction of tourism destination images has often been

noted (MacKay and Fesenmaier 1997; Markwell1997; Scarles 2004; Tasci and Gartner

2007). Writers tend to agree that to market places as tourism destinations they must first be

constructed as such, and to do so requires that the essential qualities of that place (be the

real or imagined) be taken and shaped into imagery that will be attractive to tourists (Jenkins

1999; Morgan and Pritchard 1998;Tasci and Gartner 2007; Tasci, Gartner, and Tamer

Cavusgil2007). In the long term, the destination image must correspond reasonably closely

to the actual characteristics of the place: otherwise tourists will not be satisfied (Britton1979;

Fakaye and Crompton 1991), will not recommend the destination to others, and will not

return themselves at a later date (MacKay and Fesenmaier 1997; Milmanand Pizam 1995;

Tuohino and Pitkänen 2004). Even so, tourism marketers have long realized that the

correspondence need not be exact. Indeed, tourism marketing tends to be most effective

when the essential tangible qualities of the destination are fused with images of exoticism,

paradise, and dream fulfilment (Buck 1993; Krippendorf1984; Tuohino and Pitkänen 2004).

The role of photography in tourism

In what has undoubtedly become the classic theorization of tourism in contemporary society,

The Tourist Gaze, Urry (1990) examines the intimate relationship between tourism as a

production system and photography as a tourist practice. At the beginning of this book, Urry

develops the paradigm of the tourist gaze as a means of understanding how tourism is

produced and reproduced as a socially constructed phenomenon. The tourist gaze is

elaborated as a particular “way of seeing” the world that is enforced on tourists and

essentially conditioned by the imagery created for tourism destinations by the tourism

industry. The fundamental motivation of tourists travelling to such destinations, then, is to

gaze on the panoramas, landscapes, buildings, people, and other manifestations of place

they have been led to expect to find there through exposure to visual representations carried

in tourism advertisements, television broadcasts, movies, brochures, travel books, and,

significantly in respect of this article, picture postcards. Often, the things that are represented

take on an iconic status: the Kenya international conference centre, the statue of the first

Kenyan president in Nairobi, the migration of the wildebeests and the big five. It is the

continual reproduction and recirculation of such photographic images both the iconic and the

everyday that perpetuates the tourist gaze in society. For Urry, therefore, “tourism is

essentially about ‘consuming places’ visually” (Haldrup and Larsen 2003, p. 24).


142

Later in his book, Urry goes on to elaborate the relationship between tourism and

photography. While writers such as Garlick (2002) have argued that Urry discusses

photography merely as an example of the all pervasive influence of the tourist gaze, others

argue that the practices of tourist photography are absolutely fundamental to the notion of

the tourist gaze.

Cornelissen (2005), for example, stresses the importance of tourism marketing organizations

as agents in the collation and presentation of the signifiers of place on which the tourist gaze

is directed. The tourism industry presents these signs by means of the imagery and

particularly the photography it employs in its brochures and other marketing materials.

Jenkins (2003), meanwhile, argues not only that these photographic representations inspire

the tourists visit to a destination but also that taking photographs constitutes a major focus of

activity for the tourist. Personal photographs also provide proof that the tourist has indeed

visited the destination (and perhaps done certain things while they are there) when vacation

stories are later recounted. In this way, tourists’ photographs reinforce the tourist gaze that

has been created by the tourism industry and, in doing so; help perpetuate an attractive

image for the destination. Such ideas can indeed be seen in Urry’s discussion in The Tourist

Gaze, suggesting that the position of photography in reproducing the tourist gaze is actually

a more prominent element in his theory than some writers would have us believe. Indeed,

Urry (1990, p. 140) writes that: ‘’Photography is . . . intimately bound up with the tourist gaze.

