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Copyright © 2019 IDONIAL Technology Center

CASE STUDIES ON KETs MARINE APPLICATIONS

CASE 3

MARINE INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY


Index1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................3

2 CONTEXT OF THIS DOCUMENT..............................................................................................3

3 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................4

4 INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY KET OVERVIEW..................................................................4

4.1 Industrial Biotechnology Main Applications.........................................................................7

5 EU Strategy on Industrial Biotechnology and Marine Biotechnology..........................................9

6 Industrial Biotechnology KET Marine Applications...................................................................15

7 MARINE BIO-BASED INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY SELECTED APPLICATIONS.........16

7.1 Marine-derived Enzymes...................................................................................................16

7.2 Marine Bio-Based Polymers..............................................................................................19

7.3 Marine-Based Biofuels.......................................................................................................26

8 LOOKING TO PATENTS TO MEASURE MARINE INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY RELEVANCE...................................................................................................................................33

9 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................41

10 ANNEX: Representative Marine Industrial Biotechnology Patents.......................................42

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1 INTRODUCTION

As a general concept, biotechnology covers the different applications that can be developed from biological systems and organisms, being a concept of great interest in the marine field, cradle of life and abundant in biological resources. In this sense, the evolution towards an "industrial biotechnology" concept only emphasizes the applicability of this branch of science, orienting it towards the search for commercial products and solutions, capable of generating a market around them. It is the intention of this document to summarize and show the applications of this field of technology, with a marked focus towards its exploitability in the marine field.

2 CONTEXT OF THIS DOCUMENT

The present document constitutes a deliverable in the framework of the KETmaritime project “Transfer of Key Enabling Technologies (KETs) to the Maritime Industries”. This document is the result of the activities performed within the Action number 3 “Scientifical and Technical Analysis: State of the Art and technology trends revision”, within the framework of WorkPackage 5 (WP5), titled “Mapping of R&D ecosystem”. Action number 3 is intended to generate five case studies related to a KET – sector/subsector combination. For each case, a technology study is performed by searching information in existing reports, scientific publications and patent databases in order to determine current state of technologies, stakeholders, technology trends, etc. The five case studies selected are shown in the next table:

Table 1: KETmaritime case studies – Scientific and Technical analysis (WP5, Action 3)

ID KET Title

1 Advanced Manufacturing Advanced Manufacturing Shipbuilding Applications

2 Nanotechnology Nanotechnology Marine Applications

3 Industrial Biotechnology Marine Industrial Biotechnology

4 Photonics Photonics Marine Applications

5 Micro and Nanoelectronics Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) Marine Applications

This document is related to Case Study 3 – Marine Industrial Biotechnology.

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3 METHODOLOGY

This document will address the previously presented subject through the following sections:

- Industrial Biotechnology Key Enabling Technology overview : brief description of the main involved technologies and basic principles, also providing information about general applications. An overview of European Strategies for R&D related to this KET is as well provided.

- Industrial Biotechnology Marine applications : a state of the art addressing applications of this KET in the shipbuilding activity.

- Brief study of patents in the field of the application of Industrial Biotechnology.

- Final conclusions : summary and highlights of the document.

4 INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY KET OVERVIEW

The European Commission defines the KET Industrial Biotechnology (also known as “white biotechnology”) as the application of biotechnology for the industrial processing and production of chemicals, materials and fuels1. The definition includes the practice of using microorganisms and enzymes to generate new products or to improve the sustainability of manufacturing processes.

Industrial (White) Biotechnology can be therefore considered as one of the four technology areas in which Biotechnology can be divided:

- White Biotechnology (Industrial): as mentioned, mainly related to the use of enzymes and microorganisms to improve the sustainability of industrial processes or to generate valuable products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles, bioenergy, etc.

- Red Biotechnology (Biopharmaceutical): mainly employed by the Health Industry to develop new products (drugs, vaccines or antibiotics), techniques and therapies.

- Green Biotechnology (Agriculture): biotechnology applications directly related to the agriculture field. For example, generation of new plant varieties, production of biofertilizers and pesticides, etc.

- Blue Biotechnology (Marine): exploration and exploitation of marine resources to develop industrial products and processes.

1 “Horizon 2020: Key Enabling Technologies (KETs), Booster for European Leadership in the Manufacturing Sector”

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Figure 1: Branches of Biotechnology (own creation)

Although the applications and objectives of these biotechnology areas are differentiated, they have similar scientific and technological basis2 and, therefore, they should take advantage of the research and developments results achieved in each other.

Industrial Biotechnology applications can be related to multiple areas of activity looking for the replacement of polluting technologies by cleaner ones, increasing at the same time process efficiency:

- Bio-feedstocks: replacement of oil and gas by biomass.

- Bio-processes: replacement of chemical synthesis by fermentation or biocatalysis, using microorganisms and enzymes.

- Bio-products: products with improved characteristics such as bio-based polymers, nutrition/health ingredients, etc.

According to market studies, there is expected a growth of the Industrial Biotechnology market in the next years mainly due to its increasing penetration in sectors such as Bioenergy, Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Food and Feed additives, Personal Care and Household Products3. However, Industrial Biotechnology currently faces some technology barriers that should be addressed in order to achieve an effective industrial market implementation4:

- Feedstock Supply: biomass supplies are limited due to current limitations in the collection, storage and transportation. Additionally, and especially for biomass supplies based on cereals, the seasonality of its production implies variations in price, availability and quality. On the other hand, there is a competition between the food and feed uses of these cereals

2 “KET Industrial Biotechnology – Working Group Report”. June 2011

3 “White Biotechnology Market Analysis. Forecasts to 2024”. Grand View Research

4 “A roadmap to a thriving industrial biotechnology sector in Europe”. 2015

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and their uses as a source of biomass. In this sense, bio-wastes may be an alternative, but their use is currently limited due to feedstock quality variations. Therefore, there is a need (and there are great opportunities) to study the use of new sources of biomass such as micro- and macro-algae.

- Production efficiency. The biological conversion of substances into new products (bioconversion) can be made through fermentation (using microorganisms) or through biocatalysis (using enzymes). Both processes have currently limitations related to yields and productivities. The improvement in production efficiency can be achieved through the development of more robust microorganisms and enzymes (with improved tolerance to process conditions) and/or the bioprocesses.

In more detail, the increase in production efficiency is related to the following major areas of research and development5:

- Novel enzymes and micro-organisms . The search for microorganisms and enzymes in environments with extreme conditions (for example, high temperature and pressure) is expected to be a good opportunity. Specifically in the area of biomass conversion and biofuels production, there are research and development challenges related with:

o Studying the physiology of microorganisms under extreme conditions: pH, temperature, etc.

o Robust fermentation strains of microorganisms, resistant to toxic/inhibitory compounds.

o Mixtures of enzymes and microorganisms specially designed for the conversion of waste into fermentable substrates.

- Microbial genomics and bio-informatics . Genome mapping could accelerate the identification of desirable metabolic pathways and their adaptation into manufacturing processes.

- Metabolic engineering and modelling . DNA technology can help to improve the understanding of molecular aspects and microorganism metabolism under industrial conditions.

- Fermentation science and engineering . Development of novel bioreactors and fermenters, advanced control strategies, simulation tools, etc.

- Biocatalyst function and optimisation . Development of enzymes better suited to industrial environments and synthesis of new biocatalysts for completely novel applications.

5 “Industrial or White Biotechnology - Research for Europe”, EuropaBio, 2011.

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- Biocatalytic process design . Integration of biocatalysts into industrial processes,

development of improved bioreactors, use of cascades of enzymes, etc.

- Innovative downstream processing . The cost of downstream operations can involve up to 70% of the total costs of a biotechnological process. Therefore, the improvement in downstream processes will have a high impact on the whole process.

This document focuses on the relationships between Industrial and Marine Biotechnology. In order to understand how both technology areas can benefit from each other, below are summarized the main applications considered within the scope of Industrial or White Biotechnology.

4.1 Industrial Biotechnology Main ApplicationsThe main applications of Industrial Biotechnology are related to the production of bio-products (or bio-based products), that is to say, materials, chemicals and energy derived from biological or renewable resources. Bio-based products may be replicas of existing petrochemicals, they may differ from them in terms of performance or functionality, or they may be absolutely new, innovative products. The main products of Industrial Biotechnology are6:

- Bio-fuels. Biofuels are fuels obtained from the conversion of biomass: bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, etc. The European Union has ambitious targets to increase bio-fuel substitution of fossil fuels to 20% by 2020. The highest production volume biofuel is currently bioethanol, which is mainly produced from food feedstocks (starch from corn, sugar cane and wheat) or waste materials (cellulosic material, for example).

