04. Modifikasi Perilaku [Compatibility Mode]

MODIFIKASI PERILAKUMODIFIKASI PERILAKUMODIFIKASI PERILAKUMODIFIKASI PERILAKU

SUNARDI, PLB FIP UPI

RUANG LINGKUP BAHASANRUANG LINGKUP BAHASAN

� Gambaran umum

� Konsep dasar

� Karakteristik

� Teknik � Teknik

� Asesmen

� Penerapan

Gambaran umumGambaran umum

Asumsi dasar

� Perilaku itu dipelajari

� Perilaku maladaptif merupakan hasil belajaryang keliru.yang keliru.

� Perilaku maladaptif dpt diubah melalui proses belajar.

� Tujuan utamanya menghilangkah tingkah lakuyang salah suai dan menggantikannya dengantingkah laku baru.

� Pendekatan yg berkembang pesat dan sangat populer.

� Mengapa?

Sederhana, praktis, logis, mudah dipahami dan diterapkan, dapat didemonstrasikan, dan diterapkan, dapat didemonstrasikan, menempatkan penghargaan khusus pada kebutuhan anak, dan adanya penekanan perhatian pada perilaku yang positif.

KONSEP DASARKONSEP DASARMODIFIKASI

� Perubahan, merubah, memperbaiki, membuat sesuatuyang sudah ada menjadi berbeda / lebih baik.

PERILAKU

� Aktivitas, aksi, kinerja, respons, atau reaksi� Aktivitas, aksi, kinerja, respons, atau reaksi

� Tindakan sederhana / simple action

� Dapat diobservasi / can be overt (observable)

� Dapat tersembunyi / can be covert (not directly observable)

� Perilaku tersembunyi harus disimpulkan dari respon-respon terbuka / covert behavior must be inferred from overt responses.

www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/sarafino/presentations/ch01.ppt

� Merupakan semua aktivitas yang merupakan reaksi thd lingkungan, yang meliputi:

◦ Reaksi motorik:� Bicara, berjalan, belajar� Bicara, berjalan, belajar

◦ Reaksi fisiologis� Aktifitas

◦ Reaksi Kognitif� Bayangan, imaginasi, pikiran

◦ Reaksi afektif� Perasaan: benci, kecewa, rasa sayang

ApaApa yang yang bukanbukan perilakuperilaku ??What is Not Behavior?What is Not Behavior?

� Deskripsi penafsiran dari sifat-sifat kepribadian / interpretive descriptions of a personality trait.interpretive descriptions of a personality trait.

� Label-label diagnostik / diagnostic labels.

� Hasil (akibat) perilaku / outcome of behavior.

www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/sarafino/presentations/ch01.ppt

PengertianPengertianMODIFIKASI PERILAKUMODIFIKASI PERILAKU

� Berbagai upaya untuk mengubah perilaku

� Aplikasi prinsip-prinsip belajar yang teruji secara sistematis untuk mengubah perilaku tidak adaptif menjadi perilaku adaptif

� Penggunaan secara empiris teknik-teknik perubahan perilaku untuk memperbaiki perilaku melalui penguatan positif, penguatan negatif, dan hukuman.

� usaha untuk menerapkan prinsip-prinsip proses belajar maupun prinsip-prinsip psikologi hasil eksperimen pada manusia

Pandangan behaviorist:

� Klasik

Modifikasi perilaku sebagai penggunaan secara sistematik teknikkondisioning pada manusia untuk menghasilkan perubahanfrekuensi perilaku tertentu atau mengontrol lingkungan perilakutersebut. Jika teknik kondisioning diterapkan secara ketat, dengan stimulus, respon dan akibat konsekuensi diharapkanterbentuk perilaku lahiriah yang diharapkan.

� Operant

Modifikasi perilaku akan terbentuk ketika penguat atauModifikasi perilaku akan terbentuk ketika penguat ataupengukuh diberikan berupa reward atau punishment.

� Behavior AnalistModifikasi perilaku merupakan penerapan dari psikologi eksperimen sepertidalam laboratorium. Proses, emosi, problema, prosedur, semua diukur. Pengubahan perilaku dilaksanakan dengan rancangan eksperimen dibuat dengancermat. Perilaku dihitung secara cacah untuk mendaparkan data dasar. Variabelbebas dimanipulasi, metode statistik digunakan untuk melihat perubahanperilaku, pengulangan jika perlu dilakukan hingga terjadi perubahan perilakusecara jelas.

PENDAPAT LAIN

� Eysenck : Modifikasi Perilaku adalah upaya mengubah perilakudan emosi manusia dengan cara yang menguntungkan berdasarkanteori yang modern dalam prinsip psikologi belajar.

� Wolpe : Penerapan prinsip-prinsip belajar yang telah terujisecara eksperimental untuk mengubah perilaku yang tidak adaptif, dengan melemahkan atau menghilangkannya dan perilaku adaptifdengan melemahkan atau menghilangkannya dan perilaku adaptifditimbulkan atau dikukuhkan

PrinsipPrinsip DasarDasar dlmdlm ModifikasiModifikasiPerilakuPerilaku

◦ Respondent / classical conditioning

◦ Operant / instrumental conditioning◦ Operant / instrumental conditioning

◦ Modeling

◦ Cognitive processes

Respondent/classical conditioningRespondent/classical conditioning

� Ivan P Pavlov

� Percobaan anjing : makanan, lampu, air liur

� No stimulus, no respon

� Istilah : respondent dan operant behavior, � Istilah : respondent dan operant behavior, generalisasi, diskriminasi, extinction, pemulihan spontan (spontaneous recovery), reconditioning.

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

� BF Skinner

� Reinforcement dan punishment

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

� Faktor penyebab, perilaku, dan konsekuensi yang menegaskan situasi-situasi perilaku /antecedent, behavior, and consequence define behavioral situations

◦ Perangkat sebelumnya yang menjelaskan alasan terhadapperilaku / antecedents set the occasion for the behaviorperilaku /

◦ Perilaku adalah apa yang dilakukan organisme / behavior is what organisms do

◦ Konsekuensi mempengaruhi peristiwa yang akan datangdari sebuah perilaku / consequence influence the future occurrence of the behavior

Catatan :

◦ Konsekuensi juga dapat dianggap sebagai stimulus dari perilaku

berikutnya.

ModelingModeling

� Modeling adalah belajar melalui observasi tehadap orang lain / modeling is learning through observation of others

� Juga disebut belajar sosial, observasional, vicarious (dialami orang lain), imitatif. / also called social, (dialami orang lain), imitatif. / also called social, observational, vicarious, and imitative learning

� Modeling dipengaRuhi oleh observasi dari konsekuensi / modeling influenced by observation of

consequences

ModelingModeling

� Modeling dapat berupa / modeling can:

◦ Perilaku inisiatif / initiate behavior

◦ Mengajarkan tugas baru /teach new task

◦ Mempengaruhi kecepatan respon / influence Mempengaruhi kecepatan respon / influence response rate

◦ Mengajarkan respon-respon emosional / teach emotional responses

ProsesProses--proses kognitif proses kognitif

� Kognisi adalah pikiran / cognition is thought

� Pikiran dapat dianggap sbg suatu antecedent tersembunyi / thought can be considered a covert antecedent

� Ketepatan diri terlihat pada terjadinya korelasi � Ketepatan diri terlihat pada terjadinya korelasi positif dengan kemungkinan sukses / self-efficacy appears to be positively correlated with the likelihood of success

KarakteristikKarakteristikMODIFIKASI PERILAKUMODIFIKASI PERILAKU

� Fokus pada perilaku / focuses on behavior

� Menekankan pengaruh belajar dan lingkungan / emphasizes influences of learning and the environment

� Mengikuti pendekatan ilmiah / takes a scientific approach

� Menggunakan metode-metode aktif dan pragmatik untuk mengubah perilaku / uses pragmatic and active methods to change behavior

Focus on behaviorFocus on behavior

� Menghindari label-label interpretatif dan sistem diagnostik / avoid interpretive labels and diagnostic systems

� Fokus pada perilaku yang berkekurangan atau yang berlebihan / focus on behavioral deficits or yang berlebihan / focus on behavioral deficits or behavioral excess

Prilaku yang berlebihanPrilaku yang berlebihan

• stimulasi diri (menatap jari jemari, mengepak-ngepak tangan)

• self-abuse (memukul menggigit, mencakar dirisendiri)sendiri)

• tantrum (menjerit, mengamuk)

• agresif (menendang, memukul,mencubit, menggigitorang lain)

• Dll(Sugiarmin, 2006)

Perilaku yang berkekurangan

� bicara (tak bicara, sedikit bicara, membeo)

� sosial (mengganggap orang sbg benda)

� sensasi (disangka tuli-buta)

� bermain (putar-putar roda mobil-mobilan)� bermain (putar-putar roda mobil-mobilan)

� emosi (hanya bengong ketika dikelitiki, tertawa tidakpada tempatnya)

� dll

(Sugiarmin, 2006)

TEKNIKTEKNIK--TEKNIK MODIFIKASI PERILAKUTEKNIK MODIFIKASI PERILAKU

� asertivitas

� aversi

� extinction

� satiation

� modeling

• Desentizization / SD

• Exhaustion - kelelahan

• Imcopatible method

• Change of environment

• Flooding� modeling

� time out

� Token economy

• Flooding

• Hukuman

• reinforcement

Istilah lain yg sering ditemukan :

• Shaping, chaining, promting, fading, ABA, Discrete trial Training – DDT, thought stoping, respon cost, over control, self control, self management, RET, dsb.

ASERTIVITASASERTIVITAS

� Suatu kemampuan untuk mengkomunikasikan apa yang diinginkan, dirasakan, dan dipikirkan kepada orang lain namun dengan tetap menjaga dan menghargai hak-hak serta perasaan pihak lain. lain.

� Dituntut jujur thd dirinya & jujur pula dlm mengekspresikan perasaan, pendapat & kebutuhan secara proporsional, tanpa ada maksud untuk memanipulasi, memanfaatkan / merugikan pihak lainnya.

Asertive trainingAsertive training

� Latihan mempertahankan diri akibat perlakuan orang lain yang menimbulkan kecemasan, dengan cara mempertahankan hak dan harga dirinya.hak dan harga dirinya.

AVERSI AVERSI

� Pemberian hukuman positif

� Diikuti sikap tegas

� Biasanya diikuti prompting

� Misal : anak marah – coret-coret tembok � Misal : anak marah – coret-coret tembok � diminta untuk menghapus.

� Disarankan sebagai opsi terakhir jika teknik behav modification lain tdk efektif.

Aversion therapy

� Digunakan untuk menghilangkankebiasaan buruk., dengan meningkatkankepekaan klien agar mengganti respond pada stimulus yang disenanginya dengankebalikan stimulus tersebut, dibarengikebalikan stimulus tersebut, dibarengidengan stimulus yang merugikan dirinya.

Misal:

� Homo sex – lihat photo pria telanjang –lantai aliri listrik – gemetaran.

Jenis-jenis prosedur hukuman positif dalamaversif :

� Overcorrection

� Positive Practice

� Restitution – ganti rugi� Restitution – ganti rugi

� Contingent Excersice

� Guided Compliance – kepatuan terbimbing

� Physical Restraint (Pengekangan Fisik)

EXTINCTIONEXTINCTIONPemadamanPemadaman

� Adalah hilangnya respons.

� Tingkah laku yang telah mengalami penguatan, pada beberapa saat/periode waktu tidak lagidiperkuat, dan oleh karena itu, tingkah lakudiperkuat, dan oleh karena itu, tingkah lakutersebut berhenti untuk muncul.

� Extinction terjadi saat:

- Sebuah tingkah laku sebelumnya telahdiperkuat.

- Tidak lagi mengakibatkan penguatankonsekuensi.

Extinction BurstExtinction Burst((ledakanledakan ekstensiekstensi))

� Adalah peningkatan frekuensi, durasi, atauintensitas dari tklk yg tidak diperkuat selamaproses extinction.

� Dampak yg mungkin terjadi :◦ segera meningkatkan frekuensi, durasi, atau◦ segera meningkatkan frekuensi, durasi, atau

intensitas tklk.

◦ Tingkah laku baru mungkin terjadi.

◦ Respon yang emosional / tingkah laku agresifmungkin terjadi.

� Contoh: macetnya mesin kopi

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

� Munculnya kembali tingkah laku ttt setelah beberapa waktu tidak muncul.

� kecenderungan alami perilaku untuk terjadi lagi di (dalam) situasi yang serupa dengan situasi dimana extinction belum terjadi

SATIATIONSATIATIONkejenuhankejenuhan

� Teknik menghilangkan perilaku yang tidak dikehendaki dengan menghilangkan alasannya.

� Alasan tersebut ada pada diri anak.

� Misalnya : memberikan perhatian sebelum anak � Misalnya : memberikan perhatian sebelum anak menuntut perhatian / segera mengalihkan kegiatan ke kegiatan lain sebelum bosan.

� Dpt juga dengan cara pembosanan. Misal, anak yang suka berteriak-teriak, justru diminta untuk

berteriak terus sampai bosan.

ModelingModeling

A procedure that presents a sample of a given behavior to an individual to induce that individual to engage in similar behavior

(Sebuah prosedur yang menghadirkan contoh perilaku yang diberikan kepada individu untuk mendorong individu untukterlibat dalam perilaku yang serupa)terlibat dalam perilaku yang serupa)

� Belajar imitasi

� Belajar observasi

� Belajar sosial

� Belajar pengalaman

ModelingModeling

AGAR EFEKTIF� Gunakan model teman sebaya yang kompeten dalam halyang akan dimodelkan

� Lebih dari 1 model akan lebih baik� Kompleksitas perilaku yang dimodelkan harus sesuai sesuaidengan kemampuan kliendengan kemampuan klien

� Sertakan aturan-aturan lain� Berikan kesempatan klien melihat perilaku model padasaat menerima reinforcement

� Buat model yang didesain dengan benar� Bila perilaku agak kompleks, desain model-model dengankekompleksannya bertahap

� Model hendaknya serealistik mungkin

� Penguatan dalam modeling

Reinforcement by the model

Self reinforcement

TipeTipe--tipe Modelingtipe Modeling

� Sensory modeling

� Verbal modeling� Verbal modeling

� Live vs Symbolic modeling

EfekEfek--efek Modelingefek Modeling

� Efek modeling: respon yang dihasilkan benar-benar baru.

� Efek hambatan dan tanpa hambatan: peniruan mungkin dilakukan dengan rasa peniruan mungkin dilakukan dengan rasa nyaman atau sebaliknya.

� Efek Perolehan: respon yang dihasilkan tidak benar-benar baru

Karakteristik ModelingKarakteristik Modeling

� Kesamaan model, kesamaan karakteristik model dengan pengamat.

� Status model, bisa berupa posisi (jabatan) dari model atau peran model.

� Standar model� Standar model

Jika model yang diamati cukup terhormat, maka pengamat tidak hanya mempertimbangkan perilaku nyata dari model tetapi juga standar performan yang ditunjukkan oleh model.

Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Belajar ModelingBelajar Modeling

a. Faktor spesiesa. Faktor spesies

b. Kompleksitas respon

c. motivasi

Systematic DesentisizationSystematic Desentisization

� suatu cara menghapus tingkah laku yang diperbuat secara negatif dengan menyertakan pemunculan tingkah laku yang berlawanan dengan tingkah laku yang hendak dihapuskan secara sistematik. yang hendak dihapuskan secara sistematik.

� Salah satu caranya adalah dengan melatih anak maladaptif untuk santai dan mengasosiasikan keadaan santai dengan pengalaman-pengalaman pembangkit kecemasan yang dibayangkan atau dievaluasi.

� SD � in vivo (real) / Imagination (SD-R / SD-I)

Systematic DesensitizationSystematic Desensitization

Time outTime out

� menyisihkan anak dari lingkungan atau kelompoknya.

� Penyisihan dapat dilakukan melalui observasi kontingen, penyisihan exclusion, observasi kontingen, penyisihan exclusion, dan penyisihan seclusion.

Token economy Token economy

� suatu cara untuk menghapus perilakumaladaptif dengan cara memberikanpemerkuat-pemerkuat tertentu yang berupa benda atau penguat simbolik lain berupa benda atau penguat simbolik lain yang bernilai ekonomis sesuai denganpersetujuan bersama.

Respon costRespon cost

� yaitu dengan cara memberikan denda dengan mengurangi atau memperkecil reinforcement yang akan diberikan bila prilaku yang ditampilkan ternyata tidak prilaku yang ditampilkan ternyata tidak sesuai dengan harapan.

SELF CONTROLSELF CONTROL

� dilakukan untuk meningkatkan perhatian pada anak tugas-tugas tertentu.

� dilakukan melalui prosedur self assessment, mencatat diri sendiri, menentukan mencatat diri sendiri, menentukan tindakan diri sendiri, dan menyusun dorongan diri sendiri.

PUNISHMENTPUNISHMENT

� POSITIVE PUNISHMENT – PAINFUL STIMULUS

� NEGATIF PUNISHMENT – MENGHILANGKAN PEMERKUAT TKLK (yang disenangi anak dan tidak berkaitan langsung dengan tingkah lakunya), tidak berkaitan langsung dengan tingkah lakunya), misal : dlm kasus anak yg suka melawan orang tua � mengurangi uang jajan, tdk boleh nonton TV, setiap kali anak memukuladiknya.

ReinforcementReinforcement

� Reinforcement positif

� Reinforcement negatif

� Ideosinkratik

� Specific reinforcer

TERAPITINGKAH LAKU

PENGKONDISIAN

TUJUAN

MENDORONG MUNCULNYA PERILAKU YANG TEPAT MELALUI BELAJAR

TRITMEN

PENGKONDISIANMODELING

PENGKONDISIANKLASIK

TEKNIK

FLOODING

PENGKONDISIANOPERAN

MODELING

DESENSITISASISISTEMATIK

AVERSI

IN-VIVO IMAGINAL

TEKNIK

EKSTINGSI

TOKENEKONOMI

PENG-HUKUMAN

TEKNIK

OBSERVASI

LAKUKANSENDIRI

BERTAHAPLAKUKAN

IDEN TARGET PRILAKU � KETENTUAN BERI TOKEN � ATURAN PENUKARAN

TEKNIKTEKNIK--TEKNIK DALAMTEKNIK DALAMPENDEKATAN BEHAVIORAISMEPENDEKATAN BEHAVIORAISME

Yates (1970) mengemukakan beberapa istilah:

� Reciprocal inhibition: suatu prosedur untukmemperkuat hubungan respond baru denganstimulus yang menimbulkan tingkah lakumaladaptive.maladaptive.

� Extinction: prosedur untuk memperlemahhubungan respond dengan stimulus. (penghapusan)

� Systematic desensitization: prosedureksperimental yang dilaksanakan dengan reciprocal inhibitation dan extinction.

�

TEKNIKTEKNIK--TEKNIK DALAMTEKNIK DALAMPENDEKATAN BEHAVIORAISMEPENDEKATAN BEHAVIORAISME

Hersher (1970) mengembangkan beberapa teknik dalam reciprocal inhibition (hambatan timbal balik).

1. Desensitization

Mengurangkan ketegangan pasien dengan jalan mengajarkan pasien untuk santai

2. Assertive Training2. Assertive Training

Latihan mempertahankan diri akibat perlakuan orang lain yang menimbulkan kecemasan, dengan cara mempertahankan hak dan hargadirinya.

3. Sexual training

Digunakan untuk menghilangkan kecemasan yang timbul akibat pergaulandengan jenis kelamin. Misal untuk penderita impoten --- Bantu denganwanita lain, atau istri yang cemas/takut diraba suaminya – suruhmembayangkan samapi kecemasannya hilang.

4. Aversion therapyDigunakan untuk menghilangkan kebiasaan buruk., denganmeningkatkan kepekaan klien agar mengganti respond padastimulus yang disenanginya dengan kebalikan stimulus tersebut, dibarengi dengan stimulus yang merugikan dirinya, mislanyamuntah. Homo sex – lihat photo pria telanjang – lantai aliri listrik –gemetaran.

5. Cover desensitizationDigunakan untuk merawat tingkah laku yang menyenangkan klienDigunakan untuk merawat tingkah laku yang menyenangkan klientetapi menyimpang, missal homo, alcoholic. Dimintamembayangkan prilaku yang menyenangkan tersebut, tetapi padasaat bersamaan diminta pula untuk membayangkan sesuatu yang tidak menyenangkan. Alcoholic – diminta membayangkan minum, saat gelas hampir di mulut – bayangkan ingin muntah.

6. Thought StoppingEfektif digunakan untuk klien yang sangat cemas. Caranya, missal klien ditutup matanya sambil membayangkan dan mengatakansesuatu yang mengganggu dirinya, missal berkata “saya jahat” –pada saat itu klien memberi tanda, dan terapi kemudian berteriakatau berkata keras dan nyaring berkata “berhenti”. Jadi pikiranyang tadi digantikan dengan teriakan terapi, berulang-ulangsampai dirinya sendiri yang bisa menghentikan.sampai dirinya sendiri yang bisa menghentikan.

Guthri:

Imcopatibel method, exhaustion (meletihkan, melelahkan), dan cange of environment.

ASESMENASESMEN

� Behavioral assessment & Behavioral analysis

� Behavior assessment (murni deskriptif)

� Functional assessment mengenai penyebab � Functional assessment mengenai penyebab perilaku bermasalah tersebut : apa yang memicu masalah dan apa konsekuensinya? (S - R – C) --- A – B – C

Behavioral Assessment:Behavioral Assessment:

� identifikasi perilaku yang akan diubah (target behaviors)

� Pengambilan data (anamnesis) – wawancara, kuis

� Pengukuran data dasar (baseline� Pengukuran data dasar (baseline

� measure), atau fase penilaian perilaku (assessment) – obsrvasi, angket self report, self monitoring of target behavior, role play.

� Tiap sesi adalah suatu eksperimen, suatu studikasus: pengukuran data dasar - prosedur terapi- pengukuran followup

Functional assessment

� mengenai penyebab perilaku bermasalah

Functional Analysis:

� mengidentifikasi penyebab perilaku

� bermasalah

Social positive reinforcement (R - C)� Social positive reinforcement (R - C)

� Internal sensory positive reinforcement

� External sensory positive reinforcement

� Social negative reinforcement

� Temukan masalah perilaku (S - R)

PENERAPANPENERAPAN

Prinsip dasar

• Perilaku yang akan dimodifikasi harusdiidentifikasikan dalam bentuk perilaku ygteramati (behavior objective) dan terukur.

• Ukuran perilaku ini dijadikan indikator untuk• Ukuran perilaku ini dijadikan indikator untukmenentukan tolok ukur tercapai tidaknya tujuanintervensi

• Prosedur dan teknik intervensi yang dipilihharus diarahkan untuk mengubah lingkungan.

PENERAPANPENERAPAN

Prinsip dasar -lanjutan

• Metode yang digunakan harus dapat dijelaskansecara logis dan dapat dipahami orang lain

• sedapat mungkin teknik yang digunakan dapatditerapkan dalam lingkungan kehidupan sehari-diterapkan dalam lingkungan kehidupan sehari-hari

• teknik dan prosedur yang digunakan selaluberdasarkan kepada prinsip psikologi belajarsecara umum serta prinsip respondent conditioning dan operant conditioning.

Prosedur pelaksanaanProsedur pelaksanaan

� Menetapkan target behavior

� Asesmen – melalui pendkatan ABC

� menetapkan teknik intervensi yang dipilih

melakukan intervensi� melakukan intervensi

� merekam kegiatan pelaksanaan intervensi

� Mencatat hasilnya

� melaporkan hasil

Teknik pelaksanaanTeknik pelaksanaan

SSR

TEKNIKTEKNIK--TEKNIK MODIFIKASI TEKNIK MODIFIKASI PERILAKUPERILAKU� asertivitas

� aversi

� extinction

� satiation� satiation

� modeling

� konsekuensi negative

� time out

� hukuman

� dll

Learning and the EnvironmentLearning and the Environment

� Perubahan-perubahan perilaku sebagai hasil belajar / behavior changes as a result of learning

� Pengubahan situasi yang mendahului dan konsekuensi dapat mengarahkan pada perubahan perilaku / changing antecedents and consequences can lead to behavior changechange

� Pendekatan belajar dapat dibatasi oleh pengaruh-pengaruh psikologis dan budaya / learning approach may be limited by physiological and cultural influences

Scientific OrientationScientific Orientation

� Menggunakan teknik-teknik terapy yang secara empirik tervalidasi / use empirically validated therapy techniques

� Hasil-hasil terapy dievaluasi secara objektif / therapy outcomes evaluated objectivelytherapy outcomes evaluated objectively

Pragmatic and Active Methods Pragmatic and Active Methods to Change behaviorto Change behavior� therapy techniques selected based on effectiveness

� some methods based on operant conditioning, respondent conditioning, and modeling research and theoryand theory

� cognitive methods are based on our understanding of how our thoughts lead to actions

� participants take a more active role in therapy

Early Theory and Research Early Theory and Research

� John Locke (tabula rasa)

� Pavlov (respondent conditioning)

� Thorndike

� John Watson (father of behaviorism)John Watson (father of behaviorism)

� Watson and Rayner (Little Albert)

� Mary Cover Jones (Peter)

KEMUNCULAN DAN PERTUMBUHAN MODIFIKASI PERILAKUKEMUNCULAN DAN PERTUMBUHAN MODIFIKASI PERILAKUEmergence and Growth of behavior ModificationEmergence and Growth of behavior Modification

� 1950s: modifikasi perilaku memperolehpenerimaan / behavior modification gains acceptance

� 1960s: penerbitan Journal of Applied behavior � 1960s: penerbitan Journal of Applied behavior Analysis / the establishment of the Journal of Applied behavior Analysis

� 1970s: modifikasi perilaku diperluas pada cakupankognisi / behavior modification expands to include cognition

AplikasiAplikasi--aplikasi efektif dari modifikasi perilaku aplikasi efektif dari modifikasi perilaku Effective Applications of behavior ModificationEffective Applications of behavior Modification

� Pengasuhan dan hubungan orang tua – anak / parenting and parent/child relationships

◦ Perilaku perlawanan - pertentangan /oppositional behavior

◦ Ngompol / bed-wetting

� Pendidikan / education

◦ Program pembelajaran / programmed instruction◦ Program pembelajaran / programmed instruction

◦ PSI

◦ Tutor sebaya / peer tutoring

◦ Perilaku di kelas / classroom conduct

Effective Applications of behavior Modification Effective Applications of behavior Modification (continued)(continued)

� Kesehatan dan olahraga / health and sports

◦ Resiko-resiko kesehatan / health risks

◦ pemenuhan pada tretmen-tretmen / compliance with treatments

◦ Peningkatan tampilan atletik / enhanced athletic performance

� Setting pekerjaan / employment settings� Setting pekerjaan / employment settings

◦ Peningkatan produktivitas / increase productivity

◦ Reduksi kehilangan / reduce losses

◦ Peningkatan kenyamanan / improve safety

Effective Applications of behavior Effective Applications of behavior Modification Modification (continued)(continued)

� Managemen diri / self-management

◦ Belajar teknik-teknik behavioral untuk mengontrol perilaku diri sendiri / learn mengontrol perilaku diri sendiri / learn behavioral techniques to control own behavior

Jadwal Pemberian Reinforcment

Reinforcment

Countinous reinforcment

Interval

Fixed

Intermitted

reinforcment

Ratio

Variabel

Fixed

Variabel

Theories of Counseling:Theories of Counseling:Behavioral ApproachesBehavioral Approaches

PowerPoint produced by Melinda Haley, M.S., New Mexico State University.

“This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

� any public performance or display, including transmission of an image over a network;

� preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images;

� any rental, lease, or lending of the program.”

“Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004”

Behavioral ApproachesBehavioral Approaches

Development of Behavioral Approaches

� John Locke: Blank Slate

◦ John Watson: Learned Neuroses◦ John Watson: Learned Neuroses

◦ B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning

◦ Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning



Basic Principles

◦ Reinforcement: Rewards and Punishments.

◦ Shaping: Working with small, incremental changes.

◦ Measurement: Objective, measurable outcomes.

◦ Action: Dwells more on behaviors than thoughts.



Albert Ellis/Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REB T)

Theoretical Constructs and Techniques

◦ Focuses on dysfunctional, irrational, unrealistic a nd distorted thoughts.

◦ Feelings and behavior are also addressed.

◦ Unconditional acceptance is important.

◦ Ellis also believed in authenticity.

◦ Clients are encouraged to think rationally.




Philosophy and Beliefs

◦ Understanding belief systems is important.◦ Understanding belief systems is important.

◦ Belief systems are organized ways of thinking about reality.

◦ Belief systems affect one’s self-view.

◦ The language a client uses, will speak to their phi losophy and belief system.




Philosophy and Beliefs (continued)

◦ Clients create their own emotional disturbances by believing in absolute and irrational beliefs.and irrational beliefs.

◦ Clients can choose their belief system.

◦ Counselors can help clients by identifying irratio nal beliefs and helping the client find meaning in their lives.


BeliefsBeliefs



Identifying Irrational Thinking

◦ Helpless thinking is the result of irrational think ing.◦ Helpless thinking is the result of irrational think ing.

◦ It usually includes “all or nothing” statements.

◦ It usually includes the words should, ought, never and must.




Identifying Irrational Thinking (continued)

Five common irrational or dysfunctional ideas:


�“Life isn’t fair.”�“It’s awful.”�“I can’t stand it.”�“I must get what I want.”�“I’m incompetent.”



A-B-C-D-E-F

A = The activating event.

B = The irrational belief about the event.

C = The emotional consequence.

D = Disputing the irrational beliefs.

E = The emotional effect of disputing the belief.

F = New feelings and behavior.



Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy and Multicultural ism

◦ The therapy fails to address contextual-situational factors that adversely impact client’s lives.

◦ REBT uses the ethnocentric approach to mental healt h care.

◦ Does not focus on the phenomenological experience o f the client.

◦ Does not address the different ways irrational beli efs are manifested by the culturally different.



William Glasser/Reality Therapy/Choice Theory

The Basics

◦ Instead of seeking to change behavior, Reality Ther apy works on changing awareness of responsibility.