Photographic images organize our anticipation or daydreaming about the places we might

gaze on. When we are away we record images of what we have gazed on. And we partly

choose where to go to capture places on film. The obtaining of photographic images in part

organizes our experiences as tourists. And our memories of places are largely structured

through photographic images and the mainly verbal text we weave around images when they

are on show to others’’. The tourist gaze thus irreducibly involves the rapid circulation of

photographic images. This suggests that Urry holds the practices of photograph and tourism

to be both conceptually and practically inseparable. Urry then goes on to elaborate this

relationship, sting his arguments on eight related propositions:(i) that to photograph

something is in some way to acquire and possess it; (ii) that photography is (or at least

seems to be) a means of transcribing reality; (iii) that photography involves the selection,

structuring, and shaping of what is to be acquired, enabling an idealized image of the object

of the gaze to be captured; (iv) that the power of the photograph is in its ability to pass itself

off as a genuine miniature version of the real thing; (v) that photographs enable the

photographer to interpret the image captured thereon and to tell stories about it; (vi) that

photography is a ubiquitous phenomenon in society and democratized practice; (vii) that

photography gives shape to travel, in major part determining which destinations we visit as

well as what we do while we are there, implying that travel is a strategy for acquiring

photographs; and (viii) that photography may thus be seen as part of a “hermeneutic circle”

of tourism (re)production, in which tourists seek to acquire photographic images of the place

they are visiting so that they can prove to others that they have been there. Thus, Urry (1990,

p. 140) argues, tourism culminates with travellers to a destination “demonstrating that they

have really been there by showing their version of the images that they had seen originally

before they set off.”Urry’s theorization of modern tourism thus implicates photography

fundamentally: photography is a central dynamic force in the cyclical reproduction of the

tourism gaze, outside of which modern tourism as we know it could not exist. Some writers

have criticized Urry’s depiction of tourist photography as being framed entirely within his

“hermeneutic circle” of representation. Haldrup and Larsen (2003, p. 24), for example, argue

that tourist photography is more than simply a “preprogrammed shooting of image-driven


143

attractions.”Drawing on earlier work by Crang (1997), Haldrup and Larsen suggest a different

motivational basis to tourist photography, which focuses more on social activities than the

desire to consume places. According to this view, the tourism destination is the setting for the

“family gaze,” which uses tourism merely as a stage for framing personal stories revolving

around social relations, particularly among the photographer’s accompanying family, which

can later be told and re-told through the medium of the photograph album or slideshow. The

fundamental characteristic of the family gaze is, therefore, that the family is both the subject

and the object of the practice of tourist photography. Other writers have more readily

embraced Urry’s theorization of the relationship between photography and tourism. Markwell

(1997), for example, employs a very similar conceptual framework in his study of

photographs taken by students on a nature-based field trip, even though he never actually

refers to Urry’s work.

Jenkins (2003) also adopts Urry’s notion of the closed circle of reproduction of the tourist

gaze, implicating tourist photography as a central driver in the process. What is more

unusual about her work, however, is that it actually goes on to test this notion empirically.

Jenkins conducted a detailed content analysis of the imagery contained in 17 brochures

encouraging Canadian backpacker tourists to visit Australia. She then undertook 30 semi-

structured interviews and administered a face-to face questionnaire with a further 90

backpackers travelling to and in Australia, the purpose being to identify their practices,

preferences, and behaviours relating to their travel photography. There then followed an

exercise described as “auto-photography,” in which 10 backpackers were each given five

disposable cameras and asked to photograph their experiences of backpacking in Australia.

The cameras were returned to the researcher who, having developed the film, attempted to

relate the photographs empirically back to the brochure images. Jenkins’ major conclusion is

that, very much like the tourists in Urry’s tourist gaze, backpackers to Australia do indeed

tend to seek out particular views that were considered “photogenic” or “iconic,” and to

reproduce these in their photographs. Jenkins’ findings therefore lend some support to Urry’s

notion of the closed circle of reproduction of the tourist gaze.

Data presentation and analysis

Attitudes of tourists towards photographs

The study aimed at establishing the attitudes of tourists towards photographs in order to

ascertain the impact of photographs during the tourist experience.

78% of the respondents confessed to have photograph storage albums of the places they

have visited before up to the last 5 years. This is a strong indicator that tourists value the

memories of the past experiences and could in other terms mean that the tourists do some

kind of marketing of the products to their friends who take interest in these photo storage

albums.

