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Social Social PsychologyPsychology
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Social PsychologySocial Psychology
Social psychology scientifically studies Social psychology scientifically studies how we how we think aboutthink about, , influenceinfluence, and , and relate relate
toto one another. one another.
““We cannot live for ourselves We cannot live for ourselves alone.”alone.”Herman Melville
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Social PsychologySocial Psychology
Social ThinkingSocial Thinking Attribution of Behavior to Attribution of Behavior to
Persons or SituationsPersons or Situations
Attitudes and ActionAttitudes and Action
Social influenceSocial influence Conformity and ObedienceConformity and Obedience
Group InfluenceGroup Influence
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Social PsychologySocial Psychology
Social RelationsSocial Relations PrejudicePrejudice
AttractionAttraction
AltruismAltruism
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Social ThinkingSocial Thinking
Social thinking involves thinking about Social thinking involves thinking about others, especially when they engage in others, especially when they engage in
doing things that are unexpected.doing things that are unexpected.
1.1. Does his absenteeism signify Does his absenteeism signify illness, laziness, or a stressful work illness, laziness, or a stressful work atmosphere?atmosphere?
2.2. Was the horror of 9/11 the work of Was the horror of 9/11 the work of crazed evil people or ordinary crazed evil people or ordinary people corrupted by life events?people corrupted by life events?
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Attributing Behavior to Attributing Behavior to Persons or to SituationsPersons or to Situations
Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory: : Fritz Heider (1958) Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we suggested that we have a tendency to have a tendency to
give causal give causal explanations for explanations for
someone’s behavior, someone’s behavior, often by crediting often by crediting
either the situation or either the situation or the person’s the person’s disposition.disposition.
http://www.stedw
ards.edu
Fritz Heider
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Attributing Behavior to Attributing Behavior to Persons or to SituationsPersons or to Situations
A teacher may wonder whether a child’s A teacher may wonder whether a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality hostility reflects an aggressive personality
((dispositional attributiondispositional attribution) or is a reaction to ) or is a reaction to stress or abuse (stress or abuse (a situational attributiona situational attribution).).
http://www.bootsnall.org
Dispositions are Dispositions are enduring personality enduring personality traits. So, if Joe is a traits. So, if Joe is a
quiet, shy, and quiet, shy, and introverted child, he is introverted child, he is likely to be like that in likely to be like that in a number of situations.a number of situations.
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Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution ErrorError
The tendency to overestimate the impact The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the impact of the situations in analyzing
the behaviors of the behaviors of othersothers leads to the leads to the
fundamental attribution error.fundamental attribution error.
We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.very talkative, loud, and extroverted.
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Effects of AttributionEffects of Attribution
How we explain someone’s behavior How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it.affects how we react to it.
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AttitudesAttitudes
A belief and feeling that predisposes a A belief and feeling that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way to person to respond in a particular way to
objects, other people, and events.objects, other people, and events.
If we If we believebelieve a person is mean, we may a person is mean, we may feelfeel dislike for the person and dislike for the person and actact in an in an
unfriendly manner.unfriendly manner.
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Attitudes Can Affect Attitudes Can Affect ActionAction
Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external because other factors, including the external
situation, also influence behavior.situation, also influence behavior.
e.g.e.g., Democratic leaders supported Bush’s attack , Democratic leaders supported Bush’s attack on Iraq under public pressure. However, they had on Iraq under public pressure. However, they had
their private reservations.their private reservations.
Attitudes guide behavior Attitudes guide behavior most when:most when:
Outside pressure is minimalOutside pressure is minimal The attitude is specific and relevant The attitude is specific and relevant
to the behaviorto the behavior One is made aware of one’s attitudeOne is made aware of one’s attitude
Etc.Etc.
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But, Can Actions Affect But, Can Actions Affect Attitudes?Attitudes?
Not only do people stand for what they Not only do people stand for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in believe in (attitude), they start believing in
what they stand for.what they stand for.
Cooperative actions can lead to mutual liking (beliefs).
D. M
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oto
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Small Request – Large Small Request – Large RequestRequest
In the Korean War, Chinese communists In the Korean War, Chinese communists solicited cooperation from US army solicited cooperation from US army
prisoners by asking them to carry out small prisoners by asking them to carry out small errands. By complying to small errands they errands. By complying to small errands they
were likely to comply to larger ones.were likely to comply to larger ones.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon:Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The The tendency for people who have first tendency for people who have first
agreed to a small request to comply later agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.with a larger request.
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Role Playing Affects Role Playing Affects AttitudesAttitudes
Zimbardo (1972) assigned the roles of Zimbardo (1972) assigned the roles of guards and prisoners to random students guards and prisoners to random students
and found that guards and prisoners and found that guards and prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes.developed role- appropriate attitudes.
Orig
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Actions Can Affect Actions Can Affect AttitudesAttitudes
Why do actions affect attitudes? One Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and explanation is that when our attitudes and
actions are opposed, we experience actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called tension. This is called cognitive cognitive
dissonancedissonance..