◦ Once responsibility is acknowledged by the client, it is then possible to work on behavior change.

◦ The locus of the decision is placed on the client.




The Basics

◦ The Reality therapist might borrow skills, techniqu es or ideas from ◦ The Reality therapist might borrow skills, techniqu es or ideas from other theories if it benefits the client.

◦ The Reality therapist will be himself or herself, u se humor, sarcasm and confrontation in personal ways to assist the cl ient in greater understanding.

◦ Role-playing, systematic planning, and teaching int entional living are all important in Reality Therapy.




The Basics

◦ The client has control over his or her life, choice s and personhood.

◦ There is no need to explore a client’s past because the past is over and the client’s problems occur in the present.

◦ Reality therapy puts the power into the client’s ha nds and shows the client how he or she can help himself or herself.




The Basics

◦ The client and counselor explores the client’s wants and needs.◦ The client and counselor explores the client’s wants and needs.

◦ It focuses on conscious, planned behavior.

◦ The therapy focuses on responsibility and choice.

◦ Trust and the relationship between client and counselor are critical.




The Basics

◦ Since it is often used in institutions, the counsel or’s communication ◦ Since it is often used in institutions, the counsel or’s communication of trust, warmth, respect and caring is especially important.

◦ Reality therapy helps clients look at the consequen ces of their own actions.

◦ This therapy is often used in settings other than t he counseling office (e.g. playground or detention center) and is practi ced by those other than counselors (e.g. teacher and prison guard).



William Glasser/Reality Therapy//Choice Theory

Cognitive Aspects of Reality Therapy

◦ Reality therapy aids the client in examining the ty pes of thoughts he

Thoughts

◦ Reality therapy aids the client in examining the ty pes of thoughts he or she has about himself or herself and the externa l world.

◦ It helps clients exert control over their own actio ns, lives, choices and feelings.

◦ Clients choose misery and symptoms. This becomes a way a client has of dealing with the world (e.g. depressing, hea daching).





◦ There are negative additions (e.g. drugs, stealing) and positive ◦ There are negative additions (e.g. drugs, stealing) and positive addictions (e.g. walking, meditation).

◦ We choose our addictions and therefore our fate.

◦ Reality therapy helps clients to: Explore their wants and how that relates to their needs; look at what they are doing to meet those needs; evaluate behaviors in relationship to those needs and helps the client plan to change behavior to more effectively meet needs.





◦ There are negative additions (e.g. drugs, stealing) and positive ◦ There are negative additions (e.g. drugs, stealing) and positive addictions (e.g. walking, meditation).

◦ We choose our addictions and therefore our fate.

◦ Reality therapy helps clients to: Explore their wants and how that relates to their needs; look at what they are doing to meet those needs; evaluate behaviors in relationship to those needs and helps the client plan to change behavior to more effectively meet needs.



Reality Therapy and Multiculturalism

◦ Many of the tenets of Reality therapy fits well wit h other cultures.

◦ Helping the client explore wants and needs keeps th e focus on the ◦ Helping the client explore wants and needs keeps th e focus on the client’s values and concerns within the client’s cu ltural context.

◦ Reality therapy challenges the client to see the se lf in relationship to his or her context. This includes the client’s cul tural context.



Donald Meichenbaum’s Ten Central Tenets of Cognitiv e Behavioral Therapy

� Behavior is reciprocal between a client’s thoughts, feelings, psychological processes and resultant consequences.processes and resultant consequences.

� Cognitions do not cause emotional difficulty.

� Counselors help clients understand how they construct and construe reality.

� CBT therapists dissuade from the rationalist or objectivist position.

� There is an emphasis on collaboration with the client.



Donald Meichenbaum’s Ten Central Tenets of Cognitiv e Behavioral Therapy (continued)

� Relapse prevention is central to cognitive behavioral therapy.

� The client/therapist relationship is critical for change to occur.

� Emotions play a critical role in cognitive-behavioral therapy.

� CBT is used with couples and families.

� CBT can be used in a variety of setting with a variety of issues.



Applied Behavioral Analysis: Central Constructs

◦ Client-counselor relationship is imperative and counselors exhibit high levels of empathy, self-congruence and interpersonal contact. The relationship is collaborative and relationship variables differ according to client and culture.relationship is collaborative and relationship variables differ according to client and culture.

◦ Operationalization of Behavior: Focuses on the concreteness and specifics of behavior. Vagueness is transformed into objective, observable actions.

◦ Functional Analysis: The ABC’s of behavior. An individual's behavior is directly related to events and stimuli in the environment.



Applied Behavioral Analysis: Central Constructs

◦ Reinforcement: Behavior develops and maintains itself through a ◦ Reinforcement: Behavior develops and maintains itself through a system of punishments and rewards.

◦ Goals: These are designed to make specific behavioral changes. Goals are concrete, specific, observable and measurable.


ResourcesResources

Ivey, A. E., D’Andrea, M., Ivey, M. B. and Morgan, L. S. (2002). Theories of counseling

and psychotherapy: A multicultural perspective, 5th ed. Boston, MA.: Allyn &

Bacon.Bacon.

James, R. K. & Gilliland, B. E. (2003). Theories and strategies in counseling and

psychotherapy, 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Kottler, J. A. (2002). Theories in counseling and therapy: An experiential approach.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.


Functional Behavioral Assessment Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)(FBA)

Why do students act the way they do?

Recall that if a pattern of behavior difficulty develops leading to 10 days of being removed from class, a FBA and BIP need to be developed.

302 FBA 96

Trish’s BehaviorTrish’s Behavior

� Read Vignette II:

“This is the third time in two weeks Trish has been sent to the office for fighting on the playground!”the playground!”

302 FBA 97

Experience tells us…Experience tells us…

� Behaviors occur in context of a child’s interaction with his or her environment.

� Changing inappropriate behaviors requires � Changing inappropriate behaviors requires identifying and changing the environment.

� Challenging behaviors are meaningful and serve a purpose or function.

� TP: Share something that you’ve done today, its context, and the reinforcer you received.

302 FBA 98

Teachers address both dimensions of their Teachers address both dimensions of their students’ behaviors.students’ behaviors.

�…behavior’s form…what teachers see a student do.

�…behavior’s function…what motivates the student to student do. student to perform the action.

302 FBA 99

Many teachers tend to focus on the formof student behaviors. This has some drawbacks.

DrawbacksDrawbacks to focusing on form.to focusing on form.

� Similar behaviors (reading assignments, doing homework) are done for dissimilar reasons (please teacher, maintain GPA, earn a scholarship)earn a scholarship)

� Dissimilar behaviors (reading assignments, calling out in class, pinching a peer) may be done for similar reasons (obtaining teacher attention)

302 FBA 100

Definition: Functional Definition: Functional BehavioralBehavioralAssessment?Assessment?

“…a set of information gathering strategies and instruments. Based on what precedes behavior and what follows it, patterns are identified that lead to the hypothesis.” lead to the hypothesis.”

302 FBA 101

Part I : FBA HypothesizingPart I : FBA Hypothesizingfunctional assessmentfunctional assessment

� The hypothesizing aspect of FBA is described as functional assessment. It generates clues about the ‘whys,’ ‘whens,’ ‘with ‘whys,’ ‘whens,’ ‘with whoms,” and ‘wheres’ of a student’s behavior. Clues can relate to academics, social interactions, physical concerns.

302 FBA 102

Note: This is what your physician does.

The FBA process tries to help teachers discover… The FBA process tries to help teachers discover…

� Are there events that consistently precede a behavior that occurs in the classroom?

� Are there events that consistently follow these behaviors?

� What are the setting events for the � What are the setting events for the antecedents, behavior, and consequences? (These tend to be more remote in tme.)

� Can another behavior be taught/acquiredthat will serve the same function of the challenging behavior?

302 FBA 103

5 functions that behaviors serve5 functions that behaviors serve� Gaining Attention (R+)

� Gaining a Tangible (R+)

� Gaining sensory stimulation (R+)

Basic behavioral belief: All we do tends to have a purpose.

� Escaping external stimulation (R-)

� Escaping internal stimulation (R-)

302 FBA 104

So what tools can teachers use to discover why students are acting the way they do?

Tools used for Tools used for functional assessmentfunctional assessment

� Rating Scales - based on group norms◦ Behavior Rating Profile – An indirect measure.

◦ Interviews are also indirect measures.

direct� Scatter Plot grids - based on directobservations

� ABCs - based on direct observations

302 FBA 105

Data from these sources allow those involved in FBA to create an hypothesis…why the student is behaving in a certain way. Now to test it. See next slide.

Part II Part II Functional AnalysisFunctional Analysis

� …is a set of procedures for determining the function of a behavior by systematic manipulation of environmental variables, antecedents and antecedents and consequences and documentation of their effect on the occurrence of the target behavior.

302 FBA106

In collaboration with the special education teacher, you will test the hypothesis by using two progress monitoring procedures.

Two ProgressTwo Progress--Monitoring DesignsMonitoring Designs

To test the hypothesis and to develop an intervention data are gathered using a…

� Reversal (ABAB) Design� Reversal (ABAB) Design

� Changing Conditions or Alternating Treatment Designs

302 FBA 107

ABAB (Reversal) DesignABAB (Reversal) Design

302 FBA 108

This picture indicates that aggression increases when hard tasks are introduced.

IDEA’s Positive IDEA’s Positive Behavior Intervention PlanBehavior Intervention Plan……

“…attempts to link the management of behaviors that impede instruction with positive intervention strategies to reduce the occurrence of inappropriate behavior…”

302 FBA 109

When do we use BIPs?When do we use BIPs?

http://cecp.air.org/fba

for more info.

� …at time of development, review, or revision of an IEP…

� …an occurrence of behavior subjects a student to disciplinary action…

302 FBA 110

The Process: Step by stepThe Process: Step by step

302 FBA 111

Chapter 6Chapter 6

� Developing a Hypothesis for Behavior Change: Functional Assessment and Functional Analysis

Chapter 6 113

Maurice’s BehaviorMaurice’s Behavior

� Read page 170:

“At Whitier Middle School, the certain consequences for fighting is 2 days in-school suspension…”school suspension…”

Chapter 6 114

TECTEC Special Issue on Functional Assessment and Special Issue on Functional Assessment and Behavior DisordersBehavior Disorders

� Behaviors occur in context of a child’s interaction with his or her environment.

� Changing inappropriate behaviors requires � Changing inappropriate behaviors requires identifying and changing the environment.

� Challenging behaviors are meaningful and serve a purpose or function.

Chapter 6 115

FormForm and and FunctionFunction

�…form is what teachers see a student do.

�…function is what motivates the student to perform the perform the action.

Chapter 6 116

DrawbacksDrawbacks to focusing on form.to focusing on form.

� Similar behaviors (reading assignments, doing homework) are done for dissimilar reasons (please teacher, maintain GPA, earn a scholarship)earn a scholarship)

� Dissimilar behaviors (reading assignments, calling out in class, pinching a peer) may be done for similar reasons (obtaining teacher attention)

Chapter 6 117

What is functional What is functional behavioralbehavioralassessment?assessment?

“…a set of information gathering strategies and instruments. Based on what precedes Based on what precedes behavior and what follows it, patterns are identified that lead to the hypothesis.” (p. 178)

Chapter 6 118

What is functional What is functional behavioralbehavioralassessment?assessment?

“…a multimethod problem-solving strategy for gathering information about the topography of a particular behavior (what is looks like), as well as the ecology (environmental variables) surrounding the ecology (environmental variables) surrounding its occurrence.”

Chapter 6 119

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Part I HypothesizingPart I Hypothesizingfunctional assessmentfunctional assessment

� The hypothesizing aspect is described as functional assessment. It generates clues about the ‘whys,’ clues about the ‘whys,’ ‘whens,’ ‘with whoms,” and ‘wheres’ of a student’s behavior.

Chapter 6 120

The hypothesis generating process tries to The hypothesis generating process tries to determine…determine…

� Are there events that consistently precedebehaviors?

� What are the setting events for the antecedents, behavior, and consequences?

� Are there events that consistently follow� Are there events that consistently followbehaviors?

� Can another behavior be taught/acquiredthat will serve the same function of the challenging behavior?

Chapter 6 121

5 functions that behaviors serve5 functions that behaviors serve

� Gaining Attention (R+)

� Gaining a Tangible (R+)

� Gaining sensory stimulation (R+)

� Escaping external stimulation (R-)

� Escaping internal stimulation (R-)

Chapter 6 122

Act: Generate examples.

Tools used for Tools used for functional assessmentfunctional assessment

� Rating Scales - based on a norm group◦ Recall the BRP

� Scatter Plot grids - based on observations◦ We’ll see page 186 two slides further.

� ABCs - based on observations◦ We’ll see pages 60-61 two slides further.

Chapter 6 123

Functional AssessmentFunctional AssessmentActivityActivity

•In your behavior change project, what is the “form” of the behavior?

•Hypothesize what function you think the behavior is serving? (Be specific in terms of behavior is serving? (Be specific in terms of R+ or R-.)

•What made you conclude that this is the function?

Chapter 6 124

Hypothesizing about why a behavior occurs can be based Hypothesizing about why a behavior occurs can be based on different methods.on different methods.

•Rating Scales Indirect Methods

•Behavioral Interview(p. 181)

•Scatter Plot Grids Direct Methods(see pp. 185-187)(see pp. 185-187)

•ABCs (see p. 187)

•Anecdotal Records (pp. 59-62) See comparison to ABC on p. 61)

Chapter 6 125

Part II Part II Functional AnalysisFunctional Analysis� …is a set of procedures for determining the function of a behavior by systematic manipulation of environmental variables, antecedents and consequences and documentation of their effect documentation of their effect on the occurrence of the target behavior (p. 191)

� …is a strategy of manipulating the student’s environment and observing the effect on behavior (p. 178)

Chapter 6 126

Functional AnalysisFunctional Analysis: Common Hypotheses: Common Hypotheses

� The behavior is getting attention

� The behavior results in escaping a demandin escaping a demand

� The behavior occurs when student is alone (e.g., self-stimulation)

(see pages 192)

Chapter 6 127

Functional Analysis: Two ABA DesignsFunctional Analysis: Two ABA Designs

To test the hypothesis and to develop an intervention data are gathered using a…

� Reversal (ABAB) Design� Reversal (ABAB) Design

(See page 193)

� Changing Conditions Design

(See page 193)

Chapter 6 128

ABAB (Reversal) DesignABAB (Reversal) Design

Chapter 6 129

Alternating Treatment DesignAlternating Treatment Design

Chapter 6 130

IDEA & the IDEA & the Behavior Intervention PlanBehavior Intervention Plan

“…attempts to link the management of behaviors that impede instruction with positive intervention strategies to reduce the occurrence of inappropriate behavior…” (p. 5151)

Chapter 6 131

When do we use BIPs?When do we use BIPs?