- Bio-based plastics. Bioplastics (or bio-based plastics) are polymeric materials derived from biomass. Bio-based plastics can be replicas of their fossil counterparts (drop-in) or completely novel products adding improved features such as biodegradability7. Bio-based polymers are one of the main milestones on the Industrial Biotechnology’s Agenda. In the past, the efforts have concentrated on bioplastics such as polyesters of 3-hydroxyacids (PHAs) and polylactic acid (PLA)8. The main barrier to commercialization is the highest production costs of those bioplastics when comparing with their fossil-based counterparts.

- Bio-based chemicals (bulk chemicals, fine chemicals, building blocks). Bio-chemicals (or bio-based chemicals) are chemicals produced from bio-based raw materials. Certain high-value chemicals (aminoacids, lipids, organic acids, vitamins, etc.) require chemical production processes that are often complex and inefficient. Bioprocesses using enzymes and/or microorganisms could be a more efficient and sustainable alternative for the production of those chemicals. In this sense, one of the industries where the highest growth

6 “Industrial or White Biotechnology - Research for Europe”

7 “A roadmap to a thriving industrial biotechnology sector in Europe”. 2015

8 “KET – Industrial Biotechnology. Working Group Report”. 2011

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is expected is fine chemistry, in which, for example, the use of chiral active enzymes can improve the production of some pharmaceutical ingredients.

In brief, there are multiple materials and processes that are currently carried out by fossil means and that could be totally or partially produced in the future by bio-based means.

Bio-based products can be produced in single-product processing routes. However, an alternative that is considered more sustainable and economically viable is the concept of “Biorefinery”, an approach similar to that of conventional fossil refineries but based on biomass feedstock for the production of multiple products and by-products. A Biorefinery can be defined as the sustainable processing of different kinds of biomass feedstocks into a range of marketable biobased co-products: fuels, chemicals, power and other materials9.

Biorefineries involve a high number of products, sub-products, processes and sub-processes. A first general classification of the processes can be made regarding the primary and secondary conversion10:

- Primary conversion - refining of biomass into its main valuable components. This stage involves feedstock preparation, fractionation and separation processes, and isolation of components.

- Secondary conversion – valorisation of intermediates and products. This stage comprises biotechnology, chemical and physical processes to convert and valorise intermediates into value-added products.

Specifically speaking about the concept of biorefinery applied to the marine environment, the most studied and developed value chain is derived from microalgae biomass. Using appropriate technologies, primary components of algal biomass (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, etc.) can be transformed (through chemical, enzymatic, or microbial conversion) into different products11.

9 “Biorefining in a Future Bioeconomy”, IEA bioenergy, Task42 Brochure

10 “The Bio-based Industries Vision: Accelerating innovation and market uptake of bio-based products”, Bio-based Industries Consortium, 2012.

11 “National Algal Biofuels Technoloy review”. U.S. Department of Energy. 2016

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Figure 2: Algae biomass biorefinery concept12

5 EU Strategy on Industrial Biotechnology and Marine Biotechnology

As mentioned, White (Industrial) and Blue (Marine) Biotechnology are closely related. The main link between them can be found in the exploitation of sea resources to improve industrial processes or to generate valuable products in sectors such as bioenergy, chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles, etc. For example, in line with the needs previously mentioned related to the search for enzymes and microorganisms able to withstand extreme conditions, the biodiversity and conditions of the marine environment (high temperatures and pressures) may allow the development of new bioprocesses and bioproducts with a high impact on various industries13.

Marine resources can be the source of a variety of industrial products such as drugs, biofuels, biopolymers, food, enzymes, etc. The use of marine biomass for the production of those products could help to increase process sustainability and to reduce greenhouse gases emissions. Furthermore, some of the bio-products generated form marine biomass can have special properties regarding biodegradability (biodegradable bioplastics, for example) and, therefore, they can specially contribute towards a Circular Economy.

In order to understand the main links between Industrial and Marine Biotechnology, the research and development agendas of the main European bodies related to both technology fields were studied. Regarding Marine Biotechnology, it was analysed the “Marine Biotechnology Strategic Research and Innovation Roadmap” 14 of the Marine Biotech ERA-NET, a consortium of national funding bodies working in this area. The roadmap identifies three technology areas relevant in order to meet European Societal Challenges:

- Exploration of the Marine Biodiversity. The chemical and biological diversity of the marine environment can be a source of novel materials and food. The roadmap identifies opportunities for targeting new microorganisms, the discovery of new marine species or exploiting the potential of genetic resources.

- Biomass Production and Processing. The marine environment can be a relevant source of biomass, either wild or cultured. For example: whole fish, discards, aquaculture products, macro- and micro-algae, marine invertebrates, marine micro-organisms, etc. The roadmap identifies the following key elements:

o Sustainable use of wild species.

o Sustainable culture of marine organisms: near-shore aquaculture of fish and algae, cultured micro-algae, off-shore and land-based aquaculture.

12 “National Algal Biofuels Technology Review”. United States Department of Energy. 2016

13 https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/biotechnology_en

14 “Marine biotechnology strategic research and innovation roadmap: Insights to the future direction of European marine biotechnology”. Marine Biotechnology ERA-NET. Hurst, D.; Børresen, T.; Almesjö, L.; De Raedemaecker, F.; Bergseth, S. 2016.

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https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/biotechnology_en


o Transformation/refining of marine biomass.

- Product Innovation and Differentiation. Marine origin compounds can be a source for new or differentiated industrial products. The key actions identified in the roadmap are:

o Human and animal health products: nutritional supplements, functional foods, biocompatible materials, cosmetics and cosmeceuticals, etc.

o Food and Feed Products: marine bio-resources for food, techno-functional ingredients, new species for food, etc.

o New Industrial Products and Processes: food safety and quality, fine chemicals/enzymes/biomaterials, synthetic biology/biosynthesis.

o Environmental measures: biological indicators and sensors, bioremediation and ocean health.

Short- and long-term actions with potential greatest impact according to “Marine Biotechnology Strategic Research and Innovation Roadmap”, Marine Biotech ERA-NET

As can be seen, there could be multiple relations between the strategic research needs identified for further implementation of Marine Biotechnology and Industrial Biotechnology technology fields. In order to have a greater understanding of the state of the art in both fields, this study analyses the priorities of the Strategic and Innovation Research Agendas and Roadmaps of some European entities relevant for the Industrial Biotechnology KET:

- Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking (BBI). Public-Private Partnership between the European Community and the Bio-Based Industries Consortium.

- European Technology Platform for Sustainable Chemistry (SusChem). European Technology Platform launched by the European Commission to revitalise and inspire

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European chemistry and industrial biotechnology research, development and innovation in a sustainable way.

- European Technology and Innovation Platform Bioenergy. European Technology Platform launched by the European Commission combining the efforts of the European Biofuels Technology Platform and the European Industrial Initiative Bioenergy (EIBI). The mission of the Platform is contributing to the development of cost-competitive and innovative bioenergy and biofuels value chains.

- The European Association for Bioindustries EuropaBio. EuropaBio represents 78 corporate and associate members and bio-regions, and 15 national biotechnology associations representing over 1800 biotech SMEs.

The main research priorities determined by the strategic agendas of these organizations are summarized below. For the purposes of the contents of this report, special attention has been given to those research priorities where Marine Biotechnology is considered to have the greatest impact.

Strategic Innovation & Research Agenda (SIRA) - Bio-Based Industries Consortium BBI15

According to the BBI, the European bioeconomy has an annual turnover of €2.1 trillion, and bio-based industries (chemical, plastic, pharmaceutical, paper, forest-based industries, textile, biofuels, etc.) count for €600 billion of this total. Industrial Biotechnology is an important pillar of the bio-based industries. However, in order to deploy their full potential, bio-based industries must increase their sustainability and efficiency through the three main Strategic Orientations described in the SIRA: Supply of sustainable biomass feedstock; Innovative Processing; and Innovative bio-based products for specific applications.

Below are described the main interactions found between those strategic orientations and the Marine Sector.

- Supply of sustainable biomass feedstock. The increase in process sustainability could be achieved combining the use of feedstocks from different sources (marine, agriculture, forestry, etc.). In this sense, the main sources of aquatic feedstocks that could be considered are micro- and macro-algae, shellfish (relevant source of chitin, chitosan and calcium carbonate), fish discards, etc.

- Innovative processing. It is necessary to increase the efficiency and sustainability of the processes involved in the treatment of different kinds of biomass, and to adapt these processes to the generation of multiple products within the concept of biorefinery.

