108. Bank of Augusta vs Earle

7/26/2019 108. Bank of Augusta vs Earle

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Page 238 U.S. 519, *; 10 L. Ed. 274, **;

1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

1 of 1 DOCUME!

THE BANK OF AUGUSTA,PLAINTIFFS IN ERROR, vs. JOSEPH B. EARLE,

DEFENDANT IN ERROR; THE BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, PLAINTIFFS

IN ERROR, vs. WILLIAM D. PRIMROSE, DEFENDANT IN ERROR; THE NEWORLEANS AND CARROLLTON RAILROAD COMPANY, PLAINTIFFS IN

ERROR, vs. JOSEPH B. EARLE,DEFENDANT IN ERROR.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

38 U.S. 5!; " L. E#. $%&; 83! U.S. LE'IS &55

M()*+ !, 83!, D*-##

PRIOR HISTORY /0001 I e""o" #o #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) fo" #$e )o'#$e"( d%)#"% of +aa-a.

!$e)e &a)e) e"e "o'g$# f"o- #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# of #$e )o'#$e"( d%)#"% of +aa-a, / #$e +a%(#%ff) %( ea&$ &a)e, /"%#) of e""o". !$e &a)e) of #$e a( of 'g')#a ). o)e$ . Ea"+e, a(d of #$e a( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) ). %++%a-D. P"%-"o)e, e"e a"g'ed / &o'()e+. !$e &a)e of #$e e O"+ea() a(d Ca""o++#o( 6a%+"oad Co-a(/ a) )'-%##ed /M". Ogde(, o( #$e a"g'-e(# %( #$e o#$e" &a')e).

I( #$e &a)e of #$e a( of 'g')#a ). o)e$ . Ea"+e, #$e fa) e"e #$e fo++o%(g

!$e a( of 'g')#a, %(&o"o"a#ed / #$e +eg%)+a#'"e of #$e )#a#e of eo"g%a, %()#%#'#ed %( #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# fo" #$e)o'#$e"( d%)#"% of +aa-a, %( Ma"&$, 1837, a( a%o( aga%()# o)e$ . Ea"+e, a &%#%:e( of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a, o( a%++ of e&$a(ge, da#ed a# Mo%+e, oe-e" 3, 183


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

#$e )#a#e of +aa-a. !$e defe(da(# %) a &%#%:e( of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a. eo"ge /000&1 Poe, "., a) #$e age(# of #$e+a%(#%ff), "e)%de(# %( Mo%+e, a(d %( #$e o))e))%o( of f'(d) e+o(g%(g #o #$e +a%(#%ff), %(#"')#ed #o $%- fo" #$e )o+d'"o)e of '"&$a)%(g %++) of e&$a(ge. !$e )a%d eo"ge Poe, "., a) )'&$ age(#, o( #$e 14#$ da/ of a('a"/, . D.1837, '"&$a)ed a# Mo%+e #$e %++ de&+a"ed 'o(, a(d a%d fo" #$e )a-e %( (o#e) of #$e "a(&$ of #$e a( of #$e S#a#eof +aa-a, a# Mo%+e. !$e defe(da(# %) #$e a/ee of #$e %++, a(d e(do")ed %# #o +a%(#%ff), #$e "e)e(# $o+de"). !$e %++

a) "e)e(#ed a# -a#'"%#/ #o #$e a&&e#o"), a(d d'+/ "o#e)#ed fo" (o(a/-e(#; a(d d'e a(d +ega+ (o#%&e g%e( #o #$edefe(da(#.

!$e B'e)#%o( fo" #$e o%(%o( of #$e Co'"# o( #$e fo"ego%(g )#a#e-e(# of fa) %), $e#$e" #$e '"&$a)e of #$e )a%d %++ ofe&$a(ge / #$e +a%(#%ff), a) afo"e)a%d, a) a a+%d &o(#"a '(de" #$e +a) of +aa-a. If #$e Co'"# e of o%(%o( #$a##$e )a%d &o(#"a a) a+%d, a(d #$a# #$e )a%d +a%(#%ff), a) $o+de") of #$e )a%d %++, a&B'%"ed #$e +ega+ #%#+e #$e"e#o / #$e)a%d '"&$a)e, #$e( A'dg-e(# #o e "e(de"ed fo" #$e +a%(#%ff) fo" #$e )'- of 5,350 do++a"), %#$ %(#e"e)# a# e%g$# e" &e(#.)%(&e 30#$ Ma/, 1837, a(d #e( e" &e(#. da-age) o( %#. /00051 '# %f #$e Co'"# e of o%(%o( #$a# #$e )a%d '"&$a)e a)"o$%%#ed / #$e +a) of +aa-a, a(d #$e &o(#"a a) #$e"efo"e %(a+%d a(d o%d, A'dg-e(# #o e "e(de"ed fo" #$edefe(da(#.?

!$e C%"&'%# Co'"# gae A'dg-e(# fo" #$e defe(da(#.

!$e a%o( of #$e e O"+ea() a(d Ca""o++#o( 6a%+"oad Co-a(/, %(&o"o"a#ed / a( a of #$e +eg%)+a#'"e of Lo'%)%a(a,a) 'o( a %++ of e&$a(ge, d"a( / ='++e", a"d(e", a(d Co., of Mo%+e, %( fao'" of o)e$ . Ea"+e, 'o( ='++e"

a(d >o)#, of e O"+ea(), fo" f%e #$o')a(d #o $'(d"ed a(d #e( do++a"), "o#e)#ed fo" (o(a/-e(#. !$e a%o( a)aga%()# #$e e(do")e" of #$e %++, $%&$ $ad ee( '"&$a)ed a# Mo%+e / a( age(# of #$e +a%(#%ff), $o $ad f'(d) %( $%)$a(d) e+o(g%(g #o #$e +a%(#%ff), fo" #$e '"o)e of '"&$a)%(g %++) e&$a(ge, a) a -ea() of "e-%##a(&e #o eO"+ea().

!$e C%"&'%# Co'"# gae A'dg-e(# fo" #$e defe(da(#.

CASE SUMMARY

PROCEDURAL POSTURE P+a%(#%ff a( aea+ed a A'dg-e(# f"o- #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# of #$e So'#$e"( D%)#"% of+aa-a, $%&$ a) "e(de"ed %( fao" of defe(da(#) %( +a%(#%ff) a%o( fo" (o(a/-e(# of a %++ of e&$a(ge.

O2ER2IEW !$e U.S. S'"e-e Co'"# "ee")ed a A'dg-e(# %( fao" of defe(da(#) %( +a%(#%ff) a%o( #o "e&oe" fo"(o(a/-e(# of a %++ of e&$a(ge. Defe(da(#), &%#%:e() of +aa-a, &o'+d (o# defea# +a%(#%ff) "e&oe"/ / a))e"#%(g#$a# +a%(#%ff, a a( o"ga(%:ed '(de" #$e +a) of eo"g%a, a) '(a+e #o &o(#"a %( +aa-a #o '"&$a)e %++) ofe&$a(ge. +#$o'g$ +a%(#%ff, a) a( e(#%#/ &"ea#ed / +a, o))e))ed o(+/ )'&$ oe" #o a a) a'#$o"%:ed '(de" %#)&o"o"a#e &$a"#e", #$e Co'"# de#e"-%(ed, 'o( ea-%(a#%o( of +a%(#%ff) &$a"#e", #$a# eo"g%a g"a(#ed +a%(#%ff #$e oe"#o -ae a &o(#"a a(d dea+ %( fo"e%g( %++) of e&$a(ge )o fa" a) #$a# )#a#e $ad #$e a'#$o"%#/ #o &o(fe" %#. ='"#$e"-o"e,af#e" "e%e%(g #$e (a#'"e of +aa-a a(%(g %()#%#'#%o(), #$e ge(e"a+ )&oe of +aa-a +eg%)+a#%o( a(d "%o" A'd%&%a+de&%)%o() of +aa-a &o'"#) "e+a#%(g #o &o-%#/, #$e Co'"# &o(&+'ded #$a# +aa-a "e&og(%:ed +a%(#%ff) "%g$# '(de" %#)&$a"#e" #o -ae a &o(#"a %( a )#a#e o#$e" #$a( eo"g%a. S%(&e e(fo"&e-e(# of #$e %++ of e&$a(ge / a fo"e%g(&o"o"a#%o( aga%()# defe(da(#) d%d (o# %o+a#e #$e '+%& o+%&/ of +aa-a, +a%(#%ff a) e(#%#+ed #o &o++e o( %#.

OUTCOME !$e S'"e-e Co'"# "ee")ed a A'dg-e(# fo" defe(da(#) %( +a%(#%ff a() a%o( #o "e&oe" o( a %++ ofe&$a(ge. U(de" %#) &o"o"a#e &$a"#e" g"a(#ed / eo"g%a, +a%(#%ff $ad #$e oe" #o -ae a &o(#"a %#$ &%#%:e() ofo#$e" )#a#e). !$"o'g$ "%(&%+e) of &o-%#/, +aa-a "e&og(%:ed +a%(#%ff) oe" #o do )o, a(d #$e"efo"e, %# a) (o#

aga%()# +aa-a) '+%& o+%&/ #o e(fo"&e #$e %++ of e&$a(ge aga%()# defe(da(#).

CORE TERMS &o-%#/, %++) of e&$a(ge, a(%(g, &$a"#e", )oe"e%g(#/, &o--e"&e, f"a(&$%)e, o%d, e+o(g, )#o&,a"#%f%&%a+, &$a"#e"ed, )ee"a+ )#a#e), "e&og(%)ed, &o(fe""ed, "e)e"ed, "e'g(a(#, )oe"e%g(, "e)'-e, a'#$o"%:e, &o-%#/ of(a#%o(), &o(#e-+a#%o(, #"%'(a+, +a of (a#%o(), a( &$a"#e", &%"&'+a#%o(, d%)&o'(#ed, '"&$a)%(g, "oo"#%o(, ')age)

L-sN-s4R H(#67s

Business & Corporate Law > Corporations > Formation > Corporate Existence, Powers & Purpose > General

Overview


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

1F $e(ee" a &o"o"a#%o( -ae) a &o(#"a, %# %) #$e &o(#"a of #$e +ega+ e(#%#/, of #$e a"#%f%&%a+ e%(g &"ea#ed /#$e &$a"#e", a(d (o# #$e &o(#"a of #$e %(d%%d'a+ -e-e"). !$e o(+/ "%g$#) %# &a( &+a%- a"e #$e "%g$#) $%&$ a"e g%e( #o%# %( #$a# &$a"#e", a(d (o# #$e "%g$#) $%&$ e+o(g #o %#) -e-e") a) &%#%:e() of a )#a#e.


Overview2F &o"o"a#%o(, %) a( a"#%f%&%a+ e%(g, %(%)%+e, %(#a(g%+e, a(d e%)#%(g o(+/ %( &o(#e-+a#%o( of +a. e%(g a -e"e&"ea#'"e of #$e +a, %# o))e))e) o(+/ #$o)e "oe"#%e) $%&$ #$e &$a"#e" of %#) &"ea#%o( &o(fe") 'o( %#, e%#$e" e"e))+/,o" a) %(&%de(#a+ #o %#) e"/ e%)#e(&e.


Overview

3F &o"o"a#%o( &a( -ae (o &o(#"a), a(d do (o a) e%#$e" %#$%( o" %#$o'# #$e )#a#e $%&$ &"ea#e) %#, e&e#)'&$ a) a"e a'#$o"%:ed / %#) &$a"#e"; #$o)e a) -')# a+)o e do(e, / )'&$ off%&e") o" age(#), a(d %( )'&$ -a((e" a) #$e&$a"#e" a'#$o"%:e).


Overview

4F &o"o"a#%o( &a( $ae (o +ega+ e%)#e(&e o'# of #$e o'(da"%e) of #$e )oe"e%g(#/ / $%&$ %# %) &"ea#ed. I# e%)#)o(+/ %( &o(#e-+a#%o( of +a, a(d / fo"&e of #$e +a; a(d $e"e #$a# +a &ea)e) #o oe"a#e, a(d %) (o +o(ge" o+%ga#o"/,#$e &o"o"a#%o( &a( $ae (o e%)#e(&e. I# -')# de++ %( #$e +a&e of %#) &"ea#%o(, a(d &a((o# -%g"a#e #o a(o#$e")oe"e%g(#/.

Governments > Courts > Judicial Comity

Governments > tate & !erritorial Governments > "elations #it$ Governments

5F I( #$e )%+e(&e of a(/ o)%#%e "'+e, aff%"-%(g, o" de(/%(g, o" "e)#"a%(%(g #$e oe"a#%o( of fo"e%g( +a), &o'"#) ofA')#%&e "e)'-e #$e #a&%# ado#%o( of #$e- / #$e%" o( goe"(-e(#; '(+e)) #$e/ a"e "e'g(a(# #o %#) o+%&/, o""eA'd%&%a+ #o %#) %(#e"e)#). I# %) (o# #$e &o-%#/ of #$e &o'"#), '# #$e &o-%#/ of #$e (a#%o( $%&$ %) ad-%(%)#e"ed, a(da)&e"#a%(ed %( #$e )a-e a/, a(d g'%ded / #$e )a-e "ea)o(%(g / $%&$ a++ o#$e" "%(&%+e) of -'(%&%a+ +a a"ea)&e"#a%(ed a(d g'%ded.

Governments > Courts > Judicial Comity

Governments > tate & !erritorial Governments > "elations #it$ Governments%nternational Law > ources o %nternational Law


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

f'(d) #o #$e a(. !$e defe(da(# defe(ded #$e )'%# o( #$e fa) #$a# #$e a( of 'g')#a %) a &o"o"a#%o( %(&o"o"a#ed/ a( a of #$e Leg%)+a#'"e of eo"g%a, a(d $ae oe" )'&$ a) %) ')'a++/ &o(fe""ed o( a(%(g %()#%#'#%o(), )'&$ a) #o'"&$a)e %++) of e&$a(ge, e#&. !$e C%"&'%# Co'"# $e+d #$a# #$e +a%(#%ff) &o'+d (o# "e&oe" o( #$e %++) of e&$a(ge, a(d#$a# #$e '"&$a)e of #$e %++) / #$e age(# of #$e +a%(#%ff) a) "o$%%#ed / #$e +a) of +aa-a a(d gae A'dg-e(# fo"#$e defe(da(#. I( #$e &a)e of !$e a( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) of Pe(()/+a(%a . P"%-"o)e, #$e +a%(#%ff), a &o"o"a#%o( /

%"#'e of a +a of #$e S#a#e of Pe(()/+a(%a, a'#$o"%:ed / %#) &$a"#e" #o )'e a(d e )'ed %( #$e (a-e of #$e &o"o"a#%o(,a(d #o dea+ %( %++) of e&$a(ge, a(d &o-o)ed of &%#%:e() of Pe(()/+a(%a, a(d of S#a#e) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), o#$e" #$a(#$e S#a#e of +aa-a, #$e age(# of #$e a( "e)%de(# %( Mo%+e, a(d %( o))e))%o( of f'(d) e+o(g%(g #o #$e a(, a(d%(#"')#ed %#$ #$e- fo" #$e )o+e '"o)e of '"&$a)%(g %++) of e&$a(ge; '"&$a)ed a %++ of e&$a(ge, a(d a%d fo" #$e)a-e %( (o#e) of #$e "a(&$ of #$e a( of +aa-a, a# Mo%+e. !$e %++ a) "o#e)#ed fo" (o(a/-e(#, a(d a )'%# a)%()#%#'#ed %( #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# aga%()# #$e a/ee, #$e %(do")e" of #$e %++. !$e B'e)#%o( fo" #$e o%(%o( of #$e C%"&'%#Co'"# a), $e#$e" #$e '"&$a)e of #$e %++ of e&$a(ge / #$e a( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a) a a+%d &o(#"a '(de" #$e+a) of +aa-a. !$e C%"&'%# Co'"# de&%ded #$a# #$e &o(#"a a) o%d, a(d gae A'dg-e(# fo" #$e defe(da(#. !$e &a)eof #$e e O"+ea() a(d Ca""o++#o( 6a%+"oad Co-a(/ . o)e$ . Ea"+e a) )%-%+a" #o #$a# of #$e a( of 'g')#a .o)e$ . Ea"+e. !$e S'"e-e Co'"# "ee")ed #$e A'dg-e(# of #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# %( #$e #$"ee &a)e), a(d $e+d #$e &o(#"a)fo" #$e '"&$a)e of #$e %++) a+%d, a(d #$a# #$e +a%(#%ff) a&B'%"ed a +ega+ #%#+e #o #$e %++) / #$e '"&$a)e.

I( #$e &a)e of !$e a( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) . Deea', #$e S'"e-e Co'"# de&%ded #$a# %( a B'e)#%o( of A'"%)d%%o(#$e/ -%g$# +oo #o #$e &$a"ae" of #$e e")o() &o-o)%(g a &o"o"a#%o(, a(d %f %# aea"ed #$a# #$e/ e"e &%#%:e() of

a(o#$e" S#a#e, a(d #$e fa a) )e# fo"#$ / "oe" ae"-e(#), #$e &o"o"a#%o( -%g$# )'e %( %#) &o"o"a#e (a-e %( #$e&o'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) '# %( #$a# &a)e #$e &o'"# &o(f%(ed %#) de&%)%o(, %( e"e)) #e"-), #o a B'e)#%o( of A'"%)d%%o(;#o a "%g$# #o )'e; a(d e%de(#+/ e(#, ee( )o fa", %#$ )o-e $e)%#a#%o(. !$e "o"%e#/ of #$a# de&%)%o( %) f'++/ a))e(#ed#o, a(d %# $a) ee" )%(&e ee( "e&og(%:ed a) a'#$o"%#/ %( #$%) &o'"#. '# #$e "%(&%+e $a) (ee" ee( e#e(ded a(/ fa"#$e"#$a( %# a) &a""%ed %( #$a# &a)e, a(d $a) (ee" ee( )'o)ed #o e#e(d #o &o(#"a) -ade / a &o"o"a#%o(, e)e&%a++/ %(a(o#$e" )oe"e%g(#/.

