Module 11

CHILDREN AND HOW THEY ARE IMPACTED BY DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

A high percentage of women that enter shelters as a result of domestic abuse bring children with them. Most

shelters have child support staff that are educated about the impacts of violence on children and who can

provide information and direction for frontline counsellors. It is also helpful for frontline counsellors to have

basic knowledge about the issues related to children in order that they are better able to support the mothers

when child support counsellors are unavailable.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

-to be aware of how children are impacted by the trauma of domestic violence

-to interact with children in the shelter in a supportive manner

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

• Numerous children and teens are impacted by domestic violence each year.

• Research shows that 80-90% of children who were in homes where violence took place indicate that

they were aware of the violence (Jaffe et al., 1990; Jaffe & Geffner, 1998).

• Studies have estimated that 70% of children who witness woman abuse are also physically abused

(Jaffe et al., 1990; Jaffe & Geffner, 1998).

HOW CHILDREN ARE IMPACTED:

Children that witness violence in the home are impacted in a number of ways. They may be overwhelmed by

intense feelings and are often confused, afraid and tend to blame themselves for what is happening in their

homes. “As they watch or listen, they guess what caused the “fight”, imagine what might happen next, and

anticipate potential consequences” (Cunningham & Baker, 2007 p.1). Research suggests that some of the

symptoms that children may display include aggressive behaviours, reduced social competencies, depression,

fears, anxiety, sleep disturbances and learning problems (Edleson, 1999, Holden, Geffner & Jouriles, 1998;

Jaffe, Wolfe & Wilson, 1990; Perry, 2003).

The YWCA of Calgary Paths of Change Children’s manual outlines the following common reactions of

children exposed to domestic abuse:

1. Irritability: increased aggressive behaviour, angry outbursts, difficult to soothe

2. Nervous and anxious behaviours: feelings of fear, anger, depression, grief, and shame

3. Sleep disturbances: frequent nightmares, waking in the night, bedwetting

4. Heightened arousal: worried, fearful, easily startled, hypervigilant, night terrors

5. Physical complaints: physical reactions such as stomach cramps, headaches, eating difficulties, frequent

illness, stuttering, other aches and pains without any medical cause

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6. Regression: loss of skills learned at an earlier age

7. Distorted sense of trust: find it difficult to trust others; inappropriate boundaries

8. Withdrawal: loss of interest in friends, school or other activities

9. Numbing of responsiveness

10. Separation anxiety

11. Limited attention

12. Changes in play

13. Acting out behaviours

14. Changes in attitudes

WAYS THAT CHILDREN EXPERINCE ABUSE:

Cunningham & Baker (2007) state that when a male is abusive to a child’s mother, it is bad parenting. The

male may mistreat the children directly or put them at risk of being hurt during aggressive incidents. They

outline the following ways that children are exposed to “women abuse”

• Seeing a mother assaulted or put down

• Hearing loud conflict and violence

• Seeing the after effects of violence

• Learning about what happened to a mother

• Being used by an abusive parent as part of the abuse

• Seeing a father abuse his new partner when children visit him

• Being denied what is owed for child support

They suggest the following ways that children may be used by a parent that is abusive:

• Suggesting a child’s misbehavior is the cause of the abusive behaviour

• Encouraging children to abuse their mother

• Threatening violence against children and/or pets

• Talking inappropriately to children about their mother’s behaviour

• Prolonging court proceedings regarding custody and access, especially when he has previously shown

little interest in the children

• Holding the children hostage or abducting them

Cunningham & Baker report that during violent incidents children may act as referees, try to rescue their

mothers, try to deflect the abusive individual’s attention onto them, try to distract the abusive individual, take

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care of siblings, and look for outside help. They suggest that children may feel fear, distress, anxiety, self-

blame, guilt, anger, grief, confusion, worry, embarrassment, and hope for someone to help them.