� …at time of development, review, or revision of an IEP…

� …an occurrence of behavior subjects a student to disciplinary action…(p. 51)

Chapter 6 132

The Process: Step by stepThe Process: Step by step

Chapter 6 133

http://cecp.air.org/fba/http://cecp.air.org/fba/

Read Trish vignette

•ABC

Chapter 6 134

•ABC

•Scatterplots

•Interview

•Rating scale

Behavior Management Behavior Management

Methods for Students Methods for Students

with Emotional and with Emotional and

Behavioral Disorders: Behavioral Disorders: A Comparative StudyA Comparative StudyA Comparative StudyA Comparative Study

Kelly Mearns

Senior Research Project

Fall 2007

Trinity College

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

� How do behavior management strategies for Emotional/ Behavior Disorder students used in public inclusive classrooms compare or contrast to the methods used within special education methods used within special education classrooms in private settings?

� What factors influence any differences between methods used in the two different settings?

Background InformationBackground Information

�NCLB – the movement from mainstreaming and resource rooms to all inclusive classrooms.

�Hartford – has been planning for several years and just began implementing this Hartford – has been planning for several years and just began implementing this recently.

�Teachers and students alike are being forced to adapt.

�Really severe cases are referred to private special school settings.

SignificanceSignificance

� Student with EBD have higher drop out rates than other disability groups*

� Students with EBD are also less likely to attend post-secondary schooling than other disability groups.*

� Left untreated, children's behavior problems typically � Left untreated, children's behavior problems typically multiply, intensify, and diversify over time, thus putting the child at increased risk for academic failure, social isolation, and peer rejection. These, in turn, accelerate the likelihood of school avoidance, alcoholism and drug abuse, and lifespan antisocial behavior (p. 363) **

� * – Nelson, Benner, Lane & Smith, 2004. “Academic Achievement of K-12 Students with Emotional and Behavior Disorders”, Exceptional Children, v. 71, n.1, 59-73

� ** - Hester, Baltodano, Gable, & Tonelson, 2003. “Early intervention with children at risk of emotional/behavioral disorders: a critical examination of research methodology and practices”, Education & Treatment of Children, v. 26, n. 4, 362-382.

Greenwell Medical SchoolGreenwell Medical School

� Student population = 120

� Services –Therapy: individual, group, occupational therapy, speech therapy

Must be referred by their public school � Must be referred by their public school system

� 4th / 5th grade classroom – 8 students, 1 special education teacher, 2 paraprofessionals◦ Bipolar disorders, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Autism, Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Rodriguez Elementary SchoolRodriguez Elementary School

� Public school in Hartford

� All inclusive classrooms

� 4 special education staff

� Focused on 3 different classrooms� Focused on 3 different classrooms◦ Mr. James’ 5th Grade classroom� Students – 20 total, 2 EBD

◦ Mrs. Leonard’s 5th Grade Classroom� Students – 27 total, 2 EBD

◦ Co-Teaching 5th Grade Classroom� Students – 30 total, 8 EBD

MethodologyMethodology

� Classroom observation� At least 3 hours a week for a month in each school

� Informal Conversations� Informal Conversations◦ with multiple teachers and paraprofessionals

� Formal Interviews◦ Greenwell –1 Special Education teacher, 2 Paraprofessionals

◦ Rodriguez – 4 Regular Education Teachers, 1 Special Education teacher

Thesis StatementThesis Statement

� Without a school-wide commitment to behavior

management plans, classroom structure relies too

much on the individual classroom teacher’s

initiative.

� Private, special school settings provide well

structured, cohesive behavior management

systems in which all classrooms are required to

implement while public schools are lax in terms of

ensuring each classroom has a plan.

Rodriguez Greenwell

� Mr. James : “Not really. I

mean there are the general

rules, like no running in the

hallway. But I tend to do my

own thing. I mean, every kid is

different and then my student

could go into another

classroom and be completely

different”

� Ms. Stuart : “ Oh yes, there’s

the level system, the point

system, positive

reinforcements, motivators,

and a lot of earning”

� Required to follow these

systems and fill out intense

paperwork regarding the

implementation of this.

Is There A School Wide Is There A School Wide

Behavior Plan?Behavior Plan?

different”

� Only required to provide their

classroom with a list of

general rules, decided upon by

the teacher.

implementation of this.

Teacher Training Teacher Training

Rodriguez Greenwell

� Felt that she was “not prepared enough” to have EBD students in her classroom. She only “had one special ed. undergraduate course, years ago”. So she decided to just “go with the flow” – Mrs. Little

� “Everybody who is hired here

has experience in special ed.” –

Ms. Stuart

� Mandatory training on behavior flow” – Mrs. Little

� When asked what she wished she could change about the system she claimed “ school support” as the number one thing she wishes she had. She asked that they spend more time on development of those skills.

� “They can help you find ways to teach reading or math but not what to do when your class is being disrupted”

� Mandatory training on behavior

management and “Therapeutic

Crisis Intervention” – lasts 24

hours in total.

� Provided with manual including

proper steps to take in response

to most behaviors. Also include

structures forms to record

behavior such as points sheets

and intervention reports.

Variations in RodriguezVariations in Rodriguez

� Behavior Charts

Rewards� Rewards

� Punishment

Implications and Further Implications and Further

ResearchResearch� Schools should provide a solid plan for behavior management in order to ensure standards for all their students, not just EBD students.

� By providing this plan, teachers would feel more confidant in their classrooms feel more confidant in their classrooms and students would receive more consistent treatment when transitioning into new classrooms.

� Could possibly look at how many public schools do not have a behavior management system in place in Hartford.

Chapter 11Chapter 11

Research Methods in Research Methods in Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

Accuracy of Data: Accuracy of Data: Sources of InaccuraciesSources of Inaccuracies� some indirect assessments measure outcomes of behavior, not the target behavior itself

� rating scale questions and labels may not be clearly defined

� self-report data is flawed when memory is � self-report data is flawed when memory is inaccurate

Accuracy of Data: Accuracy of Data: Sources of Inaccuracies Sources of Inaccuracies (continued)(continued)

� reactivity effects can modify normal responding

� definition of the target behavior may be unclear

� observers may not be trained or motivated to record accurately

� the detectability of the behavior may be � the detectability of the behavior may be impaired

Accuracy of Data: Accuracy of Data: Increasing ReliabilityIncreasing Reliability� use more than one independent observer

� check the interobserver reliability of observers

� train and monitor observers

Accuracy of Data: Accuracy of Data: Interobserver ReliabilityInterobserver Reliability� several methods are used to assess interobserver reliability

◦ the session totals method compares the total number of observations made by two observersobservers

◦ the interval-recording method compares the number of intervals in which observers agree that behavior occurred

� reliability should be above 80%

Accuracy of Data: Training and Accuracy of Data: Training and Monitoring ObserversMonitoring Observersother procedures can enhance accuracy

� let observers know their accuracy will be checked

� use interobserver reliability procedures in trainingtraining

� use the procedures to evaluate the accuracy of self-monitoring

Accuracy of Data: Training and Accuracy of Data: Training and Monitoring Observers Monitoring Observers (continued)(continued)

� use interobserver reliability procedures with indirect assessment

� interobserver reliability can be tested on samples of the observation period

Intrasubject ResearchIntrasubject Research

� the purpose of research will determine the appropriate research design

� intrasubject or single-subject designs are commonly used to evaluate treatment effects for an individualfor an individual

� combinations of consecutive letters of the alphabet are used to label different designs

� each letter refers to a phase of treatment with A typically referring to baseline

AB DesignsAB Designs

� in AB designs, baseline (A) is followed by an intervention (B)

� comparisons (typically on a graph) can be made to see if changes occur from baseline to treatment conditionstreatment conditions

� not an ideal method to isolate the cause of change

Reversal, ABA or Reversal, ABA or ABAB DesignsABAB Designs� in reversal designs, baseline (A) is followed by treatment (B) and a return to the baseline (A) condition

� reinstatement of the baseline condition allows for a replication of the treatment effectfor a replication of the treatment effect

� replication makes it clearer that the treatment caused the change in behavior

Reversal, ABA or Reversal, ABA or ABAB Designs ABAB Designs (continued)(continued)

� reversal may not always be an appropriate design because:

◦ withdrawal of treatment may not lead to a return to baseline levels of behavior

◦ withdrawal may be undesirable or unethical◦ withdrawal may be undesirable or unethical

Reversal DesignsReversal Designs

300

Nu

mb

er

of

vo

ca

liza

tio

ns

ReversalBaseline

200

Intervention (Time-out + DRO)

Intervention (Time-out + DRO)

0

Daily sessions

40

Nu

mb

er

of

vo

ca

liza

tio

ns

200

100

Drug

Drug

3836343230282624222018161412108642

MultipleMultiple--Baseline DesignsBaseline Designs

� multiple-baseline designs conduct more than one AB design concurrently with treatments beginning at different times

� multiple-baseline designs are useful when reversals cannot or should not be introducedreversals cannot or should not be introduced

� multiple baselines can be across behaviors, baselining several similar behaviors within an individual

MultipleMultiple--Baseline Designs Baseline Designs (continued)(continued)� multiple baselines can be across subjects, applying the same treatment to the same behavior problems of two or more individuals

� multiple baselines can be across situations, baselining one type of behavior for a single baselining one type of behavior for a single individual in more than one setting

Multiple Baselines Across BehaviorsMultiple Baselines Across Behaviors

15

0

Intervention

Eye Fixation

Baseline

10

5

15

opriate

behavio

rs

15

0

Trial series

26

10

5

Facial Posturing

Diaphragmatic Breathing

15

0

Mean n

um

ber

of in

appro

priate

behavio

rs

10

5

24222018161412108642

ChangingChanging--Criterion DesignsCriterion Designs

� changing-criterion designs change over time the criterion for success and look for a relationship between criteria changes and behavior change

� one might increase or decrease:� one might increase or decrease:

◦ frequency requirements

◦ rate requirements

◦ duration requirements

◦ other requirements

AlternatingAlternating--Treatment DesignsTreatment Designs

� alternating-treatment designs compare the effects of two or more treatments applied at alternating times within the same time period

� does not require a reversal

several treatments can be evaluated at the same � several treatments can be evaluated at the same time

� a disadvantage is that the treatment effects can interact

AlternatingAlternating--Treatment DesignTreatment Design

40

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Modified tutoring procedures

Baseline

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Consecutive weeks

161514121110987654321 13

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20

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GroupGroup--Based ResearchBased Research

� group research designs compare average responses of large numbers of individuals subjected to different conditions

� offer more generalizable results

may not accurately reflect behavior of � may not accurately reflect behavior of individuals

Group Designs: Group Designs: WithinWithin--Subjects DesignsSubjects Designs� within-subject designs evaluate the influence of different conditions on the behavior of a single group of subjects

� methods follow the structure of intrasubject designsdesigns

� group average data are substituted for response measures of individuals

Group Designs: Group Designs: BetweenBetween--Subjects DesignsSubjects Designs� between-subject designs evaluate the influence of different conditions (independent variable) on the behavior (dependent variable) of different groups of subjects

� the simplest of designs compares behavior of a � the simplest of designs compares behavior of a control group with that of an experimental group

Group Designs: BetweenGroup Designs: Between--Subjects Subjects Designs Designs (continued)(continued)

� the environment of the experimental group is manipulated and the environment of the control group is not

� the control serves as a reference for evaluating the influence of the manipulationthe influence of the manipulation

� experimental designs can include more than two groups

Group Designs: BetweenGroup Designs: Between--Subjects Subjects Designs Designs (continued)(continued)

� subjects are randomly assigned to groups

� when therapies are evaluated, we sometimes use waiting-list control groups

Group Designs: Group Designs: QuasiQuasi--Experimental DesignsExperimental Designs� quasi-experimental designs are similar to

experimental designs except subjects are not

randomly assigned

� often used in applied settings where it may not often used in applied settings where it may not

be possible or ethical to randomly assign groups

Dimensions of EvaluationDimensions of Evaluation

effectiveness of treatments must be evaluated from several different perspectives:

� did behavior change generalize to the individual's natural environment?

was the behavior change significant to the � was the behavior change significant to the individual's functioning and change it enough to have a practical impact?

� do long-term savings and advantages warrant costs of the treatment?

Importance of the ChangeImportance of the Change

� was change clinically significant and socially valid?

� did change have a meaningful impact on the individual's life?

� did treatment move the behavior within the � did treatment move the behavior within the normal range?

� is individual and those significant in his or her life satisfied with the change?

� are treatment techniques and procedures satisfactory to all involved?

Measuring Clinical Significance and Measuring Clinical Significance and Social ValiditySocial Validity� impact can be evaluated by:

◦ the individual

◦ those involved with the individual

◦ independent judgesindependent judges

� significance of change sometimes can be evaluated by measuring outcomes like arrests or other external interventions

Composing a ReportComposing a Report

after intervention is complete, a report should describe:

� target behaviors

� intervention techniques

� treatment outcomes

� follow-up results

Tips on Doing Behavior Tips on Doing Behavior Modification ResearchModification Research� demonstrate accuracy of observations by using more than one observer

� inform observers that you are using more than one observer

train observers� train observers

� behavior should be stable before changing conditions

� use a design other than a reversal design if you cannot expect to recover baseline

Doing Research in Behavior Doing Research in Behavior ModificationModification

Chapter 23

IntroductionIntroduction

� Phases of Behavior Modification Program:◦ Screening phase

� Clarifying the problem and determining who should treat it

◦ Baseline phase� Determining the initial level of the behavior

◦ Treatment phase◦ Treatment phase� Intervention strategy is initiated

◦ Follow-up phase� Evaluating the persistence of desirable behavioral changes after the termination of the program

� A behavior modification research project attempts to demonstrate convincingly that it is the treatment, rather than some uncontrolled variables, that was responsible for the change in the behavior in question.

ReversalReversal--Replication (ABAB) Replication (ABAB) Research DesignsResearch Designs

� Baseline (A) is followed by treatment (B), return to baseline (A) condition, and then treatment again (B)

� Allows for replication of treatment effect� Allows for replication of treatment effect

� Replication makes it clearer that treatment caused change in behavior




� Considerations◦ How long should the baseline phase last?

� Until see stable pattern or trend opposite that is expected from treatment� Shorter baselines in studies of behavior previously researched� Availability of time may shorten baseline time� Ethical considerations

� Some behaviors are dangerous, and it may be unethical to leave them untreated for long � Some behaviors are dangerous, and it may be unethical to leave them untreated for long periods of time

◦ How many reversals and replications are necessary?� Less replications if large effects are observed and a lot of previous research

exists in the area

� Limitations◦ Withdrawal of treatment may not lead to return to baseline

◦ Withdrawal may be undesirable or unethical

Multiple Baseline DesignsMultiple Baseline Designs

� Conduct more than one AB design concurrently with treatments beginning at different times

� Useful when reversals cannot be introduced� Useful when reversals cannot be introduced


� Across behaviors

◦ Baselining several similar behaviors within an individual

� Across subjects� Across subjects

◦ Applying the same treatment to the same behavior problems of two or more individuals

� Across situations

◦ Baselining one type of behavior for a single individual in more than one setting



� Change over time the criterion for success and look for relationship between criteria changes and behavior change

� Can increase or decrease:� Can increase or decrease:

◦ Frequency requirements

◦ Rate requirements

◦ Duration requirements

◦ Etc.