!$e (a#'"e a(d &$a"ae" of a &o"o"a#%o( &"ea#ed / )#a#'#e, a(d #$e e#e(# of #$e oe") $%&$ %# -a/ +af'++/ee"&%)e, $ae 'o( )ee"a+ o&&a)%o() ee( '(de" &o()%de"a#%o( %( #$%) &o'"#. !$e &a)e) of ead a(d -o"/ . !$eP"o%de(&e I()'"a(&e Co-a(/, 2 C"a(&$, 1


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Page o" /fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o(). !$%) )$o) #$a# #$e +eg%)+a#'"e #$o'g$# #$a# %#$o'# )'&$ a +a fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o() $ad a "%g$# #o-ae )'&$ %()'"a(&e), a(d #o )'e 'o( &o(#"a) -ade %( e >o", o" &o(#"a) f+o%(g o'# of o+%&%e) of %()'"a(&e.6e%)ed La) of e >o", 52. of Ma"&$ 18#$, 1814.


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

I# %) ad-%##ed #$a# a &o"o"a#%o( -a/ (o# &a""/ o( #$e ')%(e)) fo" $%&$ %# a) &"ea#ed, o'# of #$e )#a#e $o)e +a) gae%# e%)#e(&e. '# #$%) doe) (o# %(#e"fe"e %#$ #$" "%g$# &+a%-ed / #$e +a%(#%ff) %( #$%) &a)e. !$e a( of 'g')#a &a((o#&a""/ o( #$e ')%(e)) of a(%(g %( +aa-a, fo" / #$e +a) of +aa-a #$%) %) fo"%dde(. '# %f (o# fo"%dde( / #$e+a of #$a# )#a#e, %# &o'+d #"a()a #$e ')%(e)) of a(%(g #$e"e. # &o--o( +a ee"/ -a( $a) a "%g$# #o e&o-e aa(e", a(d #o &a""/ o( #$e ')%(e)) of a(%(g. !$e a) of Pa"+%a-e(# %( E(g+a(d %-o)e "e)#"%%o() o( #$%) &o--o(

+a "%g$#. 15 o$(). 6e. 379.

!$e +a%(#%ff) %( #$%) &a)e /000$51 a"e &%#%:e() of #$e )#a#e of eo"g%a. !$e/ a"e )o &a++ed %( #$e "%# / $%&$ #$e )'%#a) &o--e(&ed; a(d / #$e Co()#%#'#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) #$e/ $ae a "%g$# #o #"a()a a(/ ')%(e)) $%&$ a(/e")o(), &%#%:e() of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a, -a/ &a""/ o(, a(d $%&$ %) (o# "o$%%#ed / #$e +a) of #$e )#a#e. !$e +a)of e >o" a'#$o"%:e )e&%a+ a"#(e")$%). ae (o# #$e)e a"#(e")$%) a "%g$# #o dea+ %( eo"g%a a(d +aa-a #o #$e)a-e e#e(# a(d %( #$e )a-e -a((e" a) %( e >o"H !$%) )$o) #$a# a( a))o&%a#%o( '(de" #$e (a-e of o(e e")o(, &a(do a(/ a(d a++ a) $%&$ &%#%:e() of e >o" o" of a(/ o#$e" )#a#e &a( do.

La"ge &o++e%o() $ae ee( -ade / #$e a( of E(g+a(d %( #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), o( %++) of e&$a(ge d"a( %( #$eU(%#ed S#a#e), a(d "e#'"(ed "o#e)#ed fo" (o(a/-e(#. !$e"e $a) (o# ee( a )'gge)#%o( #$a# #$e a( of E(g+a(d, afo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o(, &o'+d (o# '")'e )'&$ &+a%-) %( #$e Co'"#) of #$e )#a#e) a(d of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), %( #$e )a-e-a((e" a) %(d%%d'a+). ++ #$o)e %++) $ae ee( &o++eed '# a e"/ )-a++ a-o'(#; a(d #$%) af#e" -a(/ of #$e- $adee( '# %( )'%#. La"ge a(d ('-e"o') )a+e) of #$e )#o&) of )#a#e) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), a(d of &o"o"a#%o() /000$:1e)#a+%)$ed / )#a#e), $ae ee( -ade %( o#$e" )#a#e), a(d %( E(g+a(d. !$e)e o'+d e o%d o( #$e )a-e "%(&%+e a) #$a#&+a%-ed o( #$e a"# of #$e defe(da(# %( #$%) &a)e. +aa-a $a) $e")e+f %))'ed )#o& a) #$e a)%) of $e" a(%(g &a%#a+;a(d #$%) )#o& $a) ee( )o+d o'# of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a. >e# )$e %++ (o# e o'(d #o a/ #$e a-o'(# of #$%) )#o&, o"ee( #o a/ #$e %(#e"e)# o( %#, %f a) a &o"o"a#%o( )$e &a((o# &o(#"a o'# of $e" #e""%#o"%e).

M". Ogde( e(# %(#o a( ea-%(a#%o( of #$e &a)e) $%&$ $ad ee( "efe""ed #o / #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# of +aa-a, a(d$%&$ e"e &o()%de"ed / #$a# Co'"#, a) )')#a%(%(g #$e "%(&%+e #$a# #$e +a%(#%ff) %( e""o" &o'+d (o# -a%(#a%( #$%) )'%#.e ea-%(ed a"#%&'+a"+/ #$e &a)e of ead a(d -o"/ ). #$e P"o%de(&e I()'"a(&e Co-a(/, 2 C"a(&$, 127. !$eDa"#-o'#$ Co++ege &a)e, 4 $ea#. 519. o)+e( ). #$e Co"o"a#%o( of eo"ge#o(, < $ea#. 593. !$e a( of #$eU(%#ed S#a#e) ). Do(e++/, 8 Pe#e"), 3


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

!$%) ae"-e(# %) -a#e"%a+, a(d %#) #"'#$ -')# e "oed %f '# %( %))'e / a +ea %( aa#e-e(#. I# %) -a(%fe)# #$e( #$a# #$eC%"&'%# Co'"# $ad A'"%)d%%o( %( #$%) &a)e; e&a')e %# aea"ed o( #$e "e&o"d #$a# #$e +a%(#%ff), o" #$e e")o() %(#e"e)#eda) +a%(#%ff), e"e &%#%:e() of eo"g%a, a(d #$e defe(da(# a) a &%#%:e( of +aa-a.

/000$!1 (d $e( #$e Co'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) )')#a%( a( a%o( %( #$e (a-e of a )#a#e &o"o"a#%o(, %# %) o(+/e&a')e &%#%:e() of #$e )#a#e $ae a))o&%a#ed #oge#$e" '(de" #$e (a-e a(d %( #$e fo"- of a &o"o"a#%o(. S#%++ %# %) #$o)e&%#%:e() o(+/ $o a"e #$e a"#%e) efo"e #$e Co'"#, a(d (o# #$e &o"o"a#%o(, B'a)% &o"o"a#%o(. Uo( (o o#$e" $/o#$e)%)&a( #$e Co'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) $ae a(/ A'"%)d%%o( %( #$e &a')e, (o(e o#$e" e%(g A')#%f%ed o" a'#$o"%:ed / #$eCo()#%#'#%o(.

o %# %) a)ed of #$%) Co'"#, %f &%#%:e() of #$e )#a#e of eo"g%a $ae a "%g$# #o )'e %( #$e Co'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) %(#$e )#a#e of +aa-a, '(de" #$e (a-e of a( a))o&%a#%o( &a++ed #$e a( of 'g')#a; doe) (o# #$%) a-o'(# #o a"e&og(%#%o( o( #$e a"# of #$e Co'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) of #$e%" "%g$#) #o a '(de" #$a# a))o&%a#ed (a-eH (d %f #$e/-a/ a '(de" #$a# (a-e %( o(e #$%(g, $/ (o# %( a++ #$%(g)H If /o' "e&og(%)e #$e%" "%g$# of a%(g %( "%(g%(g a )'%# #oe(fo"&e a &o(#"a, $/ (o# %( -a%(g #$e &o(#"a %#)e+f, $%&$ %) #$e fo'(da#%o( of #$e )'%#H I( "%(&%+e #$e"e %) )ee((o d%ffe"e(&e. !e(#/ -e"&$a(#) %( 'g')#a, %( eo"g%a, -a/ e &o(&e"(ed a) a"#(e") %( &a""/%(g o( ')%(e)),/0003"1 %( #$e (a-e of o(e of #$e-, o" #$e/ -a/ a))'-e a(/ o#$e" (a-e. Ca( %# e &o(#e(ded fo" a -o-e(# #$a# '(de"#$a# a))'-ed (a-e #$e/ o'+d (o# $ae a "%g$# #o -ae &o(#"a), '"&$a)e &o##o(, %++) of e&$a(ge, o" do a(/ o#$e"')%(e)) (o# fo"%dde( / #$e +a) of +aa-aH If #$%) %) (o# )o, $a# e&o-e) of #$e "o%)%o( %( #$e Co()#%#'#%o( of#$e U(%#ed S#a#e), $%&$ de&+a"e) #$a# a &%#%:e( of o(e )#a#e )$a++ e e(#%#+ed #o a++ #$e "%g$#) of a &%#%:e( of #$e o#$e")#a#e)H

I# %) (o a()e" #o #$%) #o )a/, #$a# %( a( a%o( %( )'&$ a &a)e /o' -')# "%(g #$e )'%# %( #$e (a-e) of a++ #$e a"#(e").!$%) %) a B'e)#%o( a) #o #$e "e-ed/; '# %# &a( %( (o %)e affe #$e oe" of &o(#"a%(g, o" of )'%(g. O(e %) a -a##e" offo"-, #$e o#$e" %) -a##e" of )')#a(&e.

!$e"e "e-a%() a(o#$e" o%(# %( #$e &a)e #o $%&$ #$e a##e(#%o( of #$e Co'"# %) "e)ef'++/ &a++ed. / #$e &o()#%#'#%o( of+aa-a %# %) de&+a"ed #$a# #$e"e )$a++ e e)#a+%)$ed a a(, #o e &a++ed ?!$e a( of #$e S#a#e of +aa-a;? a(d #$a##$e +eg%)+a#'"e -a/ f"o- #%-e #o #%-e e)#a+%)$ a) -a(/ "a(&$e) of #$a# a(, #o e +o&a#ed %( d%ffe"e(# a"#) of #$e)#a#e, a) #$e/ -a/ #$%( "oe".

!$%) &o()#%#'#%o(a+ "o%)%o( $a) ee( /00031 &o()#"'ed a) a "o$%%#%o( o( #$e +eg%)+a#'"e, $%&$ "e&+'de) #$e- f"o-e)#a+%)$%(g a(/ o#$e" a( %( #$e )#a#e; a(d 'o( #$e a"g'-e(# of #$%) &a')e, %# %) "e)'-ed #$a# %# -')# e #ae( fo"g"a(#ed #$a# #$e &o()#"'%o( g%e( #o #$e &o()#%#'#%o( %( #$%) a"#%&'+a", %) #$e #"'e &o()#"'%o(.

+a"ge o"#%o( of #$e )#o& of #$e a( a(d of %#) "a(&$e) %) "e)e"ed fo" #$e )#a#e; %(#e(d%(g, (o do'#, #$e"e/ #oa&B'%"e a "ee('e fo" #$e )#a#e / -ea() of #$e%" %(#e"e)# %( #$e a(. o %# %) )'o)ed, #$a# #o e"-%# a a( ofeo"g%a, o" of a(/ o#$e" )#a#e, #o #"a()a %#) ')%(e)) %( +aa-a, o'+d %(#e"fe"e %#$ #$e "of%#) of #$e a( of+aa-a; a(d o'+d #$e"efo"e e %( d%"e oo)%#%o( #o #$e )e##+ed o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e, a) de&+a"ed a(d e)#a+%)$ed /#$e &o()#%#'#%o(.

Le# ') ea-%(e #$%) a"g'-e(#. I# %) "ead%+/ ad-%##ed, fo" #$e '"o)e) of #$%) &a)e, #$a# #$e )#a#e of +aa-a $a) a "%g$##o a)) a +a de&+a"%(g #$a# (o a( )$a++ e%)# a(d do %#) ')%(e)) %( #$a# )#a#e, '(+e)) %# e &$a"#e"ed / #$e +eg%)+a#'"eof #$e )#a#e. !$%) %) a( ad-%))%o( a) "oad a) &a( e &a++ed fo" '# %# / (o -ea() fo++o) #$a# #$e #"a()a%o( $%&$ %)

#$e )'Ae of #$e "e)e(# &o(#"oe")/ /0003$1 %) a( %++ega+ o(e.

$a# %) +eg%#%-a#e a(%(g ')%(e))H I# &o()%)#) of #$"ee #$%(g). =%")#, d%)&o'(#%(g (o#e). Se&o(d, "e&e%%(g -o(e/ o(deo)%#. !$%"d, %))'%(g (o#e) o" %++) #o e &%"&'+a#ed a) -o(e/. I# )ee-) #o e &+ea" a(d &e"#a%( #$a# a++ #$e)e oe"a#%o()-')# e &o-%(ed #o &o()#%#'#e a(%(g, a) '(de")#ood a-o(g '), a(d %( #$e &o--e"&%a+ o"+d.

!$e -e"e d%)&o'(#%(g (o#e) %) (o# of %#)e+f a a(%(g oe"a#%o(.I# %) %(deed do%(g o(e #$%(g $%&$ a() a"e a'#$o"%:ed#o do, '# %# %) (o# #$e"efo"e a(%(g. Ma/ (o# a -e"&$a(# d%)&o'(# $%) o( (o#e), %#$o'# e%(g &o()%de"ed a a(e"H!$e -e"e "e&e%%(g -o(e/ o( deo)%#, #o e a%d o'# aga%( $e(ee" &a++ed fo", %) (o# a(%(g. S'"e+/ a -a( -a/deo)%# $%) f'(d) %( )afe ee%(g %( #$e $a(d) of a f"%e(d, %#$o'# -a%(g #$a# f"%e(d $a# %) (o( %( o'" +a a(d %(


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

#$e &o--e"&%a+ +a, a) a a(e". I))'%(g a (o#e #o e '# %(#o &%"&'+a#%o( a) -o(e/ -a/, e"$a), e e%de(&e of %#)e+fof a( a of a(%(g; a(d #$%) -a/ e #$e -o)# %-o"#a(# oe" $%&$ a a( o))e))e).

o #$e"e %) (o "e#e(&e #$a# #$e a( of 'g')#a "e&e%ed deo)%#) %( +aa-a. I# %) (o# "e#e(ded #$a# #$e a( of'g')#a ee" '# %(#o &%"&'+a#%o( %( +aa-a /000331 o(e of %#) (o#e) o" %++) #o e &%"&'+a#ed a) -o(e/ %( #$a# )#a#e

a(d %# %) &o(#e(ded, #$a# %f #$e/ $ad d%)&o'(#ed a "o-%))o"/ (o#e %( +aa-a, %# o'+d (o# of %#)e+f $ae ee( )'&$ aa(%(g oe"a#%o( a) o'+d "e(de" #$e #"a()a%o( %++ega+, %f #$e"e e"e a +a %( +aa-a a)o+'#e+/ "o$%%#%(g a(/a( '# #$e a( of #$e )#a#e f"o- &a""/%(g o( #$e a(%(g ')%(e)) %( #$e )#a#e. ( %(d%%d'a+ -%g$# d%)&o'(# a (o#e%#$o'# %o+a#%(g #$e +a, a(d )o -%g$# #$e +a%(#%ff) %( e""o".

I# %) ad-%##ed #$a# '(de" a &$a"#e" g%e( / #$e )#a#e of eo"g%a, #$e +a%(#%ff) &o'+d (o# e)#a+%)$ a a( %( #$e )#a#e of+aa-a. o )'&$ "%g$# %) &+a%-ed / #$e +a%(#%ff). '# %# %) &o(#e(ded #$a# e&o-%(g +af'++/ o))e))ed of f'(d) %(#$e )#a#e of +aa-a, &o--o( )e()e, &o--o( A')#%&e, a(d &o--o( +a "eB'%"e #$a# #$e +a%(#%ff) )$o'+d $ae #$eo"d%(a"/ -ea() of %#$d"a%(g #$o)e f'(d) f"o- #$e )#a#e of +aa-a. !$e '"&$a)e of a %++ of e&$a(ge %) a-o(g #$eo"d%(a"/ -ea() of #"a()-%##%(g f'(d) f"o- o(e +a&e #o a(o#$e".

ga%(. !$e a &o-+a%(ed of %) #$e '"&$a)e of %++) of e&$a(ge. o dea+%(g %( #$e '"&$a)e a(d )a+e of %++) ofe&$a(ge %) (o# a(%(g. I# %) #"'e #$e oe" of dea+%(g /0003&1 %( %++) of e&$a(ge %) of#e( e"e))+/ g%e( #oa(%(g &o"o"a#%o() a(d #$e fa #$a# %# %) e"e))+/ g%e(, %) e%de(&e of #$e ge(e"a+ '(de")#a(d%(g #$a# %#$o'# %# %) )og%e(, a a( o'+d (o# $ae #$e "%g$# o" oe" of dea+%(g %( e&$a(ge, a(d #$a# %), )#"%+/ )ea%(g, (o a"# of #$eo"d%(a"/ ')%(e)) of a a(. So-e a() $ae #$e oe" of -a%(g a &a(a+; a(d /e# %# %) $a"d+/ #o e &o(#e(ded #$a#-a%(g &a(a+) %) a a"# of a(%(g ')%(e)). If #$e"efo"e #$e"e e a( e"e)) "o$%%#%o( %( #$e +a a(d &o()#%#'#%o( of+aa-a, "o$%%#%(g #$e ')%(e)) of a(%(g %( #$a# )#a#e / a(/ o#$e" #$a( #$e%" o( %(&o"o"a#ed a(), %# o'+d %((o %)e "o$%%# #$e +a%(#%ff) f"o- '"&$a)%(g a %++ of e&$a(ge %( +aa-a.