Cunningham & Baker suggest that children may learn the following from violence against their mothers:

• Violence gets you what you want

• Individuals have two choices- either be an aggressor or a victim

• Victims are to blame for the violence

• When people hurt others, they do not get into trouble

• Woman are weak, helpless, incompetent,

• Anger causes violence or drinking causes violence

• People who love you can also hurt you

• Anger be suppressed because it can hurt you

• Unhealthy, unequal relationships are normal or to be expected

• Men are in charge and get to control women’s lives

• Women don’t have the right to be treated with respect

Ten ways a child may be changed by violence in the home because:

1. Children are denied a positive male role model

2. Abuse can harm the mother /child bond

3. Children can develop negative core beliefs about themselves

4. Children can be isolated from helpful sources of support

5. Unhealthy family roles can evolve in homes with violence

6. Abuse destroys a child’s view of the world as a safe and predictable place

7. Abuse co-occurs with other stresses and difficulties

8. A child’s style of coping and survival may become problematic

9. Children may adopt some of the rationalizations for abuse

10. Children can believe that victimization is inevitable or normal

CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Children are impacted by domestic violence differently depending on their age and stage of development.

Each stage of development involves a primary task that needs to be achieved in order for a child to develop

in a healthy emotional manner. Living in a home where there is abuse impacts children’s development.

(Information summarized from the Paths of Change – Children’s Group Manual and from Little Eyes, Little

Ears by Cunningham and Baker, 2007)

• INFANTS (0-18 months):

Main developmental task: working through the issue of trust versus mistrust. When there is violence in the

home, babies may be distressed or afraid and pick-up on the stresses of their mothers. When loud noises and

tensions become frequent in homes, babies learn to adapt by staying in a heightened state of arousal or they

may become numb.

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The most important individual in an infant’s life is the primary caregiver, usually the mother. The nature of

this relationship will largely determine whether the child perceives the world as safe, predictable and loving or

unpredictable and unsafe. When there is family violence, mothers often have difficulties responding to the

needs of their babies. The mother may use most of her energy managing the stresses in the home which may

impact the mother-infant attachment. The atmosphere in the home is often tense, and may be physically and

emotionally unsafe. The abusive parent may be intolerant of the baby crying and may have unrealistic

expectations. The fear and instability that babies live with may result in inhibited exploration and play. Babies

may have elevated levels of anxiety , poor general health, sleep poorly, experience disruptions in their feeding

schedules, fail to thrive in extreme situations, experience excessive separation anxiety and have anxious

attachment with their mothers.

Babies exposed to violence can suffer permanently altered development of their central nervous systems

resulting in developmental delays, ongoing anxiety, hyperactivity and mood disorders (Campbell et al., 2000;

Perry, 1999). Research suggests that the brain development of infants exposed to violence may be impacted.

A child’s ability to think abstractly, to learn, to control emotion and to experience empathy may be altered.

Some infants are at risk for direct harm when accidently hit and injured during a violent episode.

• TODDLERS (18 months to 2-3 years):

Toddlers begin to realize that they can control their actions and that intentions can be acted out. Children

learn to think and solve problems in order to separate from parents.

In a home where there is violence, children may believe that they have little influence over their lives due to

the unpredictability of their environments. Between the ages of 2 and 3, children learn to express and manage

their feelings. In families impacted by domestic violence, there are often unspoken rules about

communication. The expression of feelings may be hampered by the family rule “don’t feel”. This is based on

a belief that a person who expresses feelings show weakness and allows others to have power over them.

Men who are abusive often tend to have an authoritarian style of parenting and may be intolerant of

challenges presented by toddlers. Toddlers testing limits and using the word “no” are normal behaviours.

These behaviours may be punished and viewed as challenging the power of the parent that is abusive.

Children exposed to family violence may experience excessive separation anxiety, may exhibit sadness,

helplessness and an exaggerated startle response. Children may engage in repetitive play as a means of making

sense of their environments.

You can access a two page handout for mothers of babies and toddlers on page 50 -51 of Helping

Children Thrive: Supporting Women Abuse Survivors as Mothers (2004). www.lfcc.on.ca.