AlternatingAlternating--Treatment DesignsTreatment Designs

� Compare effects of two or more treatment conditions considerably more rapidly than in ABAB design◦ Applied at alternating times within the same time periodperiod

◦ Also known as multielement design

� Does not require reversal

� Several treatments can be evaluated at the same time

� Disadvantage: treatment effects interaction

Data Analysis and InterpretationData Analysis and Interpretation

� Data typically analyzed without control groups and statistical techniques used in other areas of psychology

� Behavior modifiers interested in � Behavior modifiers interested in understanding and improving the behavior of individuals, not groups


� Evaluate treatments on two basic criteria:◦ Scientific

� Guidelines used by a researcher to evaluate whether or not there has been a convincing demonstration that the treatment was responsible for the changes

� Judgment made by visually inspecting the graph of the results.� Guidelines for inspecting data - There is greater confidence that a treatment

effect has been observed:effect has been observed:� the greater the number of times that results are replicated� the fewer the overlapping points between baseline and treatment phases� the sooner the effect is observed following the introduction of treatment� the larger the effect is in comparison to baseline� the more precisely the treatment procedures are specified� the more reliable the response measures� the more consistent the finding are with the existing data and accepted behavioral theory

◦ Practical� Changes to client, other significant individuals in client’s life, and society in

general


� Social Validity◦ Behavior modifiers need to socially validate their work on at least three levels (Wolf, 1978):� Must examine the extent to which target behaviors indentified for treatment programs are really the most indentified for treatment programs are really the most important for client and society

� Must be concerned with the acceptability to the client of the particular procedures used

� Must ensure that the consumers are satisfied with the results

Tocen EconomiesTocen EconomiesModifikasi Perilaku

PengertianPengertian

� Token: tanda

� A program in which

◦ a group of individuals can earn tokens for a variety of desirable behaviors

◦ Dapat ditukar dengan barang atau benda

� Prosedur perubahan perilaku yang dilakukan oleh lingkungan

◦ mengatur hubungan perilaku dan konsekuensi

◦ Memberi penguat atau hadiah tidak langsung

Token EkonomiToken Ekonomi

� Advantages:◦ Dapat langsung diberikan sesudah suatu perilaku terjadi dan ditukarkan dengan benda bila waktu dan tempat memungkinkan

◦ Lebih mudah diberikan pada saat individu berada dalam kelompokdalam kelompok

� Penerapan ◦ pasien normal: menurunkan absen, anak nakal ◦ RSJ: disable person◦ Narkoba ◦ Meningkatkan kesadaran masyarakat

� Kedisiplinan orang-orang yang terlibat

Setting up a Tocen EconomiesSetting up a Tocen Economies

� Deciding on the Target Behaviors◦ Short-range & long-range objectives

◦ Arrange the objectives in order of Priority

◦ Select the most important

� Taking Baseline� Selecting Backup Reinforcers� Selecting Backup Reinforcers� Selecting the Type of Tokens to Use:

◦ Attractiveness, lighweight, portable, durable, easy to handle

� Identifying Available Help� Choosing the Locations & Equipment� Decide on Specific Implementation Procedures� Prepare Token Economy Manual for the Clients and the Staff

Base Line DataBase Line Data

SubjekSubjek MingguMinggu RerataRerata

II IIII IIIIII IVIV

0101 66 22 44 55 4,254,25

0202 22 44 44 22 3,003,00

0303 55 55 55 55 5,005,00

0404 22 22 22 33 2,252,25

0505 77 44 66 55 5,505,50

0606 77 77 77 77 7,007,00

0707 1414 1313 1111 1111 12,2512,25

0808 66 66 44 11 4,254,25

Selection Backup ReinforcersSelection Backup Reinforcers

� Use reinforcers that are effective with the Population of interest

� Premack Principle� Collect verbal information from the clients� Catalogues� Catalogues� Ask clients what they like to do when they have free-time

� Natural reinforcers� Consider the ethics and legalities� Design an appropriate store to keep, display, dan dispense the backup reinforcers

Specific Implementation Specific Implementation ProceduresProcedures

� Data sheet: ◦ what, who, how, and when

� Reinforcement administration:◦ How it will be adminstered and for what behavior

� Number of tokens that can be earned� Number of tokens that can be earned◦ Per behavior, per client, per day◦ Store procedures and the value of tokens

� Punishment?◦ Only for clearly defined behaviors ◦ Only when ethically justified

� Plan for potential problems

Penerapan Tocen EconomyPenerapan Tocen Economy

� Enurosis (Suci Murti Karini)

� Dasar pikiran: ◦ Perilaku terbentuk karena faktor lingkungan

◦ Mengubah perilaku harus melibatkan lingkungan

Kartu diberikan bila muncul perilaku yang diharapkan � Kartu diberikan bila muncul perilaku yang diharapkan dan perilaku lain yang mendukung◦ Diharapkan: tidak ngompol

◦ Pendukung: mau kencing sebelum tidur, bangun untuk kencing di kamar mandi

Beberapa Catatan dalam Penerapan Beberapa Catatan dalam Penerapan Tocen EconomyTocen Economy� Tocen Economy more effective than active milleu treatment tapi tocen economy tidak banyak digunakan di RSJ

� Approximately 1% pasien prikiatri diberi tocen economy therapy (Boudewyns, Fry, and economy therapy (Boudewyns, Fry, and Nightingale, 1986)

� Penyebab:◦ Resistensi petugas

◦ Tidak cukup banyak petugas yang bersedia mencatat perilaku yang diharapkan

◦ Store backup reinforcers tidak mendukung

Latihan untuk MahasiswaLatihan untuk Mahasiswa

� Pilih subjek:◦ Murid sekolah dasar◦ Mahasiswa◦ Disabled persons

� Identified five plausable goals for a tocen economyeconomy

� Define precisely the target behavior related to each of the five goals

� Describe a number of things you might do to identify backup reinforcers for the group of individuals you chose

Self ControlSelf Control

1. Learning to decrease excessive behaviors that have immediate gratificationthat have immediate gratification

�Smoking, eating, drinking

2. Responses that need to be increased

�Studying, exercising, being assertive

WHY?WHY?Problems on Self ControlProblems on Self Control

� “I just can’t resist having an extra dessert”

� My term paper is due; I have a big midterm; � My term paper is due; I have a big midterm; and I have to finish writing up that lab assignement. What am I doing here at this bar? Why aren’t home studying?

Problems of Behavioral ExcessesProblems of Behavioral Excesses-- doing too much of somethingdoing too much of something

� Immediate Reinforcers vs Delayed Punishers:

◦ Bohong pada ortu mengatakan tidak ada PR karena ingin pergi dengan teman-teman

Immediate Reinforcers vs Cummulative Significant � Immediate Reinforcers vs Cummulative Significant Punishers

◦ Senang makan coklat walau tahu colesterol tinggi

� Immediate Reinforcers vs Delayed Reinforcers

◦ Ingin nilai bagus pada ujian esok pagi tapi ada teman yang ngajak nonton

Problems of Behavioral Deficiencies:Problems of Behavioral Deficiencies:responses that need to be increasedresponses that need to be increased

� Immediate small punishers vs reinforcers that are cummulatively significant

� Immediate small punishers for a behavior vs � Immediate small punishers for a behavior vs immediate but highly improbable major punisher if the behavior doesn’t occur

� Immediate small punisher for a behavior vs a Delayed major punisher if the behavior doesn’t occur

Steps in Self Control ProgramSteps in Self Control Program

� Specify the Problem

� Make a Commitment to Change� Make a Commitment to Change

� Take Data and Analysis Causes

� Design and Implement a Program

� Prevent Relapse and Make It Last

Problem SpecificationProblem Specification

� Write out the GOAL: rinci, kongkrit, dan wajar

� Make a list of things that you take as evidence that your goal has been achieved?

� Given a number of people with the same goal, how � Given a number of people with the same goal, how would you decide who had met the goal and who had not???

� If your goal is an outcome, such as achieving a certain weight then make a list of specific behaviors that will help you to achieve that outcome

Make a Commitment to ChangeMake a Commitment to Change

� Commitment to change and knowledge of change techniques were important (Perri & Richards, 1977)

� The Stronger of commitment the higher probability of success in changing your behavior ◦ Make a list of benefits for changing behavior◦ Make a list of benefits for changing behavior

◦ Make your commitment public

◦ Rearrange your environmet

◦ Invest considerable time and energy in planning the project

◦ Plan ahead for various ways to deal with any temptation

Take Data and Analyse CausesTake Data and Analyse Causes

� Take data on the occurance of the problem: WHEN, WHERE, dan HOW OFTEN

� Record Keeping: ada berapa rokok semula? Berapa sekarang?

Analyse antecedents and immediate � Analyse antecedents and immediate consequences:

◦ Permen sambil nyopir, lampu merah jadi hijau

◦ Satu donat, segelas kopi panas

◦ Seiris biskuit, pemain favorit mencetak goal

Design and Implement a ProgramDesign and Implement a Program

� Manage the Situation

� Manage the Behavior� Manage the Behavior

� Manage the Consequences

Manage the Situation Manage the Situation

� Instructions

� Modelling

� Physical guidance

� Immediate surrounding� Immediate surrounding

� Other people (mengurangi kontak dengan orang lain)

� Time of the day

Manage the BehaviorManage the Behavior

� Chaining:◦ Perilaku sesungguhnya adalah hasil dari rangkaian perilaku kecil

◦ Perilaku kecil merupakan isyarat bagi perilaku selanjutnyaselanjutnya

� Incompatible behavior◦ Perilaku bermasalah diganti dengan perilaku yang lebih tepat

� Shaping◦ Membentuk perilaku target secara bertahap

Manage the ConsequenciesManage the Consequencies

� Feedback atau self reward

◦ Cermin, tape recorder, self monitoring

� Pencatatan keuntungan melakukan programprogram

� Tetapkan peraturan:

◦ Le Bow : makan pada tempat, waktu

Prevent Relapse and Make it lastPrevent Relapse and Make it last

Self InstructionSelf Instruction

� Increase exercise and study behavior (Cohen, DeJames, Nocera, & Ramberger, 1980)

� Reduce fear (Arrick, Voss, & Rimm, 1981)� Reduce fear (Arrick, Voss, & Rimm, 1981)

� Reduce nail-bitting (Haris & McReynold, 1977)

� Improve a variety of other behavior

Willpower Willpower

� If you had more willpower you could get rid of that bad habits

� If you had more willpower you could improve yourself and get some better habits

Fading Fading The gradual change, on successive trials, of a stimulus that controls a response, so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus

Deitz&Malone, 1985

Fading efektif bila:Fading efektif bila:

� Choosing the final desired stimulus

� Selecting an appropriate reinforcer

� Choosing the starting stimulus and fading steps

◦ Spesifikasi sejelas-jelasnya kondisi tertentu untuk membangunkan membangunkan

◦ Spesifikasi stimulus

◦ waktu

� Putting the plan into effect

◦ Usahakan eror seminimal mungkin

modifikasi perilaku 223

ModellingModelling


Effective Use of ModellingEffective Use of Modelling� Gunakan model teman sebaya yang kompeten dalam hal yang akan dimodelkan

� Lebih dari 1 model akan lebih baik

� Kompleksitas perilaku yang dimodelkan harus sesuai sesuai dengan kemampuan klien

Sertakan aturan-aturan lain� Sertakan aturan-aturan lain

� Berikan kesempatan klien melihat perilaku model pada saat menerima reinforcement

� Buat model yang didesain dengan benar

� Bila perilaku agak kompleks, desain model-model dengan kekompleksannya bertahap



Coba lakukan eksperimenCoba lakukan eksperimen� Cobalah berbicara sambil mendesiskan suara atau sambil bersiul. Hitung berapa orang disekitarmu yang ikut bersiul?

� Cobalah menguap selebar-lebarnya, kemudian hitung berapa orang yang ikut menguap hitung berapa orang yang ikut menguap disekitarmu

� Berdirilah di depan sebuah toko atau rumah kosong selama beberapa saat, hitunglah berapa orang yang berhenti dan juga memandang ke toko atau rumah kosong tersebut?


Physical GuidancePhysical GuidanceApplication of physical contact to induce an individual to go through the motions of the desired behavior

Effective Use of GuidanceEffective Use of Guidance� Klien merasa nyaman dengan posisinya saat ini

� Tentukan stimulus yang akan dikontrol� Gunakan cue words� Reinforcement harus diberikan langsung � Reinforcement harus diberikan langsung saat itu juga

� Dimulai dari perilaku sederhana meningkat secara gradual

� Gunakan teknik tambahan 228Fading


EXTINCTIONEXTINCTIONSalah satu teknik yang digunakan untuk menurunkan frekuensi dilakukan suatu perilaku tertentu

The Principle of ExtinctionThe Principle of Extinction

� If, in a given situation, somebody emits a previously reinforced response and the response is not followed by a reinforcing consequenceconsequence

� Then, that person is less likely to do the same thing again when he next encounters a similar situation

Dengan kata lain, bila suatu PL muncul selama ini diperkuat olehadanya positif reinforcement, maka dihentikannya positifreinforcement akan menurunkan frekuensi PL tersebut

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of ExtinctionExtinction

� Extinction combined with positive reinforcement

� Controlling Reinforcers for the Behavior that is to be increased

� The setting in which extinction is carried out� The setting in which extinction is carried out

� Instructions: Make use of Rules

� Extinction is quicker after Continous Reinforcement

� Behavior being Extinguished may get worse before it gets better

� Extinction may produce Aggressions that Interferes with the program

� Extinguished Behavior may reappear after a delay

Fading Fading The gradual change, on successive trials, of a stimulus that controls a response, so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus

Deitz&Malone, 1985

Fading efektif bila:Fading efektif bila:

� Choosing the final desired stimulus

� Selecting an appropriate reinforcer

� Choosing the starting stimulus and fading steps

◦ Spesifikasi sejelas-jelasnya kondisi tertentu untuk membangunkan membangunkan

◦ Spesifikasi stimulus

◦ waktu

� Putting the plan into effect

◦ Usahakan eror seminimal mungkin


ModellingModelling


Effective Use of ModellingEffective Use of Modelling� Gunakan model teman sebaya yang kompeten dalam hal yang akan dimodelkan

� Lebih dari 1 model akan lebih baik

� Kompleksitas perilaku yang dimodelkan harus sesuai sesuai dengan kemampuan klien

Sertakan aturan-aturan lain� Sertakan aturan-aturan lain

� Berikan kesempatan klien melihat perilaku model pada saat menerima reinforcement

� Buat model yang didesain dengan benar

� Bila perilaku agak kompleks, desain model-model dengan kekompleksannya bertahap



Coba lakukan eksperimenCoba lakukan eksperimen� Cobalah berbicara sambil mendesiskan suara atau sambil bersiul. Hitung berapa orang disekitarmu yang ikut bersiul?

� Cobalah menguap selebar-lebarnya, kemudian hitung berapa orang yang ikut menguap hitung berapa orang yang ikut menguap disekitarmu

� Berdirilah di depan sebuah toko atau rumah kosong selama beberapa saat, hitunglah berapa orang yang berhenti dan juga memandang ke toko atau rumah kosong tersebut?