!$e"e "e-a%() /e# a(o#$e" %e of #$%) B'e)#%o( $%&$ %# %) #$o'g$# #$e d'#/ of &o'()e+ #o )'-%# #o #$e &o()%de"a#%o( of#$%) Co'"#. I# $a) $e"e#ofo"e ee( &o(#e(ded #$a# #$e dea+%(g %( %++) of e&$a(ge, e%(g (o a"# of #$e ')%(e)) ofa(%(g, doe) (o# &o-e %#$%( #$e "o$%%#%o() of #$e &o()#%#'#%o( of +aa-a aga%()# a(%(g.

'# +e# ') (o )'o)e #$a# #$e +eg%)+a#'"e of +aa-a $ad a))ed a +a "o$%%#%(g a(/ od/ '# o(e of #$e%" o(%(&o"o"a#ed a(), /000351 f"o- dea+%(g %( %++) of e&$a(ge. !$%) o'+d "e)e(# a -o"e %-o"#a(# B'e)#%o(. I( #$e"e)e(# )#a#e of #$e &o--e"&%a+ o"+d, %++) of e&$a(ge a"e o(e of #$e g"ea# -ea() of &a""/%(g o( #$e &o--e"&e of #$e

o"+d.

O'" &o--e"&e %#$ #$e Ea)# I(d%e) %) "%(&%a++/ &a""%ed o( / -ea() of %++) of e&$a(ge. !$e)e a"e (o )e(# %()#eadof )e&%e #o C$%(a, #o a#a%a, a(d #o Ca+&'##a. / -ea() of %++) of e&$a(ge o'" (o"#$e"( -e"&$a(#) a"e e(a+ed #oo#a%( f'(d) %( #$e )o'#$ fo" #$e '"&$a)e of #$e &o##o( a(d #oa&&o, #$e "%&$ "od'%o() of #$a# o"#%o( of o'" &o'(#"/.' -ea() of %++) of e&$a(ge, #$e -e"&$a(#) of #$e )o'#$ a"e e(a+ed #o '"&$a)e good) %( #$e (o"#$. / -ea() of %++)of e&$a(ge #$e -a('fa'"e") of #$e (o"#$ a"e e(a+ed #o "e&e%e "e-%##a(&e) f"o- #$e )o'#$, fo" #$e &a""%age), )$oe),&a%(e# f'"(%#'"e, a(d ('-e"o') o#$e" a"#%&+e) )$%ed a(d )o+d #$e"e.

I# %++ (o# e )a%d #$a# (o &o--e"&e &a( e &a""%ed o( %#$o'# #$e ')e a(d fa&%+%#%e) of %++) of e&$a(ge; '# %# %) )a%d,%#$ e-$a)%), #$a# %#$o'# #$e%" ')e %# o'+d e a &"a-ed, a(d &"%+ed, a(d a( '("od'%e &o--e"&e. O'" )$%)o'+d e a+-o)# ')e+e)), a(d #$e #"ade a(d %(#e"&o'")e e#ee( #$e )#a#e) /0003:1 o'+d e "o)#"a#e. o / #$eCo()#%#'#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), oe" %) g%e( #o Co(g"e)) #o "eg'+a#e &o--e"&e %#$ fo"e%g( (a#%o(), a(d a-o(g #$e

)#a#e).

!$%) oe" #o "eg'+a#e &o--e"&e (e&e))a"%+/ %(&+'de) %( %# #$e oe" #o "eg'+a#e #$e -ea() / $%&$ &o--e"&e %) #o e&a""%ed o(. e(&e #$e +a) "e+a#%e #o )$%) o" e))e+). o e"e)) oe" %) g%e( oe" #$e- / #$e Co()#%#'#%o(, '##$e/ a"e #$e g"ea# -ea() / $%&$ &o--e"&e %) &a""%ed o(, a(d #$e"efo"e Co(g"e)), $a%(g #$e oe" #o "eg'+a#e&o--e"&e, $a) ee"&%)ed #$e oe" of "eg'+a#%(g #$e-.

I# %) )'-%##ed #$a# #$e +eg%)+a#'"e of +aa-a $a) a) -'&$ "%g$# #o de&+a"e #$a# (o )$% o" e))e+ )$a++ &o-e %(#o #$eo"#) of #$a# )#a#e, $%&$ doe) (o# e+o(g #o o(e of $e" o( &%#%:e(), a(d %) (o# "eg%)#e"ed %( )o-e off%&e e)#a+%)$ed / a


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

+a of +aa-a, a) )$e $a) #o "o$%%# a(/ '# $e" o( &%#%:e() f"o- dea+%(g %( e&$a(ge %#$%( $e" #e""%#o"%e). S$e-a/ a) e++ )a/ a -e"&$a(# )$a++ (o# )e++ o" '/ a a+e of good), a) #$a# $e )$a++ (o# '/ o" )e++ a %++ of e&$a(ge.

M". Se"gea(# fo" #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a(.

!$e &a)e )#a#ed ad-%#) #$e "%g$# of #$e +a%(#%ff) #o )'e %( +aa-a, a(d %( #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# fo" #$a# d%)#"%. /0003%1 I#ad-%#) #$e "%g$# #o "e&oe" a A'dg-e(# %( )'&$ )'%#. I# ad-%#) #$e "%g$# of #$e +a%(#%ff), #$e"efo"e, #o e, #o aea", a(d #oa a) a &o"o"a#%o( '(de" %#) &$a"#e" %( a+aa-a. !$%) &o(&e))%o(, a"oed a(d )a(%o(ed a) %# %) / #$e A'dg-e(# of#$e Co'"#, o'+d )ee- #o -ae %# '((e&e))a"/ #o &o()%de" #$e B'e)#%o( $e#$e" a fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o( &a( )'e %(+aa-a; '(+e)) %# e dee-ed do'#f'+ %( #$%) Co'"#, $e"e %# %) e"$a) oe( 'o( #$e "e&o"d, (o#%#$)#a(d%(g #$e&o(&e))%o(. If #$o'g$# (e&e))a"/, %# %++ a&&o"d%(g+/ e &o()%de"ed.

'#, f%")# %( o"de", %# %) "oo)ed #o &o()%de" #$e B'e)#%o( d%"e+/ "e)e(#ed, e%(g #$e o(e de&%ded / #$e C%"&'%# Co'"#,$%&$ %) #$') )#a#ed %( #$e "e&o"d ?$e#$e" #$e '"&$a)e of #$e )a%d %++ of e&$a(ge / #$e +a%(#%ff) a) afo"e)a%d, a)a a+%d &o(#"a '(de" #$e +a) of +aa-a.?

efo"e "o&eed%(g #o #$e ge(e"a+ B'e)#%o( $e"e "e)e(#ed, %# %) "%g$# #o g%e )o-e a##e(#%o( #o #$e (a#'"e a(d )#a#e of #$e#"a()a%o( a) e-"a&ed %( #$e o"d) ?a) afo"e)a%d;? %( o"de" #o e$%%# o(e %e of #$e &a)e of %#)e+f )'ff%&%e(# fo" %#)de&%)%o(.

I# %) (e&e))a"/ o(+/ #o "e-%)e, fo" #$%) '"o)e, #$a# #$e a( a) a'#$o"%:ed / %#) &$a"#e" #o /000381 '"&$a)e a(d #o$o+d %++) of e&$a(ge, %#$o'# "e)#"%%o( of #%-e o" +a&e; #$a# #$e defe(da(# $ad a "%g$# / +a #o )e++ #$e %++ ofe&$a(ge; a(d #$a# #$e &o(#"a of )a+e a) ee&'#ed a(d a# a( e(d. I# a) (o +o(ge" ee&'#o"/. !$e )'%# %) (o# 'o( #$e&o(#"a of )a+e, (o" #o e(fo"&e #$a# &o(#"a. I# %) 'o( #$e %++ )o+d, aga%()# #$e defe(da(# a) e(do")e", a(d 'o( $%)&o(#"a a) e(do")e".

o doe) #$a# &o(#"a a"%)eH I# &o()%)#) of #o a"#), #$e e(do")e-e(#, a(d #$e de+%e"/ of #$e %++ e(do")ed. e%#$e"a+o(e o'+d &"ea#e a +%a%+%#/, a(d (e%#$e" a+o(e -ae) a &o(#"a a) e(do")e". !$e e(do")e-e(# / %#)e+f -ae) (o&o(#"a %#$ a(/od/, e%#$e" #o a)) #$e %++ o" #o &"ea#e #$e +%a%+%#/. I# %) #$e de+%e"/ $%&$ effe) o#$ #$e)e e(d).!$e o"d%(a"/ fo"- of #$e de&+a"a#%o( "oe) #$%). !$e )e##+ed +a of %++) a(d (o#e) e)#a+%)$e) %#. !$e a"#%e) o( #$e %++-ae a (e &o(#"a %#$ ee"/ )'&&e))%e $o+de" / #$e de+%e"/. !$%) %) #$e +a a) #o %++) a(d (o#e) a/a+e #oea"e". I# %) eB'a++/ )o a) #o e(do")ed %++). !$e de+%e"/ -ae) #$e &o(#"a. !$e #%-e a(d +a&e of e(do")e-e(#,

-a#e"%a+ fo" )o-e '"o)e), a"e $o++/ %--a#e"%a+ fo" #$%). $e(ee" /0003!1 a(d $e"ee" #$e (a-e -a/ $ae ee("%##e(, #$e de+%e"/ g%e) %# effe, $e#$e" %# e #o a)) #$e %++ -e"e+/, o" #o a)) %# %#$ a +%a%+%#/ o( #$e a"# of #$ee(do")ee.

!$e B'e)#%o( #$e( %), $e"e a) #$e de+%e"/ -adeH !$%) %) a B'e)#%o( of +ega+ &o()#"'%o(, a(d (o# a -e"e -a##e" offa. S'o)e #$e #"a()a%o( #o $ae ee( &a""%ed o( / -ea() of &o""e)o(de(&e, $e"e o'+d #$e de+%e"/ e&o()%de"ed %( +a #o $ae ee( -adeH !$e %++ e%(g e(do")ed / #$e o(e a"#/, a(d #$e f'++ &o()%de"a#%o( a%d / #$eo#$e", %# -')# )'"e+/ e &o()#"'ed #o $ae ee( -ade $e"e #$e a"#/ %) &aa+e of "e&e%%(g %#. o#$%(g +e)) #$a( #$%)o'+d e g%%(g #$e )#%'+a#ed eB'%a+e(#.I# %) %(d%)e()a+e #o #$e A')#%&e of #$e &a)e, a(d a&&o"d%(g #o #$e %(#e(#%o( of#$e a"#%e). Uo( a(/ &o()#"'%o( '# #$%), #$e o(e a"#/ o'+d ge# #$e -o(e/ of #$e o#$e" %#$o'# a &o()%de"a#%o(. (%(#e""e#a#%o( +ead%(g #o )'&$ a &o(&+')%o( o'+d e a d%)g"a&e #o #$e +a. o#$ a"#%e) -')# e )'o)ed #o %(#e(d$a# %) fa%" a(d %( good fa%#$.

Doe) %# -ae a(/ d%ffe"e(&e #$a# #$e #"a()a%o( %) &o(d'ed / -ea() of a( age(#, a(d (o# / "%##e( &o""e)o(de(&eH!$e"e %) (o "ea)o( $/ %# )$o'+d. Pe")o() /000&"1 $o a"e d%)#a(# f"o- ea&$ o#$e" &a( o(+/ #"ea# #$"o'g$%(#e"-ed%a"%e); a(d %# %) of (o &o()eB'e(&e $a# #$e/ a"e. !$e age(# a) '(de" %()#"'%o(), $%&$ a"e $%) &o(#"a, a(d#$e e))e(&e of #$a# &o(#"a %) #o o#a%( a +af'+ a(d a+%d de+%e"/.

'# %# %) )'e"f+'o') #o a"g'e %( fao'" of a o)%#%o( a+"ead/ e)#a+%)$ed / #$e $%g$e)# A'd%&%a+ a'#$o"%#/ %( #$e +a(d.Co a(d D%& ). U(%#ed S#a#e), < Pe#e"), 172. 202. D'(&a( ). U(%#ed S#a#e), 7 Pe#e"), 435. 449.

!$e de+%e"/ #$e( %( &o(#e-+a#%o( of +a a) a# #$e a(. !$a# de+%e"/ a))ed #$e %++ #o #$e a(, %#$ a++ #$e "%g$#)a&&"'%(g / %# aga%()# #$e a"#%e).


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

'# %# -a/ e a++eged #$a# ad-%##%(g a++ #$%) #o e )o, #$e &o(#"a &"ea#ed / de+%e"/ of #$e %++ %) affeed / #$e%++ega+%#/ of #$e o"%g%(a+ &o(#"a of '"&$a)e, )o a) #o "e(de" #$e e(do")e-e(# a+)o %++ega+. !o #$%) #$e"e a"e )ee"a+a()e"). I( #$e f%")# +a&e #$e o"%g%(a+ &o(#"a a) ee&'#ed a(d a# a( e(d / de+%e"/ of #$e #$%(g a"ga%(ed fo". Ca($a# a) )o de+%e"ed e "e&oe"ed a&H !$e f'++ &o()%de"a#%o( $a) ee( a%d. !$e"e %) (o offe" #o "ef'(d %# a(d #$e"e

%) (o#$%(g %--o"a+ %( #$e #"a()a%o(.

ga%( #$e e"/ "ee")e of #$e a++ega#%o( /000&1 %) #$e #"'#$. !$%) &o()#"'%o( -ae) #$e o"%g%(a+ &o(#"a good a(da+%d, / -a%(g %#) e(d a(d oAe +af'+. I( +ega+ %(#e(d-e(# %# #"a()fe") #$e $o+e &o(#"a #o P$%+ade+$%a, a) #$e+a&e of e"fo"-a(&e. If #$e de+%e"/ a) #o e -ade #$e"e, #$e &o(#"a a"%)%(g f"o- #$a# de+%e"/ a) a+)o #$e"e. =o"#$%) '"o)e %# %) (o# -a#e"%a+ $e"e #$e -o(e/ a) a%d; %# %) (o# -a#e"%a+ $e"e #$e e(do")e") (a-e a) "%##e( o( #$e%++. !$e +a&e of e(do")e-e(# -a/ f% #$e -ea)'"e of +%a%+%#/ %( &a)e of d%)$o(o'" of #$e %++. !$e de+%e"/ -ae) #$e&o(#"a %#$ #$e a"#%&'+a" $o+de". !$%) -')# e)e&%a++/ e #$e &a)e $e"e a( age(# %) e-+o/ed. %) a'#$o"%#/ %) #o-ae a +af'+ a(d a+%d '"&$a)e. e -')# do %# %( a +af'+ -ode; a(d %( fao'" of A')#%&e $e %++ e %(#e(ded #o $aedo(e )o.

S#%++ f'"#$e" %# &a((o# e ad-%##ed #$a# ee( #$e a++eged %++ega+%#/ %) of )'&$ a &$a"ae" a) #o defea# #$e &+a%- 'o( #$e%++. !o "od'&e #$a# "e)'+# #$e"e -')# e a &+ea" "o$%%#%o( / )#a#'#e, o" / #$e &o--o( +a; o" a e(a+#/ $%&$%-+%e) a "o$%%#%o(. See #$e &a)e) &o++eed %( $ee+e" ). 6'))e++, 17 Ma)). 258. I( #$e &a)e (o '(de" &o()%de"a#%o(#$e"e %) (o )'&$ "o$%%#%o(. /000&$1 !$e"e %) a# -o)# a( %(f%"-%#/ %( #$e &o(#"a of )a+e, f"o- #$e a(# of &aa&%#/ #o-ae #$e '"&$a)e. d-%#, fo" #$e '"o)e of #$%) a"g'-e(#, #$a# #$e &o(#"a of )a+e &o'+d (o# $ae ee( e(fo"&ed a#+a / #$e '/e"; %# doe) (o# fo++o #$a# #$e ee&'#%o( of #$e &o(#"a %) %++ega+, )#%++ +e)) #$a# %# %) &"%-%(a+. !$e %++ a)good efo"e #$e &o(#"a. I# %) good af#e" #$e &o(#"a. If %# $ad ee( -ade e"e))+/ #o e (ego#%a#ed #o a a( o'# of#$e )#a#e, #$a# o'+d (o# affe %#) a+%d%#/; ee( #$o'g$ #$e o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e e"e aga%()# fo"e%g( a() &a""/%(g o(')%(e)) %#$%( %#) +%-%#). 6ee)e ). Co(o&o&$eag'e a(, 5 6a(d. 32


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Page 1o" o" / #$e d"ae", #$e a( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) %()#%#'#ed #$%) )'%# %( #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# of+aa-a #o "e&oe" #$e -o(e/ d'e o( #$e %++.