• PRESCHOOL (3-6 years);

The preschool stage involves children developing a sense of self through identification with parents and also a

sense of responsibility for their own actions. This is also a time when children sort out role and power

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relationships with others. Children engage in make believe play. Children raised in homes where there is

violence often learn and act out the role of either the abusive parent or the parent who is being abused.

Children’s play will often involve reenacting what they have witnessed. These children may also develop rigid

beliefs about gender roles based on their experiences in the home. Children that witness abuse may learn

unhealthy ways of expressing anger. Preschoolers tend to interpret events in relation to themselves and may

blame themselves for the violence in the home. Children of this age do not have the cognitive abilities to

assess the entire situation. They may feel that they are responsible for fixing the problems in their home.

Children may regress developmentally, suffer sleep disturbances (nightmares and insomnia), may regress to

bed wetting, become excessively clingy and have difficulties separating. These behaviours may result in

developmental delays in social interactions, as well as cognition and language delays.

“Children of this age need to hear that what happened was not their fault, they are still loved, and that

important features of daily life will go on even if their families have changed or moved” (Baker &

Cunningham 2007, p. 18).

You can access a two page handout for mothers of preschoolers on page 52-53 of Helping Children

Thrive: Supporting Women Abuse Survivors as Mothers (2004). www.lfcc.on.ca.

• SCHOOL AGED CHILDREN (6-12 years)

Developmentally, school aged children need to learn about structure and develop their own internal structure.

It is also a time of developing a number of skills. School aged children also have an increased need to interact

and be accepted by their peers. Erickson named this stage – industry versus inferior and stressed that it is

necessary for children to learn that they are competent and capable.

When children of this age see fights between their parents, many are able to recognize how actions have

reasons and consequences and that their mothers are often upset after the fights. School aged children

exposed to violence will often exhibit depression, anxiety, confusion, a loss of self-esteem, anger, aggression,

fear and withdrawal. Children may feel responsible for the abuse in the home. Children who witness violence

often perceive punishment as love and may seek punishment and love with behaviours such as lying and

stealing. Some children may become aggressive, self-destructive and have difficulties concentrating in school.

Other children may look like perfect children on the outside but experience pain on the inside. Some may

have headaches, stomach aches and have trouble sleeping.

Children at this age are learning what is means to be male and female and in homes where there is abuse they

are getting messages that men are in control and their needs are the most important.

You can access a two page handout for mothers of school aged children on page 54 -55 of Helping

Children Thrive: Supporting Women Abuse Survivors as Mothers (2004). www.lfcc.on.ca.

• TEENAGERS (13-19 years)

The adolescent stage is a time for establishing a sense of identity, achieving a more definitive separation from

family and dealing with emerging sexual feelings. Peer groups become more important at this stage of

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development. Adolescents also strive for more independence at this stage but still need the guidance and

support of parents.

Adolescence is a challenging time for most parents and their teens and even more so when there is violence

in the home. Youth who live with violence may be embarrassed about what is happening in their home and

may try to project that everything is okay in their homes. Often adolescents are expected to take care of their

younger siblings and sometimes their mothers. They may be angry at either or both parents. Many have

concern for the well-being of their mothers and try to be protective of them. Sometimes adolescents are

vengeful towards the abusive parent.

Adolescents are at risk for repeating the abusive relationships they have witnessed. They are vulnerable to

engaging in destructive behaviours such as substance abuse, running away from home, suicidal ideation, early

sexual activity and engaging in criminal activities. Boys may become abusive in their own dating relationships

while girls may accept abuse from boys as normal. Sometimes adolescents lash out and become physically

abusive to their parents or younger siblings.

You can access a two page handout for mothers of teens on page 56 -57 of Helping Children Thrive:

Supporting Women Abuse Survivors as Mothers (2004). www.lfcc.on.ca.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND THE IMPACT OF TRAUMA (from Paths of Change:

Children’s group counselling manual).

Children that grow up in homes where there is domestic abuse live with fears, chaos and unpredictability

which in turns impacts the development of the neural systems of the brain.