- Innovative bio-based products for specific applications: development of new and improved products for specific applications. For example, micro- and macro-algae can be

15 “Strategic innovation & Research Agenda – Biobased Industries Consortium”. 2017

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used as feedstock to extract natural biomolecules (pigments, lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, etc.) that can be applied for the production of new cosmetic products, pharmaceuticals, polymers, food and feed ingredients, etc.

In order to achieve those strategic orientations, there is a need for further research and development actions. The following activities are identified in the SIRA in order to promote the utilisation of aquatic feedstock for industrial added-value applications:

1. Fostering a sustainable biomass supply to feed existing and new value chains:

o Increase the efficiency of cultivation systems and reduce feedstock production costs.

o Development of pre-transformation technologies that can be applied in the harvesting and/or storage stages to facilitate transportation and/or storage operations.

o Development of integrated logistics chains that can help to develop value chains.

2. Optimising efficient processing through R&D and pilot biorefineries:

o Efficient and cost-effective fractionation and separation technologies.

o Increase process sustainability by minimising residues.

o Cost-efficient preparation of harvested material.

o Development of novel bioreactors for processing aquatic biomass (mainly micro- and macro-algae).

3. Developing innovative products and speeding up market uptake of bio-based products: development of bio-based alternatives for existing polymers, novel bio-based polymers, new chemical building blocks, etc.

Strategic Research & Innovation Agenda - European Technology Platform for Sustainable Chemistry SUSCHEM16

The Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda of the European Technology Platform for Sustainable Chemistry SUSCHEM details how each KET should impact in each of the research and development topics identified for the period 2018-2020. The priority most related with Industrial Biotechnology KET is “A Sustainable and Inclusive Bioeconomy”. The Agenda considers essential to explore the potential of a sustainable biomass supply, considering innovative sources such as second generation biomass and waste streams. Within this priority, the main concept of interest included in the Agenda is related to “increase the sustainability and competitiveness of the Biobased Industries” through the following research and development challenges and activities related with the Marine environment:

- Biobased feedstocks. The main barrier for biobased products can be found in the supply of sufficient amounts of feedstock that are competitive in price and do not compete with

16 “SusChem Strategic Innovation and Research Agenda”, 2017

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food or feed applications. To overcome this barrier, the Agenda proposes using alternative feedstocks such as municipal waste, recycled feedstock or algae. In this sense, one of the Research and Innovation Actions proposed by the Agenda is related with increasing the use of micro- and macro-algae through the increase in profitability and sustainability of cultivation, harvesting and drying of algal biomass.

- Industrial biotech processes. The biological conversion processes can be limited by the characteristics of the microorganisms involved in the process: some strains can only convert relatively pure raw materials, other strains can be inhibited by the presence of certain by-products, etc. Therefore, research and development actions are needed in order to found/develop microorganisms resistant to high-extreme conditions or more active and robust enzymes that improve bio-catalysis. The marine environment could be a source of these kind of components.

- Conversion of CO2 by bioprocesses. CO2 can be used as a raw material by bioprocesses such as microalgae technologies. Research and development efforts are needed in order to increase production yields and reduce energy consumption.

- Bio-based products and materials. As previously mentioned, there is a huge potential to develop new bio-based products with equal or improved properties regarding its fossil-based counterparts. In this case, there is a need to reduce process costs, since most current bio-based products are more expensive than their fossil equivalents.

Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda - European Technology and Innovation Platform BioenergyThe Bioenergy Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) focuses on Biofuels and, specifically, on 3rd Generation Biofuels also known as Advanced Biofuels. In this sense, while it is true that many European directives are currently focused on reducing fossil fuels for transportation thanks to the development of the electric vehicle, air transport must be based on other kind of strategies that allow the development of new, less polluting liquid fuels. Therefore, advanced drop-in biofuels are required in order to reduce aviation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; in fact, the aviation industry is particularly interested in algal biodiesel, due to its superior cold-temperature performance, energy density and storage stability17.

Algal biofuels hare aroused a great interest in recent years as, in addition to achieving fuels with good properties, they are generated from a feedstock that does not compete directly with other applications of food use as it can occur in fuels generated from cereals. Algal biofuels may be mainly produced from micro- and macro-algae (seaweeds). A number of projects and pilot plants are currently working in the development of production technologies for selected types of algae.

The key aspects identified in the SRIA-2016 related with the marine environment are:

- Sustainability, biomass availability and supply. Aquatic biomass has the potential to provide a new range of "third generation" biofuels (including jet fuels). Properties such as

17 “A review of the potential of marine algae as a source of biofuel in Ireland”, Sustainable Energy Ireland, 2009.

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their high oil and biomass yield, widespread availability, high quality and versatility of the by-products, use for CO2 capture, etc., make aquatic biomass one of the most promising renewable sources for a sustainable bioeconomy18. The main challenges identified in the SRIA are related with increasing the sustainability and economics of feedstock production.

- Conversion processes: the key priorities for commercial biofuel technologies are related to improve environmental (energy balance, water consumption, etc.) and economic performance, and to bring flexibility as integrated biorefineries. Research priorities must be focused in process development in specific value chains, increasing technology readiness levels.

Figure 3: Biofuels deployment according to the ETIP Bioenergy SRIA 2016

6 INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY KET MARINE APPLICATIONS

Following the analysis of the Strategic Research Agendas, some key applications were identified in which the development trends of the Industrial Biotechnology KET and marine biotechnology would have a high level of joint development. Those applications are listed below and explained with more detail in the following sections of this document.

- Novel enzymes and micro-organisms. The development of novel bioprocesses demand for new enzymes and micro-organisms with better performance, able to develop in extreme environments (for example, high temperature and pressure). The marine environment could be an excellent source of this kind of enzymes and micro-organisms, adapted to live in highly extreme conditions.

18 http://www.etipbioenergy.eu/value-chains/feedstocks/algae-and-aquatic-biomass

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http://www.etipbioenergy.eu/value-chains/feedstocks/algae-and-aquatic-biomass


- Marine Biomaterials and Biopolymers. The marine environment is the source of a variety

of components such as proteins and peptides (collagen, gelatine, etc.), polysaccharides (alginate, carragenaan, agar, chitin, chitosan, etc.), fatty acids (omega-3, DHA, EPA), vitamins and minerals, etc. The main sources of marine biomaterials are marine algae, marine invertebrates, sponges, molluscs, echinoderms and crustaceans.

- Bioenergy. Biofuels derived from marine algae are a potential source of sustainable energy that can contribute to future global demands. Marine algae (macro- and micro-algae) are the most relevant source of bioenergy in the marine environment. Marine biofuels production is highly linked to the concept of Biorefinery.

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7 MARINE BIO-BASED INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY SELECTED APPLICATIONS

7.1 Marine-derived EnzymesEnzymes are natural catalysts that can be used to improve chemical reactions. Enzymes can be isolated and purified from a wide range of microorganisms, animals and plants, being microorganisms the major source of industrial-relevant enzymes. The increasing use of enzymes in industrial processes demands for novel enzymes with improved properties (resistance to high pressure and/or low temperature, for example).

Figure 4: Enzymes are bio-catalyst that favours reactions through alternative pathways. Image19 under public domain by CC0 Creative Commons Licence.

The marine environment is, by nature, absolutely different from the terrestrial one (high salinity, high pressure, low temperature, special lighting conditions, etc.) and industrial processes can benefit for the use of marine organisms adapted to live in those extreme conditions (extremophiles). In this sense, there are some research works related with the isolation of extremophiles from marine environments20: enzymes acting on carbohydrates, enzymes with proteolytic and lipolytic activities and different alcohol dehydrogenases are some examples. Wastes from fishery and seafood related industries are potential sources for those new enzymes.

Enzymes derived from marine organisms can show significant differences with respect to their terrestrial counterparts, with characteristics such as tolerance in high saline concentrations, high pressure, either high thermal or cold adaptivity, etc21. Furthermore, some marine-derived enzymes can show chemical or stereochemical properties, like substrate specificity and enantioselectivity,

19 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Catalysis-_Reaction_progress.png

20 “Marine Biocatalysts: Enzymatic Features and Applications”. A. Trincone. Mar. Drugs 2011, 9, 478-499; doi:10.3390/md9040478

21 “Marine-Derived Biocatalysts: Importance, Accessing and Application in Aromatic Pollutant Bioremediation”, Efstratios Nikolaivits, Maria Dimarogona, Nikolas Fokialakis and Evangelos Topakas, Frontiers in Microbiology, 2017.