I( #$e Co'"# e+o %# a) de&%ded #$a# #$e &o(#"a / Poe %( e$a+f of #$e a( a) o%d, o( #o g"o'(d). 1. e&a')e %#a) a &o(#"a -ade / #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a(, %( #$e )#a#e of +aa-a; $e"ea) a a( %(&o"o"a#ed / #$e )#a#e ofPe(()/+ a(%a &a( do (o a o'# of #$e +%-%#) of Pe(()/+a(%a. 2. e&a')e +aa-a $a) a a( of $e" o(, #$e &a%#a+ of$%&$ %) o(ed / #$e )#a#e $e")e+f, $%&$ %) a'#$o"%:ed #o '/ a(d )e++ e&$a(ge, a(d f"o- #$e "of%#) of $%&$ )$ede"%e) $e" "ee('e; a(d #$e '"&$a)e of %++) of e&$a(ge e%(g a a(%(g oe"a#%o(, #$e '"&$a)e of )'&$ %++) /o#$e"), a# +ea)# / a(/ &o"o"a#%o(, a+#$o'g$ #$e"e %) (o e"e)) +a fo"%dd%(g %#, %) aga%()# #$e o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e of+aa-a; a) %# -a/ e %(fe""ed f"o- #$e "o%)%o() of #$e &o()#%#'#%o( of #$a# )#a#e, a(d #$e +a -ade %( &o(fo"-%#/#$e"e#o.

/0008$1 I# %) ad-%##ed #$a# #$e a"#%e) a"e "%g$#f'++/ %( Co'"#. I# %) ad-%##ed a+)o #$a# #$e defe(da(# %) a &%#%:e( of+aa-a, a(d #$a# a++ #$e &%#%:e() $o &o-o)e #$e &o"o"a#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a( a"e &%#%:e() of #$e )#a#e ofPe(()/+a(%a, o" of )o-e o#$e" )#a#e e)%de) +aa-a. !$e B'e)#%o( %), &a( #$e/ a) a &o"o"a#%o( do a(/ a %#$%( #$e)#a#e of +aa-aH I( o#$e" o"d), %) #$e"e a(/ #$%(g %( #$e &o()#%#'#%o( o" +a) of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a $%&$ "o$%%#),o" "%g$#f'++/ &a( "o$%%#, &%#%:e() of o#$e" )#a#e), o" &o"o"a#%o() &"ea#ed / o#$e" )#a#e), f"o- '/%(g a(d )e++%(g %++) ofe&$a(ge %( #$e )#a#e of +aa-aH

I( $%) a"g'-e(# fo" #$e defe(da(# %( #$%) &a)e, -/ +ea"(ed f"%e(d, M". Ga(de "'ff, a)ed &e"#a%( B'e)#%o(), $%&$ I"oo)e #o a()e".

Ca( #$%) a(, )a%d $e, #"a()fe" %#)e+f %(#o #$e )#a#e of +aa-aH Ce"#a%(+/ (o#.

Ca( %# e)#a+%)$ a "a(&$ %( #$e )#a#e of +aa-a, #$e"e #o e"fo"- #$e )a-e d'#%e) a(d #"a()a #$e )a-e ')%(e)) %( a++"e)e) a) %( #$e )#a#e of Pe(()/+a(%aH Ce"#a%(+/ (o#.

Ca( %# ee"&%)e %( #$e )#a#e of +aa-a a(/ of %#) &o"o"a#e f'(%o()H Ce"#a%(+/ %# &a(. =o" -/ +ea"(ed f"%e(d ad-%#) %#)"%g$# #o )'e %( #$a# )#a#e, $%&$ %) /000831 a "%g$# #$a# %# o))e))e) )o+e+/ / #$e a'#$o"%#/ of #$e Pe(()/+a(%a +a /$%&$ #$e a( %) %(&o"o"a#ed.

e #$') &+ea" #$e &a)e of )o-e d%ff%&'+#/ / a""%%(g a# #$%) o%(#, #$e ad-%))%o( o( o#$ )%de) #$a# #$e"e a"e &e"#a%(oe") $%&$ #$e a( &a( ee"&%)e %#$%( #$e )#a#e of +aa-a, a(d &e"#a%( o#$e") $%&$ %# &a((o# ee"&%)e.

!$e B'e)#%o( %), #$e(, $e#$e" #$e a( &a( ee"&%)e %#$%( #$e )#a#e of +aa-a #$%) e"/ oe" of '/%(g a %++ ofe&$a(geH

O'" "oo)%#%o( %), #$a# )$e &a( '/ a %++ of e&$a(ge %#$%( #$e )#a#e of +aa-a e&a')e #$e"e a"e (o &o"o"a#ef'(%o() (e&e))a"/ #o #$e a of '/%(g of a %++ of e&$a(ge e&a')e '/%(g a(d )e++%(g e&$a(ge %) a #$%(g oe( #o a++

#$e o"+d, %( +aa-a a) e++ a) ee"/$e"e e+)e e&a')e, a+#$o'g$ #$e oe" #o '/ a(d )e++ %++) of e&$a(ge e&o(fe""ed 'o( #$%) a( / %#) &$a"#e", a(d %# &o'+d (o# '/ o" )e++ a %++ of e&$a(ge %#$o'# #$a# "o%)%o( %( %#)&$a"#e", /e# #$%) oe" a) &o(fe""ed 'o( %#, a) e"e o#$e" oe") &o(fe""ed / %#) &$a"#e", #o +a&e #$e a( 'o( #$e)a-e foo#%(g a) a( %(d%%d'a+; #o g%e %# (o# a -o(oo+/, (o# a( e&+')%e "%%+ege %( #$%) "e)e, '# )%-+/ #$e )a-eoe" $%&$ #$e /0008&1 -e-e") of #$e &o"o"a#%o( a) %(d%%d'a+) $ae a( '(B'e)#%o(a+e "%g$# #o ee"&%)e. !$ea(e", #$e "oe", #$e -e"&$a(#, #$e -a('fa'"e", a++ '/ %++) of e&$a(ge a) %(d%%d'a+). !$e %(d%%d'a+) $o&o-o)e a &o"o"a#%o( -a/ do %#; a(d e )a/ #$a# #$e/ -a/ do %#, #$o'g$ #$e/ do %# %( #$e (a-e of, a(d fo" #$e&o"o"a#%o(. e )a/, '(do'#ed+/, #$a# #$e/ &a((o# a&B'%"e oe" '(de" #$e Pe(()/+a(%a &$a"#e" #o do a) %( +aa-a$%&$ #$e/ &a((o# do a) %(d%%d'a+); '# e )a/ #$a# #$e &o"o"a#%o( -a/ do %( #$e%" &o"o"a#e &$a"ae" %( +aa-a, a++)'&$ a) a'#$o"%:ed / #$e%" &$a"#e" a) #$e -e-e") #$e"eof o'+d $ae a "%g$# #o e"fo"- a) %(d%%d'a+).


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

!$e +ea"(ed &o'()e+ o( #$e o#$e" )%de a) &e"#a%(+/ (o# d%)o)ed #o &o(&ede g"a#'%#o')+/ a(/ #$%(g %( #$%) &a)e. >e# $ed%d ad-%# #$a# #$e"e -%g$# e a &a)e %( $%&$ #$e a) of a &o"o"a#%o(, &"ea#ed / o(e )#a#e, %f do(e %( a(o#$e" )#a#e,o'+d e a+%d.e )'o)ed #$e &a)e of a "a%+"oad &o-a(/ %( o(e )#a#e )e(d%(g a( age(# %(#o a(o#$e" )#a#e #o '/ %"o(fo" #$e &o()#"'&A#%o( of #$e "oad. %#$o'# &o(&ed%(g e"e))+/ #$e o%(# of +a %( #$a# &a)e, $e ad-%##ed #$a# %# o'+d e

a &a)e e"/ d%ffe"e(# f"o- #$e "e)e(#; a(d $e gae /000851 a) a "ea)o( fo" #$%) ad-%))%o(, #$a# %# o'+d e a )%(g+e)e&%a+ a, (e&e))a"/ #o e(a+e #$e &o"o"a#%o( #o ee&'#e %#) f'(%o() %#$%( #$e )#a#e #o $%&$ %# e+o(ged; a(d %( #$%)"e)e d%ffe"%(g f"o- #$e &a)e (o '(de" &o()%de"a#%o(. I( $a# &%"&'-)#a(&e, %# -a/ e++ e a)ed, do #$e &a)e)d%ffe"H O(e a o(+/ of #$e &o"o"a#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a( %) )e# fo"#$ %( #$%) "e&o"d, a(d #$a# a )#a(d) )%(g+/a(d / %#)e+f. !$e"e %) (o "oof efo"e #$e Co'"# #$a# #$e &o"o"a#%o( ee" o'g$# a(o#$e" %++ of e&$a(ge #$a( #$a#$%&$ %) #$e )'Ae of #$%) )'%#. !"a()a%o() of #$%) (a#'"e -')# (e&e))a"%+/ &o-e o(e / o(e efo"e #$%) Co'"# $e(#$e/ &o-e a# a++, a(d -')# )#a(d o" fa++ o( #$e%" %(d%%d'a+ -e"%#), a(d (o# 'o( #$e )'o)%#%o( of a(/ o+%&/ $%&$o'+d "e&og(%)e #$e +ega+%#/ of a )%(g+e a, a(d de(/ #$e a+%d%#/ of #$e dea+%(g) o" #"a()a%o() ge(e"a++/ of $%&$ #$a#a %) a a"#.

!$e(, a) #o #$e o#$e" "ea)o( )#a#ed / -/ +ea"(ed f"%e(d %( )'o"# of #$e %dea #$a# )'&$ a '"&$a)e of %"o( -%g$# e)'o"#ed, $e )a/) %# %) e&a')e #$a#, %( #$a# &a)e, #$e '"&$a)e e%(g -ade a"oad )o+e+/ #o e(a+e #$e &o"o"a#%o( #oe"fo"- %#) f'(%o() a# $o-e, -%g$# e &o()%de"ed /0008:1 +ega+ '(de" #$e +a of &o-%#/ f"o- o(e )#a#e #o a(o#$e".

o, )a%d M". e)#e", #$a# )'o)ed &a)e %) "e&%)e+/ #$e &a)e efo"e #$e Co'"#. e"e %) #$e &a)e of a &o"o"a#%o(e)#a+%)$ed %( P$%+ade+$%a, o(e of $o)e +af'+ f'(%o() %) #o dea+ %( e&$a(ge. P$%+ade+$%a -e"&$a(#, $a%(g&o-+%ed %#$ #$e o"de" of $%) &o""e)o(de(# %( +aa-a, d"a) a %++ 'o( $%- fo" #$e a-o'(# d'e %( &o()eB'e(&e,goe) #o #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a(, a(d )e++) #$e %++. !$e f'(d) #$') "ea+%:ed / #$e a( f"o- #$e '"&$a)e of %++) ofe&$a(ge a&&'-'+a#e %( +aa-a. o a"e #$o)e f'(d) #o e "o'g$# a& / #$e P$%+ade+$%a &o"o"a#%o( %#$%( %#)&o(#"o+H !$e a( $a) '(B'e)#%o(ed oe" #o dea+ %( %++) of e&$a(ge. Ca( #$e"e e )'&$ a #$%(g a) dea+%(g %(e&$a(ge, %#$ a oe" #o a o(+/ o( o(e e(d of #$e +%(eH Ce"#a%(+/ (o#. o #$e( %) #$e a( %( P$%+ade+$%a #o ge#%#) f'(d) a& f"o- +aa-aH S'o)e #$a# %# e"e #o )e(d a( age(# #$e"e, a(d '/ )e&%e. Ca( #$e a( )$% #$e)e&%eH Ca( %# )%g( a( ag"ee-e(# fo" #$e f"e%g$#, %()'"a(&e, a(d &$a"ge) of "%(g%(g %# "o'(dH !o do #$a# o'+d e a(a of &o--e"&e, of (a%ga#%o(, (o# of e&$a(ge. oe" &o(fe""ed 'o( a a( #o dea+ %( e&$a(ge /0008%1 o'+de e"fe+/ ('ga#o"/, '(+e)) a&&o-a(%ed / a oe" a+)o #o d%"e %#) f'(d) #o e "e-%##ed. !$e "a%&a+ "e)'+# of a&o(#"a"/ &o()#"'&A#%o( o'+d e, #$a# #$%) Pe(()/+a(%a a( -a/ &a""/ o( e&$a(ge e#ee( P$%+ade+$%a a(d 6ead%(g,o" P$%+ade+$%a a(d La(&a)#e", '# (o# / o))%%+%#/ %#$ Mo%+e, o" a(/ o#$e" &%#/ o" +a&e %( #$e )o'#$, o" ee( %#$

e >o", !"e(#o(, o" a+#%-o"e. O'# of Pe(()/+a(%a %# &o'+d o(+/ '/ a(d "e-%#. I# &o'+d ge# (o "e#'"(. (e&$a(ge #$a# "'() '# o(e a/ $a# )o"# of a( e&$a(ge %) #$a#H

a%(g &+ea"ed #$e &a)e of )o-e of #$e)e ge(e"a+%#%e), M". e)#e" "o&eeded #o #$e eo)%#%o( of $a# $e &o()%de"ed a&o()#%#'#%o(a+, -e"%&a( %e of #$e B'e)#%o(.

!$e "e&o"d of #$%) &a)e f%(d) #$a# #$e)e +a%(#%ff), #$e -e-e") of #$e &o"o"a#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a(, a"e &%#%:e()of o#$e" )#a#e), a(d #$a# #$e defe(da(# %) a &%#%:e( of +aa-a. o, %( #$e f%")# +a&e, #o eg%( %#$ #$e eg%((%(g of#$%) a"# of #$e B'e)#%o(, $a# a"e #$e "e+a#%o() $%&$ #$e %(d%%d'a+ &%#%:e() of o(e )#a#e ea" #o #$e %(d%%d'a+ &%#%:e()of a(/ o#$e" )#a#e of #$%) U(%o(H

o d%d #$e -a##e" )#a(d efo"e #$e 6eo+'#%o(H $e( #$e)e )#a#e) e"e &o+o(%e), /000881 $a# a) #$e "e+a#%o(e#ee( #$e %($a%#a(#) of #$e d%ffe"e(# &o+o(%e)H Ce"#a%(+/ %# a) (o# #$a# of a+%e(). !$e/ e"e (o# %(deed a++ &%#%:e()

of #$e )a-e &o+o(/; '# &e"#a%(+/ #$e/ e"e fe++o)'Ae), a(d oed a &o--o( a++eg%a(&e; a(d %# a) (o# &o-e#e(#fo" #$e +eg%)+a#%e oe" #o )a/ #$a# #$e &%#%:e() of a(/ o(e of #$e &o+o(%e) )$o'+d e a+%e( #o #$e o#$e". !$%) a) #$e)#a#e of #$e &a)e '(#%+ #$e 4#$ of '+/, 177


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Page 2o' +e# #$e- )'e, %(deed; '# #$a# %) a++.

M". e)#e" $e"e "efe""ed #o a &a)e #"%ed )o-e #%-e ago %( #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# of #$e Ma))a&$')e##) d%)#"%, %( $%&$ $ea) &o'()e+, %( $%&$ a e))e+ %()'"ed %( o)#o( a) "e&ed %( oa S&o#%a, a(d a) aa(do(ed #o #$e %()'"e"). !$e

%()'"a(&e off%&e )e(# o'# a( age(#, $o d%d #$a# $%&$ #$e o(e" of #$e e))e+ )a%d a) a( a&&e#a(&e of #$eaa(do(-e(#. O( #$e B'e)#%o( $e#$e" #$e age(# of #$e o)#o( off%&e a&&e#ed #$e aa(do(-e(#, J)a%d M". e)#e",K#$e Co'"# de&%ded #$e &a)e. If e $ad )a%d #$a# e )e(# $%- do(, %(deed, '# #$a# $%) age(&/ &ea)ed $e( $e go# #o #$eo'(da"/ +%(e of #$e )#a#e, a(d e &o'+d do (o# a $e( $e go# e/o(d %#, a(d #$e Co'"# $ad ag"eed %#$ '), e -%g$#,e"$a), $ae ga%(ed o'" &a')e. '# %# (ee" o&&'""ed #o -e, (o" "oa+/ #o #$e Co'"#, #$a# #$e age(&/ of o'" age(##e"-%(a#ed #$e -o-e(# #$a# $e a))ed #$e +%-%#) of #$e )#a#e.