88% of the respondents agreed that photographs are very important in the pursuit of their

tourist activities. This implies that photographs are a normal phenomenon in the tourist’s

environment hence passing information through them is likely to be noticed.


144

This scenario is echoed by some tourists who were interviewed.

“ I once saw a photograph in a travel magazine of a beautiful beach resort in one of the

Island and I fell in love with the place and I vowed to go there with my fiancée, and actually

last year I was there……” O’Neil (Ireland)

When asked to state what attribute pulls their attention to a photograph, most of the

respondents said position and the contents. 66% of the males were attracted by contents

while 46% of the female were attracted by the same. It is worth noting that about 20% of the

females were pulled by colour to a photograph. This indicates that there is a slight difference

in the way tourists look at a photograph in terms of gender. 74% of the respondents strongly

agreed that photographs promoting sustainable tourism products attract them. This was

further reinforced by sentiments that from those who were interviewed. There was such a

comment like;

“……of course yes, why would I be attracted to destructive photographs…..am always

interested in tourism activities that value conservation”- Sandra (Germany)

This implies that the contemporary tourists understand the importance of sustainability as

well as are more attracted to the photographs promoting sustainable tourism products.

Furthermore worth noting is the fact that tourists from all the world’s destinations agree that

they are attracted more by photographs promoting sustainable tourism products.

Comparatively more Americans seem to support the sustainable development products

(86%) than the African (64%) and Europeans (67%).

Uses of photographs

The tourists need photographs for different purposes and situations. Some will go by

boasting to others about the destinations they have visited knowingly or unknowingly

marketing those destinations to others who might develop interest. In this study, 90% of the

tourist agreed they use photographs to store memories of the experiences they have when

they visit different destinations. When asked about whether they are ready to share their

photographs with friends the tourists were quick to agree and some even said they would

make copies for friends and relatives.

87% of the respondents agreed that they make travel decisions based on photographs

presented to them. Some of them compare different destinations by appearance in the

photographs and then make decisions. This implies that the way photograph presentations

are put determine the choices made by tourists.

Efficacy of photographs and words as used for marketing sustainable tourism products

Photographs are used either independently or accompanied by words to enhance the

meaning. This could either serve the intended purpose or simply send a different message.

There was a general agreement among the respondents (87%) 80 that photographs taken

during a tour are good marketing tools. Furthermore, the same percentage agreed that they

understand photographs faster than words. This is a good lead to marketers of sustainable

tourism products.

60% of the respondents agreed that they could not easily recognize a meaning in a

photograph while 27% could easily recognize this while 13% were indifferent over the same.


145

This implies that photographs alone are not effective; they need some enhancements like

words to ensure quick understanding. This study also found out that photographs influence

more tourists than words alone. 90% of the respondents agreed to this assertion. This

indicates that capturing the visual attention of the tourists will be more appropriate in

ensuring success in marketing sustainable tourism products.

Figure 1

Ethics that follow the uses of photographs in tourism by marketers

For marketers to market sustainable tourism products effectively, ethics must be observed.

30% of the respondents had the opinion that some photographs have lied to them

concerning what is actually in a destination, 36% say they have not experienced such cases

while most of the respondents (60%) were undecided on whether they have been lied to by

photographs. This diverse response implies that photographs can either lead to

dissatisfaction or enhance satisfaction of the tourists.

When asked on whether the local (host) community like being taken photographs, the 40 %

of respondents agreed while 54% disagreed. This is a varied response which implies that

photography should be handled with care because it could be unethical to some communities

even though hailed to be a good marketing tool. This can be a source of great controversy in

the sense that 80% of the respondents said that all tourists are photographers by nature. The

members of the community who dislike being taken photographs might become hostile

hence killing the tourism activities in the destination if not well managed.

4,3

2,5

3,5

4,5

0

1

2

3

4

5

StronglyAgree

Agree Undecided Disagree StronglyDisagree

I cannot easily recognize meaning of photographs

I cannot easily Recognizemeaning of Photographs

Lineair (I cannot easilyRecognize meaning ofPhotographs)


146

Table 1.

Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

Photographs lie

to me

sometimes

Strongly Agree 8 8.7 8.7

Agree 20 21.7 30.4

Undecided 28 30.4 60.9

Disagree 24 26.1 87.0

Strongly Disagree 12 13.0 100.0

Total 92 100.0

All indicators in this study show that photography as a tourist practice carries an important

attribute in terms of marketing sustainable tourism product; this cannot be manifested unless

all stakeholders manage this activity it can turn into a weapon of destruction if wrongly used.

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Entrepreneurial marketing strategies effects on

sustainability of tourism and hospitality event management

ventures in Eldoret Town, Kenya

Jacqueline Cheptepkeny Korir

John Korir Kimeli

James Muchira Kamwea

Rita Ndunge Schulz

Geoffrey Amusala

Kenya

Introduction

Hospitality is one of the world’s biggest and fastest-growing service industries, and is an

important source of income for many groups. It is a sector within the tourism industry which

comprises several sub-sectors such as hotels, lodges, hospitals, catering units, events

management and part of mobile units such as rail and air. Event Management Ventures

(EMVs) play a pivotal role in the industry and their operations have a potential to contribute

to development of the service industry and the economy. Event ventures provide

entrepreneurial opportunities to many players in the sector and its management is crucial for

continued improved performance. As some have contended, there are as many definitions of

events as there are texts.

At firm level, the term “sustainability” still remains ambiguous and politically charged,

particularly within the lexicon of business. However, when the term is limited to encompass

environmental management and social equity, it is often perceived to be at odds with

fiduciary responsibility that is linked to business strategy (France, 1997). Hence, it is

necessary to make a case for business for sustainability by adopting a broader view.

A sustainable organization is one whose characteristics and actions are designed to lead to a

“desirable future state” for all stakeholders (Funk, 2003). For investors, a desirable future

state would include sustained revenue growth over the long term. For the talent market, it

would include workforce diversity. Regulators and the community at large value

environmental stewardship and social responsibility. Consumers seek useful, reliable price-

efficient products and services. From the view of employees of the company itself, a

desirable future state includes maintaining viability and profitability as well as managing risks

while promoting innovation. Companies that actively manage and respond to a wide range of

sustainability indicators are better able to create value for all these stakeholders over the

long term (Funk, 2003). Although it may not be perfect science to identify leading indicators

of sustainability, performance measurements should be linked to business objectives.

Additionally, availability of both financial (economic) and intangible (satisfaction of key

stakeholders) performance information and the ability to interpret them, can give decision

makers a more comprehensive understanding of what is important for performance over the

long term.

Getz (2005) noted, however, that a principle applying to all events is that they are temporary

and that ‘every such event is unique stemming from the blend of management, program,


150

setting and people’. Shone and Parry (2004) said, ‘Special events are that phenomenon

arising from those non-routine occasions which have leisure, cultural, personal or

organizational objectives set apart from the normal activity of daily life, whose purpose is to

enlighten, celebrate, entertain or challenge the experience of a group of people.’

Douglas et al. (2001) referred to events ‘for people to come together to celebrate, to

demonstrate, to worship, to honour, to remember, to socialise …’ while Allen et al. (2008)

said they are ‘specific rituals … or celebrations that are consciously planned and created to

mark special occasions’ and that it is ‘impossible to provide a definition that includes all

varieties [of events]’. In this study, event management ventures consist of outside caterers,

decorators or florists, banqueting and conference managers, event planners and ventures

involved in hiring of tents, chairs, furniture and equipment for events, public address

systems, event grounds and function cake bakers.

Entrepreneurial ventures are widely seen as a major engine of economic growth due to their

ability in recognizing and exploiting new opportunities. Nonetheless, few ventures are started

(Davidsson & Henrekson, 2002) and barely 60% of these companies survive longer than

three years (ITPS, 2006). Agencies for Economic and Regional Growth (Nutek) support

industries and commerce to constantly develop and renew the enterprises with the intention

of maintaining sustainable economic growth. Entrepreneurship is the process of creating

value by bringing together a unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity

(Stevenson, Roberts, and Gousbeck, 1989). It results not only in the creation of new, growth-

related firms but in the strategic renewal of existing firms (Guth & Ginsberg 1990; Pinchot

2000; Morris & Kuratko 2001). Entrepreneurial marketing can be used to describe the

unplanned, non-linear, visionary marketing actions of the entrepreneur.