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Catalysis-_Reaction_progress.png


which can be exploited in organic synthesis processes. Below are shown some examples of application of marine-derived enzymes according to their specific properties19:

- Salt and pH tolerance (halophilic). The synthesis and production of biopolymers (polyhydroxyalkanoates PHAs for example) by halophiles is one of the current biotechnological topics related to these organisms. Additionally, the microbial production of ethanol from carbohydrates (biofuels) is mainly dependent on the process of saccharification requiring enzymes to hydrolyze carbohydrates before fermentation. Another possible application of this kind of enzymes is the environmental remediation domain: environmental pollution can occur in saline conditions and, therefore, halophilic enzymes can significantly improve these processes.

- Hyperthermostability (thermophiles). The development of industrial processes at high temperatures can show relevant advantages related to the increase of substrate solubility, the reduction of viscosity, the increase of the reaction rates, etc. however, most enzymes defrade with high temperatures. Therefore, the use of enzymes of marine origin that are resistant to high temperatures could imply relevant improvements in those processes.

- Cold adaptivity (psychrophiles). Enzymes acting at low temperature have also a great potential for biotechnological processes. For example, their use could reduce heating steps, helping to reduce energy consumption and to increase the thermal protection of reactants and products.

- Chemical and stereochemical properties. Some marine origin enzymes have chiral properties related to substrate specificity and affinity. As mention, those properties can be used to improve the selectivity of some organic reactions.

According to those properties, the most relevant fields of application are22:

- Biorefineries: the use of extremophiles and thermostable enzymes can help to overcome some biocatalysts limitations in current lignocellulosic biomass conversion (cellulases, pectinases, proteases, amylases, etc.). Additionally, high resistant lipases could improve the conversion of feedstock oils into biodiesel.

- Food industry: the marine environment has been seen for years as a promising source of catalysts for food applications. The key point nowadays relates with the recovery and processing of food wastes to convert them into valuable by-products.

- Extraction/modification of complex marine molecules: enzymatic treatments could be applied to improve the extraction efficiency of bioactive compounds from marine sources.

- Marine biomarkers and derived applications (bioremediation) in pollution monitoring. Bioremediation technologies are based on the use of natural organisms that metabolically transform toxic products into less dangerous substances. The stereochemical properties

22 “Enzymatic Processes in Marine Biotechnology”. A. Trincone. Marine Drugs. 2017

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can significantly affect these processes and, therefore, marine enzymes can have application.

7.1.1 Marine-derived enzyme production industryThere are some research and development actions running nowadays in order to look for new and improved marine-source enzymes. For example, INMARE Project (Industrial Applications of Marine Enzymes: Innovative screening and expression platforms to discover and use the functional protein diversity from the sea) is a collaborative Innovation Action founded by the European Commission under Horizon 2020 Programme in order to streamline the pathways of discovery and industrial applications of new marine enzymes and bioactives for targeted production of fine chemicals, drugs and in environmental clean-up applications.

Below are shown some examples of commercially-available enzymes obtained from marine sources:

- ArticZymes - Biotec Pharmacon (Norway)23. The company develops and markets recombinant enzymes derived from cold-water marine species: Uracil-DNA Glycosylase (Cod UNG) from Atlantic cod, salt active nucleases, shrimp alkaline phosphatases, etc.

- BASF (Germany)24. Fuelzyme® alpha-amylase is one of the enzymes currently commercialise by the company. Fuelzyme® is a marine-source enzyme that can be used for starch liquefaction in the production of biofuels (ethanol).

- Novozymes (Denmark). The company manufactures a wide range of enzymes (mostly from bacteria and fungi) for multiple industrial applications. The company has searched for cold-activity enzymes in the artic regions and is a partner of the above mentioned INMARE Project.

- Zymetech (Iceland)25. The company is specialized in research, purification and utilization of cold adopted enzymes from deep sea cod fish.

7.1.2 Marine enzymes current challengesThe exploration of the marine environment in the search for novel materials and organisms is one of the key challenges stablished in the Marine Biotechnology Strategic Research Roadmap. Seas and oceans offer great possibilities for discovering but there are technical challenges related with the difficulties and costs of accessing to areas outside coastal zones, or the costs of deep-water exploration26. Marine Biotech roadmap identifies the following challenges:

23 https://biotec.no/about-us/arcticzymes/

24 https://www.basf.com/en/products-and-industries/cross-industry-solutions/enzymes/markets/grain-processing.html

25 https://zymetech.com/about-us/

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https://zymetech.com/about-us/

https://www.basf.com/en/products-and-industries/cross-industry-solutions/enzymes/markets/grain-processing.html

https://biotec.no/about-us/arcticzymes/


- Access marine habitats. Technological developments must help in this task: remotely

operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous under-water vehicles (AUVs), remote systems for in-situ analysis, etc.

- Target sources of marine organisms: in addition to the difficulties of exploring seas and oceans, more than 99% of identified organisms cannot be cultured in the laboratory. In this sense, genomic technologies can provide information about the uncultured microbial world and facilitate the discovery of novel enzymes.

- Identify marine species and characterise materials: traditional and novel taxonomic approaches, molecular based methods or chemical and biochemical analysis; creation of repositories or biobanks for marine materials.

7.2 Marine Bio-Based PolymersThe term Bio-based Polymers refers to polymers that are totally or partially derived from biomass. Bio-based polymers can be produced from different kinds of biomass feedstock27:

- First generation : biomass obtained from traditional agricultural crops that can also be used as food or animal feed (e.g. sugar cane, corn, and wheat).

- Second generation : biomass from plants that are not suitable for food or animal feed production. They can be either non-food crops (e.g. cellulose) or waste materials from 1st-generation feedstock.

- Third generation : biomass derived from organisms like algae or non-agricultural wastes.

Figure 5: Conceptual recreation of a polymeric chain. Image28 public by zeeshan0908leizel under Pixabay Licence

26 “Marine biotechnology strategic research and innovation roadmap: Insights to the future direction of European marine biotechnology”. Marine Biotechnology ERA-NET. Hurst, D.; Børresen, T.; Almesjö, L.; De Raedemaecker, F.; Bergseth, S. 2016.

27 “The new plastics economy. Rethinking the future of plastics”. Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2016

19


Agricultural sources (first generation biomass) are being currently used as feedstocks for bioplastics manufacturing. However, this use increase market price and heavily impact the feed market. In contrast, 3rd generation aquatic biomass does not compete with food production, offering in addition a greater productivity than land plants.

The bio-based nature of polymers does not imply that they were biodegradable, a property directly related to their chemical structure. However, some of the most important bio-based polymers are also biodegradable, what makes them even more sustainable in the whole life cycle. In brief, three main groups can be distinguished within the biopolymers concept:

- Bio-based biodegradable : the most relevant are Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and Polylactic acid (PLA). Up to now, they have been used for applications such as packaging, but new monomers could increase the range of industrial applications.

- Bio-based non-biodegradable : this group includes polyamides (PA), Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), etc., that can be derived from biological sources but are not biodegradable.

- Fuel-based biodegradable : they are produced from petroleum resources but could be degraded by enzymes and microorganisms in natural environments. For example, polyethylene succinate (PES) or polybutylene succinate (PBS).

According to the method of production, there are three principal ways to produce bio-based polymers using renewable resources:

1. Natural bio-based polymers modified to meet final product requirements: chitin, starch, cellulose, collagen, alginates, agar, carrageenan, etc.

2. Production of bio-based monomers by fermentation/conventional chemistry followed by polymerization: polylactic acid, polybuthilene succinate, polyethylene, etc.

3. Production of bio-based polymers directly by microorganisms: polyhydroxyalcanoates mainly produced by bacteria and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria).

Due to their special interest for the marine sector, this report will focus on the bio-based biodegradable biopolymers and in some natural-occuring polymers. Appart from the potential use of marine biomass as feedstock to produce these polymers, their biodegradability could contribute to partially reduce the problem of marine litter, considered by the European Comission as one of the main current threats for the environment.

As mentioned, the most important biobased biodegradable biopolymers are PHAs y PLAs.

- Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). More than 150 monomers have been identified as the constituents of PHAs. PHAs can be naturally produced by a variety of organisms (they can be stored as intracellular granules), but they can also be produced by bacterial fermentation using different renewable feedstocks. After fermentation, biomass is separated from the fermentation broth and the synthesised polymer must be extracted from inside the

28 https://pixabay.com/ru/users/zeeshan0908leizel-3075438/

20

https://pixabay.com/ru/users/zeeshan0908leizel-3075438/


cells. The extraction can be made using organic solvents, but other separation technologies can be used in order to increase process sustainability. PHA polymers are thermoplastic and can be transformed by means of injection-moulding to produce films and sheet, fibers, laminates, nonwoven fabrics, adhesives, etc. PHA and its copolymers can also be used as biomedical implant materials.