!$e +a of &o-%#/ %) a a"# of #$e +a of (a#%o(); a(d %# doe) a'#$o"%:e a &o"o"a#%o( /000":1 of a(/ )#a#e #o -ae&o(#"a) e/o(d #$e +%-%#) of #$a# )#a#e.

o doe) a )#a#e &o(#"aH o -a(/ of #$e )#a#e) of #$%) U(%o( $ae -ade &o(#"a) fo" +oa() %( E(g+a(dH )#a#e %))oe"e%g(, %( a &e"#a%( )e()e. '# $e( a )#a#e )'e), %# )'e) a) a &o"o"a#%o(. $e( %# e(#e") %(#o &o(#"a) %#$ #$e&%#%:e() of fo"e%g( (a#%o(), %# doe) )o %( %#) &o"o"a#e &$a"ae". I (o )a/, #$a# %# %) #$e adA'dged a(d ad-%##ed +a of #$e

o"+d, #$a# &o"o"a#%o() $ae #$e )a-e "%g$# #o &o(#"a a(d #o )'e %( fo"e%g( &o'(#"%e), a) %(d%%d'a+) $ae. / #$e +aof (a#%o(), %(d%%d'a+) of o#$e" &o'(#"%e) a"e a++oed %( #$%) &o'(#"/ #o &o(#"a a(d )'e; a(d e -ae (o d%)#%(%o(, %(#$e &a)e of %(d%%d'a+), e#ee( #$e "%g$# #o )'e a(d #$e "%g$# #o &o(#"a. o" &a( a(/ )'&$ d%)#%(%o( e )')#a%(ed %(+a %( #$e &a)e of &o"o"a#%o(). $e"e, %( $%)#o"/, %( #$e oo), %) a(/ +a o" d%'- #o e fo'(d Je&e# #$e d%)'#ed&a)e f"o- G%"g%(%aK %( $%&$ a d%)#%(%o( %) d"a( e#ee( #$e "%g$#) of %(d%%d'a+) a(d of &o"o"a#%o() #o &o(#"a a(d)'e %( fo"e%g( &o'(#"%e) %( "ega"d #o #$%(g), ge(e"a++/, f"ee a(d oe( #o ee"/od/H I( #$e $o+e &%%+%:ed o"+d, a#$o-e a(d a"oad, %( E(g+a(d, o++a(d, /000"%1 a(d o#$e" &o'(#"%e) of E'"oe, #$e eB'a+ "%g$#) of &o"o"a#%o() a(d%(d%%d'a+), %( #$%) "e)e, $ae ee( '(d%)'#ed '(#%+ (o, a(d %( #$%) &a)e; a(d %f a d%)#%(%o( %) #o e )e# ' e#ee(#$e- a# #$%) da/, %# +%e) %#$ #$e &o'()e+ o( #$e o#$e" )%de #o "od'&e )o-e )e-+a(&e of a'#$o"%#/ o" )$o of "ea)o( fo"%#.


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Page 3038 U.S. 519, *; 10 L. Ed. 274, **;

1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

'# %# %) a"g'ed, #$a# #$o'g$ #$%) +a of &o-%#/ e%)#) a) e#ee( %(dee(de(# (a#%o(), %# doe) (o# e%)# e#ee( #$e)#a#e) of #$%) U(%o(. !$a# a"g'-e(# aea") #o $ae ee( #$e fo'(da#%o( of #$e A'dg-e(# %( #$e Co'"# e+o.

I( "e)e #o #$%) +a of &o-%#/, %# %) )a%d, )#a#e) a"e (o# (a#%o(); #$e/ $ae (o (a#%o(a+ )oe"e%g(#/; a )o"# of "e)%d''- of

)oe"e%g(#/ %) a++ #$a# "e-a%() #o #$e-. !$e (a#%o(a+ )oe"e%g(#/, %# %) )a%d, %) &o(fe""ed o( #$%) goe"(-e(#, a(d a"# of#$e -'(%&%a+ )oe"e%g(#/. !$e "e)# of #$e -'(%&%a+ )oe"e%g(#/ e+o(g) #o #$e )#a#e). o#%#$)#a(d%(g #$e "e)e$%&$ I e(#e"#a%( fo" #$e +ea"(ed A'dge $o "e)%ded %( #$a# Co'"#, I &a((o# fo++o %( #$e #"a%( of $%) a"g'-e(#. I &a(-ae (o d%ag"a-, )'&$ a) #$%), of #$e a"#%#%o( of (a#%o(a+ &$a"ae" e#ee( #$e )#a#e a(d #$e ge(e"a+ goe"(-e(#). I&a((o# -a %# o'#, a(d )a/ )o fa" %) (a#%o(a+, /000"81 a(d )o fa" -'(%&%a+; a(d $e"e %) #$e ea +%(e $e"e #$e o(eeg%() a(d #$e o#$e" e(d). e $ae (o )e&o(d La+a&e, a(d e (ee" )$a++ $ae, %#$ $%) Me&$a(%B'e Po+%#%B'e, a+e #odef%(e a(d de)&"%e #$e o"%# of ea&$ )$e"e %( o'" o+%#%&a+ )/)#e- %#$ )'&$ ea -a#$e-a#%&a+ "e&%)%o(. !$e"e %) (o)'&$ #$%(g a) a""a(g%(g #$e)e goe"(-e(#) of o'") / #$e +a) of g"a%#a#%o(, )o #$a# #$e/ %++ e )'"e #o go o( fo"ee"%#$o'# %-%(g%(g. !$e)e %()#%#'#%o() a"e "a%&a+, ad-%"a+e, g+o"%o'), +e))ed &"ea#%o(). S#%++ #$e/ e"e, $e(&"ea#ed, ee"%-e(#a+ %()#%#'#%o(); a(d %f #$e &o(e(#%o( $%&$ f"a-ed #$e &o()#%#'#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) $ad )e# do(%( %# &e"#a%( ge(e"a+ def%(%#%o() of oe", )'&$ a) $ae ee( a++eged %( #$e a"g'-e(# of #$%) &a)e, a(d )#oed #$e"e, Ie"%+/ e+%ee #$a# %( #$e &o'")e of #$e f%f#/ /ea") $%&$ $ae )%(&e e+a)ed, #$%) goe"(-e(# o'+d $ae (ee" go(e %(#ooe"a#%o(.

S'o)e #$a# #$%) Co()#%#'#%o( $ad )a%d, %( #e"-), af#e" #$e +a(g'age of #$e Co'"# e+o a++ (a#%o(a+ )oe"e%g(#/ )$a++e+o(g #o #$e U(%#ed S#a#e); a++ -'(%&%a+ )oe"e%g(#/ #o #$e )ee"a+ )#a#e). I %++ )a/, #$a# $oee" &+ea", $oee"d%)#%(, )'&$ a def%(%#%o( -a/ aea" /000"!1 #o #$o)e $o ')e %#, #$e e-+o/-e(# of %# %( #$e Co()#%#'#%o( &o'+d o(+/$ae +ed #o '##e" &o(f')%o( a(d '(&e"#a%(#/. I a- (o# "ea"ed #o )a/ #$a# #$e )#a#e) $ae (o (a#%o(a+ )oe"e%g(#/. !$e+a) of )o-e of #$e )#a#e) Ma"/+a(d a(d G%"g%(%a, fo" %()#a(&e "o%de '(%)$-e(# fo" #"ea)o(. !$e oe" #$')ee"&%)ed %) &e"#a%(+/ (o# -'(%&%a+. G%"g%(%a $a) a +a of a+%e(age #$a# %), a oe" ee"&%)ed aga%()# a fo"e%g( (a#%o(.Doe) (o# #$e B'e)#%o( (e&e))a"%+/ a"%)e, $e( a oe" %) ee"&%)ed &o(&e"(%(g a( a+%e( e(e-/ e(e-/ #o $o-H !$e+a of e)&$ed, $%&$ e%)#) %( a++ #$e )#a#e), %) a+)o #$e ee"&%)e of a g"ea# )oe"e%g( oe".

!$e #e"- ?)oe"e%g(#/? doe) (o# o&&'" %( #$e Co()#%#'#%o( a# a++. !$e Co()#%#'#%o( #"ea#) )#a#e) a) )#a#e), a(d #$e U(%#edS#a#e) a) #$e U(%#ed S#a#e); a(d / a &a"ef'+ e('-e"a#%o( de&+a"e) a++ #$e oe") #$a# a"e g"a(#ed #o #$e U(%#ed S#a#e),a(d a++ #$e "e)# a"e "e)e"ed #o #$e )#a#e). If e '")'e, #o #$e e#"e-e o%(#, #$e oe") g"a(#ed, a(d #$e oe")"e)e"ed, #$e oe") of #$e ge(e"a+ a(d )#a#e goe"(-e(#) %++ e fo'(d, %# %) #o e fea"ed, %-%(g%(g, a(d %( &o(f+%.

O'" $oe %), #$a# #$e "'de(&e a(d a#"%o#%)- of #$e )#a#e), a(d #$e /000"1 %)do- of #$%) goe"(-e(#, %++ "ee(##$a# &a#a)#"o$e.=o" -/)e+f, I %++ '")'e #$e ad%&e of #$e Co'"# %( Deea') &a)e; I %++ ao%d (%&e -e#a$/)%&a+)'#%+#%e), a(d a++ ')e+e)) #$eo"%e); I %++ ee -/ fee# o'# of #$e #"a) of ge(e"a+ def%(%#%o(; I %++ ee -/ fee# o'# of a++#"a) I %++ ee #o #$%(g) a) #$e/ a"e, a(d go (o f'"#$e" #o %(B'%"e $a# #$e/ -%g$# e, %f #$e/ e"e (o# $a# #$e/ a"e.!$e )#a#e) of #$%) U(%o(, a) )#a#e), a"e )'Ae #o a++ #$e o+'(#a"/ a(d &')#o-a"/ +a of (a#%o(). M". e)#e" $e"e"efe""ed #o, a(d B'o#ed a a))age f"o- Ga##e+, Jage


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Page 3138 U.S. 519, *; 10 L. Ed. 274, **;

1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

I $ae $ea"d (o a()e" #o a(o#$e" a"g'-e(#. If a &o(#"a e -ade %( e >o", %#$ #$e eea#%o( #$a# %# %) #o e#$e"e ee&'#ed, a(d )'%# %) "o'g$# 'o( %# %( +aa-a, %# %) #o e de&%ded / #$e +a of #$e )#a#e %( $%&$ #$e &o(#"aa) -ade. I( a &a)e (o /000$1 efo"e #$%) Co'"#, #$e"e $a) ee( a de&%)%o( / #$e Co'"# of +aa-a, %( $%&$ #$a#Co'"# $a) '(de"#ae( #o +ea"( #$e +a of #$e )#a#e of e >o", a(d ad-%(%)#e" %# %( +aa-a. $/ #ae (o#%&e %(+aa-a of #$e +a of e >o"H e&a')e, )%-+/, #$e"e a"e &a)e) %( $%&$ #$e Co'"#) %( +aa-a fee+ %# #o e #$e%"

d'#/ #o ad-%(%)#e" #$a# +a, a(d #o e(fo"&e "%g$#) a&&o"d%(g+/. !$a#, )a%d M". e)#e", %) #$e e"/ o%(# fo" $%&$ e&o(#e(d, %:. #$e Co'"# %( +aa-a )$o'+d $ae g%e( effe #o "%g$#) ee"&%)ed %( #$a# )#a#e / #$e +a%(#%ff %( #$e"e)e(# &a')e, '(de" #$e a'#$o"%#/ of Pe(()/+a(%a, %#$o'# "eA'd%&e #o #$e )#a#e of +aa-a.

f#e" a++ #$a# $a) ee( )a%d %( a"g'-e(# ao'# &o"o"a#%o(), #$e/ a"e '# fo"-) of )e&%a+ a"#(e")$%, %( )o-e of $%&$#$e a"#(e") a"e )ee"a++/ +%a+e. !$e $o+e e(d a(d a%- of -o)# of #$e-, a) %#$ '), %) #o &o(&e(#"a#e #$e -ea() of)-a++ &a%#a+%)#) %( a fo"- %( $%&$ #$e/ &a( e ')ed #o ada(#age.

I( #$e ea)#e"( )#a#e), -a('fa'"e), #oo e#e()%e fo" %(d%%d'a+ &a%#a+, a"e &a""%ed o( %( #$%) a/. +a"ge B'a(#%#/ ofgood) %) -a('fa'"ed a(d )o+d #o #$e )o'#$, o'# of &o##o( o'g$# %( #$e )o'#$, #o #$e a-o'(# of -a(/ -%++%o() %( ee"//00031 /ea". Uo( #$e "%(&%+e of #$e de&%)%o( %( #$e Co'"# e+o, #$e -a('fa'"e") of #$e good) a(d #$e g"oe")of #$e &o##o( o'+d e eB'a++/ "e&+'ded f"o- "e&oe"%(g #$e%" d'e).$a# %++ o'" fe++o&%#%:e() of #$e )o'#$ )a/ #o#$%)H If, af#e" e $ae go# #$e%" &o##o(, #$e/ &a((o# ge# #$e%" -o(e/ fo" %#, #$e/ %++ e %( (o g"ea# +oe, I #$%(, %#$#$e)e (e do"%(e), ao'# #$e &o-%#/ of )#a#e) a(d (a#%o().

ga%(, +oo a# #$e B'e)#%o( a) %# "ega"d) #$e %()'"a(&e off%&e). o a"e a++ -a"%(e %()'"a(&e), f%"e %()'"a(&e), a(d +%fe%()'"a(&e), effeed %( #$%) &o'(#"/, '# / #$e age(&/ of &o-a(%e) %(&o"o"a#ed / #$e )ee"a+ )#a#e)H (d #$e%()'"a(&e) -ade / #$e)e &o-a(%e) e/o(d #$e +%-%#) of #$e%" a"#%&'+a" )#a#e), a"e #$e/ a++ o%dH I )'o)e #$a# #$e%()'"a(&e) aga%()# f%"e, effeed fo" &o-a(%e) a# a"#fo"d, %( Co((e%&'# a+o(e, / age(#) a++ oe" #$e (o"#$e"( )#a#e),-a/ a-o'(# #o a( agg"ega#e of )o-e -%++%o() of do++a"). I "e-e-e" a &a)e o&&'""%(g %( e a-)$%"e, of a )'%#aga%()# o(e of #$o)e &o-a(%e) fo" #$e a-o'(# of a( %()'"a(&e, %( $%&$ a "e&oe"/ a) $ad aga%()# #$e &o-a(/; a(d(o#$%(g a) )a%d, (o" "oa+/ #$o'g$#, of )'&$ a &o(#"a of %()'"a(&e e%(g /000&1 %++ega+, o( #$e g"o'(d #$a# a&o"o"a#%o( of Co((e%&'# &o'+d (o# do a( a o" -ae a &o(#"a %( e a-)$%"e. "e #$o)e %()'"a(&e) a++ #o e$e+d o%d, 'o( #$e "%(&%+e of #$e de&%)%o( f"o- +aa-aH

(d a) #o (o#e) %))'ed / a() %f o(e %( +aa-a $o+d #$e (o#e) of a a( %(&o"o"a#ed / Pe(()/+a(%a, a"e #$e/o%dH If o(e e "oed #$e"e of )'&$ (o#e), %) %# (o #$ef#H If o(e &o'(#e"fe%#) #$o)e (o#e) #$e"e, %) %# (o &"%-eH "e a++

)'&$ (o#e) -e"e ('++%#%e), $e( o'# of #$e )#a#e $e"e %))'edH

6efe"e(&e $a) ee( -ade #o #$e )#a#'#eoo) #o )$o &a)e) %( $%&$ #$e )#a#e) $ae fo"%dde( fo"e%g( %()'"a(&e&o-a(%e) f"o- -a%(g %()'"a(&e) %#$%( #$e%" +%-%#). '# (o )'&$ "o$%%#%o( $a) ee( )$o( aga%()# %()'"a(&e) /&%#%:e() of, o" &o-a(%e) &"ea#ed %(, #$e d%ffe"e(# )#a#e). I) (o# #$%) a( ea &a)e fo" #$e a+%&a#%o( of #$e "'+e e&e#%o"oa# "eg'+a-H !$e fa of )'&$ "o$%%#o"/ +eg%)+a#%o( )$o) #$a# &%#%:e() of o#$e" )#a#e) $ae, a(d #$a# &%#%:e() offo"e%g( oe") $ad, efo"e #$e/ e"e e&+'ded / +a, #$e "%g$# #o -ae %()'"a(&e) %( a(/ a(d ee"/ o(e of #$e )#a#e).

M". e)#e" (e# &a++ed #$e a##e(#%o( of #$e Co'"# #o #$e deo)%#e +a a))ed / Co(g"e)) o( /00051 #$e 23d of '(e,183


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

+ea)e.e"e, #$e(, #$e"e %) #o e (ego#%a#%o( e#ee( #$e )#a#e), #o de#e"-%(e $o fa" #$e/ %++ o)e"e #$%) +a of&o-%#/. !$e/ a"e #$') "eB'%"ed #o do "e&%)e+/ $a# #$e/ &a((o# do.S#a#e) &a((o# -ae #"ea#%e) (o" &o-a). )#a#e&a((o# (ego#%a#e.I# &a((o# ee( $o+d a( I(d%a( #a+ (d (o I o'+d a) $o %# $ae(), a# #$%) #%-e of #$e da/, #$a##$%) Co'"# )$a++ e &a++ed 'o( #o -ae a de&%)%o( &o(#"a"/ #o #$e )%"%# of #$e Co()#%#'#%o(, a(d aga%()# #$e $o+e &o'")eof de&%)%o() %( #$%) &o'(#"/ a(d %( E'"oe, a(d #$e '(d%)'#ed "a%&e '(de" #$%) goe"(-e(# fo" f%f#/ /ea"),

oe"#'"(%(g #$e +a of &o-%#/, a(d +ea%(g %# #o #$e )#a#e), ea&$ #o e)#a+%)$ a &o-%#/ fo" %#)e+fH

M". e)#e" $e"e #oo +eae of #$e B'e)#%o( of #$e oe" of a &o"o"a#%o( &"ea#ed / o(e of #$e )#a#e) #o -ae &o(#"a)%( a(o#$e".

I (o "o&eed, )a%d M". e)#e", #o &o()%de" $e#$e" #$e"e e a(/ #$%(g %( #$e +a o" &o()#%#'#%o( /000%1 of #$e )#a#eof +aa-a, $%&$ "ee(#) #$e age(# of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) a(, %( #$a# )#a#e, f"o- -a%(g )'&$ a &o(#"a a) #$a# $%&$%) #$e fo'(da#%o( of #$%) )'%#.