If during the first three years of development, a child receives love, consistency and stimulation, the neural

synapses and pathways are formed between the brain cells. These connections form the network system of

the brain that facilitates later learning. The child’s early experiences determine the overall strength and

functioning of this networking.

When a child is exposed to any threat, his or her brain activates a set of adaptive responses designed to assist

the child to survive. There is a continuum of adaptive responses to threats and different children have

different adaptive methods. Some children use a hyperarousal response such as fight or flight and some utilize

a dissociative response such as tuning out the threat. In most traumatic events a combination of the two

responses occurs.

Children in a state of fear retrieve information from their worlds differently than children who are calm.

When children are in a state of calm, they are able to use the more complex parts of their brains to process

and deal with information. In a state of fear, children use the lower, more primitive parts of the brain. As the

perceived threat level escalates, the less thoughtful and more reactive responses become. Behaviours in this

state may be controlled by emotions and reactive thinking.

When children experience ongoing activation of the stress response systems, their baseline state of arousal is

altered. The traumatized child lives in an aroused state and is not prepared to learn and grow from their life

experiences. A child with a brain that is adapted for an environment of chaos, unpredictability, threat and

distress struggles in the classroom and other social milieus. Even when there is no threat, these children are

physiologically in a state of alarm. When they encounter a stressor in their everyday life, they can quickly

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escalate to a state of fear. Traumatized children appear to have less ability to tolerate the normal stresses of

school, home and friends (Perry, 2003).

The brain is comprised of many distinct regions, each responsible for a specific function. Promislow (1998)

categorized the major brain regions as the back brain, the mid-brain and the cerebral cortex (front brain).

Under conditions of trauma, the back brain, the cerebellum, is first to alert the body’s responses to the

situation. This region of the brain handles the automatic, vital functions such as heart rate and breathing. The

back brain is made up of three distinct sections the brain stem – responsible for the basic life functions of

digestion, respiration and circulation; the reticular activating system (located at the top of the brain stem) that

acts as a transmission and filtering mechanism for incoming brain signals and transmits them to the higher

reasoning area of the brain and the cerebellum at the back of the brain stem which is responsible for complex

motor functions such as walking.

The mid-brain (limbic brain) is responsible for vital functions such as body temperature, blood pressure and

the filtering of emotions. The mid-brain is associated with motivation, regulating “the fight or flight response,

the release of hormones, interpretation of emotion, connections for fine motor tasks and is a major pathway

to the cerebral cortex.

The cerebral cortex is the centre for reason and insight. This part of the brain decodes sensory information,

facilitates the formation of complex memories, analyzes information and makes decisions. The cerebral

cortex is comprised of the right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere is responsible for logical thinking

while the left brain is responsible for emotional reasoning. Under stress the communication between these

two hemispheres breaks down, allowing individuals to access one or the other but not both.

Studies have demonstrated that exposure to ongoing domestic violence may lead to symptoms of post-

traumatic stress disorder in children. Children’s responses may include intense fear, feelings of helplessness or

they may act agitated or disorganized. They may re-experience the violence as a result of triggers. Some

children may experience ongoing arousal and therefore have difficulties sleeping, be irritable, be angry, have

difficulty concentrating, be hypervigilant, or have an exaggerated startle response (Perry, 1999). Recent

studies suggest that ongoing exposure to violence leads to impairment in brain development for more than

30% of children (Perry, 1999, 2003).

A THREAD FOR YOUR TAPESTRY OF INTERVENTIONS

Perry (1999) suggests the following ways for parents or professionals to support a child that has experienced trauma:

Don’t be afraid to talk about the traumatic event

Be open, honest and clear

Be prepared to discuss the same thing over and over again

Provide a consistent, predicable structure for the day

Be nurturing, comforting and affectionate

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Discuss expectations for behaviour and discipline with the child

Talk with the child

Watch closely for signs of re-enactment

Give the child choices and some sense of control

Use age appropriate language and explanations

In summary, Perry suggests that exposing children to developmentally appropriate experiences is essential for

healing of children. He states that the therapeutic healing process will influence the parts of the brain altered

by trauma. He stresses that it is important to be good role models and in all interactions with children it is

essential to be “attentive, respectful, honest and caring”. It is also necessary to provide an environment which

is “relationally enriched, safe, predictable and nurturing”.