- Polylactic acid (PLA). PLA production involves the generation of lactic acid (the monomer) and sugars. Lactic acid is fully commercially available and can be produced by two different pathways: anaerobic fermentation of sugars or chemical synthesis. The chemical route generates an optical inactive mixture, while the anaerobic fermentation produces one stereoisomer. Therefore, the most widely used route is bacterial fermentation of sugars, that can be obtained from different kinds of biomass. Once purified, the lactic monomer is subjected to chemical polymerisation in order to be converted in PLA. PLA is also a thermoplastic polymer that can replace traditional polymers such as PET, PS, and PC for packaging applications29.

Despite the opportunities offered by biopolymers, there are currently some technical barriers that must be overtaken in order to achieve an extensive implantation of biopolymers. Those barriers are mainly related with improving efficency and reducing costs. In that sense, research activities are related with increasing the current knowledge about production pathways and searching for new biomass feedstocks coming for different environments such as the marine one.

For example, marine bacteria can be used for the natural production of PHAs, as they can offer some potential advantages. At first, sterilized seawater can be used as a culture medium (eliminating the need for a synthetic medium), leading to savings on fresh water. Additionally, the high seawater salinity inhibits contamination with other bacteria that lack salt-water resistance. On the other hand, there is a potential for production extracellular PHA. In that sense, a few kinds of marine bacteria have been investigated for PHA production30, 31 and there are also some research projects running.

7.2.1 Microalgae industry moving to bioplastics generation

7.2.1.1 Bio-based polymersThe global bioplastics & biopolymers market is projected to reach a market size of USD 5.08 Billion by 202132. Bio-PET and PLA polymers are expected to register the highest CAGRs. In terms of

29 “Current progress on bio-based polymers and their future trends”, Babu et al., Progress in Biomaterials 2013, 2:8

30 “Synthesis of High-Molecular-Weight Polyhydroxyalkanoates by Marine Photosynthetic Purple Bacteria”, Mieko Higuchi-Takeuchi, Kumiko Morisaki, Kiminori Toyooka, and Keiji Numata; PLoS One. 2016; 11(8): e0160981.

31 “Screening of Marine Bacteria to Synthesize Polyhydroxyalkanoate from Lignin: Contribution of Lignin Derivatives to Biosynthesis by Oceanimonas doudoroffii”, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 3, 4, 569-573

32 “Bioplastics & Biopolymers Market – Trends and Forecast to 2021”, Markets and Markets.

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application, packaging is projected to account for the highest market share. Many countries are implementing policies prohibiting or limiting the use of conventional plastics, and encouraging the use of bioplastics. However, in order to achieve the expected growth, the market faces challenges related with decreasing production costs and improving infrastructures33.

Some of the key players of the biopolymers market are BASF (Europe), Arkema (France), Braskem (UK), Biome Technologies (UK), Bio-on (Europe), Novamont (Europe), NatureWorks (United States), Plantic (Australia), DuPont (US), EcoSpan (Canda), Danimer Scientific (US), Corbion (The Netherlands), BIOTEC (Germany). Some of these major players are currently using marine feedstock as a source for biopolymers manufacturing:

- BASF: the company is working with several algae-based collaborators in order to develop new algae-base products and processes. As an example, in collaboration with Solazyme, BASF has developed a surfactant derived for microalgae oil, a high performance algal betaine for use in home and personal care applications. BASF also commercializes marine-based products such as Omega-3 Powders extracted from seafood, oils from fish, krill and algae.

- DuPont: the company is planning to acquire manufacturing plants of carrageenan owned by FMC Health and Nutrition.

- Corbion: the company has an algae-based product portfolio that includes food ingredients, algae oils, animal feed and personal care products.

There are also some companies specifically focused on producing bioplastics from algae. For example, SOLAPLAST®34 is commercialising bioplastics made from algae. Their bioplastic technology blends aquatic feedstocks with commercial polymers to reduce cost and dependence on fossil-fuel and food-based feedstocks. The mother company (ALGIX®) started in 2011 a collaboration with Kimberly-Clark for developing algae-blended thermoplastics for commercial applications. ALGIX® has also developed a filament for 3D Printing processes comprised of biodegradable plastic and algae (ALGIX 3D®).

On another scale, Studio Klarenbeek & Dros with Atelier Luma have recently developed algae based biopolymers that can compete with traditional plastics35. The material can be applied on an industrial scale and processed like traditional plastics, and has proven to be suitable for injection moulding being the main focus of this polymer 3D printing processes. This project is one of the nominees for the “New Material Award 2018”. The companies Algamoil and Teregroup are also

33 “Biopolymers Market - Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends, and Forecast 2017 – 2025”, Transparency Market Research.

34 http://algix.com/sustainability/our-solution/

35 https://www.dezeen.com/2017/12/04/dutch-designers-eric-klarenbeek-maartje-dros-convert-algae-biopolymer-3d-printing-good-design-bad-world/

22

https://www.dezeen.com/2017/12/04/dutch-designers-eric-klarenbeek-maartje-dros-convert-algae-biopolymer-3d-printing-good-design-bad-world/

https://www.dezeen.com/2017/12/04/dutch-designers-eric-klarenbeek-maartje-dros-convert-algae-biopolymer-3d-printing-good-design-bad-world/

http://algix.com/sustainability/our-solution/


working on the development of 100% biodegradable plastic made with algae in the form of filaments perfectly compatible with 3D printers36.

On the other hand, the company Biopolymer (Sweden) produces MAP (Mussel Adhesive Protein), the molecule that binds mussels to different kinds of structures. MAP can form strong bonds to human tissue and close surgical cuts. No stiches are needed and risk for inflammation and scars are dramatically reduced. Additionally, on metal surfaces MAP can bind strongly and crosslink to a nano-thick surface layer; by enhancing the redox function this layer will give the surface a very efficient corrosion protection and can be used as an anti corrosion primer. This is an example of commercial company, but there are currently running several projects with the aim of the development of new biopolymers based in MAP. For example, the bonding chemistry of mussel proteins was combined with preformed poly(lactic acid) in order to develop commercial glues with adhesion properties similar to those of petroleum-based ones37.

7.2.1.2 Naturally-occurring biopolymersMarine biomasses such as seaweeds (red, brown and green algae) are an excellent source of currently commercially important biomaterials: polysaccharides like agar, alginate, fucoidan and carrageenan are obtained from algae. Agar, carrageenan and alginate are currently used as gelation and thickening agents in different food, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological applications38:

- Carrageenans are often used as stabilizers, gelling agents, emulsifiers, and thickeners in the food and baking industries. Other applications include their use as binders in toothpaste, thickeners and stabilizers in cosmetics, etc.

- Agar is used in the food industry as a gelling agent, in cosmetics (thickener in creams), and in pharmaceuticals (excipient in pills). On the other hand, agar is widely used as growth media for culturing bacteria for scientific research.

- Alginates are used in the food industry as stabilizers and thickeners. In addition, they are used in the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry as wound dressings or matrices to encapsulate and/or release cells and medicine39.

Apart from those marine biobased polymers obtained from seeweed, special mention should be made to other natural-occuring biopolymers present in marine biomasses: Chitin and hitosan. Chitin is the second most abundant naturally-occurring polysacharide (the first one is cellulose).

36 http://www.algamoil.com/

37 “Integrating Mussel Chemistry into a Bio-Based Polymer to Create Degradable Adhesives”, Courtney L. Jenkins, Heather M. Siebert, and Jonathan J. Wilker. Macromolecules, 2017, 50 (2), pp 561–568

38 “Seaweed Hydrocolloid Production: An Update on Enzyme Assisted Extraction and Modification Technologies”, Rhein-Knudsen et al., Mar. Drugs 2015, 13, 3340-3359; doi:10.3390/md13063340

39 “Algae based polymers, blends and composites”. Edited by Khalid Mahmood Zia, Mohammad Zuber, Muhammada Ali. Elsevier. 2017

23

http://www.algamoil.com/


Currently, chitin and chitosan are produced commercially by chemical extraction processes from marine sources such as crab, shrimp, and prawn wastes40. Chitosan shows interesting characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, antimicrobial activity, non-toxicity, chemical inertness, high mechanical strength, good film-forming properties, and low cost41. These great features foster the use of this polymer in applications such as42: cationic agents for polluted waste-water treatment; agricultural materials; food and feed additives and complements; hypocholesterolemic agents; biomedical and pharmaceutical materials; wound-healing materials; blood anticoagulant, antithrombogenic and hemostatic materials; cosmetic ingredients; textile, paper, film and sponge sheet materials; analytical reagents, etc. Chitosan-based films have proven to be very effective in food preservation: they are used as active packaging material for the quality preservation of a variety of food43, or as antimicrobial films to provide edible protective coatings44. For example, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology have recently developed a material from cellulose nanocrystals and chitin nanofibres45. The resulting material shows up to a 67% reduction in oxygen permeability compared to some forms of polyethylene (PET), which is one of the most common plastics employed in food packaging, improving food preservation.