I# %) )a%d #$a# #$e '/%(g of a %++ of e&$a(ge / )'&$ age(# %) &o(#"a"/ #o #$e o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a; a(d #$%) %)%(fe""ed f"o- #$e +a e)#a+%)$%(g #$e a( of +aa-a; #$a# a( e%(g a'#$o"%:ed #o dea+ %( %++) of e&$a(ge, a(d #$e&o()#%#'#%o( of #$e )#a#e a'#$o"%:%(g #$e e)#a+%)$-e(# of (o o#$e" #$a( o(e a( %( #$e )#a#e.

!$%), )a%d M". e)#e", %) a %o+e(# %(fe"e(&e.

o doe) #$e '/%(g o" )e++%(g %++) of e&$a(ge %( +aa-a, / a(o#$e" '"&$a)e" #$a( #$e a( of +aa-a, %(f"%(ge$e" o+%&/H e&a')e, %# %) )a%d, %# d%-%(%)$e) #$e "of%#) $%&$ )$e de"%e) f"o- #$e dea+%(g) of #$e a(. P"of%# %) $e"o+%&/, %# %) a"g'ed; ga%(, $e" e(d. I) %# aga%()# $e" o+%&/ fo" M". %dd+e #o '/ %++), e&a')e $%) a( %) %(&o"o"a#ed;a(d (o# aga%()# $e" o+%&/ fo" M". %"a"d #o '/ %++), e&a')e $%) %) (o# %(&o"o"a#edH O", $o fa" doe) )$e &a""/ #$%)o+%&/ %-'#ed #o $e"H I) (o o(e #o e a++oed #o '/ o" )e++ %++) of e&$a(ge %( +aa-a '# a a( of $e" o(, $%&$-a/ o" -a/ (o# e %( &"ed%#, a(d /00081 -a/ o" -a/ (o# e )o+e(#H I# o'+d e )#"a(ge, %(deed, e"e a(/ )#a#e %(#$%) U(%o( #o ado# )'&$ a o+%&/ a) #$%). '#, %f #$e a"g'-e(# fo'(ded o( #$%) %(fe""ed o+%&/ of +aa-a a-o'(#) #oa(/ #$%(g, %# "oe), (o# #$a# %(&o"o"a#ed &%#%:e() of o#$e" )#a#e) &a((o# '/ o" )e++ %++) #$e"e, '# #$a# %# %) #$e o+%&/ of+aa-a #o "ee(# o#$e" &%#%:e() f"o- '/%(g %++) a# a++ %( +aa-a.

I #$%(, )a%d M". e)#e", #$a# #$e"e %) (o A')# fo'(da#%o( fo" #$e %(fe"e(&e of a(/ )'&$ o+%&/ o( #$e a"# of #$e )#a#e of+aa-a. / "efe""%(g #o %%() D%ge)# of #$e +a) of #$a# )#a#e, %# %++ e fo'(d #$a# )$e $a) &a""%ed $e" o+%&/ a +%##+e

fa"#$e" #$a( -e"e+/ #$e e)#a+%)$%(g of a a(. e" '+%& off%&e") a"e a'#$o"%:ed #o "e&e%e #$e (o#e) of a() of o#$e")#a#e) %( a/-e(# of d'e) #o $e"; a(d )$e $a) e(aed +a) #o '(%)$ #$e fo"ge"/ of (o#e) of o#$e" a(). o, #a%(g#$e%" a) #oge#$e", &o()%de"%(g #$e- a) a $o+e, #$e %(fe"e(&e $%&$ $a) ee( d"a( f"o- $e" e)#a+%)$-e(# of a S#a#ea( '(de" $e" &o()#%#'#%o( %) &e"#a%(+/ (o# )')#a%(ed.

!o &o()%de" #$%) a"g'-e(#, $oee", -o"e &+o)e+/ %# %) a))'-ed / %#, f%")#, #$a# #$e )#a#e -ea(#, / $e" +eg%)+a#%o(, #o#ae #o $e")e+f /000!1 a++ #$e "of%#) of a(%(g %#$%( $e" #e""%#o"%a+ +%-%#); a(d, )e&o(d+/, #$a# #$e a of /%(g a(d)e++%(g a %++ of e&$a(ge e+o(g) #o a(%(g.

!$e "of%#) of a(%(g a"e de"%ed -o"e f"o- &%"&'+a#%o( #$a( f"o- e&$a(ge. If #$e )#a#e -ea(#, #$"o'g$ $e" a(o+%&/, #o #ae a++ #$e "of%#) of a(%(g, $/ $a) )$e (o# #ae( a++ #$e "of%#) of &%"&'+a#%o(H o# o(+/ $a) )$e do(e (o)'&$ #$%(g, '# )$e "o#e) #$e &%"&'+a#%o( of (o#e) of a() of o#$e" )#a#e).

M". e)#e" egged (o #o a) #$e a"#%&'+a" a##e(#%o( of #$e Co'"# #o #$%) B'e)#%o( $a# %) a(%(gH

+aa-a, %( "efe"e(&e #o a(%(g, $a) do(e (o#$%(g '# e)#a+%)$ed a a(, a(d g%e( %# #$e ')'a+ a(%(g oe"). (d$e( #$e +ea"(ed &o'()e+ o( #$e o#$e" )%de )ea of a(%(g, $a# do #$e/ -ea( / %#H a( dea+) %( e&$a(ge); a(d%# '/) o" '%+d) $o')e), a+)o; )o do %(d%%d'a+). If #$e"e e a(/ #$%(g e&'+%a" %( #$e)e a) / a a(, %# -')# e (o# %(#$e (a#'"e of #$e a) %(d%%d'a++/, '# %( #$e agg"ega#e of #$e $o+e. $a# &o()#%#'#e) a(%(g, -')# e )o-e#$%(ge&'+%a". !$e"e a"e a"%o') a) of +eg%)+a#%o(, / d%ffe"e(# )#a#e) %( #$%) &o'(#"/, fo" g"a(#%(g o" "ee(#%(g #$e ee"&%)eof a(%(g "%%+ege). /000$"1 '# $a) a(/ +a ee" ee( a))ed #o a'#$o"%:e o" #o "ee(# #$e '/%(g / a(%(d%%d'a+ of a %++ of e&$a(geH o o(e $a) ee" $ea"d of )'&$ a #$%(g. !$e +a) #o "e)#"a%( a(%(g $ae a++ ee(


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

d%"eed #o o(e e(d; #$a# %), #o "e"e)) #$e '(a'#$o"%:ed &%"&'+a#%o( of ae" -o(e/. !$e"e a"e a"%o') o#$e" f'(%o()e"fo"-ed / a(); '#, %( d%)&$a"g%(g a++ #$e)e, #$e/ o(+/ do $a# '(%(&o"o"a#ed %(d%%d'a+) do.

$a# %) #$a#, #$e(, %#$o'# $%&$ a(/ %()#%#'#%o( %) (o# a a(, a(d %#$ $%&$ %# %) a a(H I# %) a oe" #o %))'e"o-%))o"/ (o#e) %#$ a %e #o #$e%" &%"&'+a#%o( a) -o(e/.

O'" %dea) of a(%(g $ae ee( de"%ed "%(&%a++/ f"o- #$e a &o()#%#'#%(g #$e f%")# a( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), a(d #$e%dea of #$a# a( a) o""oed f"o- #$e a( of E(g+a(d. !o a)&e"#a%( #$e &$a"ae" a(d e&'+%a" f'(%o() of #$ea( of E(g+a(d, M". e)#e" $ad "efe""ed, a(d "efe""ed #$e Co'"#, #o a"%o') a'#$o"%#%e) #o MC'++o&$) Co--e"&%a+D%%o(a"/; #o S-o++e##) &o(#%('a#%o( of '-e$) E(g+a(d; #o odf"e/) %)#o"/ of #$e a( of E(g+a(d, %( Lo"dSo-e") !"a), 11#$ o+'-e, 1)# a"#%&+e; #o (de")o() %)#o"/ of Co--e"&e, @&.

!$e "oAe of #$e a( of E(g+a(d a) &o(&e%ed, M". e)#e" /000$1 )a%d, / M". Pa#e")o(, a S&o#&$ ge(#+e-a(,$o $ad #"ae++ed -'&$ a"oad, a(d $ad )ee( )o-e$e"e J$e e+%eed %( Lo-a"d/K a )-a++ a( $%&$ %))'ed #%&e#)o" "o-%)e) of a/-e(# of -o(e/. ="o- #$%) $e #oo #$e %dea of a a( of &%"&'+a#%o(. !$a# a) %( 1


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

#$e +a) of o#$e" )#a#e), Ma"/+a(d, e e")e/, M%))o'"%, Pe(()/+a(%a, De+aa"e, o"#$ Ca"o+%(a, So'#$ Ca"o+%(a,G%"g%(%a, eo"g%a, /000$51 a++ #o #$e )a-e effe. !$e +a of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a $e")e+f, )a%d $e, %) -'&$ -o"e%-o"#a(#, %( #$%) %e of #$e &a)e, #$a( #$a# of a(/ o#$e" )#a#e. !$e &o()#%#'#%o( of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a a) e)#a+%)$ed%( 1819; #$e +a &"ea#%(g #$e a( of +aa-a a) a))ed %( 1823. !$e &o()#%#'#%o( a(d #$%) +a a"e a++ #$e a'#$o"%#%e)f"o- $%&$ #$e %(fe"e(&e $a) ee( d"a( of #$e o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a. D%d )$e )'o)e #$a# / #$%) +a )$e

a) e)#a+%)$%(g )'&$ a -o(oo+/ of #$e '"&$a)e of %++) of e&$a(ge a) $a) ee( &o(#e(ded fo" %( #$%) &a)eH Ce"#a%(+/(o#. =o", / a +a a))ed af#e"a"d), )$e "e)#"a%(ed #$e &%"&'+a#%o( of '(a'#$o"%:ed a( (o#e); #$a# %), (o#e) (o# %))'ed/ )o-e a'#$o"%:ed a(). '# d%d )$e a+)o "e)#"a%( dea+%(g) %( e&$a(geH S$e d%d (o )'&$ #$%(g. o" %) #$e"e a(/#$%(g, e%#$e" %( #$e &o()#%#'#%o( o" #$e +a) of #$e )#a#e of +aa-a, $%&$ )$o) #$a# / a(%(g )$e ee" -ea(# -o"e#$a( #$e &%"&'+a#%o( of %++) a) &'""e(&/. !$e"e %) (o#$%(g #$e"efo"e %( a(/ +a o" a(/ o+%&/ of +aa-a, aga%()# #$e'"&$a)e of %++) of e&$a(ge / o#$e") a) e++ a) / #$e a( of +aa-a. S$e $a) "o$%%#ed / +a o#$e"#"a()a%o() $%&$ a"e &+ea"+/ a(%(g #"a()a%o(); /000$:1 '# )$e $a) (o# #o'&$ed #$%). If ee( $e" a(%(g o+%&/%(&+'de) a) e++ '/%(g e&$a(ge a) &%"&'+a#%o(, a(d )$e g'a"d) aga%()# &o-e#%#%o( %( #$e o(e, a(d +eae) #$e o#$e"oe(, $o &a( )a/, %( #$e fa&e of )'&$ e%de(&e, #$a# %# %) $e" o+%&/ #o g'a"d aga%()# $a# )$e +eae) f"ee a(d'("e)#"a%(edH

I) #$e"e a(/ #$%(g %( #$e &o()#%#'#%o(, o" a(/ g"o'(d %( #$e +eg%)+a#%o( of +aa-a, #o )')#a%( #$e a++ega#%o( $%&$ $a)ee( -ade of $e" o+%&/H If (o#, %) #$e e%)#e(&e of )'&$ a o+%&/ #o e e)#a+%)$ed $e"e / &o()#"'%o(, a(d #$a#&o()#"'%o( fa"fe#&$edH

M". e)#e" $e"e "e)#ed $%) a"g'-e(# o( #$%) &a)e, $%&$, $e )a%d, $ad ee( d%)&'))ed / o#$e") )o a+/ a) (o# #o A')#%f/$%) o&&'/%(g #$e #%-e of #$e Co'"# / go%(g f'"#$e" %(#o %#.

!$e +ea"(ed &o'()e+ o( #$e o#$e" )%de $ad, %( #$e &o'")e of $%) a"g'-e(# of /e)#e"da/, a++'ded #o #$e (e)ae"), $%&$,$e )a%d, $ad #"ea#ed #$e de&%)%o( of #$e Co'"# e+o )&o"(f'++/. M". e)#e" )a%d $e a) )o""/ #o $ea" %#; fo" #$e +ea"(edA'dge $ad aed, %( $%) de&%)%o(, $e $ad (o do'#, '(de" a $%g$ )e()e of d'#/. I $ae ee( #o+d, )a%d M". e)#e", '# I$ae (o# )ee( %#, #$a# a "e)) %( #$%) &%#/, )%(&e #$%) &a)e $a) ee( '(de" &o()%de"a#%o( /000$%1 %( #$%) Co'"#, $a)'(de"#ae( #o )ea, %( a #o(e )o-e#$%(g a"oa&$%(g #o #$a# of &o--a(d, of #$e de&%)%o( 'o( %# #o e eeed f"o-#$%) Co'"#. S'&$ &o(d' %) &e"#a%(+/ g"ea#+/ d%)&"ed%#a+e #o #$e &$a"ae" of #$e &o'(#"/, a) e++ a) d%)"e)ef'+ a(d%(A'"%o') #o #$e Co'"#.

+ea"(ed ge(#+e-a( o( #$e o#$e" )%de )a%d, #$e o#$e" da/, #$a# $e #$o'g$# $e -%g$# "ega"d $%-)e+f, %( #$%) &a')e, a)

$a%(g #$e &o'(#"/ fo" $%) &+%e(#. e o(+/ -ea(#, do'#+e)), #o e"e)) a )#"o(g o%(%o( #$a# #$e %(#e"e)# of #$e &o'(#"/"eB'%"ed #$e &a)e #o e de&%ded %( $%) fao'". I ag"ee %#$ #$e +ea"(ed ge(#+e-a(, a(d I go %(deed fa" e/o(d $%-, %( -/e)#%-a#e of #$e %-o"#a(&e of #$%) &a)e #o #$e &o'(#"/. e d%d (o# #ae a%() #o )$o #$e e#e(# of #$e e%+ $%&$ o'+d"e)'+# f"o- '(do%(g #$e a)# ('-e" of &o(#"a) $%&$ o'+d e affeed / #$e aff%"-a#%o( $e"e of #$e A'dg-e(#"e(de"ed %( #$e Co'"# e+o, e&a')e $%) oAe d%d (o# "eB'%"e #$a# $%) oAe a) #o d%-%(%)$ #$e "o)e of -%)&$%ef,(o# #o e(+a"ge %#. =o" -/)e+f, I )ee (e%#$e" +%-%# (o" e(d #o #$e &a+a-%#o') &o()eB'e(&e) of )'&$ a de&%)%o(. I do (o#(o $e"e %# o'+d (o# "ea&$, $a# %(#e"e)#) %# o'+d (o# d%)#'", o" $o /000$81 a(/ a"# of #$e &o--e"&%a+ )/)#e-of #$e &o'(#"/ o'+d e f"ee f"o- %#) %(f+'e(&e), d%"e o" "e-o#e. (d fo" $a# e(d %) a++ #$%) #o e do(eH $a#"a%&a+ e%+ &a++) fo" )o $a")$, (o# #o )a/ )o "a)$ a "e-ed/H (d $/ (o, $e( e%)#%(g )/)#e-) a(d e)#a+%)$edo%(%o(), $e( o#$ #$e +a a(d '+%& )e(#%-e(# $ae &o(&'""ed %( $a# $a) ee( fo'(d "a%&a++/ )o )afe a(d )o')ef'+; $/ (o, a(d $/ $e"e )ee #o %(#"od'&e (e a(d o"#e(#o') do"%(e)H If I e"e &a++ed 'o( #o )a/ $a# $a))#"'& -e a) -o)# "e-a"a+e a(d o(de"f'+ %( #$%) $o+e &a)e, I o'+d, %()#ead of %(d'+g%(g %( e+e#%e),eagge"a#%o(), o" e&+a-a#%o(), '# %# do( a) #$e -o)# e#"ao"d%(a"/ &%"&'-)#a(&e, #$a# (o, %#$%( a )$o"# -o(#$ of

#$e e%"a#%o( of #$e f%")# $a+f &e(#'"/ of o'" e%)#e(&e '(de" #$%) Co()#%#'#%o(, )'&$ a B'e)#%o( )$o'+d $ae ee( -ade;#$a# (o, fo" #$e f%")# #%-e, a(d $e"e, fo" #$e +a)# +a&e o( ea"#$, )'&$ do"%(e) a) $ae ee( $ea"d %( %#) )'o"# )$o'+de "o'g$# fo"a"d. %#$ a++ #$e "e)e $%&$ I "ea++/ e(#e"#a%( fo" #$e Co'"# e+o, a(d fo" #$e a"g'-e(#) $%&$ $aeee( de+%e"ed $e"e o( #$e )a-e )%de, I -')# )a/ #$a#, %( -/ A'dg-e(#, #$e de&%)%o( (o '(de" "e%)%o( / #$%) /000$!1Co'"# %), %( %#) "%(&%+e, a(#%&o--e"&%a+ a(d a(#%)o&%a+, (e a(d '($ea"d of %( o'" )/)#e-, a(d &a+&'+a#ed #o "ea '#$e $a"-o(/ $%&$ $a) )o +o(g "ea%+ed a-o(g #$e )#a#e) a(d eo+e of #$%) U(%o(.