Physical GuidancePhysical GuidanceApplication of physical contact to induce an individual to go through the motions of the desired behavior

Effective Use of GuidanceEffective Use of Guidance� Klien merasa nyaman dengan posisinya saat ini

� Tentukan stimulus yang akan dikontrol� Gunakan cue words� Reinforcement harus diberikan langsung � Reinforcement harus diberikan langsung saat itu juga

� Dimulai dari perilaku sederhana meningkat secara gradual

� Gunakan teknik tambahan 240Fading


Belajar BehaviouristikBelajar BehaviouristikKelompok 1

Teori Belajar BehaviourismeTeori Belajar Behaviourisme

� Dipelopori oleh B.F Skinner� Menekankan pada tingkah laku yang teramati � Pada prinsipnya, manusia bukanlah organisme yang pasif tetapi ia aktif mencari akibat-akibat (konsekuensi) yang menyenangkan, karena (konsekuensi) yang menyenangkan, karena memandang bahwa manusia itu pada dasarnya bebas menetukan perilakunya, maka teori Skinner disebut teori operant conditioning

� Skinner memakai refleks sebagai unit dasar untuk menganalisa tingkah laku organisme atau individu.

BehaviourismeBehaviourisme

Teori belajar Behavioristik ( Watson dan E.R. Guthrie )� Mementingkan pengaruh lingkungan� Mementingkan bagian – bagian� Mementingkan peranan reaksi (respon)� Mementingkan mekanisme terbentuknya hasil belajar� Mementingkan mekanisme terbentuknya hasil belajar� Mementingkan hubungan sebab akibat pada waktu yang lalu� Mementingkan pembentukan kebiasaan � Pemecahan masalah dengan “mencoba dan gagal”

� Seseorang belajar adalah dengan merespon situasi yang baru dengan respon yang lama atau memakai respon yang baru dipelajari

� Cara efektif u/ mengubah dan mengontrol PL adalah dengan reinforcment, penguatan �adalah dengan reinforcment, penguatan �reward& punishment

� Pemberian reinforcment � countinous reinforcment,dan intermitted reinforcmnet

Behaviour Behaviour -- PerilakuPerilaku

� Perilaku : merupakan semua aktivitas yang merupakan reaksi thd lingkungan, yang meliputi◦ Reaksi motorik:� Bicara, berjalan, belajar

◦◦ Reaksi fisiologis� Aktifitas


◦ Reaksi afektif� Perasaan: benci,kecewa, rasa sayang

Jenis ResponJenis Respon

� Respondent Behavior� respon yang diperoleh atau dibangkitkan oleh karena adanya stimulus. Hal ini merupakan pandangan dari conditioning classic, S – R yang dikemukakan oleh Pavlov. Atau lebih tegas lagi dikemukakan oleh Watson “ no stimulus, no respon”. dikemukakan oleh Watson “ no stimulus, no respon”. Contoh responden behavior adalah menyempitnya mata kalau ada sinar yang tajam, saliva (keluarnya air ludah kalau ada makanan) dan lain sebagainya.

� Operant Behavior yaitu perilaku yang dikeluarkan tanpa adanya stimulus yang jelas.


� Setiap respon yang diikuti oleh stimulus penguat cenderung diulang.

� Stimulus penguat adalah segala sesuatu � Stimulus penguat adalah segala sesuatu yang dapat meningkatkan dimunculkannya respon operan.

Prinsip dalam Pendekatan Prinsip dalam Pendekatan BehaviourismeBehaviourisme

� Generalisasi �kecenderungan individu untuk memberikan respons yang sama terhadap stimulus original.

� Diskriminasi � individu merespons pada stimulus tertentu dan tidak pada stimulus lainnya. Untuk memproduksi diskriminasi misalnya Pavlov memberikan anjing sekerat daging persis setelah bunyi lonceng, dan bukan setelah stimulus yang lain, akibatnya anjing tadi lonceng, dan bukan setelah stimulus yang lain, akibatnya anjing tadi hanya memberi respons pada stimulus khusus tersebut yakni pada bunyi lonceng.

� Extinction �pelemahan atau penghapusan reaksi terkondisi (conditioned response). Dalam salah satu penelitian Pavlov membunyikan bel berulang-ulang tanpa disertai pemberian makanan, akhirnya anjing itu mendengar suara bel tanpa mengeluarkan air liur.

� Klasikal kondisioning �TL dipelajari dengan memanfaatkan hubungan stimulus dan respon yang bersifat refleks bawaan

� Operan kondisioning �reinforcment tidak diasosiakan dengan stimulus yang dikondisikan, diasosiakan dengan stimulus yang dikondisikan, tetapi diasosiasikan dengan respon (respon dianggap sebagai pemberi reinforcment)

Jenis ReinforcmentJenis Reinforcment

� Reinforcement positif, yaitu stimulus yang pemberiannya terhadap operant behaviormenyebabkan perilaku itu akan diperkuat atau dipersering untuk dimunculkan.

� Reinforcement negative, yaitu stimulus yang � Reinforcement negative, yaitu stimulus yang penghilangannya untuk stimulus-stimulus yang tidak menyenangkan (aversive stimulus) akan menyebabkan diperkuat atau diperseringnya perilaku.


Reinforcment


Interval

Fixed

Intermitt

ed

reinforcm

ent

Ratio

Variabel

Fixed

Variabel

Fix Interval Reinforcement Schedule (FI) � jadual pemberian reinforcement yang tetap dihitung waktu. Misalnya: Dalam penelitian Skinner, setiap 5 menit makanan akan keluar (setelah diberi makanan, respon tikus santai. Selanjutnya lebih cepat dari 5 menit/mendekati 5 menit)

Fix Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (FR) �jadual pemberian reinforcement yang tetap dihitung menurut beberapa kali respon. Misalnya: tiap 5 kali tikus memukul pedal, maka makanan akan otomatis keluar, setelah makanan keluar, maka tikus akan memukul sehingga diagram akan menanjak tajam.

Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule (VI) �interval yang tidak tetap. Misalnya: waktunya tidak jelas/ tidak tetap. Terkadang

Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule (VI) interval yang tidak tetap. Misalnya: waktunya tidak jelas/ tidak tetap. Terkadang makanan baru keluar setelah 5 menit, terkadang makanan bisa keluar setelah tiga menit. Sehingga respon jadi malas-malasan.

Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (VR) � tidak jelas beberapa kali ketukan maka makanan akan keluar.

Modifikasi PerilakuModifikasi Perilaku

�Metode dalam mengubah perilaku

� Perilaku & kebiasaan yang tidak adaptif (berlebihan/kurang) dieliminasi

�Menggunakan prinsip-prinsip belajar �Menggunakan prinsip-prinsip belajar yang telah diuji secara eksperimental

�Memberi pengukuh/reinforsment pada perilaku & kebiasaan yang adaptif

MPMP

� Prinsip belajar

◦ Modifikasi Perilaku

� operant conditioning

� classical conditioning

� Modelling

Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 257257

� Respondent behavior: (also called reflex behavior) is that behavior in which responses are strengthened or weakened primarily by stimuli that precede the response. (Pavlov)

� Operant behavior:The individual “operates” upon his environment to produce a certain event. (Skinner)environment to produce a certain event. (Skinner)

� Conditioning:When behavior is manipulated, the term “conditioning” is used. - classical and operant conditioning

� Reinforcement:The consequence of operant behavior is called a reinforcer.

� Response , timing and contingency

TE Behavior modification Isp- uio


Situation BehaviorResponsOperant

Reaction

SD R (O) SR

DiscriminatingStimuli

Respons Environmentalreaction on thisrespons



Reinforcement If proper timingReinforcementworks

We are concernedabout contingencybetween S-R--S

Add RemoveAdd Remove

Somethingpleasant

Positivereinforcement

NegativeReduction

Somethingunpleasant

Positivereduction

Negativereinforcement



� The value of observing, recording and measuring behavior:

� support your opinions about a situation or behavior which should be altered

� reveal a pattern of behavior which might suggest ways to alter the behavior

� reveal discrepancies between your perception of the situation and � reveal discrepancies between your perception of the situation and the situation as it exists.

� Visually indicate IF your program was successful,HOW successful it was, and WHEN the significant change occurred.

� Describe interaction for purposes of pinpointing target behavior for further programming



� Target behavior: That behavior which is labeled, specifically defined, and is the target for observation, recording and, consequently, for modification is called the target behavior.

� We can also look for behavior that is incompatiblewith the behavior of concern as a target behavior.with the behavior of concern as a target behavior.

� Behavior modification claims to be a technique with a positive orientation. It can be used to increase as well as decrease behavior:

� stop fighting-get along with peers / stop cursing - use other words a.s.o.



� Target behavior: That behavior which is labeled, specifically defined, and is the target for observation, recording and, consequently, for modification is called the target behavior.

� We can also look for behavior that is incompatiblewith the behavior of concern as a target behavior.with the behavior of concern as a target behavior.

� Behavior modification claims to be a technique with a positive orientation. It can be used to increase as well as decrease behavior:

� stop fighting-get along with peers / stop cursing - use other words a.s.o.



� Finding reinforcers:� Finding proper reinforcers is very important, but also difficult since what hay be a positive reinforcer for one student may be a negative one for another. Taking a shower has been used as both pos. and neg. Reinforcer.as both pos. and neg. Reinforcer.

� The trick is to know the student:� 1. Observe him , see what he chooses to do when he does not have to be doing something.

� 2. Ask him, his friends or parent what his choice behavior are.



� Primary reinforcers:

� build on biological based needs. Can seems primitive and unworthy, but can be effective - especially for mentally retarded.

� Advantages: Fast, and relatively simple to administrate� Advantages: Fast, and relatively simple to administrate

� Disadvantages: Easy to be “filled up”, economy, moral or ethical reactions?, reactions from others, self -esteem?



� Secondary or socially reinforcers:� Attention (best+), praise ,expression of joy etc.

� Advantages: Natural, easy to administer but also to forget, free, be be used to all groups - also you and me

� Disadvantages: Not all children react positively on praise and not from every teacher. Not everybody (teachers ) Disadvantages: Not all children react positively on praise and not from every teacher. Not everybody (teachers ) are able to communicate genuine social ,positive reinforcement. Attention from peers can be stronger ,and that can counteract the teacher

� Is regarded as the most important reinforcer



� When to reinforce?

� Continuous reinforcement schedule:Every response is reinforced. Very demanding approach and vulnerable for extinction.

� Intermittent reinforcement reinforcement schedule:Only some responses are reinforced:Only some responses are reinforced:

� 1. fixed ratio: every n’ response

� 2. Variable ratio: between each ex. 15 or 20

� 3. Fixed interval : every n’ minute

� 4. Variable interval: Between f.i. Every 5’ and 10’ minute

� 2 and 4 is most resistant for extinction


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 267267PunishmentPunishment� Removing a positive or present a negative reinforcer

� Some people think it is immoral in an educational contexteducational context

� Punishment can be physical – social or psychological


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 268268PunishmentPunishment� Some disatvantages:

� It does not eliminate, it merely slows down the behavior

� It does not show what appropriate behavior is

� Aggressive behavior from teachers can serve as a bad model

� Emotional results as fear and withdrawal are maladaptive


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 269269PunishmentPunishment� ”Effective” punishment are supposed to be

� Given imidiately

� Relies on withdrawal of reinforcement andovides steps for regaining them

� Makes use of warning signals

Is carried out in a calm , matter of fact way� Is carried out in a calm , matter of fact way

� Is accompanied by positive reinforcement of behavior imcompatible with behavior being punished

� Also uses procedures to make sure that the undesired behavior do not receive positive reinforcement


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 270270 Developing Developing desirable behaviordesirable behavior� Reinforce desirable behavior, overlook minor faults. The desirable behavior must be reasonable frequent

� Shaping: Reinforce behavior that has elements of the desirable one

� Modelling: Reinforce desirable behavior seen at � Modelling: Reinforce desirable behavior seen at others, but not everybody are potent models

� Special techniques: Selfinstruction (Bernstein-especially used with small children with ADHD)

� Overcorrection – Azrin – used at enuresis


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 271271Eliminate undesirable behaviorEliminate undesirable behavior

� Overlook minor faults and reinforce incompatible behavior

� Extinction: Totally overlooking. No reinforcement what so ever – difficult to administeradminister

� Time out from reinforcement –sending out for a while

� Saturation - So much reinforcement that it gives a paradoxical effect


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 272272Token economyToken economy

� Advantages:� Children learn to postpone satisfaction of basic needs

� It’s easy to avoid saturation. You can change the back –up reinforcer

� You can reach target behavior when children are little � You can reach target behavior when children are little receivable for social reinforcement

� Effective because it can be administrated at once

� Gives children the experience that behavior gives them consequensis


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 273273Token economyToken economy� Problems – or important issues by use

� Target behavior and rules for earning tokens must be clearly defined and specified

� Children must be able to obtain the backup as well as the target behavior

� The back up must appeal and variations?� The back up must appeal and variations?

� The number of tokens must be reasonable to obtain the goal

� The earnings potential should – if possible- gather different situations

� The child should preferably compare with himself – not others


Behavior Modification Behavior Modification 274274Discuss Discuss

� Advantages by using behavior modification

� Disadvantages?

� Moral or ethical aspects?Behavior Modification 274� Moral or ethical aspects?

� Is it appropriate or useful in your country – in what kind of settings?