The exploitation of fish and shellfish industrial biowastes to produce chitin and chitosan is a business opportunity for the EU market46. The possibility of exploitation depends on the chemical composition of the residue: every organism processed generates a different waste, and this variable chemical composition conditions the products that can be obtained.

The global chitin market is expected to reach an estimation of about US$ 2900 Mn by the end of 2027 from a value a little under US$ 900 Mn in 201747. The healthcare segment is projected to grow at the highest rate, but waste and water treatment applictions could offer significant growth opportunities. Below are listed some companies whose main bussiness is the production of marine chitin and chitosan derivatives:

- Chitocean48 (Canada): produces high-quality medical-grade chitosan from shrim shells

40 “Chitin and Chitosan Preparation from Marine Sources. Structure, Properties and Applications”, Younes I., Rinaudo, M., Mar. Drugs 2015, 13, 1133-1174; ; doi:10.3390/md13031133

41 “Current progress on bio-based polymers and their future trends”, Babu et al. Progress in Biomaterials 2013, 2:8

42 “Chitin Biotechnology Applications”, Hirano S., Biotechnology Annual Review 1996, 237:258

43 “Effect of chitosan based active packaging film on the keeping quality of chilled stored barracuda fish”, J Food Sci Technol. 2016 Jan; 53(1): 685–693.

44 “Perspectives for chitosan based antimicrobial films in food applications”, Dutta et al., Food Chemistry 2009, 1173:1182

45 https://physicsworld.com/a/composite-chitin-film-could-replace-plastic-packaging/

46 “Aquatic-Derived Biomaterials for a Sustainable Future: A European Opportunity”, Nistico, R., Resources 2017, 6, 65; doi:10.3390/resources6040065

47 “Chitin Market: Global Industry Analysis (2012-2016) and Opportunity Assessment (2017-2027)”

48 http://www.chitocean.com/

24

http://www.chitocean.com/


- Medovent49 (Germany): development and distribution of chitin and chitosan-based medical

products. Patented technology.

- Advanced Biopolymers50 (Norway): produces high-quality chitosan for medical (wound care), cosmetics and drug delivery applications. Patented technology.

- FMC Health and Nutrition (DuPont) - Novamatrix® 51 (United States): produces ultrapure, bio-compatible and bio-absorbale biopolymers for use in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology and biomedical industries. The company produces ultrapure chitosan, ultrapure alginates and peptide-coupled alginates. Patented technology.

- AgraTech52 - KYTOSAN USA (United States): produces chitonsa and chitosan-based products for ndustrial, consumer, pharmaceutical, and agricultural markets. Patented technology.

- Tidal Vision53 (United States): small producer of chitin and chitosan for applications in water treatment, textile, agriculture and food preservation.

- Primex54 (Iceland): global leader in sustainable production og high quality chitosan from shrim shells. Patented technology.

- BioLog Heppe55 (Germany): produces a range of chitosan products with various qualities for applications in water and waste water treatement, agriculture, paper and textile industry, cosmetics and pharmacy.

- ChitosanLab56 (France): produces chitin, chitosan and derivatives with applications in the textile industry, medical field, food industry, etc.

- France Chitine57 (France): produces chitin and chitosan from crustaceans shells.

49 https://medovent.de/en/

50 http://www.advancedbiopolymers.no/

51 http://www.novamatrix.biz/chitosan/

52 http://www.agratech.net/

53 https://tidalvisionusa.com/chitosan/

54 http://www.primex.is/

55 https://www.biolog-heppe.de/gb/

56 https://chitosanlab.com/en/

57 http://www.france-chitine.com/chitosan.e.html

25

http://www.france-chitine.com/chitosan.e.html

https://chitosanlab.com/en/

https://www.biolog-heppe.de/gb/

http://www.primex.is/

https://tidalvisionusa.com/chitosan/

http://www.agratech.net/

http://www.novamatrix.biz/chitosan/

http://www.advancedbiopolymers.no/

https://medovent.de/en/


- Meron Biopolymers58 (India): producer of chitin and chitosan (extracted from crab and shrim shells), but also producer of sodium alginate and xantan gum.

7.2.2 Marine bio-based polymers current challengesThe bio-based plastics sector is developing very dynamically. However, bio-based plastics still remain too expensive to compete with conventional fossil plastics. The price is mainly driven by the cost of feedstocks and the processing steps required to generate them. Therefore, the most relevant challenge that must be addressed is the reduction of production costs along the whole value chains:

- Feedstock selection is crucial for increasing process efficiency. First-generation feedstocks like sugar, cane or corn compete with the production of food and, therefore, second and third generation feedstocks such as algae, marine biomass or waste streams are needed in order to increase process implementation. Additionally, the use of mixed bacterial cultures or novel microorganisms could increase process performance.

- Novel bio-polymers can be processed with standard processing equipment if their properties are similar to those of the fossil counterparts. However, replacing a conventional plastic with a bio-plastic could require a re-definition of the manufacturing process, especially in what relates to polymer additives. Therefore, new additive chemistry must be developed in order to improve the performance and properties of bio-based polymers (for example, using nano-particles).

Additionally, it is important to work in other aspects of the value chain as the development of logistics for biomass feedstocks, new manufacturing routes that could increase yields, new microbial strains/enzymes, and efficient downstream processing methods for recovery of bio-based products.

7.3 Marine-Based Biofuels Aquatic biomasses such as macro- and micro-algae and photosynthetic cyanobacteria have the potential to be used as biomass for biofuels production. As previously mentioned, aquatic biomass present major advantages over other kinds of biomass: greater yields per area of cultivation; no competition with arable-land; use of sea water, wastewater or saline water for cultivation; use of CO2 as carbon source or wastewater as nutrient input; no competition with food and feed applications, etc. 59, 60

58 https://www.meronbiopolymers.com/#

59 “Bioenergy value chain 7: aquatic biomass”. European Biofuels Technology Platform; Biofuel factsheet.

60 “National Algal Biofuels Technology Review”. Bioenergy Technologies Office, U.S. Department of Energy. 2016

26

https://www.meronbiopolymers.com/


Algae biomass composition consists of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and other substances, being lipids the most interesting fraction for conversion into biofuels. Both macro- and micro-algae can be used as biomass feedstock for bioenergy production; however, microalgae are clearly predominant due to their higher inherent lipid content.

In any case, both macro and micro-algae need to be cultured for later use as biofuels feedstock. However, regarding cultivation methods, a distinction can be made for macro- and micro-algae:

- Macroalgae (seaweed) are mainly cultivated off-shore in open systems, and their productivity is lower than that of microalgae. As an example, the company Marine Bioenergy61 has patented a technology for cultivating Giant Kelp algae (Macrocystis pyrifera) based on growing algae attached to large grids in the open ocean, each grid towed by underwater drones that will maintain the grids near the surface during the day to gather sunlight for photosynthesis. At night, the drones will take the grids down to the deeper, cold water where algae can absorb nutrients.

- Microalgae can be cultivated on-shore in either open ponds or closed systems. Cultivation in open systems (open ponds) is mainly suitable for algal species tolerant to extreme environmental conditions and resistant to contamination. Closed cultivation systems for microalgae cultivation are called photobioreactors. Since algae are photosynthetic organisms, a fundamental aspect in the design of photobioreactors is to ensure an adequate supply of light (from natural or artificial sources). Photobioreactors inhibit external contamination but they are more expensive than open ponds in terms of investment and operation. The recovery of the microalgae from cultivation broth is made in various steps:

o Pre-concentration: flocculation via thickeners, dissolved air flotation (for small microalgae) or sedimentation (for large microalgae).

o Thickening or dewatering: centrifugation, filtration and ultrasonic aggregation.

o Drying: solar-drying, drum-drying, freeze-drying and spray-drying. Apart from solar-drying, drying is very energy intensive and accounts for a large part of total energy consumption.

Algal biomass feedstocks can also be generated by heterotrophic fermentation, where organic carbon (often in the form of sugars derived from terrestrial feedstocks) is supplied to algae as carbon source for aerobic growth. However, the primary targets of the heterotrophic cultivation development are high-value food and feed applications. Many companies are already commercially producing heterotrophic algal oils for higher value product applications in the food, feed and nutraceutical markets.

Once algae are harvested, there are a wide range of different processes and conversion technologies, mostly focused on the extraction and upgrading of algal lipids62:

61 http://www.marinebiomass.com/

62 “Bioenergy value chain 7: aquatic biomass”. European Biofuels Technology Platform; Biofuel factsheet.