CHILDREN IN SHELTERS

Children who arrive with their mothers at shelters are often in a state of crisis as are their mothers. They may

feel confused, angry and resentful. They are usually dealing with their own experience of domestic violence as

well as experiencing many losses. The reaction and experience of children coming into the shelter will depend

on the child’s age, prior shelter stays, the child’s awareness about the violence as well as the child’s readiness

and openness to talk about the violence. For all children, coming into a shelter is disruptive.

Once children have had an opportunity to feel comfortable and safe in the shelter, many of their challenging

behaviours and/or intense feelings may decrease.

While the developmental consequences of living in chronic violence can be devastating for some children,

and all children pay a price, not all children experience developmental harm or clinical outcomes (Garbarino

et al, 1992).

A THREAD FOR YOUR TAPESTRY OF INTERVENTIONS

Following are things that parents or supportive adults can do for children that have been exposed to domestic

abuse:

Let the children know they are not forgotten

Explain things in language that they can understand

Tell them the violence is not their fault

Reassure them that they are loved and they will be taken care of

Give them permission to talk about the violence

Help them make a safety plan which they can follow

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Encourage children to express their feelings

Let them know that it is normal to be upset after witnessing abuse

Let them know others have had similar experiences

Encourage children and teens to feel in control – let them make decisions suitable for their particular age

Do not criticize regressive behaviours

Validate all feelings expressed (From Paths of Change – Child Support Handbook, YWCA of Calgary).

Additional recommendations provided by Scobie (2007)

• Tell children that violence is not okay and that no one deserves to be deserved.

• Also tell them that it is important that they feel safe and happy.

• Encourage children to express their feelings. Listen without passing judgment. Help younger learn to

use words that express their feelings. Do not force the discussion.

• Let children know that it is okay to feel upset after something bad happens.

• Reassure children that the abusive event was not their fault.

• Allow time for children to experience and talk about their feelings

• Do not criticize regressive behaviour or shame the children with words like babyish

• Allow children to cry or be sad. Don’t expect them to be brave or tough.

Stephens, McDonald & Jouriles (2000) recommend that one of the most beneficial interventions of frontline

counsellors and/child support staff is to offer “(a)ctivities that provide opportunities for mothers and

children to ‘take a break’ from the stress and tension” while they are residents of shelters (p. 156). They also

point out that a second significant intervention is referring moms to a variety of community resources when

they leave the shelter.

Jaffe & Loosley, in Children Exposed to Family Violence: A Handbook for Alberta Shelter Workers,

recommend the following occur with mothers within the first 24 hours of being in a shelter:

� Address immediate concerns:

• Physical safety needs

• Custody and legal issues – provide referrals to legal services

• Contact schools to inform them of children’s absence

• Address medical issues and special needs for children

� Special considerations for infants:

• Address infant’s needs with mother – formula, food, diapers, special needs

• Enquire about infant’s health and well-being

Within 48 hours:

With child:

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• Provide detailed tour of the shelter – highlighting safety features as well as limits

• Describe activities and programs for kids and teenagers

• Provide child with a toy from the shelter to assist in the transition to a shelter

With mother and child:

• Develop safety plan

THROUGH A CHILD’S EYES

Nine year old Janie came to the shelter with her mother, her 4 year old brother, Jack and her baby

sister, Emily. She had witnessed her stepfather push her mom on several occasions but the night

previously her had hit her very hard and she fell against the kitchen table and cut her head. Janie ran

to the neighbours for help and the neighbours called the police. Janie was feeling very confused

about what happened wondering if it was her fault that the police came and took her stepfather away.