I# %) (o#, $oee", fo" #$e +ea"(ed ge(#+e-a(, (o" fo" -/)e+f, #o )a/ $e"e #$a# e )ea fo" #$e &o'(#"/. e ada(&e o'")e(#%-e(#) a(d o'" a"g'-e(#), '# #$e/ a"e %#$o'# a'#$o"%#/. '# %# %) fo" /o', M". C$%ef ')#%&e a(d A'dge), o( #$%), a)o( o#$e" o&&a)%o() of $%g$ %-o"#a(&e, #o )ea a(d #o de&%de fo" #$e &o'(#"/. !$e g'a"d%a()$% of $e" &o--e"&%a+


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

%(#e"e)#); #$e "e)e"a#%o( of #$e $a"-o(%o') %(#e"&o'")e of a++ $e" &%#%:e(); #$e f'+f%++%(g, %( #$%) "e)e, of #$e g"ea#oAe of #$e Co()#%#'#%o(, a"e %( /o'" $a(d); a(d I a- (o# #o do'# #$a# #$e #"')# %++ e )o e"fo"-ed a) #o )')#a%( a#o(&e $%g$ (a#%o(a+ oAe) a(d #$e &$a"ae" of #$%) #"%'(a+.

M". I(ge")o++, fo" #$e defe(da(#, )a%d #$a# a+#$o'g$ d%)#%( &o()%de"a#%o() of '(%e")a+, of %(#e"(a#%o(a+, a(d of

-'(%&%a+ +a a"e %(o+ed %( #$%) &a)e, $e )$o'+d (o# a##e-# #o d%)&"%-%(a#e, '# )'-%# #$e- a+#oge#$e". !$eA'dg-e(# of #$e C%"&'%# Co'"# %) aga%()# #$e +a%(#%ff) "%g$# of a%o(. =o" #$a# A'dg-e(# /0003"1 #o d%)#%( "ea)o()a"e g%e(, %:. 1. !$a# #$e +a of +aa-a e&+'de) a(%(g %( #$a# )#a#e e&e# a) "e)&"%ed / %#) e&'+%a" "o%)%o();a(d, 2. !$a# e)%de) #$a# +o&a+ +a, #$e '(%e")a+ +a e&+'de) &o"o"a#%o() (o# a'#$o"%:ed / #$e +eg%)+a#%e oe" of)'&$ )#a#e) a) d%d (o# &$a"#e" #$e-. !$e f%")# "ea)o( %) e(o'g$ #o )'o"# #$e A'dg-e(#, %#$o'# "ega"d #o #$e )e&o(d,%#$ $%&$ #$%) Co'"# %) (o# o'(d #o &o(&e"( %#)e+f. !$e &o"o"a#%o( B'e)#%o(, #$e"efo"e, %) (o# (e&e))a"%+/ %( %))'e. I#-a##e") (o# $a# #$e "'+e of ge(e"a+ A'"%)"'de(&e -a/ e a) #o &o"o"a#%o() a##e-#%(g e#"a#e""%#o"%a+ #"a()a%o(), %f#$e +a of +aa-a e #$a# a(%(g %) "o$%%#ed %( #$a# )#a#e, $e#$e" / &o"o"a#%o() o" %(d%%d'a+). !$e a(%(gB'e)#%o( "'+e) #$e &a)e / #$e a(%(g %(#e"d%, %#$o'# "efe"e(&e #o #$e &o"o"a#%o( B'e)#%o(, o( $%&$ #$e oo)%#ea"g'-e(# $a) )e(# %#)e+f %( o+%#%&a+ de('(&%a#%o(. +aa-a $a) a )oe"e%g( "%g$# #o -ae a(%(g a( affa%" of )#a#e;a(d a( '("oe( )e"%e) of #$e '(%fo"- A'dg-e(#) of #$e S'"e-e Co'"# of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) aff%"-) (o# o(+/ #$a# )#a#e"%g$#, '# #$e o+%ga#%o( of #$%) Co'"# #o &o(fo"- #o %#. M". I(ge")o++ #$e( "ead #$e a"#%&+e) /00031 of #$e &o()#%#'#%o(of +aa-a &o(&e"(%(g a(), a(d a( a of #$e a))e-+/ of #$a# )#a#e %( 183


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Page 3e#, a) %( #$e &a)e of a (a#'"a+ e")o(, %# %) (o# (e&e))a"/ #$a# %# )$o'+d a'a++/ e%)# %( #$e )oe"e%g(#/ %( $%&$#$e &o(#"a %) -ade. I# %) )'ff%&%e(# #$a# %#) e%)#e(&e a) a( a"#%f%&%a+ e")o(, %( #$e )#a#e of %#) &"ea#%o(, %) a&(o+edgeda(d "e&og(%)ed / #$e +a of #$e (a#%o( $e"e #$e dea+%(g #ae) +a&e; a(d #$a# %# %) e"-%##ed / #$e +a) of #$a# +a&e#o ee"&%)e #$e"e #$e oe") %#$ $%&$ %# %) e(doed.

Ee"/ oe", $oee", of #$e de)&"%#%o( of $%&$ e a"e )ea%(g, $%&$ a &o"o"a#%o( ee"&%)e) %( a(o#$e" )#a#e,dee(d) fo" %#) a+%d%#/ 'o( #$e +a) of #$e )oe"e%g(#/ %( $%&$ %# %) ee"&%)ed; a(d a &o"o"a#%o( &a( -ae (o a+%d&o(#"a %#$o'# #$e%" )a(%o(, e"e)) o" %-+%ed. (d #$%) "%(g) ') #o /0008%1 #$e B'e)#%o( $%&$ $a) ee( )oe+ao"a#e+/ d%)&'))ed; $e#$e", / #$e &o-%#/ of (a#%o() a(d e#ee( #$e)e )#a#e), #$e &o"o"a#%o() of o(e )#a#e a"ee"-%##ed #o -ae &o(#"a) %( a(o#$e". I# %) (eed+e)) #o e('-e"a#e $e"e #$e %()#a(&e) %( $%&$, / #$e ge(e"a+ "a%&eof &%%+%:ed &o'(#"%e), #$e +a) of #$e o(e, %++, / #$e &o-%#/ of (a#%o(), e "e&og(%)ed a(d ee&'#ed %( a(o#$e", $e"e#$e "%g$# of %(d%%d'a+) a"e &o(&e"(ed. !$e &a)e) of &o(#"a) -ade %( a fo"e%g( &o'(#"/ a"e fa-%+%a" ea-+e); a(dCo'"#) of A')#%&e $ae a+a/) eo'(ded a(d ee&'#ed #$e-, a&&o"d%(g #o #$e +a) of #$e +a&e %( $%&$ #$e/ e"e-ade; "o%ded #$a# +a a) (o# "e'g(a(# #o #$e +a) o" o+%&/ of #$e%" o( &o'(#"/. !$e &o-%#/ #$') e#e(ded #oo#$e" (a#%o() %) (o %-ea&$-e(# of )oe"e%g(#/. I# %) #$e o+'(#a"/ a of #$e (a#%o( / $%&$ %# %) offe"ed; a(d %)%(ad-%))%+e $e( &o(#"a"/ #o %#) o+%&/, o" "eA'd%&%a+ #o %#) %(#e"e)#). '# %# &o(#"%'#e) )o +a"ge+/ #o "o-o#e A')#%&ee#ee( %(d%%d'a+), a(d #o "od'&e a f"%e(d+/ %(#e"&o'")e e#ee( #$e )oe"e%g(#%e) #o $%&$ #$e/ e+o(g; #$a# Co'"#)of A')#%&e $ae &o(#%('a++/ aed 'o( %#, a) a a"# of #$e o+'(#a"/ +a of (a#%o(). I# %) #"'+/ )a%d, /000881 %( S#o"/)Co(f+% of La), 37, #$a# 5F ?I( #$e )%+e(&e of a(/ o)%#%e "'+e, aff%"-%(g, o" de(/%(g, o" "e)#"a%(%(g #$e oe"a#%o(of fo"e%g( +a), Co'"#) of A')#%&e "e)'-e #$e #a&%# ado#%o( of #$e- / #$e%" o( goe"(-e(#; '(+e)) #$e/ a"e"e'g(a(# #o %#) o+%&/, o" "eA'd%&%a+ #o %#) %(#e"e)#). I# %) (o# #$e &o-%#/ of #$e Co'"#), '# #$e &o-%#/ of #$e (a#%o($%&$ %) ad-%(%)#e"ed, a(d a)&e"#a%(ed %( #$e )a-e a/, a(d g'%ded / #$e )a-e "ea)o(%(g / $%&$ a++ o#$e" "%(&%+e)of -'(%&%a+ +a a"e a)&e"#a%(ed a(d g'%ded.?

do#%(g, a) e do, #$e "%(&%+e $e"e )#a#ed, e "o&eed #o %(B'%"e $e#$e", / #$e &o-%#/ of (a#%o(), fo"e%g(&o"o"a#%o() a"e e"-%##ed #o -ae &o(#"a) %#$%( #$e%" A'"%)d%%o(; a(d e &a( e"&e%e (o )'ff%&%e(# "ea)o( fo"e&+'d%(g #$e-, $e( #$e/ a"e (o# &o(#"a"/ #o #$e (o( o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e, o" %(A'"%o') #o %#) %(#e"e)#). /05!"1 I# %)

(o#$%(g -o"e #$a( #$e ad-%))%o( of #$e e%)#e(&e of a( a"#%f%&%a+ e")o( &"ea#ed / #$e +a of a(o#$e" )#a#e, a(d &+o#$ed%#$ #$e oe" of -a%(g &e"#a%( &o(#"a). I# %) '# #$e ')'a+ &o-%#/ of "e&og(%)%(g #$e +a of a(o#$e" )#a#e. I(E(g+a(d, f"o- $%&$ e $ae "e&e%ed o'" ge(e"a+ "%(&%+e) of A'"%)"'de(&e, /0008!1 (o do'# aea") #o $aeee( e(#e"#a%(ed of #$e "%g$# of a fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o( #o )'e %( %#) Co'"#); )%(&e #$e &a)e e("%B'e: ). !$e D'#&$ e)#I(d%a Co-a(/, de&%ded %( 1729, 2 L. 6a/-o(d, 1532. (d %# %) a -a##e" of $%)#o"/, $%&$ #$%) Co'"# a"e o'(d #o(o#%&e, #$a# &o"o"a#%o(), &"ea#ed %( #$%) &o'(#"/, $ae ee( %( #$e oe( "a%&e fo" -a(/ /ea") a)#, of -a%(g &o(#"a)%( E(g+a(d of a"%o') %(d), a(d #o e"/ +a"ge a-o'(#); a(d e $ae (ee" )ee( a do'# )'gge)#ed #$e"e of #$e a+%d%#/of #$e)e &o(#"a), / a(/ Co'"# o" a(/ A'"%)#. I# %) %-o))%+e #o %-ag%(e #$a# a(/ Co'"# %( #$e U(%#ed S#a#e) o'+d"ef')e #o ee&'#e a &o(#"a, / $%&$ a( -e"%&a( &o"o"a#%o( $ad o""oed -o(e/ %( E(g+a(d; /e# %f #$e &o(#"a) of&o"o"a#%o() -ade o'# of #$e )#a#e / $%&$ #$e/ e"e &"ea#ed, a"e o%d, ee( &o(#"a) of #$a# de)&"%#%o( &o'+d (o# ee(fo"&ed.

I# $a), $oee", ee( )'o)ed #$a# #$e "'+e) of &o-%#/ e#ee( fo"e%g( (a#%o() do (o# a+/ #o #$e )#a#e) of #$%) U(%o(;#$a# #$e/ e#e(d #o o(e a(o#$e" (o o#$e" "%g$#) #$a( #$o)e $%&$ a"e g%e( / #$e Co()#%#'#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e); a(d

#$a# #$e Co'"#) of #$e ge(e"a+ goe"(-e(# a"e (o# a# +%e"#/ #o "e)'-e, %( #$e a)e(&e /000!"1 of a++ +eg%)+a#%o( o( #$e)'Ae, #$a# a )#a#e $a) ado#ed #$e &o-%#/ of (a#%o() #o a"d) #$e o#$e" )#a#e), a) a a"# of %#) A'"%)"'de(&e; o" #$a# %#a&(o+edge) a(/ "%g$#) '# #$o)e $%&$ a"e )e&'"ed / #$e Co()#%#'#%o( of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e). !$e Co'"# #$%( /003"!1o#$e"%)e. !$e %(#%-a#e '(%o( of #$e)e )#a#e), a) -e-e") of #$e )a-e g"ea# o+%#%&a+ fa-%+/; #$e dee a(d %#a+ %(#e"e)#)$%&$ %(d #$e- )o &+o)e+/ #oge#$e"; )$o'+d +ead '), %( #$e a)e(&e of "oof #o #$e &o(#"a"/, #o "e)'-e a g"ea#e" deg"eeof &o-%#/, a(d f"%e(d)$%, a(d %(d(e)) #oa"d) o(e a(o#$e", #$a( e )$o'+d e a'#$o"%:ed #o "e)'-e e#ee( fo"e%g((a#%o(). (d $e( Ja) %#$o'# do'# -')# o&&a)%o(a++/ $ae(K #$e %(#e"e)# o" o+%&/ of a(/ )#a#e "eB'%"e) %# #o "e)#"%#$e "'+e, %# $a) '# #o de&+a"e %#) %++, a(d #$e +ega+ "e)'-#%o( %) a# o(&e a# a( e(d. '# '(#%+ #$%) %) do(e, 'o( $a#g"o'(d) &o'+d #$%) Co'"# "ef')e #o ad-%(%)#e" #$e +a of %(#e"(a#%o(a+ &o-%#/ e#ee( #$e)e )#a#e)H !$e/ a"e )oe"e%g()#a#e); a(d #$e $%)#o"/ of #$e a)#, a(d #$e ee(#) $%&$ a"e da%+/ o&&'""%(g, f'"(%)$ #$e )#"o(ge)# e%de(&e #$a# #$e/ $ae


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

ado#ed #oa"d) ea&$ o#$e" #$e +a) of &o-%#/ %( #$e%" f'++e)# e#e(#. /000!1 Mo(e/ %) f"eB'e(#+/ o""oed %( o(e)#a#e, / a &o"o"a#%o( &"ea#ed %( a(o#$e". !$e ('-e"o') a() e)#a+%)$ed / d%ffe"e(# )#a#e) a"e %( #$e &o()#a(# $a%#of &o(#"a%(g a(d dea+%(g %#$ o(e a(o#$e". ge(&%e) fo" &o"o"a#%o() e(gaged %( #$e ')%(e)) of %()'"a(&e a(d ofa(%(g $ae ee( e)#a+%)$ed %( o#$e" )#a#e), a(d )'ffe"ed #o -ae &o(#"a) %#$o'# a(/ oAe%o( o( #$e a"# of #$e)#a#e a'#$o"%#%e). !$e)e ')age) of &o--e"&e a(d #"ade $ae ee( )o ge(e"a+ a(d '+%&, a(d $ae ee( "a%)ed fo" )o

+o(g a e"%od of #%-e, a(d )o ge(e"a++/ a&B'%e)&ed /05!1 %( / #$e )#a#e), #$a# #$e Co'"# &a((o# oe"+oo #$e- $e( aB'e)#%o( +%e #$e o(e efo"e ') %) '(de" &o()%de"a#%o(. !$e )%+e(&e of #$e )#a#e a'#$o"%#%e), $%+e #$e)e ee(#) a"ea))%(g efo"e #$e-, )$o #$e%" a))e(# #o #$e o"d%(a"/ +a) of &o-%#/ $%&$ e"-%# a &o"o"a#%o( #o -ae &o(#"a) %(a(o#$e" )#a#e. '# e a"e (o# +ef# #o %(fe" %# -e"e+/ f"o- #$e ge(e"a+ ')age) of #"ade, a(d #$e )%+e(# a&B'%e)&e(&e of #$e)#a#e). I# aea") f"o- #$e &a)e) &%#ed %( #$e a"g'-e(#, $%&$ %# %) '((e&e))a"/ #o "e&a%#'+a#e %( #$%) o%(%o(; #$a# %# $a)ee( de&%ded %( -a(/ of #$e )#a#e Co'"#), e e+%ee %( a++ of #$e- $e"e #$e /000!$1 B'e)#%o( $a) a"%)e(, #$a# a&o"o"a#%o( of o(e )#a#e -a/ )'e %( #$e Co'"#) of a(o#$e". If %# -a/ )'e, $/ -a/ %# (o# -ae a &o(#"aH !$e "%g$# #o)'e %) o(e of #$e oe") $%&$ %# de"%e) f"o- %#) &$a"#e". If #$e Co'"#) of a(o#$e" &o'(#"/ #ae (o#%&e of %#) e%)#e(&e a)a &o"o"a#%o(, )o fa" a) #o a++o %# #o -a%(#a%( a )'%#, a(d e"-%# %# #o ee"&%)e #$a# oe"; $/ )$o'+d (o# %#) e%)#e(&ee "e&og(%)ed fo" o#$e" '"o)e), a(d #$e &o"o"a#%o( e"-%##ed #o ee"&%)e a(o#$e" oe" $%&$ %) g%e( #o %# / #$e)a-e +a a(d #$e )a-e )oe"e%g(#/ $e"e #$e +a)# -e(#%o(ed oe" doe) (o# &o-e %( &o(f+% %#$ #$e %(#e"e)# o"o+%&/ of #$e )#a#eH !$e"e %) &e"#a%(+/ (o#$%(g %( #$e (a#'"e a(d &$a"ae" of a &o"o"a#%o( $%&$ &o'+d A')#+/ +ead #o)'&$ a d%)#%(%o(; a(d $%&$ )$o'+d e#e(d #o %# #$e &o-%#/ of )'%#, a(d "ef')e #o %# #$e &o-%#/ of &o(#"a. If %# %)a++oed #o )'e, %# o'+d of &o'")e e e"-%##ed #o &o-"o-%)e, %f %# #$o'g$# "oe", %#$ %#) de#o"; #o g%e $%- #%-e; #oa&&e# )o-e#$%(g e+)e %( )a#%)fa%o(; #o g%e $%- a "e+ea)e; a(d #o e-+o/ a( a##o"(e/ fo" %#)e+f #o &o(d' %#) )'%#.!$e)e a"e a++ -a##e") of &o(#"a, a(d /e# a"e )o %(#%-a#e+/ &o((eed %#$ #$e "%g$# /000!31 #o )'e, #$a# #$e +a##e" &o'+d(o# e effe'a++/ ee"&%)ed %f #$e fo"-e" e"e de(%ed.

e #'"( %( #$e (e# +a&e #o #$e +eg%)+a#%o( of #$e )#a#e).