Behavior Modification 274

Assertive TrainingAssertive Training

Neila Ramdhani

AsertifAsertif

� Lange & Jakubowski:

◦ Memperoleh hak-hak personal

◦ Pengekspresian pikiran, perasaan, dan keyakinan kita secara langsung dan terus terang dengan jujur, langsung, dan tepat

� Kelley:

◦ Sikap seseorang dalam mengekspresikan dirinya dengan landasan hak pribadinya sendiri tanpa menyakiti atau menyinggung hak pribadi orang lainpribadinya sendiri tanpa menyakiti atau menyinggung hak pribadi orang lain

� Taubman:

◦ Kemampuan untuk menyatakan perasaan, keinginan, dan kebutuhan individu pada orang lain serta penghargaan

� Kanfer & Goldstein:

◦ Orang yang asertif dapat membela diri ketika diperlakukan tidak adil

◦ Mampu memberi tanggapan terhadap masalahnya

◦ Mampu menyatakan cintanya

Orang yang AsertifOrang yang AsertifFensterhein & BaerFensterhein & Baer

� Bebas mengekspresikan dirinya ◦ Verbal & non verbal◦ Tanpa ada perasaan cemas dan menyesal� Menegakkan hak-hak pribadi� Menolak permintaan yang tidak masuk akal� Menolak permintaan yang tidak masuk akal

� Komunikasi secara terbuka; langsung; terus terang; sebagaimana mestinya

� Pandangan aktif terhadap kehidupan� Menerima keterbatasan dirinya dan tidak merasa malu dalam suatu pertemuan

� Selalu berusaha mencapai cita-cita

Pelatihan AsertifPelatihan Asertif

� Goldstein (1986)

◦ Rangkuman yang sistematis dari ketrampilan, peraturan, konsep atau sikap yang dapat mengembangkan dan melatih kemampuan individu untuk menyampaikan dengan terus terang pikiran, perasaan, keinginan dan kebutuhannya dengan penuh percaya diri sehingga dapat berhubungan dengan lingkungan sosialnya dengan baik

� Rees & Graham (1991)� Rees & Graham (1991)

◦ Penanaman kepercayaan bahwa asertif dapat dilatihkan & dikembangkan

◦ Memilih kata-kata yang tepat untuk tujuan yang mereka inginkan

◦ Saling mendukung

◦ Pengulangan perilaku asertif dalam berbagai situasi

◦ Umpan balik bagi setiap peserta dari trainer maupun peserta

Asserting YourselfAsserting YourselfBower & BowerBower & Bower

� Mengajarkan ketrampilan-ketrampilan verbal & non verbal untuk mengatasi situasi-situasi yang tidak nyaman

� Reaksi dari ketidak nyamanan:◦ Menyalahkan diri sendiri◦ Menyalahkan diri sendiri

◦ Pasif atau Agresif

� Tugas peserta:◦ Analisis problem

◦ Develop a reasonable negotiation position

◦ Assert themselves effectively

Assertive Training untuk Menurunkan Kecemasan Assertive Training untuk Menurunkan Kecemasan Sosial (Yushi T. Ismayudha)Sosial (Yushi T. Ismayudha)

� Kognitif: ◦ Metode Rees & Graham◦ Pemilihan kalimat untuk beberapa situasi:� Maaf di awal� Menyatakan perasaan dan keputusan yang sebenarnyaMenyatakan perasaan dan keputusan yang sebenarnya� Menyatakan alasan yang mendasari� Memberi alternatif pemecahan masalah

� Perilaku:◦ Modelling video (Ramdhani, 1993)◦ Role play◦ Umpan balik

Modifikasi Perilaku Modifikasi Perilaku oleh:

M. SugiarminM. Sugiarmin

Pusat Pengembangan Penataran Guru Teknologi Bandung

27 Nopember 2006


� Konsep dasar modifikasi perilaku� Perilaku- segala sesuatu yang dikatakan atau dilakukan

seseorangseseorang- perilaku overt dan perilaku covert � Modifikasi perilaku- berbagai upaya untuk mengubah perilaku- penerapan prinsip-prinsip belajar yang teruji untuk

mengubah perilaku tidak adaptif menjadi perilaku adaptif

�Ciri-ciri modifikasi perilaku

- perilaku yang akan dimodifikasi harus teramati dan terukur

- prosedur dan teknik yang dipilih diarahkan untuk mengubah lingkungan seseorang

- teknik yang dipilih dapat dijelaskan dan dipahami

- teknik yang dipilih dapat diterapkan dalam kehidupan sehari-- teknik yang dipilih dapat diterapkan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dan bisa digunakan semua orang

- teknik dan prosedur yang digunakan berdasarkan prinsip psikologi belajar

- semua orang yang terlibat dalam modifikasi perilaku mempunyai tanggung jawab bersama

Prinsip Dasar Modifikasi PerilakuPrinsip Dasar Modifikasi Perilaku

� Prinsip kondisioning respon

� Prinsip kondisioning operan

� Prinsip modelling

Masalah Perilaku (ABK)Masalah Perilaku (ABK)

� perilaku yang berkelebihan

- stimulasi diri (menatap jari jemari, mengepak-ngepak tangan)

- self-abuse (memukul menggigit, mencakar diri sendiri)sendiri)

- tantrum (menjerit, mengamuk)

- agresif (menendang, memukul,mencubit, menggigit orang lain)

- dll

� Perilaku yang berkekurangan

- bicara (tak bicara, sedikit bicara, membeo)

- sosial (mengganggap orang sbg benda)

- sensasi (disangka tuli,buta)- sensasi (disangka tuli,buta)

- bermain (putar-putar roda mobil-mobilan)

- emosi (hanya bengong ketika dikelitiki, tertawa tidak pada tempatnya)

- dll

TeknikTeknik--teknik modifikasi perilakuteknik modifikasi perilaku

� asertivitas

� aversi

� extinction

� satiation

� modelingmodeling

� konsekuensi negative

� time out

� hukuman

� dll

ProsedurProsedur pelaksanaanpelaksanaan modifikasimodifikasi perilakuperilaku

� asesmen

� melalui pendekatan A (Antecendent)-B (Behavior)

� C (consequence)

� menetapkan teknik yang dipilih

� melakukan intervensi modifikasi perilaku

� merekam kegiatan pelaksanaan intervensi

� melaporkan hasil

Evaluasi Evaluasi

� hal yang perlu diperhatikan

-ketelitian respon

-kecepatan respon

-kekuatan respon

-kemungkinan muncul respon lain-kemungkinan muncul respon lain

-usaha-usaha subjek untuk berespon

� Pelaporan

-grafik

-frekuensi

-durasi

PSIKOLOGI BELAJARPSIKOLOGI BELAJARFAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI

UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA

DEPOK

PENDAHULUANPENDAHULUAN

� Secara historis studi ilmiah tentang belajar dilakukan oleh psikolog.

� Dipelopori oleh ahli-ahli seperti Ebbinghaus (1885), Bryan dan Harter (1897, 1899) dan Thorndike (1898).Thorndike (1898).

� Banyak Psikolog membuat pengakuan eksplisit bahwa belajar merupakan hal sentral dalam mempelajari tingkah laku (Hilgard, 1956), didukung oleh Tollman, Guthrie dan Hull.

Pengaruh Pra Psikologi Terhadap Pengaruh Pra Psikologi Terhadap Studi BelajarStudi Belajar� Filsafat:

Objek studi dari para filosof adalah peranan pikiran individu dalam mempersepsikan dunianya.Aristoteles : belajar itu melalui asosiasi Tiga hukum asosiasi : contiguity, similarity dan law of Tiga hukum asosiasi : contiguity, similarity dan law of contrast.

� Psikologi Belajar Sebagai Ilmu Pengetahuan :Psikologi belajar menggunakan pendekatan ilmiah untuk studi perilaku. Kesimpulan kesimpulan psikologis harus berdasarkan hasil observasi yang tepat dan objektif.

Penelitian Awal tentang Studi BelajarPenelitian Awal tentang Studi Belajar

� Herman Ebbinghaus: penelitian mengenai ingatan terhadap nonsense sylabels.

Variabel yang mempengaruhi ingatan: waktu, tipe dan jumlah materi, pengalaman.

� “Sistem” Psikologi

Sistem Psikologi menjelaskan perilaku secara komprehensif sedangkan Teori Psikologi menjelaskan sebagian perilaku.sedangkan Teori Psikologi menjelaskan sebagian perilaku.

Sistem-sistem Psikologi :

a. Strukturalisme d. Behaviorisme

b. Fungsionalisme e. Psikologi gestalt

c. Asosiasionisme f. Psikoanalisa

TeoriTeori--teori Belajarteori Belajar

Pengaruh dari sistem/ aliran psikologi mulai berkurang pada 1930 dan beralih ke teori psikologi,sebab penelitian psikologi terfokus pada masalah proses sentral psikologi, seperti belajar, motivasi, dll.

Teori-teori belajar komprehensif menjadi kekuatan baru yang dominan dalam psikologi karena:dominan dalam psikologi karena:

1. Psikologi mengutamakan penelitian dan percobaan-percobaan

2. Tekanan studi psikologi menggunakan observasi perilaku

3. Tekanan kepada pentingnya proses belajar

4. Analisis S-R dalam studi perilaku

5. Penelitian mengenai belajar merupakan upaya ilmu dasar bukan sekedar ilmu terapan

� Edwin Guthrie: contiguity antara S-R ada dalam proses belajar.Reinforcement merubah kondisi stimulus sehingga memunculkan respon tertentu yang diharapkan dan mencegah respon lain yang tidak diharapkan.

� Clark Hull: teori deduktif-matematis, menjelaskan kecenderungan munculnya respon berdasarkan dalil yang kecenderungan munculnya respon berdasarkan dalil yang formal dan umum (deduktif) dan diformulasi dalam bentuk matematis.

sEr = sHr x V x D x K – (Ir + sIr)

� Edward Tolman: teori behaviorisme purposif, yang mencakup segi positif dari konsep behavioristik dan kognitif.

Tolman berpendapat bahwa melalui perilaku bertujuan, proses belajar bukanlah sesuatu situasi yang dapat diamati semuanya, tetapi proses nyata dari belajar terdiri dari operasi kognitif yang terpusat.

� B.F Skinner: operan conditioning, perilaku dapat � B.F Skinner: operan conditioning, perilaku dapat dimanipulasi dengan mengelola kondisi reinforcement.

� Donald Hebb: physiological learning, bahwa didalam belajar terdapat proses perubahan elektrokimia didalam satu atau lebih sinaps, yang berada diantara axon dan dendrit yang dikendalikan oleh sistem syaraf pusat.

� Jean Piaget: teori belajar kognitif, menekankan pentingnya interaksi antara pertumbuhan fisikdan perkembangan intelektual organisma.

PendekatanPendekatan--pendekatan Kontemporerpendekatan Kontemporer

� Pendekatan Asosiasi dan Kognitif

pendekatan asosiasi mementingkan ikatan S-R dalam belajar, sedangkan pendekatan kognitif mementingkan proses kognitif yaitu adanya proses mental yang tinggi.mental yang tinggi.

� Pendekatan Ethologi

mementingkan struktur biologis dalam mempelajari respon organisme

� Pendekatan Belajar Verbal dan perilaku bahasa

menerapkan pendekatan asosiasi dan kognitif.

PENGERTIAN BELAJARPENGERTIAN BELAJAR

� Belajar adalah proses dimana suatu aktivitas berasal atau berubah melalui reaksi pada situasi yang ditemui, asalkan ciri perubahan aktivitasnya tidak dapat dijelaskan sebagai kecenderungan respon dasar, kematangan, atau proses tubuh organisma yang bersifat sementara.respon dasar, kematangan, atau proses tubuh organisma yang bersifat sementara.

� Hal-hal pokok berkenaan dengan belajar:a. membawa perubahanb. adanya kecakapan baruc. adanya usaha

CiriCiri--ciri Perubahan Perilaku ciri Perubahan Perilaku dalam Belajardalam Belajar

1. Terjadi secara sadar

2. Bersifat kontinu dan fungsional

3. Bersifat positif dan aktif3. Bersifat positif dan aktif

4. Bukan bersifat sementara

5. Bertujuan atau terarah

6. Mencakup seluruh aspek perilaku individu

Perilaku Bukan BelajarPerilaku Bukan Belajar

Menurut,Hilgard:

• Respon bawaan: Gerak refleks, tropisms, insting

• Kematangan: pertumbuhan

• Kelelahan

Dirambahkan oleh Wittig:Dirambahkan oleh Wittig:

• Motivasi

• Kepekaan dan kebiasaan

• Adaptasi sensori

• Ciri-ciri fisiologis

• Kondisi belajar

Definisi Belajar Bukan Sumber Utama Definisi Belajar Bukan Sumber Utama Ketidaksamaan Diantara TeoriKetidaksamaan Diantara Teori--teori yang teori yang AdaAda� Definisi belajar sangat sulit untuk diformulasikan secara utuh atau memuaskan, karena melibatkan semua aktifitas dan proses yang diharapkan untuk dimasukkan ataupun dihapus.

� Kontroversi itu terdapat pada fakta dan � Kontroversi itu terdapat pada fakta dan interpretasi, tetapi bukan pada definisi.

� Alasan untuk mempelajari belajar yang berbeda-beda menyebabkan pemberian tekanan kepada aspek yang berbeda-beda sehingga tampil seolah-olah ada pertentangan teori.

Sejumlah Masalah Tipikal yang Berhadapan Sejumlah Masalah Tipikal yang Berhadapan dengan Teori Belajardengan Teori Belajar

Terdapat beberapa pertanyaan yang timbul selama meneliti tentang belajar:

a. Apa batasan belajar?

b. Apa peran latihan dalam belajar?b. Apa peran latihan dalam belajar?

c. Seberapa penting drive dan incentive, hadiah dan hukuman?

d. Apa yang dimaksud dengan pengertian dan insight?

e. Apakah belajar membantu seseorang mempelajari hal lain?

f. Apa yang terjadi bila seseorang mengingat atau melupakan?

Metode PenelitianMetode Penelitian

� Metode Eksperimen

� Observasi Naturalis

Studi Kausal-Komparatif� Studi Kausal-Komparatif

� Studi Korelasi

� Tes Psikologi dan Survai

� Sejarah Kasus Klinikal

Subyek Penelitian Selain ManusiaSubyek Penelitian Selain Manusia

Penelitian dalam Psikologi Belajar sering

menggunakan binatang sebagai subyek.

Alasannya:

HematHemat

Hewan cepat bereproduksi

Kesempatan yang lebih leluasa

Waktu relatif tidak terbatas

Kode etik yang ketat terhadap manusia

Etika PenelitianEtika Penelitian

Peneliti harus melindungi hak-hak subyek dan toidak menempatkan subyek dalam

bahaya psikis maupun fisik.

Peneliti harus menjelaskan detail prosedur Peneliti harus menjelaskan detail prosedur penelitian dan meminta persetujuan dari

subjek

PENGKONDISIAN KLASIKALPENGKONDISIAN KLASIKALIvan P. Pavlov (1849-1936)

� Paradigma pengkondisian klasikal:

- stimulus benar-benar netral dengan stimulus alami yang menghasilkan respon dipasangkanalami yang menghasilkan respon dipasangkan

- setelah satu atau dua kali pemasangan stimulus netral diharapkan menghasilkan respon tertentu. Bila kondisi tersebut terjadi maka telah terjadi pengkondisian klasikal.

Terminologi Pengkondisian KlasikalTerminologi Pengkondisian Klasikal

CS CR

Pemasangan

UCS UCR

� Pada kasus-kasus tertentu CR dan UCR tidak sama : anticipatory respon

� CS dapat menghasilkan respon tidak dibawah penelitian : orienting respon

VariabelVariabel--variabel Non Pengkondisianvariabel Non Pengkondisian

a. Respon alpha

b. Habituasi

c. Sensitisasic. Sensitisasi

d. Pengkondisian palsu

e. Hambatan laten

f. Sensory preconditioning

Pemadaman dan Pemulihan SpontanPemadaman dan Pemulihan Spontan

� Pemadaman: menghentikan UCS, sehingga berkurangnya atau padamnya CR.berkurangnya atau padamnya CR.

� Pemulihan spontan: UCS dipresentasikan kembali.

Diskriminasi dan Generalisasi StimulusDiskriminasi dan Generalisasi StimulusBila S diberi stimulus yang berbeda dari CS yang asli ada tiga kemungkinan respon yang akan dilakukan yaitu:

a. membuat CR sama kuat dengan CR dari CS yang

asliasli

b. membuat CR kurang kuat dibanding CR dari CS

yang asli

c. tidak membuat CR sama sekali

Kondisi (a) dan (b) generalisasi

Kondisi (c) diskriminasi

Pengukuran Pengkondisian ResponPengukuran Pengkondisian Respon

� Amplitudo dari respon

� Frekuensi dari respon

� Latensi dari respon

� Ketahanan dari pemadaman

Inteval Antar StimulusInteval Antar Stimulus

�Delay conditioning

� Trace conditioning

� Simultaneous conditioning

� Backward conditioning

� Temporal conditioning

� Inhibition of delay

Efek dari Penguatan SebagianEfek dari Penguatan Sebagian

CR lebih tahan dari pemadaman, dibandingkan dengan CR berdasarkan dari dibandingkan dengan CR berdasarkan dari

penguatan terus menerus.