The police had brought her mother, Jack and her to the shelter. She was scared, confused and sad

and wanted to stay close to her mom. She had lots of questions about what was going to happen to

her family. What about school? What about her next soccer game? Was her mom going to be okay?

What about her toys and clothes? Would she be able to see her friends?

Four year old Jack appeared to be angry. The first night in the shelter he would not settle at bed time.

He would not let his mom out of his sight. In the play room at the shelter, he was aggressive with

some of the other children. He could not stay focused on one activity for long. He wanted to go

home back to his own room and his own toys.

Emily was only 9 months old and had been a very contented baby for the first few months of her

life. Her mother explained that it appeared as the violence in the relationship increased so did Emily’s

crying. She had slept through the night at three months but mom reported that she had been waking

frequently and had become clingier the last little while. She appeared to startle easily and was difficult

to console.

THE IMPACT OF ABUSE ON PARENTING

Many of the women who experience domestic abuse are psychologically traumatized in varying degrees by

their experiences. Levendosky and Graham-Bermann (2000) have suggested that trauma may produce two

different impacts on parenting. The first possible impact is that there is not change in the ability of women to

parent and their parenting behaviours remain the same despite the trauma that they experienced. The other

possible result is that the reactions associated with trauma act to decrease the mother’s ability to adequately

function and therefore her ability to parent is impacted. It is common for mothers who have been abused to

be socially isolated and they may tend to be extremely overprotective or hypervigilant. Such behaviours tend

to restrict their children’s social and emotional development.

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Some studies have found a significant relationship between the degree of maternal stress and a child’s level of

adjustment (Jaffe et al, 1990). Rossman et al (1997) found that children whose mothers had PTSD had a

greater chance of also developing PTSD. When the mother-child relationship was supported after a trauma,

children displayed fewer PTSD symptoms as well as less behavioural and school related difficulties.

Abuse tends to undermine a mother’s parenting. Children often learn to disrespect their mothers and they

may see their mothers as weak and powerless (Bancroft & Silverman, 2002). When children hear their fathers

talk negatively about their mothers, they may blame the mother for causing the abuse. As children get older,

some adopt the abusive behaviours of their fathers and direct this abuse towards their mothers.

Mothers accessing shelters can benefit from information about parenting. An excellent resource is: Helping Children Thrive Supporting Woman Abuse Survivors as Mothers: A Resource to Support Parenting by Linda Baker and Alison Cunningham (2004). This 76-page resource, developed with funding from the Ontario Women's Directorate, is written for service providers assisting women who have survived woman abuse. Forty-two pages are designed as handouts for mothers. Some of the handouts are specific to services in Ontario but many of them are applicable for parents anywhere. www.lfcc.on.ca/HCT_SWASM.pdf.

It is helpful to refer mothers to parenting programs that are your agency offers or to programs in the community, for example a Parent Link Centre. Parent Link Centres are located throughout the province. Check this website to see if there is one in your area. www.parentlinkalberta.ca/.

REPORTING OBLIGATIONS

There are times when frontline counsellors must call Alberta Child and Family Services to report situations in

which children are unsafe. Please see Building a Collaborative, Community Based Response: A guide for

shelters and Child and Family Services Authorities in Protocol Development (2006) available on the Alberta

Council of Women Shelters website www.acws.ca. The Child, Youth and Family Enhancement Act states

“any person who has reasonable and probable grounds to believe that a child is in need of intervention shall

forthwith report the matter to a director”. The act goes on to indicate that “any person who fails to comply

with subsection (1) is guilty of an offense and liable to a fine of not more than 2000 dollars and in default of

payment to prison for a term of not more than 6 months.” The act also states that members of professional

organizations have an increased responsibility to report concerns about children and youth in their care. It is

highlighted that shelter staff should inform their shelter supervisor either prior to or following the report.

Shelter staff need to make decisions regarding informing the mother of the report. This decision needs to be

made in the best interest of the child and should be made in consultation with the Children’s Services

caseworker.