So fa" a) a(/ of #$e- $ae aed o( #$%) )'Ae, %# %) e%de(# #$a# #$e/ $ae "ega"ded #$e &o-%#/ of &o(#"a, a) e++ a)#$e &o-%#/ of )'%# #o e a a"# of #$e +a of #$e )#a#e, '(+e)) "e)#"%ed / )#a#'#e. !$') a +a a) a))ed / #$e )#a#e ofPe(()/+a(%a, Ma"&$ 10, 1810, $%&$ "o$%%#ed fo"e%g(e") a(d fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o() f"o- -a%(g &o(#"a) of%()'"a(&e aga%()# f%"e, a(d o#$e" +o))e) -e(#%o(ed %( #$e +a. I( e >o", a+)o, a +a a) a))ed, Ma"&$ 18, 1814,$%&$ "o$%%#ed fo"e%g(e") a(d fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o() f"o- -a%(g %( #$a# )#a#e %()'"a(&e) aga%()# f%"e; a(d / a(o#$e"+a, a))ed "%+ 21, 1818, &o"o"a#%o() &$a"#e"ed / o#$e" )#a#e) a"e "o$%%#ed f"o- ee%(g a(/ off%&e of deo)%# fo"#$e '"o)e of d%)&o'(#%(g "o-%))o"/ (o#e), o" &a""/%(g o( a(/ %(d of ')%(e)) $%&$ %(&o"o"a#ed a() a"ea'#$o"%:ed / +a #o &a""/ o(. !$e "o$%%#%o( of &e"#a%( )e&%f%ed &o(#"a) / &o"o"a#%o() %( #$e)e +a), %) /

(e&e))a"/ %-+%&a#%o( a( ad-%))%o( #$a# o#$e" &o(#"a) -a/ e -ade / fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o() %( Pe(()/+a(%a, a(d/000!&1 e >o"; a(d #$a# (o +eg%)+a#%e e"-%))%o( %) (e&e))a"/ #o g%e #$e- a+%d%#/. (d #$e +a(g'age of #$e)e"o$%%#o"/ a) -o)# /05!$1 &+ea"+/ %(d%&a#e) #$a# #$e &o(#"a) fo"%dde( / #$e- -%g$# +af'++/ $ae ee( -adeefo"e #$e)e +a) e"e a))ed.

Ma"/+a(d $a) go(e )#%++ fa"#$e" %( "e&og(%)%(g #$%) "%g$#. / a +a a))ed %( 1834, #$a# )#a#e $a) "e)&"%ed #$e -a((e"%( $%&$ &o"o"a#%o() (o# &$a"#e"ed / #$e )#a#e, ?$%&$ )$a++ #"a()a o" )$a++ $ae #"a()aed ')%(e))? %( #$e )#a#e,-a/ e )'ed %( %#) Co'"#) 'o( &o(#"a) -ade %( #$e )#a#e. !$e +a a))'-e) %( #$e &+ea"e)# -a((e", #$a# )'&$ &o(#"a)e"e a+%d, a(d "o%de) a "e-ed/ / $%&$ #o e(fo"&e #$e-.

I( #$e +eg%)+a#%o( of Co(g"e)), a+)o, $e"e #$e )#a#e) a(d #$e eo+e of #$e )ee"a+ )#a#e) a"e a++ "e"e)e(#ed, e )$a++ f%(d"oof of #$e ge(e"a+ '(de")#a(d%(g %( #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), #$a# / #$e +a of &o-%#/ a-o(g #$e )#a#e), #$e &o"o"a#%o()&$a"#e"ed / o(e e"e e"-%##ed #o -ae &o(#"a) %( #$e o#$e"). / #$e a of Co(g"e)) of '(e 23, 183


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

(o(, a(d +o(g &o(#%('ed ')age) of #"ade; #$e ge(e"a+ a&B'%e)&e(&e of #$e )#a#e); #$e a"#%&'+a" +eg%)+a#%o( of )o-e of#$e-, a) e++ a) #$e +eg%)+a#%o( of Co(g"e)); /000!:1 a++ &o(&'" %( "o%(g #$e #"'#$ of #$%) "oo)%#%o(.

'# e $ae a+"ead/ )a%d #$a# #$%) &o-%#/ %) "e)'-ed f"o- #$e )%+e(# a&B'%e)&e(&e of #$e )#a#e. $e(ee" a )#a#e)'ff%&%e(#+/ %(d%&a#e) #$a# &o(#"a) $%&$ de"%e #$e%" a+%d%#/ f"o- %#) &o-%#/ a"e "e'g(a(# #o %#) o+%&/, o" a"e&o()%de"ed a) %(A'"%o') #o %#) %(#e"e)#); #$e "e)'-#%o( %( fao'" of %#) ado#%o( &a( (o +o(ge" e -ade. (d %# "e-a%()

#o %(B'%"e, $e#$e" #$e"e %) a(/ #$%(g %( #$e &o()#%#'#%o( o" +a) of +aa-a, f"o- $%&$ #$%) Co'"# o'+d e A')#%f%ed %(&o(&+'d%(g #$a# #$e '"&$a)e of #$e %++ %( B'e)#%o( a) &o(#"a"/ #o %#) o+%&/.

!$e &o()#%#'#%o( of +aa-a &o(#a%() #$e fo++o%(g "o%)%o() %( "e+a#%o( #o a()

?O(e )#a#e a( -a/ e e)#a+%)$ed, %#$ )'&$ ('-e" of /05!31 "a(&$e) a) #$e e(e"a+ ))e-+/ -a/ f"o- #%-e #o#%-e dee- eed%e(#, "o%ded #$a# (o "a(&$ a( )$a++ e e)#a+%)$ed, (o" a( &$a"#e" "e(eed, '(de" #$e a'#$o"%#/of #$%) )#a#e, %#$o'# #$e &o(&'""e(&e of #o#$%"d) of o#$ $o')e) of #$e e(e"a+ ))e-+/; a(d "o%ded a+)o #$a# (o#-o"e #$a( o(e a( o" "a(&$ a( )$a++ e e)#a+%)$ed, (o" a( &$a"#e" "e(eed, '# %( &o(fo"-%#/ #o #$e fo++o%(g"'+e)

?1. # +ea)# #of%f#$) /000!%1 of #$e &a%#a+ )#o& )$a++ e "e)e"ed fo" #$e )#a#e.

?2. "oo"#%o( of oe", %( #$e d%"e%o( of #$e a(, )$a++ e "e)e"ed #o #$e )#a#e, eB'a+ a# +ea)# #o %#) "oo"#%o( of)#o& #$e"e%(.

?3. !$e )#a#e a(d %(d%%d'a+ )#o&$o+de") )$a++ e +%a+e "e)e%e+/ fo" #$e de#) of #$e a(, %( "oo"#%o( #o #$e%")#o& $o+de( #$e"e%(.

?4. !$e "e-ed/ fo" &o++e%(g de#) )$a++ e "e&%"o&a+, fo" a(d aga%()# #$e a(.

?5. o a( )$a++ &o--e(&e oe"a#%o() '(#%+ $a+f of #$e &a%#a+ )#o& )')&"%ed fo" e a'a++/ a%d %( go+d a(d )%+e";$%&$ a-o'(# )$a++, %( (o &a)e, e +e)) #$a( o(e $'(d"ed #$o')a(d do++a").?

o f"o- #$e)e "o%)%o() %( #$e &o()#%#'#%o(, %# %) e%de(#+/ #$e o+%&/ of +aa-a #o "e)#"% #$e oe" of #$e+eg%)+a#'"e %( "e+a#%o( #o a( &$a"#e"), a(d #o )e&'"e #o #$e )#a#e a +a"ge o"#%o( of #$e "of%#) of a(%(g, %( o"de" #o"o%de a '+%& "ee('e; a(d a+)o #o -ae )afe #$e de#) $%&$ )$o'+d e &o(#"aed / #$e a(). !$e -ea(%(g #oo %($%&$ #$a# )#a#e ')ed #$e o"d a(, %( $e" &o()#%#'#%o(, %) )'ff%&%e(#+/ +a%( f"o- %#) )')eB'e(# +eg%)+a#%o(. ++ of #$ea() &$a"#e"ed / %#, a"e a'#$o"%:ed #o "e&e%e deo)%#) of -o(e/, #o d%)&o'(# (o#e), #o '"&$a)e /000!81 %++) ofe&$a(ge, a(d #o %))'e #$e%" o( (o#e) a/a+e o( de-a(d #o ea"e". !$e)e a"e #$e ')'a+ oe") &o(fe""ed o( #$e

a(%(g &o"o"a#%o() %( #$e d%ffe"e(# )#a#e) of #$e U(%o(; a(d $e( e a"e dea+%(g %#$ #$e ')%(e)) of a(%(g %(+aa-a, e -')# '(do'#ed+/ a##a&$ #o %# #$e -ea(%(g %( $%&$ %# %) ')ed %( #$e &o()#%#'#%o( a(d +a) of #$e )#a#e.Uo( )o -'&$ of #$e o+%&/ of +aa-a, #$e"efo"e, %( "e+a#%o( #o a() a) %) d%)&+o)ed / %#) &o()#%#'#%o(, a(d 'o( #$e-ea(%(g $%&$ #$a# )#a#e a##a&$e) #o #$e o"d a(, e &a( $ae (o "ea)o(a+e do'#. '# efo"e #$%) Co'"# &a('(de"#ae #o )a/ #$a# #$e d%)&o'(# of #$e %++ %( B'e)#%o( a) %++ega+, -a/ o#$e" %(B'%"%e) -')# e -ade, a(d -a(/ o#$e"d%ff%&'+#%e) -')# e )o+ed. a) %# #$e o+%&/ of +aa-a #o e&+'de a++ &o-e#%#%o( %#$ %#) o( a() / #$e&o"o"a#%o() of o#$e" )#a#e)H D%d #$e )#a#e %(#e(d, / #$e)e "o%)%o() %( %#) &o()#%#'#%o(, a(d #$e)e &$a"#e") #o %#) a(),#o %($%%# #$e &%"&'+a#%o( of #$e (o#e) of o#$e" a(), #$e d%)&o'(# of (o#e), #$e +oa( of -o(e/, a(d #$e '"&$a)e of %++)of e&$a(geH O" d%d %# de)%g( #o go )#%++ f'"#$e", a(d fo"%d #$e a(%(g &o"o"a#%o() of o#$e" )#a#e) f"o- -a%(g a&o(#"a of /000!!1 a(/ %(d %#$%( %#) #e""%#o"/H D%d %# -ea( #o "o$%%# %#) o( a() f"o- ee%(g -'#'a+ a&&o'(#)%#$ #$e a() of o#$e" )#a#e), a(d f"o- e(#e"%(g %(#o a(/ &o(#"a %#$ /05!&1 #$e-, e"e)) o" %-+%edH O" d%d )$e-ea( #o g%e #o $e" a() #$e oe" of &o(#"a%(g %#$%( #$e +%-%#) of #$e )#a#e %#$ fo"e%g( &o"o"a#%o(), a(d de(/ %# #o%(d%%d'a+ &%#%:e()H S$e -a/ e+%ee %# #o e #$e %(#e"e)# of $e" &%#%:e() #o e"-%# #$e &o-e#%#%o( of o#$e" a() %( #$e

&%"&'+a#%o( of (o#e), %( #$e '"&$a)e a(d )a+e of %++) of e&$a(ge, a(d %( #$e +oa( of -o(e/.O" )$e -a/ #$%( %# #o e $e"%(#e"e)# #o "ee(# #$e &%"&'+a#%o( of #$e (o#e) of o#$e" a(); a(d #o "o$%%# #$e- f"o- )e(d%(g -o(e/ #$e"e #o ee-+o/ed %( #$e '"&$a)e of e&$a(ge, o" -a%(g &o(#"a) of a(/ o#$e" de)&"%#%o(.

!$e )#a#e $a) (o# -ade (o( %#) o+%&/ 'o( a(/ of #$e)e o%(#). (d $o &a( #$%) Co'"#, %#$ (o o#$e" +%g$#) efo"e%#, '(de"#ae #o -a" o'# / a def%(%#e a(d d%)#%( +%(e #$e o+%&/ $%&$ +aa-a $a) ado#ed %( "e+a#%o( #o #$%) &o-+ea(d %(#"%&a#e B'e)#%o( of o+%#%&a+ e&o(o-/H I# %) #"'e #$a# #$e )#a#e %) #$e "%(&%a+ )#o&$o+de" %( $e" o( a(). S$e$a) &"ea#ed )ee(; a(d %( f%e of #$e- /000$""1 #$e )#a#e o() #$e $o+e )#o&; a(d %( #$e o#$e") #of%f#$). !$%)"oe) #$a# #$e )#a#e %) dee+/ %(#e"e)#ed %( #$e )'&&e))f'+ oe"a#%o( of $e" a(), a(d %# -a/ e $e" o+%&/ #o )$'# o'# a++%(#e"fe"e(&e %#$ #$e-. I( a(o#$e" %e of #$e )'Ae, $oee" )$e -a/ e+%ee %# #o e $e" o+%&/ #o e#e(d #$e '#-o)#+%e"a+%#/ #o #$e a() of o#$e" )#a#e); %( #$e eea#%o( #$a# %# o'+d "od'&e a &o""e)o(d%(g &o-%#/ %( o#$e" )#a#e)


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1839 U.S. LEXIS 455, ***

#oa"d) #$e a() %( $%&$ )$e %) )o -'&$ %(#e"e)#ed. I( #$%) "e)e %# %) a B'e)#%o( &$%ef+/ of "ee('e, a(d of f%)&a+o+%&/. o &a( #$%) Co'"#, %#$ (o o#$e" a%d #$a( #$e ge(e"a+ "%(&%+e) a))e"#ed %( $e" &o()#%#'#%o(, a(d $e"%(e)#-e(#) %( #$e )#o&) of $e" o( a(), '(de"#ae #o &a""/ o'# #$e o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e 'o( )'&$ a )'Ae %( a++ of %#)de#a%+), a(d de&%de $o fa" %# e#e(d) a(d $a# B'a+%f%&a#%o() a(d +%-%#a#%o() a"e %-o)ed 'o( %#H !$e)e B'e)#%o()-')# e de#e"-%(ed / #$e )#a#e %#)e+f, a(d (o# / #$e Co'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e). Ee"/ )oe"e%g(#/ o'+d %#$o'#

do'# &$oo)e #o de)%g(a#e %#) o( +%(e of o+%&/; a(d o'+d (ee" &o()e(# #o +eae %# a) a "o+e- #o e o"ed o'# /#$e Co'"#) of #$e U(%#ed S#a#e), f"o- a fe ge(e"a+ /000$"1 "%(&%+e), $%&$ -%g$# e"/ (a#'"Aa++/ e -%)'(de")#oodo" -%)a+%ed / #$e Co'"#. I# o'+d $a"d+/ e "e)ef'+ #o a )#a#e fo" #$%) Co'"# #o fo"e)#a++ %#) de&%)%o(, a(d #o )a/, %(ada(&e of $e" +eg%)+a#%o(, $a# $e" %(#e"e)# o" o+%&/ de-a(d). S'&$ a &o'")e o'+d )ao'" -o"e of +eg%)+a#%o( #$a( ofA'd%&%a+ %(#e""e#a#%o(.

/0031 If e "o&eed f"o- #$e &o()#%#'#%o( a(d a( &$a"#e") #o o#$e" a) of +eg%)+a#%o( / #$e )#a#e e f%(d (o#$%(g#$a# )$o'+d +ead ') #o a &o(#"a"/ &o(&+')%o(. / a( a of ))e-+/ of #$e )#a#e, a))ed a('a"/ 12#$, 1827, %# a)de&+a"ed '(+af'+ fo" a(/ e")o(, od/ &o"o"a#e, &o-a(/, o" a))o&%a#%o(, #o %))'e a(/ (o#e fo" &%"&'+a#%o( a) a a((o#e, %#$o'# #$e a'#$o"%#/ of +a; a(d a f%(e a) %-o)ed 'o( a(/ o(e offe(d%(g aga%()# #$%) )#a#'#e. o #$%) a"o#eed #$e "%%+ege) of $e" o( a(), %( "e+a#%o( #o a( (o#e) o(+/; a(d &o(#a%() (o "o$%%#%o( aga%()# #$e'"&$a)e of %++) of e&$a(ge, o" aga%()# a(/ o#$e" ')%(e)) / fo"e%g( a(), $%&$ /05!51 -%g$# %(#e"fe"e %#$ $e"o( a(%(g &o"o"a#%o(). (d %f e e"e #o fo"- o'" o%(%o( of #$e o+%&/ of +aa-a f"o- #$e "o%)%o() of #$%)+a, e )$o'+d e o'(d #o )a/ #$a# #$e /000$"$1 +eg%)+a#'"e dee-ed %# #o e #$e %(#e"e)# a(d o+%&/ of #$e )#a#e (o# #o

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108. Bank of Augusta vs Earle