27

http://www.marinebiomass.com/


- Thermochemical conversion (hydrothermal liquefaction or pyrolysis). This process can be

applied over the whole algae and, therefore, high yields can be achieved. Furthermore, a wide range of algae can be processed as feedstock composition is not crucial to the process. The majority of the research and development in thermochemical conversion of algae to fuels is based on hydrothermal processing, and, specifically, hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL).

- Fermentation for ethanol production. During fermentation, sugars are converted (typically under anaerobic conditions) into cellular energy, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste by-products.

- Anaerobic digestion for biogas production from seaweed and microalgae.

- Direct fuel production: in emerging fuel production routes such as microbial biosynthesis, biophotolysis and autofermentation, algae or cyanobacteria are the direct producers of the fuels (alkanes, hydrogen or ethanol respectively). These pathways are at pilot scale and huge efforts are being made to improve technologies.

7.3.1 Microalgae industry moving to biofuels generationAccording to global market reports63, 64, global algae biofuel market was valued at approximately USD 4.70 billion in 2017 and is expected to grow at a CAGR of around 8.6% between 2017 and 2024. In 2017, biodiesel dominated the biofuels market. The key factors that can inhibit industry growth are related with price competitiveness.

Below are some examples of companies that are currently commercializing marine-based biofuels:

- Algenol65 (United States): the company produces biofuels using proprietary algae through a two-step patented process that first produces ethanol directly from algae and then converts algae biomass into green crude (hydrothermal liquefaction).

- Solazyme66 (United States) the company produces oil from fermented microalgae. The company commercializes the biofuels SoladieselBD® (100% algae-derived biodiesel compliant with FAME specifications), SoladieselRD® (a drop-in 100% algae-derived biodiesel that meets ASTM D 975 standard), and Solajet™ (jet fuel). They also manufacture oleochemicals and functional fluids for high-performance industrial applications.

63 “Algae biofuel Market - Global Industry Perspective, Comprehensive Analysis and Forecast, 2017 – 2024”, Zion Market Research.

64 “Algae Biofuel Market – 2018-2025”. Grand View Research

65 http://algenol.com/

66 http://solazymeindustrials.com/

28

http://solazymeindustrials.com/

http://algenol.com/


- Cellana67 (United States): uses marine microalgae to photosynthetically produce biofuel

feedstocks along with Omega-3 oil and animal feed/food under the concept of integrated algae-based biorefinery. The core of the company is a patented photosynthetic production system that economically grows algae strains at a commercial scale with a hybrid system that couples closed-culture bioreactors with open ponds.

- Algae Systems68 (United States). The technology of the company integrates three technologies: algal wastewater treatment, offshore floating photobioreactors and hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). The process allow the production of biodiesel and biogasoline, jet fuel and fertilizers in a biorefiniery concept.

- Manta Biofuel69 (United States): the company grows algae in open ponds, harvest it using a patented magnetic technology, and convert it to crude bio-oil using a high temperature and pressure reactor.

- Algamoil70 (Italy): the company designs and constructs plants for the production of vegetable oils and biodiesel from algae with a patented and certified technology.

- AlgaEnergy71 (Spain): using microalgae and cyanobacteria as feedstock, the company produces products for feed/food, agriculture and cosmetics industry, as well as biofuels (AlgaeDiesel®).

On the other hand, ExxonMobil Corporation and Synthetic Genomics have been collaborating since 2009 in a joint algae biofuel research program. The objective of the company is to produce 10,000 barrels of algae biofuel per day by 2025.

Additionally, there are companies dedicated specifically to the design and development of new algae cultivation systems (ponds and photobioreactors) for the final production of bioproducts such as biofuels. Below are some examples:

- A4F AlgaFuel72 (Portugal): dedicated to the research and development of bioengineering projects for the industrial production of microalgae, micro-algae based products and applications. They work with tubular and flat-panel photobioreactors, open ponds, cascade raceways and fermenters.

67 http://cellana.com/

68 http://algaesystems.com/

69 https://mantabiofuel.com/

70 http://www.algamoil.com/

71 http://www.algaenergy.es/en/

72 http://www.a4f.pt/en

29

http://www.a4f.pt/en

http://www.algaenergy.es/en/

http://www.algamoil.com/

https://mantabiofuel.com/

http://algaesystems.com/

http://cellana.com/


- AlgaeLink73 (The Netherlands): provides industrial photobioreactors for microalgae

production. The company is collaborating with KLM in the development of a microalgae-based aviation fuel.

- British Algoil74 (United Kingdom): provides a photobioreactor using LED lighting technology to provide algae with the optimal light conditions

- Aqualgae75 (Spain and Portugal): small company devoted to the development of photobiorreactors for microalgae cultivation.

- Culture Biosystems76 (United States): technology developer with an advanced cultivation platform, which enables large-scale production of algae to be used in producing biofuels, jet fuels, proteins and nutraceuticals.

- Subitec77 (Germany): spin off from the Fraunhofer Institute, developer and owner of a flat panel airlift reactor (FPA) patented technology for microalgae cultivation.

- Biopharmia78 (Norway): the company has developed the “Accordion Photobiorreactor” in collaboration with the University of Arizona. Accordion concept has been supported by a Horizon2020 project.

7.3.2 Algae-based biofuels current challengesThe production of biofuels from algae has experience an important research and development work in the last years in order to increase efficiency and productivity. However, the effective industrial implementation of algae as a source for biofuels generation needs to overcome research and development challenges related with all the process steps, from feedstock cultivation to conversion and infrastructures. Below are listed the more relevant challenges according to the United States Algal Biofuels strategy79,80:

73 http://www.algaelink.nl/joomla/

74 http://www.britishalgoil.com/

75 http://aqualgae.com/es/inicio/

76 https://www.culturebiosystems.com/

77 https://subitec.com/en

78 http://www.biopharmia.no/index.php?sideID=40

79 “National Algal Biofuels Technology Review”. United States Department of Energy. 2016

80 “State of Technology Review – Algae Bioenergy”, IEA Bioenergy Task 39, 2017

30

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https://subitec.com/en

https://www.culturebiosystems.com/

http://aqualgae.com/es/inicio/

http://www.britishalgoil.com/

http://www.algaelink.nl/joomla/


- Feedstock:

o Algal biology: ecological, genetic and biochemical development of different algal species is needed to improve productivity and robustness of species.

o Algal cultivation: advance understanding of culture dynamics and stability; improve on ability to up-scale process performance; sustainably and cost-effectively manage resources (energy, water, nutrient, greenhouse gas emissions, etc.) for biomass production; maximize recycle of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon and other nutrients from residual materials; advance understanding of CO2 utilization at industrially relevant scale.

o Harvesting and dewatering: develop and demonstrate harvesting, dewatering and drying technologies at industrially relevant scales; assess the economic viability, energy requirements and environmental sustainability of harvesting and dewatering technologies at industrially relevant scales; examine performance over long durations of operation, etc.

- Conversion:

o Extraction and fractionation: investigate the techno-economic impact of up-scaling; advance understanding of the impact of feed composition on end products; examine performance at industrially relevant scales; address scaling challenges.

o Fuel conversion: achieve high conversion rates and optimize fuel recovery at industrially relevant scales; examine co-product recovery; advance understanding of nutrient recovery; examine and minimize conversion technology energy use, emissions, and contaminants, etc.

o Co-products (biorefineries): identify and evaluate the co-production of value-added chemicals, energy and materials; optimize co-product extraction and recovery; quality and safety trials to meet applicable standards.

- Infrastructure:

o Distribution and utilization: characterize algal biomass, intermediates, biofuel, and bioproducts under different storage and transport scenarios for contamination, weather impacts, stability, and end-product variability; optimize distribution for energy and costs; compile with regulatory and customer requirements for utilization.

o Resources and siting: investigate the impacts of carbon capture and utilization of algal biomass production; address salt balance, energy balance, water and nutrient recycling, and thermal management; advance understanding of integration of CO2 waste emitting industries and wastewater treatment plant co-location with algal cultivation facilities; etc.

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8 LOOKING TO PATENTS TO MEASURE MARINE INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY RELEVANCE

As a brief introduction to the methodology used to elaborate this section, the authors have made use of the Derwent Innovation81 tool as a main patent database, which has allowed to carry out a series of preliminary studies to give rise to the data shown. Aiming at results and analyses done to be reproducible by any reader, the use of the previous tool has been complemented by the use of the free search tool available at Lens.org82, which allows free searches and a simple analysis and filtering of patent information.