To relieve ourselves of this tension we To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions bring our attitudes closer to our actions
(Festinger, 1957).(Festinger, 1957).
eg. counter-attitudinal essay studies eg. counter-attitudinal essay studies
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Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance
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Social InfluenceSocial Influence
Social psychology studies how attitudes, Social psychology studies how attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions are molded by beliefs, decisions, and actions are molded by
social influence.social influence.
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NormsNorms
conventions or unwritten rulesconventions or unwritten rules grease the social wheelsgrease the social wheels
norm violationnorm violation
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Conformity & ObedienceConformity & Obedience
Behavior is contagious, modeled by one Behavior is contagious, modeled by one followed by another. We follow behavior followed by another. We follow behavior
of others to conform.of others to conform.
Other behaviors may be an expression of Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance (obedience) toward authority.compliance (obedience) toward authority.
Conformity Obedience
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The Chameleon EffectThe Chameleon Effect
Conformity:Conformity: Adjusting one’s behavior Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group or thinking to coincide with a group
standard (standard (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999)Chartrand & Bargh, 1999)..
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Group Pressure & Group Pressure & ConformityConformity
Suggestibility is a subtle type of Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.thinking toward some group standard.
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Group Pressure & Group Pressure & ConformityConformity
An influence resulting from one’s willingness An influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.to accept others’ opinions about reality.
Asch paradigmAsch paradigm
Willia
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Conditions that Strengthen Conditions that Strengthen ConformityConformity
1.1. One is made to feel incompetent or One is made to feel incompetent or insecure.insecure.
2.2. The group has at least three people.The group has at least three people.
3.3. The group is unanimous.The group is unanimous.
4.4. One admires the group’s status and One admires the group’s status and attractiveness.attractiveness.
5.5. One has no prior commitment or response.One has no prior commitment or response.
6.6. The group observes one’s behavior.The group observes one’s behavior.
7.7. One’s culture strongly encourages respect One’s culture strongly encourages respect for a social standard.for a social standard.
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Reasons for ConformityReasons for Conformity
Normative Social InfluenceNormative Social Influence:: Influence Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain resulting from a person’s desire to gain
approval or avoid rejection. A person may approval or avoid rejection. A person may respect normative behavior because there respect normative behavior because there
may be a severe price to pay if not respected.may be a severe price to pay if not respected.
Informative Social InfluenceInformative Social Influence:: The The group may provide valuable information.group may provide valuable information.
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ObedienceObedience
People comply to People comply to social pressures. How social pressures. How would they respond to would they respond to
outright command?outright command?
Stanley Milgram Stanley Milgram designed a study that designed a study that
investigates the investigates the effects of authority on effects of authority on
obedience.obedience.Stanley MilgramStanley Milgram
(1933-1984)(1933-1984)
Cou
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Milgram’s StudyMilgram’s StudyB
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Milgram’s Study: ResultsMilgram’s Study: Results
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Individual ResistanceIndividual Resistance
A third of the individuals in Milgram’s A third of the individuals in Milgram’s study resisted social coercion.study resisted social coercion.
An unarmed individual single-handedlychallenged a line of tanks at Tiananmen
Square.
AP
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Ph
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Lessons from the Conformity Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studiesand Obedience Studies
***Social influence is strong.***Social influence is strong.
In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to go along.participants were pressured to go along.
Even when participants were torn Even when participants were torn between hearing victims pleas and between hearing victims pleas and
obeying experimenter’s orders most obeying experimenter’s orders most obeyed.obeyed.
Don’t need to be a monster to do Don’t need to be a monster to do monstrous things.monstrous things.
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Individual Behavior in the Individual Behavior in the Presence of OthersPresence of Others
Social facilitationSocial facilitation: : Refers to improved Refers to improved
performance on tasks performance on tasks in the presence of in the presence of
others. Triplett (1898) others. Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race noticed cyclists’ race
times were faster times were faster when they competed when they competed against others than against others than
when they just raced when they just raced against the clock.against the clock.
Mich
elle
Ag
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Social LoafingSocial Loafing
The tendency of an individual in a group The tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a to exert less effort toward attaining a
common goal than when tested common goal than when tested individually (Latané, 1981).individually (Latané, 1981).
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DeindividuationDeindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster restraint in group situations that foster
arousal and anonymity.arousal and anonymity.
Mob behavior
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Social RelationsSocial Relations
Social psychology teaches us how we Social psychology teaches us how we relate to one another through prejudice, relate to one another through prejudice,
aggression and conflict, to attraction, aggression and conflict, to attraction, altruism and peacemaking.altruism and peacemaking.
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PrejudicePrejudice
Simply called “prejudgment,” a prejudice is Simply called “prejudgment,” a prejudice is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice toward a group and its members. Prejudice is often directed towards different cultural, is often directed towards different cultural,
ethnic, or gender groups.ethnic, or gender groups.