Businesses operate in an environment consisting of increased risk, decreased ability to

forecast, fluid firm and industry boundaries, a managerial mindset that must unlearn

traditional management principles and new structural forms that not only allow for change,

but also help create it. It is a competitive landscape that has been characterized by over-

riding forces such as change, complexity, chaos and contradiction that have an important

effect on marketing (Hitt and Reed 2000).

Markets are shifting, overlapping & fragmenting; firms interact as competitors, customers and

collaborators in a global, knowledge economy; and customers are becoming ever more

demanding (Day & Montgomery 1999; Kinnear 1999). Marketing is context dependent, but

the context is continually changing thus, it has been argued that the fundamental precepts of

marketing remain unchanged, but that more attention must be given to specific areas, such

as customization and one-to-one approaches (Sheth, Sisodia and Sharma 2000),

relationships, networking, strategic alliances, globalization and technology (Gronroos, 1999;

Piercy and Cravens 1994; Day et al, 1999).

Entrepreneurial marketing synthesizes critical aspects of marketing and entrepreneurship

into a comprehensive conceptualization where marketing becomes a process that firms can

use entrepreneurially. It is an effective approach for marketing in an era of environmental

turbulence and a time when firms face unique pressures for improved performance.

Marketing must replace a focus on short-term exchange with an emphasis on acquiring and

retaining customers and building customer equity in the long run (Blattberg et al 2001)


151

Entrepreneurial marketing has been frequently associated with marketing activities in firms

which are small and resource constrained, and therefore must rely on creative and often

unsophisticated marketing tactics that make heavy use of personal networks. Alternatively, it

has been used to describe the unplanned, non-linear, visionary marketing actions of the

entrepreneur (Tyebjee et al. 1983; Hultman 1999; Stokes 2000; Lodish, Morgan and

Kallianpur 2001; Kotler 2001). Kotler (2001) suggests that effective marketing today requires

different strategies at different stages. Acting in an entrepreneurial fashion frequently entails

breaking or bending rules, creative interpretations of agreements or stipulations and use of

resources in ways for which they were not intended.

Marketing assist entrepreneurs achieve their business plans, goals and objectives by

providing customers with tailored solutions thus enhancing customer satisfaction. Marketing

tourism and hospitality event management ventures pose several challenges resulting from

the nature and characteristics of services. On the other hand, marketing strategies select a

target market and develop a marketing mix to satisfy a market’s needs hence, the choice of

strategies employed can determine the sustainability of an enterprise. Sustainability of a

business in terms of profitability, increase in market share and attracting new customers can

be achieved through adopting the right strategies by the entrepreneur and competitors.

Wrong strategies adopted by competitors can greatly affect sustainability of a business.

Marketing's impact on individual consumer welfare has been criticized for its high prices,

deceptive practices, high-pressure selling, shoddy or unsafe products, planned obsolescence

and poor service to disadvantaged consumers. Marketing's impact on society has been

criticized for creating false wants and too much materialism, too few social goods, cultural

pollution and too much political power. Critics have also criticized marketing's impact on

other businesses for harming competitors and reducing competition through acquisitions,

practices that create; barriers to entry and unfair competitive marketing practices.

Concerns about the marketing system have led to citizen and public actions to regulate

marketing. Consumerism is an organized social movement intended to strengthen the rights

and power of consumers relative to sellers. Alert marketers view it as an opportunity to serve

consumers better by providing more consumer information, education and protection.

Environmentalism is an organized social movement seeking to minimize the harm done to

the environment and quality of life by marketing practices. It calls for curbing consumer wants

when their satisfaction would create too much environmental cost. Citizen action has led to

the passage of many laws to protect consumers in the area of product safety, truth in

packaging, truth in lending and truth in advertising.

