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the most common systems for
culturing algae for energy purposes
are discussed in this paper together
with sustainability aspects. Several
existing sets of sustainability criteria
for biofuels are analysed for applicability,
followed by an analysis of opportunities and risks
of algae-based biofuel production. Furthermore,
suitability and environmental, economic and social
sustainability of this option for biofuel production is
discussed in the context of potential and threats for
developing countries.
Algae have recently received
a lot of attention as a new
biomass source for the production
of renewable energy. Some of the
main characteristics which distinguish
algae from other biomass sources are:
algae have a high biomass yield per unit of light
and area; have a high oil or starch content; do
not require agricultural land nor fresh water for
growth; and wastewater and CO2 (by combustion
gas) can be used as nutrients.
The different technological components and
Environment, Climate Change and Bioenergy Division (NRC) publicationswww.fao.org/nr
NRC contact: [email protected]
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)www.fao.org
ALGAE-BASED BIOFUELS:
A Review of Challenges and Opportunitiesfor Developing Countries
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ALGAE-BASED BIOFUELS:
A Review of Challenges and Opportunities
for Developing Countries
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific
companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or
recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in preference to others of a similar nature that are not
mentioned.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial
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Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without permission of the
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Application for such permission should be addressed to:
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or by e-mail to:
© FAO May 2009
Acknowledgements
i
Acknowledgements
In October 2008, the FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Bioenergy
recommended the preparation of this review paper on algae-based biofuels as a
reference platform for possible future work of the Organization. Development of the
review paper was coordinated by Alessandro Flammini (GBEP Secretariat) under the
overall guidance of Mr Jeff Tschirley (Chair, FAO Bioenergy Working Group).
The lead author of this paper is Sjors van Iersel (Ecofys) with supporting inputs from Liliana Gamba, Andrea Rossi, Sacha Alberici, Bart Dehue, Jasper van de Staaij and Alessandro Flammini.
We would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Prof. Mario Tredici
(University of Florence), Lew Fulton (IEA), Soufien Taamallah (IEA), Joel Cuello
(University of Arizona), Jim Sears (Algal Biomass Organization), Mohammad Hasan
(FAO, Fisheries Department) and other FAO colleagues, who provided inputs and
support in the preparation of this paper. The information contained does not
necessarily reflect the official views of the Organization.
This review paper provides a joint contribution to the programme of work of the
FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Bioenergy and the Global Bioenergy
Partnership (GBEP).
ii
Abstract
iii
Abstract
• A multitude of algae-based biofuel (ABB) pathways are possible and need to be determined on a case- by-case basis.
o There is a variety of land based cultivation systems, and several different ABBs and other bioenergy carriers can be produced.
o Land based systems are more developed then sea based systems.
o Many input sources can be used, like combustion gas, salt water and wastewater. The availability of these influences the exact ABB concept.
o Climatic conditions, such as annual solar irradiation and temperature, strongly influence ABB design.
o ABB systems are suitable for many land and water types, with widely varying opportunities and restrictions.
• ABB’s economic viability is still in its nascent phase.
o There are no commercial scale examples producing only bioenergy.
o Energy and biofuels tend to have a low value.
o Algae cultivation and processing systems require a high capital input (higher than agriculture).
o Biomass output is potentially high, but still under development.
o At least in the short term, and probably in the medium term, higher value co-products are needed for economic viability.
• As with plant based biofuels, ABBs have important sustainability issues, but also several significant sustainability opportunities, often unique to algae.
o Large amounts of land with a low economic and ecological value can be used.
o Fresh water usage can be avoided.
o Even more space in seas and oceans is available for ABB production.
o Several GHGs can be captured and their emissions reduced.
o Several waste streams can be treated, while at the same time being used as carbon and/or nutrient and/or water source.
Specific challenges for deployment in developing countries
• ABB production holds future promise for developing countries.
o A new industry, generating jobs, GDP and energy independence.
Abstract
iv
o Developing countries are often situated in regions which are geographically interesting for algae cultivation (favourable climatic conditions, cheap labour and underdeveloped land).
• All ABB concepts require significant capital investment.
o Access to this technology by the poor may be difficult.
o Foreign investment could lead to revenues leaving the country.
o Large-scale facilities are more economically viable, but are also more likely to have higher social and ecological impacts.
• Various knowledge levels required:
o Developing and engineering ABB technology requires a high level of expertise until construction is finished.
o Innovation for higher productivity also requires some knowledge and/or experience.
o Operation and maintenance, as well as processing, can be mostly done without specific educational requirements. This group will be the majority of the workforce.
• Knowledge gaps exist for several critical factors:
o Due to a lack of industrial scale experiments, there is insufficient knowledge to adequately judge the economic viability.
o Productivity data is often extrapolated from small experiments, and not always presented clearly and consistently.
o Overall analysis of energy balances, GHG balances and CO2 abatement potential are lacking.
ABB technical concept considerations
• Land based systems
o Closed systems have a higher capital, technology, technical skill, research and maintenance requirement than open systems, and therefore the latter are generally preferable.
o Open systems have a high water loss due to evaporation, so a renewable water source that can be replenished is required.
o Locally occurring algae species should be cultivated.
o A renewable nutrient source is needed.
o Co-production of food or feed strongly increases economic viability, allows small scale, near-term implementation, food supply and
Abstract
v
experience, and therefore has to be considered a strict requirement in the short term.
• Sea based systems
o Large potential in territorial waters of developing countries.
o Can be labour intensive. This benefits developing countries in that more jobs are created, while this has a small economic impact due to lower wages.
o Co-production of food or feed has the potential to increase economic viability and can build on existing experience.
o Synergy with fish cultivation has high potential.
Algae-based biofuels
By Sjors van Iersel, Liliana Gamba, Andrea Rossi, Sacha Alberici, Bart Dehue, Jasper van de Staaij and Alessandro Flammini
59 pages, 7 Figures, 2 Tables
FAO Environment and Natural Resources Service Series, No. 33 – FAO, Rome 2009
The list of documents published in the above series and other information can be found at the web site:
www.fao.org/nr
vi
vii
Table of contents
Abstract............................................................................................iii
Specific challenges for deployment in developing countries................. iii
ABB technical concept considerations .............................................. iv
1 Introduction ................................................................................1
2 Concepts for bioenergy from algae ..............................................3
2.1 Algae culture systems ........................................................3
2.2 Algal products ................................................................. 12
2.3 Algae cultivation inputs..................................................... 20
2.4 Biomass harvesting.......................................................... 24
3 Sustainability of energy from algae ...........................................28
3.1 Existing biofuel sustainability standards .............................. 28
3.2 Algae Based Biofuel specific sustainability issues .................. 30
3.3 Sustainability standards specific to developing countries........ 39
3.4 Knowledge gaps .............................................................. 41
4 References.................................................................................43
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![Algae Cultures to Biofuels[1]](https://img.dokumen.tips/doc/110x75/577d36271a28ab3a6b925455/algae-cultures-to-biofuels1.jpg)