REFERENCES:

Baker, L.L. & Cunningham, A. (2004). Helping children thrive: Supporting woman abuse survivors as mothers. Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System www.lfcc.on.ca/mothers.html. Bancroft, L., & Silverman, J.G. (2002). The Batterer as Parent: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Family Dynamics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications

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Building a collaborative, community based response: A guide for shelters and Child and Family Services

Authorities in protocol development (2006). Available on the Alberta Council of Women Shelters website

www.acws.ca.

Campbell, L. Jackson, AC., Cameron, N., Smith, S., Goodman, H. (2000). High risk infants service quality

improvement initiatives – evaluation report. Melbourne: Victorian Department of Human Services.

Cunningham, A. & Baker, L. (2007) Little Eyes, Little Ears: How Violence Against a Mother Shapes Children as they Grow. Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System www.lfcc.on.ca/little_eyes_little_ears.html.

Edelson, J.L. (1999). Problems associated with children’s witnessing of domestic violence. WWW document –

Violence Against Women online Resources) http://www.vaw.umn.edu/documents/vawnet.

Gabarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in danger: Coping with the

consequences of community violence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Holden, G.W., Geffner, R.A. & Jouriles, E.N. (1998). Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research

and applied issues. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Jaffe, P.G. & Geffner, RA (1998). Child custody disputes and domestic violence: Critical issues for mental

health, social service, and legal professionals. In G.W. Holden, R. Geffner, and E.N. Jouriles (Eds). Children

exposed to marital violence: theory, research and applied issues (pp. 371-408). Washington, DC: American

Psychological Association.

Jaffe, P.G., Wolfe, D.A. & Wilson, S.K. (1990). Children of battered women. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Publications.

Jaffe, P. & Loosley, S. Children exposed to family violence: A handbook for Alberta shelter workers.

Sponsored by the Alberta Council of Women’s Shelters and the Centre for Children and Families in the

Justice System

Levendosky, A. A. & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2000). Parenting in battered women: The effects of domestic violence on women and children. Journal of Family Violence.

Paths of Change – Child Support Handbook: A program for children in shelter who have been exposed to family violence. YWCA of Calgary

Paths of Change – Children’s Groups: Facilitator’s Manual: A program for children who have been exposed to family violence. YWCA of Calgary.

Perry, B.D. Memories of Fear How the Brain Stores and Retrieves Physiologic States, Feelings, Behaviours and Thoughts from Traumatic Events. The Child Trauma Academy. www.childtrauma.org/ctamaterials/memories.asp.

Perry, B.D. (1999). Helping traumatized children. Child Trauma Academy: Parent and Caregiver Education Series, 1, 3, 1-14. www.childtrauma.org/ctamaterials/Principles2.asp. Perry, B.D. (1999). Stress, Trauma and Post-traumatic Stress Disorders in Children

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Child Trauma Academy. www.childtrauma.org/ctamaterials/ptsd_interdisc.asp. Perry, B.D. (2003). Maltreated children: Experience, brain development and the next generation. NY:W.Norten. Perry, B.D. Bonding and attachment in maltreated children: consequences of emotional neglect in childhood www.childtrauma.org/ctamaterials/AttCar4_03_v2.pdf. Promislow, S. (1998). Making the brain –body connection. West Vancouver, B.C.: Kinetic Publishing

Rossman, B.B. (1998). Descarte’s error and posttraumatic stress disorder: Cognition and emotion and

children who are exposed to parental violence. In G.W. Holden, R. Geffner, and E.N. Jouriles (Eds).

Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research and applied issues (pp. 223-256). Washington, DC:

American Psychological Association.

Scobie, W. (2007). Family violence tool kit. Addressing family violence: Peace begins at home. Halte-Femmes

Montreal-Nord. www.formatl78.com/halte_femme_cd/Eng/html/accueil_eng.html.

Stephens, N., McDonald, R. & Jouriles, E.N. (2000). Helping children who reside at shelters for battered

women: Lessons learned.www.informaworld.com/index/904419645.pdf.