Many companies originally opposed these social movements and laws, but most of them

now recognize a need for positive consumer information, education and protection. Some

companies have followed a policy of enlightened marketing based on the principles of

consumer orientation, innovation, value creation, social mission and societal marketing.

Increasingly, companies are responding to the need to provide company policies and

guidelines to help their employees deal with questions of marketing ethics. Although there

are many questions concerning marketing and social responsibility, companies are urged to

consider seven principles for public policy towards modern, responsible marketing: consumer

and producer freedom; curbing potential harm; 'meeting basic needs; economic efficiency;

innovation; consumer education and information, and consumer protection.


152

Statement of the problem

Marketing assist entrepreneurs achieve their business goals and objectives hence, choosing

and adopting the right strategies is crucial in determining the sustainability of an EMV in

terms of profitability, increase in market share and attracting new customers. However,

destructive strategies employed by competitors can negatively affect sustainability of Event

Management Ventures (EMVs). As entrepreneurs engage in cut-throat competition, they fail

to maximize profits and return on investment is not realized as they continued to play

undercutting tactics thus, resulting to unsustainability of ventures. If entrepreneurs engage in

marketing strategies that do not aim at undermining their competitors, many of the ventures

performance would be positively affected.

Research objectives

1. To establish whether unethical marketing strategies affect sustainability of tourism and

hospitality event management ventures

2. To investigate the effects of pricing strategies on sustainability of tourism and hospitality

event management ventures

3. To examine how growth as a strategy affects sustainability of tourism and hospitality


Research questions

1. To establish whether unethical marketing strategies affect sustainability of tourism and

hospitality event management ventures.

2. To investigate the effects of pricing strategies on sustainability of tourism and hospitality


3. To examine how growth as a strategy affects sustainability of tourism and hospitality


Conceptual framework for the study

Figure 1 shows the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In this

study sustainability of tourism and hospitality ventures depends on the extent to which

entrepreneurs engage in marketing strategies such as unethical, price and growth.

Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Figure 1: Conceptual framework

Un-

ethical

Strategie

s

Growth

Strategie

s

Pricing

Strategie

s

Sustainability of

Tourism and

Hospitality Event

Management

Ventures


153

Methodology

The study was both qualitative and quantitative and adopted explanatory research design.

The study was undertaken in Eldoret town. The target population was 43 event management

ventures. Census sampling technique was used to select the sample, while snowball

sampling technique was used to identify the respective respondents for the study. The

sample size for this study was 43 entrepreneurs of event management ventures within

Eldoret Town. Data collection instruments were questionnaires and interview schedules with

both unstructured and structured questions. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)

was used as a tool for analysis. Descriptive statistical techniques were employed to

summarize, analyse and present data. The data was presented in the form of percentages

and bar graphs.

Findings

Unethical marketing strategies

Unethical marketing strategies are those that aim at creating negative perceptions of

competitor products and services in order to ‘win’ the customer’s confidence. It involves

aspects such as entrepreneurs discrediting competitors to potential customers by portraying

them as unable to provide ‘quality services’, falsely blaming a competitor for an event that

failed in the past irrespective of whether the competitor undertook the event, claiming credit

for a competitors successful event and also trying to use a competitors event-in-progress by

issuing brochures during the event. These strategies thrive in entrepreneurs going out of

their way to look better than their competitors at whatever cost. A summary of the findings

are as shown on table 1 below.

Table 1: Effects of unethical strategies on sustainability of event management ventures

Unethical Marketing StrategiesVery

Much

Much Average Not

Much

Not at

All

Total

Discrediting competitor to

customers 49.1 40.1 8.7 1.7 0.4 100.0

False Blame when failure occurs 36.6 39.0 18.4 4.5 1.5 100.0Claim credit for a competitors

successful event 38.5 38.5 21.0 1.7 0.3 100.0Issue brochures when you have not

provided the service 40.3 30.3 26.1 3.3 0.0 100.0

Average 41.1 37.0 18.6 2.8 0.6 100.0

Source: Research findings, 2011

From the above table 1, majority (89.2%) of the respondents felt that it was unethical for

entrepreneurs to market themselves by discrediting competitors as this affects sustainability

of event management ventures. When entrepreneurs discredit their competitors, they destroy

their image and reduce customer confidence, hence making it very difficult for the aggrieved

to counter the accusations as the damage destroys the venture at a fast rate. Some ventures

have failed to grow or increase their market share resulting from discredits. The cycle