PENGKONDISIAN PENGKONDISIAN INSTRUMENTALINSTRUMENTAL

B. F Skinner

� Proses belajar yang meliputi manipulasi � Proses belajar yang meliputi manipulasi akibat-akibat dari suatu respon dengan tujuan untuk menaikkan atau menurunkan probabilitas munculnya respon tersebut

Latar Belakang Pengkondisian Latar Belakang Pengkondisian InstrumentalInstrumental

� Di awali oleh penelitian Edwaed Thorndike pada akhir 1800 dan awal 1900

eksperimen “puzzle”eksperimen “puzzle”

memasukkan hewan-hewan ke dalam puzzle dengan harapan dapat menemukan jalan keluarnya.

= terdapat perilaku trial and error

Karakteristik Pengkondisian InstrumentalKarakteristik Pengkondisian Instrumental

� Penguatan (Reinforcement)

Pengkondisian instrumental bisa terjadi apabila terdapat penguatan untuk mendukung atau terdapat penguatan untuk mendukung atau membentuk perilaku khusus yang diinginkan.

penguatan positif

penguatan negatf

� Kontingensi

� Mengukur kekuatan respon

� Tugas-tugas diskriminatif

Perbandingan Perbandingan Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning dengan dengan Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

a. Respon yang dikeluarkan vs respon yang diperoleh

(emitted) (elicited)

b. Identifikasi stimulus

Classical : hubungan antara CS-UCS atau CS-CR

Instrumental : hubungan antara respon dan penguatan

ShapingShaping

Shaping: pembentukan respon

a. External shaping: pembentukan respon dengan cara mengontrol lingkungan dimana organisme berada

Internal Shaping : pembentukan respon b. Internal Shaping : pembentukan respon dimana kontrol yang konstan datangnya dari dalam organisma dukan dari lingkungannya

Penjadwalan PenguatanPenjadwalan Penguatan

� Fixed ratio (FR)

� Variable ratio (VR)

� Fixed interval (FI)

� Variable interval (VI)� Variable interval (VI)

- dalam pengkondisian instrumental ini respon yang diberi penguatan sebagian juga lebih tahan terhadap pemadaman dibandingkan respon dari penguatan yang terus menerus

Pemadaman dan Pemulihan SpontanPemadaman dan Pemulihan Spontan

� Pada pengkondisian ini, penghentian pemberian penguatan dapat menyebabkan pemberian penguatan dapat menyebabkan pemadaman respon (extinction).

� Pemulihan spontan dapat terjadi bahkan tanpa penambahan penguatan

Generalisasi dan DiskriminasiGeneralisasi dan Diskriminasi

Dalam tugas-tugas diskriminatif dicoba untuk mempertimbangkan apakah ia

membuat respon atau tidak.

Bila ia membuat respon, maka ia melakukan Bila ia membuat respon, maka ia melakukan generalisasi stimulus.

Bila S tidak merespon, maka ia melakukan diskriminasi stimulus.

Pertimbangan Lain dalam Pertimbangan Lain dalam Pengkondisian IntrumentalPengkondisian Intrumental

� Perilaku takhayul

� Belajar dari kondisi tidak berdaya

� Biofeedback

MODELINGMODELING

Merupakan beberapa bentuk perilaku (model) yang kemudian diikuti oleh (model) yang kemudian diikuti oleh

performance atau perilkau yang sama oleh organisma

Pengertian ModelingPengertian Modeling

Terdapat beberapa cara pandang yang berbeda dalam mengartikan modeling:

• Belajar imitasi

• Belajar observasi• Belajar observasi

• Belajar sosial

• Belajar pengalaman

Perbandingan Modeling dengan Belajar Perbandingan Modeling dengan Belajar LainnyaLainnya� Modeling vs Classical Conditioning

belajar modeling tidak meliputi diperolehnya respon dan respon yang dipelajari bukan karena adanya stimulus khusus (CS)

� Modeling vs Instrumental Conditioning� Modeling vs Instrumental Conditioning

dalam modeling, respon organisma merupakan respon instrumental untuk mendapat penguatan. Efek penguatan tersebut hanya sebagai motivasi bukan penyebab terjadinya respon.

� Penguatan dalam modeling

Reinforcement by the model

Self reinforcement

TipeTipe--tipe Modelingtipe Modeling

� Sensory modeling

� Verbal modeling� Verbal modeling

� Live vs Symbolic modeling

EfekEfek--efek Modelingefek Modeling

� Efek modeling: respon yang dihasilkan benar-benar baru.

� Efek hambatan dan tanpa hambatan: peniruan dilakukan dengan rasa nyaman peniruan dilakukan dengan rasa nyaman atau tidak oleh S.

� Efek Perolehan: respon yang dihasilkan tidak benar-benar baru

Karakteristik ModelingKarakteristik Modeling

� Kesamaan model, kesamaan karakteristik model dengan pengamat.

� Status model, bisa berupa posisi (jabatan) dari model atau peran model.

� Standar model� Standar model

Jika model yang diamati cukup terhormat, maka pengamat tidak hanya mempertimbangkan perilaku nyata dari model tetapi juga standar performan yang ditunjukkan oleh model.

Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Belajar ModelingBelajar Modeling

a. Faktor spesiesa. Faktor spesies

b. Kompleksitas respon

c. motivasi

BELAJAR VERBALBELAJAR VERBAL

Belajar verbal adalah proses pemerolehan Belajar verbal adalah proses pemerolehan perilaku verbal baru dalam seting sedang

melakukan proses belajar

Latar Belakang Belajar VerbalLatar Belakang Belajar Verbal� Munculnya tiga hukum asosiasi yaitu asosiasi, contiguity dan law of contrast.

� Aristoteles: pikiran manusia adalah organizing agent

Penelitian Ebbinghaus : nonsense syllabels, � Penelitian Ebbinghaus : nonsense syllabels, yang menyimpulkan bahwa kemampuan mengingat akan menurun dengan bertambahnya waktu.

Belajar BerseriBelajar Berseri

� Subjek diberi stimulus berseri dan kemudian diminta untuk mengulangi (menyatakan) kembali apa yang telah diterimanya.

� Terdapat 4 metode belajar berseri,yaitu:

Metode antisipasi1. Metode antisipasi

2. Metode serial recall

3. Metode presentasi lengkap

4. Metode free recall

� Ada 3 tipe asosiasi untuk menganalisis belajar berseri:

1. Immediate forward association

2. Immediate backward association2. Immediate backward association

3. Remote association

Kurva Posisi Berseri Kurva Posisi Berseri

� Materi awal dan akhir mudah diingat, dibanding materi tengah pelajaran:

N

Jumlah kesalahan

yang dibuat selama

belajarbelajar

0 1 Posisi berseri N

� Ingatan bebas (free recall) untuk mengingat materi belajar berseri

N Free recall

Jumlah kesalahan

yang dibuat selama

belajar


Modifikasi Kurva Posisi BerseriModifikasi Kurva Posisi Berseri

� Manipulasi instruksi yang diberikan kepada subjek. Misal: memberi penekanan pada materi tengah pelajaran:

N

Jumlah kesalahan Respon instruksi

yang dibuat selama dimanipulasi

belajar


� Manipulasi materi yang diberikan kepada subjek. Misal: 36 materi belajar berseri yang dikelompokkan dalam 3 kelompok:

N

Jumlah kesalahan

yang dibuat selama

belajar


Modifikasi Kurva Posisi BerseriModifikasi Kurva Posisi Berseri� Manipulasi materi yang diberikan kepada subjek. Misal: Mengingat materi yang telah dikenal umum mudah diingat, dan yang tidak dikenal umum sulit diingat (efek Von Restorff).

N

Prosentasi kesalahan

yang dibuat selama

belajar

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 N

Posisi berseri

Materi: 1. FOH, 2. ZOD, 3. XED, 4. KAH, 5. CAT, 6. MUQ.

� Hasil belajar berseri dipengaruhi oleh urutan belajar atau pengalaman belajar.

Modifikasi Kurva Posisi BerseriModifikasi Kurva Posisi Berseri

� Hipotesa Berantai: usaha untuk menerangkan performan yang didapat dalam tugas-tugas berseri. Perilaku berseri dapat dilihat sebagai rantai, yang masing-masing perilaku saling berhubungan. Misal: hasil belajar semester 1 – 3 saling berhubungan.saling berhubungan.

Serial list: 1 2 3

Karakteristik MateriKarakteristik Materi

� Sangat berarti: diukur dari jumlah asosiasi rata-rata suatu perolehan unit verbal. Misal: kata “mama” sangat berarti bagi anak dibandingkan kata “komputer”

� Nilai asosiasi: presentasi responden tentang beberapa asosiasi dari unit verbal. Memiliki kesamaan dengan karakteristik materi sangat berarti. karakteristik materi sangat berarti.

� Familiaritas: materi yang sudah dikebal oleh subjek. Penilaiannya dibuat dalam skala 1 sampai 7 (tidak familiar sampai sangat familiar).

� Kemampuan pengucapan: penilaian kemudahan pengucapan unit verbal. Penilaiannya dibuat dalam skala 1 sampai 7 (tidak mudah sampai sangat mudah diucapkan).

Karakteristik MateriKarakteristik Materi

� Imagery: mudah tidaknya subjek membuat gambaran mental tentang materi belajar di dalam dirinya.

� Ketergantungan rangkaian: didasarkan atas � Ketergantungan rangkaian: didasarkan atas pengetahuan bahwa fonim, huruf dan kata tergantung pada rangkaiannya.

� Asosiasi simetri: pasangan R-S (respon-stimulus) dipelajari sama kuat dengan pasangan S-R.

PRINSIPPRINSIP--PRINSIP PENGUATAN PRINSIP PENGUATAN DAN HUKUMANDAN HUKUMAN

Sebagian besar aspek psikologi belajar mempelajari penguatan-penguatan yang berfungsi meningkatkan atau memelihara

kekuatan suatu respon.

TipeTipe--tipe Penguatantipe Penguatan1. Penguatan Positif dan Negatif1. Penguatan Positif dan Negatif

Konsekuensi yang mengikuti respon

Penguatan

Positif NegatifPenguatan hukuman hukuman

Diberikan dihilangkan ditunda atauDiberikan dihilangkan ditunda atau

(escape) dihindari

(avoidance)

Pengaruh dari konsekuensi

Respon diperkuat

Bila latihan dihentikan Terjadi pemadaman respon yang memperoleh penguat (pemulihan spontan mungkin terjadi)

2. Penguatan primer vs sekunder

Penguatan primer adalah stimulus yang dapat meningkatkan atau memelihara kekuatan respon organisme secara otomatis. Penguatan sekunder adalah stimulus yang dapat meningkatkan atau memelihara kekuatan respon organisme bila organisme telah mempelajarinya.

3. Penguatan di Pengkondisian Klasikal, Instrumental dan Modeling3. Penguatan di Pengkondisian Klasikal, Instrumental dan Modeling

UCS (unconditioned stimulus) sebgai penguatan di pengkondisian klasikal. Stimulus yang menyertai respon organisme sebagai penguatan di pengkondisian instrumental dan modeling

4. Prinsip Premack

Beberapa keadaan performan dari perilkau yang tidak diharapkan

akan dikuatkan oleh perilaku yang diharapkan

Penguatan SekunderPenguatan Sekunder

Penguatan yang dipelajari, yang berfungsi sebagai sumber informasi dalam periode sebagai sumber informasi dalam periode

waktu antara membuat respon dan identifikasi informasi beberapa penguatan

yang lain yang terdapat didalam jalur penguatan sekunder.

Penilaian PenguatanPenilaian Penguatan

Tiga teknik untuk menilai apakah stimulus sebagai penguatan atau bukan penguatan:

1. Apakah stimulus dapat meningkatkan atau memelihara respon?

2. Apakah stimulus dapat memperpanjang tidak terjadinya pemadaman?

3. Apakah stimulus dapat sebagai penguat untuk beberapa respon lainnya?

Apabila stimulus dapat memenuhi teknik no 3 maka dapat dikategorikan sebagai penguatan yang cukup kuat.

Penundaan PenguatanPenundaan Penguatan

Terjadi bila respon tidak langsung diikuti dengan pemberian penguatan, dan dengan pemberian penguatan, dan

cenderung memunculkan penurunan performan organisma.

Sifat PenguatanSifat Penguatan

Efektifitas stimulus yang berfungsi sebagai penguatan tergantung pada:

1. Kualitas penguatan2. Kuantitas penguatan

Jumlah usaha organisme untuk memperoleh 3. Jumlah usaha organisme untuk memperoleh penguatan

� Penguatan Kontras: digunakan dalam percobaan untuk mengetahui pengaruh perubahan kuantitas atau tingkatan penguatan

� Penguatan Primer dan Sekunder

Penjadwalan PenguatanPenjadwalan Penguatan

� Penjadwalan sederhana: fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval.interval, variable ratio, variable interval.

� Penjadwalan lanjutan: penjadwalan jamak, penjadwalan gabungan, dan penjadwalan konkuren

Pertimbangan Lain dari Penjadwalan PenguatanPertimbangan Lain dari Penjadwalan Penguatan� Autoshaping, adalah pembentukan sendiri yang merupakan pemberian penguatan pada saat stimulus khusus muncul pada organisma.

� Automaintenance, adalah pemeliharaan sendiri yang akan terjadi bila organisma membuat yang akan terjadi bila organisma membuat respon terus-menerus yang seolah-olah organisme nampak mencegah penguatan yang diberikan kepadanya.

TeoriTeori--teori Penguatanteori Penguatan

� Drive-Reduction Theory

Optimum Arousal Theory� Optimum Arousal Theory

� Stimulus Change Theory

Punishment (Hukuman)Punishment (Hukuman)Stimulus yang bilamana ditampilkan akan melemahkan kekuatan respon atau menurunkan frekuensi munculnya respon.

� Hukuman Positif� Hukuman Positif

� Hukuman Negatif

� Hukuman Negatif vs Pemadaman

Perbandingan prosedur HukumanPerbandingan prosedur Hukuman

Konsekuensi yang mengikuti respon

Hukuman

Positif Negatifhukuman penguat penguat

Diberikan dihilangkan ditunda

Pengaruh dari konsekuensi

Melemahnya respon

Bila latihan dihentikan

Terjadi munculnya kembali respon yang memperoleh hukuman (kecuali bila diberikan tekanan)































Reinforcment


Interval

Fixed

Intermitt

ed

reinforcm

ent

Ratio

Variabel

Fixed

Variabel











MPMP

� Prinsip belajar




� Modelling































Reinforcment


Interval

Fixed

Intermitt

ed

reinforcm

ent

Ratio

Variabel

Fixed

Variabel











MPMP

� Prinsip belajar




� Modelling

PUNISHMENTPUNISHMENT

� POSITIVE PUNISHMENT – PAINFUL STIMULUS

� NEGATIF PUNISHMENT – MENGHILANGKAN PEMERKUAT TKLK (yang disenangi anak dan tidak berkaitan langsung dengan tingkah lakunya), tidak berkaitan langsung dengan tingkah lakunya), misal : dlm kasus anak yg suka melawan orang tua � mengurangi uang jajan, tdk boleh nonton TV, setiap kali anak memukuladiknya.

Documents

04. Modifikasi Perilaku [Compatibility Mode]