1.1. Beliefs (stereotypes)Beliefs (stereotypes)
2.2. Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)
3.3. Predisposition to Predisposition to actact (to (to discriminate)discriminate)
Components of Components of PrejudicePrejudice
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Reign of PrejudiceReign of Prejudice
Prejudice works at the conscious and Prejudice works at the conscious and [more at] the unconscious level. [more at] the unconscious level.
Therefore, prejudice is more like a knee-Therefore, prejudice is more like a knee-jerk response than a conscious decision.jerk response than a conscious decision.
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How Prejudiced are How Prejudiced are People?People?
Over the duration of time many prejudices Over the duration of time many prejudices against interracial marriage, gender, against interracial marriage, gender,
homosexuality, and minorities have decreased.homosexuality, and minorities have decreased.
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Racial & Gender PrejudiceRacial & Gender Prejudice
Americans today express much less racial Americans today express much less racial and gender prejudice, but prejudices still and gender prejudice, but prejudices still
exist.exist.
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““A Girl Like Me”A Girl Like Me”
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Social Roots of PrejudiceSocial Roots of Prejudice
Why does prejudice arise?Why does prejudice arise?
1.1. Social InequalitiesSocial Inequalities
2.2. Social DivisionsSocial Divisions
3.3. Emotional Emotional ScapegoatingScapegoating
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Social InequalitySocial Inequality
Prejudice develops when people have Prejudice develops when people have money, power, and prestige, and others do money, power, and prestige, and others do not. Social inequality increases prejudice.not. Social inequality increases prejudice.
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In and Out GroupsIn and Out Groups
IngroupIngroup: People with whom one shares a : People with whom one shares a common identity. common identity. OutgroupOutgroup: Those perceived : Those perceived as different from one’s ingroup. as different from one’s ingroup. Ingroup BiasIngroup Bias: :
The tendency to favor one’s own group.The tendency to favor one’s own group.
Scotland’s famed “Tartan Army” fans.
Mik
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Emotional Roots of Emotional Roots of PrejudicePrejudice
Prejudice provides an outlet for anger [emotion] by Prejudice provides an outlet for anger [emotion] by providing someone to blame. After 9/11 many people providing someone to blame. After 9/11 many people
lashed out against innocent Arab-Americans.lashed out against innocent Arab-Americans.
ScapegoatingScapegoating
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Cognitive Roots of Cognitive Roots of PrejudicePrejudice
One way we simplify our world is to One way we simplify our world is to categorize. We categorize people into categorize. We categorize people into
groups by stereotyping them.groups by stereotyping them.
Foreign sunbathers may think Balinese look alike.
Mich
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Cognitive Roots of Cognitive Roots of PrejudicePrejudice
In vivid cases such as the 9/11 attacks, In vivid cases such as the 9/11 attacks, terrorists can feed stereotypes or terrorists can feed stereotypes or
prejudices (terrorism). Most terrorists prejudices (terrorism). Most terrorists are non-Muslims.are non-Muslims.
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Cognitive Roots of Cognitive Roots of PrejudicePrejudice
The tendency of people to believe the The tendency of people to believe the world is just, and therefore people must world is just, and therefore people must get what they deserve and deserve what get what they deserve and deserve what they get (they get (the just-world phenomenonthe just-world phenomenon).).
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Psychology of AttractionPsychology of Attraction
1.1. Proximity: Geographic nearness is a Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases their exposure to novel stimuli increases their attraction (mere exposure effect).attraction (mere exposure effect).
A rare white penguin born in a zoo was
accepted after 3 weeks by other penguins just
due to proximity.
Rex U
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Psychology of AttractionPsychology of Attraction
2.2. Physical Attractiveness: Once proximity Physical Attractiveness: Once proximity affords contact, the next most important affords contact, the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance.thing in attraction is physical appearance.
Bro
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Psychology of AttractionPsychology of Attraction
3.3. Similarity:Similarity: Similar views among Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.to strengthen.
Birds of a feather
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An unselfish regard for the welfare of others.An unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
AltruismAltruism
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Bystander EffectBystander Effect
Tendency of any given Tendency of any given bystander to be less bystander to be less likely to give aid if likely to give aid if
other bystanders are other bystanders are present.present.
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Bystander InterventionBystander Intervention
The decision-making process for The decision-making process for bystander intervention.bystander intervention.
Akos S
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, Bosto
n
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The Norms for HelpingThe Norms for Helping
Social Exchange Theory: Our social Social Exchange Theory: Our social behavior is an exchange process. The aim behavior is an exchange process. The aim is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that we Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that we should return help and not harm those who should return help and not harm those who have helped us.have helped us.
Social–Responsibility Norm: Largely learned, Social–Responsibility Norm: Largely learned, it is a norm that tells us to help others when it is a norm that tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay they need us even though they may not repay us.us.
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Try a random act of Try a random act of kindnesskindness