154

becomes vicious as the aggrieved retaliates when an opportunity arises thus, creating a

‘dirty’ business ground. An example of discrediting is like in the case of the catering venture,

an entrepreneur can tell a customer that his/her competitor serves cold food, burnt food,

inadequate food, cooks in unhygienic conditions and overcharges. Such comments are very

destructive to ventures. Additionally, discrediting may arise when entrepreneurs magnify a

small mishap that arise in a function and really bring out the negative part of it irrespective of

whether customers realized the mishap or not. At times a situation is converted to look like a

mishap and misreported.

From the findings, 75.6% entrepreneurs also engage in placing false blame on competitors

for a failed event. This occurs when a customer makes inquiries about certain events or

seeks information of the venture that undertook a certain failed event. At this point, the

entrepreneurs places the failed event on the ventures that poses as the greatest obstacle to

the anticipated job, so the entrepreneurs ‘fuels’ blame on the wrong venture which makes it

difficult for the customer not to believe. Therefore, from the findings, this kind of strategy by

entrepreneurs result in the unsustainability of ventures as others may lose business in high

seasons and be unable to service their loans or get return on investment hence give up and

close-business.

Again, a majority of 77% of the respondents indicated that when entrepreneurs take credit for

successful events undertaken by their competitors, it can lead to unsustainability of ventures.

This is because as a venture invests in doing good jobs in order to get more business, it

never materializes as the same is ‘stolen’ away by others by claiming credit. This also makes

it difficult for ventures to gain stability in the market as it always creates a situation that calls

for ‘trying to correct misinformation’ which in some instances customers may have believed.

Finally, 70.6% of the respondents indicated that when entrepreneurs issues brochures to

market or introduce themselves during an event that they have not undertaken can result to

unsustainability of a venture. This practice makes customers keep the brochures and

assume that the services they received was rendered by the marketing venture, hence the

venture undertaking the work fails to get business based on the outcome of the event duly

managed. This practice makes marketing through quality service difficult and can lead to

closure of business or poor performance resulting from reduced market share. It also makes

aggressive ventures benefit from those that believe in playing a fair game in the world of

business.

Growth strategies

This study looked at growth strategies. Firstly, horizontal growth where entrepreneurs

expand in a single line of business. Secondly, there was vertical growth where entrepreneurs

undertake to provide other services that are complementary to their main line of business

and lastly where entrepreneurs expand by providing services to more than one customer at a

time. The results are as shown on table 2.


155

Table 2: Growth strategies effects on sustainability of event management ventures

Growth StrategiesVery

Much

Much Average Not

Much

Not at

All

Total

Horizontal growth (same line of

business) 68.0 25.1 6.9 0.0 0.0 100.0Vendors providing other

complementary services (all

services) 76.2 12.4 8.2 3.2 0.0 100.0Undertaking many events

simultaneously 59.5 13.2 24.2 2.0 1.1 100.0

AVERAGE 50.9 12.7 9.8 1.3 0.3 75.0

Source: Data Analysis, 2011

From the findings, 93.1% of the respondents felt that the most acceptable growth strategy for

sustainability of event management ventures was horizontal growth i.e. growth on the same

line of activity. For example, a venture undertaking hiring of tents and chairs for functions

stood more chances of sustainability by expanding the venture through acquisition of more

tents and chairs than adding other ventures such as outside catering. Growth in the same

line of business enables entrepreneurs to specialize and master the art of the job hence

provision of quality services can result in customer satisfaction and eventual sustainability of

the business as the market share grows resulting from customer confidence. However, this

kind of growth was acceptable in situations where vendors would like to be a one-stop-shop.

On the other hand, 88.6% of the respondents felt that sustainability of a venture may be

affected by unacceptable growth strategies such as vendors attempting to provide all

services required in an event irrespective of their capabilities in terms of human resources,

capital resources and multi-tasking abilities.

In addition 72.7% of the respondents felt that sustainability of the venture was affected when

vendors undertake many events simultaneously such as having up to or more than five

events on the same day. These unacceptable practices compromised quality of service and

eventual customer satisfaction. However most of the respondents felt that vendors undertook

such practices resulting from the seasonal nature of the business hence they attempt to

make as much money to cover the low seasons.

Price Strategies

Findings from the study revealed that marketing strategies used by entrepreneurs such as

lowering prices for products and services and having low introductory prices for new products

and services were detrimental to the sustainability of the ventures. Low introductory prices

makes it difficult for an entrepreneur to increase at a later date hence reduces their chances

of attaining return on investment or maximizing profits. For example, when a new vendor

dealing with tents joins the market, their tents are new and the demand is also very high

because of the newness of the tents. At this point, the vendor should have taken advantage

of the demand to maximize profits, but because of the low prices, the vendor does not gain

much yet at the same time, the tents highly depreciate thus reduces chances of increasing

prices. The results are as shown on table 3.


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Table 3: Pricing strategies effects on sustainability of event management ventures

Price StrategiesVery

Much

Much Average Not

Much

Not at

All

Total

Cash Discounts 39.0 30.0 29.0 2.0 0.0 100.0

Skimming 50.0 32.0 13.0 4.0 1.0 100.0Lowering price after knowing your

competitors price to undercut 48.5 38.5 8.0 2.0 3.0 100.0

AVERAGE 45.8 33.5 16.7 2.7 1.3 100.0

Source: Data Analysis, 2011

From table 3 above, the majority of the respondents felt that price strategies affect

sustainability of event management ventures. With regard to cash discounts, 69% of the

respondents indicated that this strategy reduced return on investment and forces other

vendors to reduce prices which affected profitability. In the long run, many vendors are

pushed out of business because they are not able to re-invest, cannot renew their equipment

due to low liquidity and hence end up closing up their businesses. Similarly, a high

percentage of 82% of the respondents felt that skimming strategy whereby products are

introduced at low prices was detrimental to the growth of the business and that raising prices

for economic gains was difficult. Finally, a majority of 87% also indicated that many

competitors market themselves by lowering prices based on quotations of their competitors

to win customers. This eventually affects ventures negatively hence making it difficult to

attain sustainability. In summary, 79.3% of the respondents felt that pricing strategies

employed affected sustainability of event management ventures.

Sustainability

Most of the respondents felt that a venture was sustainable when it achieved return on

investment (ROI) resulting in the ability to expand, non-closure of business, and the ability to

repay loans. Also the ability to retain employees due to high wages and minimal employee

turnover meant that a venture was sustainable. From the findings, the majority of the

respondents indicated that as a result of the marketing strategies employed by the ventures,

many of the ventures eventually closed down, were not able to expand, did not attract good

employees and were unable to repay loans granted hence some had to sell off their

investment to offset loan balances in order to prevent them from accruing interest.

Conclusions

Marketing strategies used such as lowering prices and discrediting competitors were

detrimental to the growth and survival of the ventures.

As entrepreneurs engaged in cut-throat competition, they fail to maximize profits and ROI

is not realized as they continue to play undercutting tactics thus, resulting to stunted

growth of ventures.

Most entrepreneurs engage in marketing strategies aimed at undermining their

competitors hence, many of the ventures performance are negatively affected hence

difficulty in achieving sustainability


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Unethical, Pricing and growth strategies currently employed by event management

ventures affect sustainability of the ventures. This was supported by a majority of the

respondents.

Recommendations

Entrepreneurs should form an association to coordinate the activities of ventures where

in regulations are enacted to govern the ventures for profitability.

There is need for entrepreneurs to create a conducive business environment where all

parties work in a kind of network or collaboration.

The findings revealed the need to train entrepreneurs on the importance of applying

marketing strategies that enhance partnership and sustainability of the ventures.

Entrepreneurs should attempt to setup uniform price guidelines to enhance profitability for

all ventures.

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Documents

119 ATLAS Africa Volume 9 - the autors