8.1 Looking to Patents to Measure Marine Derived Enzymes RelevanceIn order to have a better understanding of the current trends related with the use of enzymes derived from marine organisms, a patent search has been made, using “marine” as keyword, and including in the search quation the International Patent Classification code especifically related to enzymes and microorganisms (C12N).

- Temporal evolution of the number of published patents . As can be seen from the next figure, the number of patent applications is increasing with time, although in a contained way (especially if we compare these numbers with those obtained in the following sections), which could indicate that this area of the technique is approaching a certain grade of maturity.

YearPublished

PatentsAnual

Growth2010 1.460 5,42%2011 1.801 23,36%2012 1.699 -5,66%2013 1.540 -9,36%2014 1.529 -0,71%2015 1.707 11,64%2016 1.778 4,16%2017 1.746 -1,80%2018 1.791 2,58%

0

500

1.000

1.500

2.000

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Published Patents "marine" + IPC Code C12N 2010 -2018

Figure 6: Temporal evolution of the number of published patents under IPC code C12N + “marine” search text for the period 2000-2017.

Data Source: Derwent Innovation. Tables and charts: own creation

81 https://www.derwentinnovation.com tool (proprietary software) created by Clarivate Analytcis, that gives access to a curated database of patents, allowing complete searches and processing of data, used by professionals in the field of patents.

82 https://www.lens.org/

32

https://www.lens.org/

https://www.derwentinnovation.com/


- Prominent patent families . The main technology areas to which relate the patent

applications are related with genetic engineering technologies (next Error: Referencesource not found).

IPC Code DescriptionPublished

Patents

C12N15/82

Mutation or genetic engineering - recombinant DNA technology. Vectors or expression systems specially adapted for eukaryotic hosts for plant cells

2.148

C12N1/20Microorganisms, Bacteria; Culture media therefor

1.907

C12Q1/68Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganismsinvolving nucleic acids

1.455

C12P7/64

Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds. Fats; Fatty oils; Ester-type waxes; Higher fatty acids, i.e. having at least seven carbon atoms in an unbroken chain bound to a carboxyl group; Oxidised oils or fats

1.355

C12N1/21Microorganisms, Bacteria; Culture media therefor modified by introduction of foreign genetic material

1.192

C12N1/12Microorganisms, Unicellular algae; Culture media therefor

1.115

A01H5/00

Angiosperms, i.e. flowering plants, characterised by their plant parts; Angiosperms characterised otherwise than by their botanic taxonomy

1.092

C07H21/04

Compounds containing two or more mononucleotide units having separate phosphate or polyphosphate groups linked by saccharide radicals of nucleoside groups, with deoxyribosyl as saccharide radical

1.079

C12N5/10

Undifferentiated human, animal or plant cells, e.g. cell lines; Tissues; Cultivation or maintenance thereof; Culture media therefor. Cells modified by introduction of foreign genetic material.

1.074

C12N15/09

Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts

1.068

0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500

C12N15/09

C12N5/10

C07H21/04

A01H5/00

C12N1/12

C12N1/21

C12P7/64

C12Q1/68

C12N1/20

C12N15/82

No. Patents "marine" + IPC Code C12N 2010 - 2018 per subcodes

Figure 7: Patent main sub-codes count under IPC code C12N + “marine” search text for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

- Most active patenting countries . The data shows how the United States is a leading the creation of patents in this field, accounting for just over half of the production. There is a considerable count of patents with worldwide scope, which is usually indicative of patents with a high degree of solidity and a very broad commercial perspective. Australia (13%), Europe (10%) and China (8%) present estimable activities, although very far from the United States.

33


CountryPublished

Patents%

United States 7897 52%World Patents 2066 14%Australia 1959 13%Europe 1505 10%China 1185 8%Other Countries 439 3%

52%

14%

13%

10%

8%3%

Published Patents "marine" + IPC Code C12N 2010 - 2018 by country

United States

World Patents

Australia

Europe

China

Other Countries

Figure 8: Most active patenting countries of published patents under IPC code C12N + “marine” search text for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

- Main applicants . Among the main patent applicants are organizations such as BASF, the University of California or DuPont, but the numbers (considerable, but do not show clearly dominant competitors) show how it is likely that this moment is nowadays composed by a considerable number of relevant actors.

OrganizationPublished

Patents%

Basf Plant Science Gmbh 320 2,1%Univ California 222 1,5%Du Pont 206 1,4%Genomatica Inc 186 1,2%Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt En Zaadhandel Bv 175 1,2%Monsanto Technology Llc 146 1,0%Dsm Ip Assets Bv 140 0,9%Suntory Holdings Ltd 133 0,9%Commw Scient Ind Res Org 129 0,9%Centre Nat Rech Scient 118 0,8%

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Centre Nat Rech Scient

Commw Scient Ind Res Org

Suntory Holdings Ltd

Dsm Ip Assets Bv

Monsanto Technology Llc

Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt En Zaadhandel Bv

Genomatica Inc

Du Pont

Univ California

Basf Plant Science Gmbh

No. Patents "marine" + IPC Code C12N 2010 - 2018 per applicant

Figure 9: Most active patenting organizations of published patents under IPC code C12N + “marine” search text for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

8.2 Looking to patents to measure algae-based biopolymers relevanceA patent search was made covering the periodo 2010-2018 in order to haver a deeper understanding of the main trends related with the application of algae biomass for producing biopolymers. Search terms were biopolymer, bioplastic, PHA, PLA, microalgae and macroalgae.

- Temporal evolution of the number of published patents . As can be seen from the next figure, the number of patent applications is increasing with time, consistently doubling in the last decade. This could indicate that this field of knowledge is clearly in an “expansion stage”, continuosly giving birth to innovations and generating market opportunnities.

34


YearPublished

PatentsAnual

Growth2010 547 7,25%2011 633 15,72%2012 716 13,11%2013 861 20,25%2014 923 7,20%2015 962 4,23%2016 1.010 4,99%2017 1.092 8,12%2018 1.083 -0,82%

0

200

400

600

800

1.000

1.200

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Published Patents related to algae and biopolymers 2010 - 2018

Figure 10: Temporal evolution of the number of published patents under the search (Biopolymer* OR bioplastic* OR PHA OR PLA ) AND ( ALGA* OR microalg* OR macroalg*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Derwent Innovation. Tables and charts: own

creation

- Prominent patent families . The main technology areas to which relate the patent applications are depicted hereafter. As in the previous case, genetic engineering technologies are prominent topics.

IPC Code DescriptionPublished

Patents

C12N15/82

Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor for plant cells

899

A01H5/00

Angiosperms, i.e. flowering plants, characterised by their plant parts; Angiosperms characterised otherwise than by their botanic taxonomy

468

A61P35/00 Antineoplastic agents 425

A61K39/395

Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies. Antibodies (agglutinins A61K 38/36); Immunoglobulins; Immune serum,

390

A61K39/00 Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies

353

A61K9/00 Medicinal preparations characterised by special physical form

300

C12P7/64


286

C07H21/04

Compounds containing two or more mononucleotide units having separate phosphate or polyphosphate groups linked by saccharide radicals of nucleoside groups, with deoxyribosyl as saccharide radical

243

C12Q1/68

Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms (measuring or testing apparatus with condition measuring or sensing means, involving nucleic acids

236

C12N9/00Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof, Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating, or purifying enzymes

231

0 200 400 600 800 1.000

C12N9/00

C12Q1/68

C07H21/04

C12P7/64

A61K9/00

A61K39/00

A61K39/395

A61P35/00

A01H5/00

C12N15/82

No. Patents related to algae and biopolymers 2010 - 2018 per subcodes

Figure 11: Patent main sub-codes under the search (Biopolymer* OR bioplastic* OR PHA OR PLA ) AND ( ALGA* OR microalg* OR macroalg*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

- Most active patenting countries . The data shows how the United States is a leading again the creation of patents in this field, accounting for nearly 60% of the whole production.

35


Once again, the number of patents with a world scope is quite high, possibly indicating that this field of technology tend to give birth to solid innovations with clear commercial applications. Australia is on the second place again (16%), followed by Europe (6%). China does not seem to be relevant in this field of knowledge, in the view of these data.

CountryPublished

Patents%

United States 4.540 58,00%

World Patents 1.541 19,69%

Australia 1.272 16,25%

Europe 452 5,77%

Other Countries 22 0,28%

58,00%19,69%

16,25%

5,77%

0,28%

Published Patents related to algae and biopolymers 2010 - 2018 by country

United States

World Patents

Australia

Europe

Other Countries

Figure 12: Most active patenting countries of published patents under the search (Biopolymer* OR bioplastic* OR PHA OR PLA ) AND ( ALGA* OR microalg* OR macroalg*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

- Main applicants . Among the main patent applicants are organizations such as Piooner Hybrid, Evogene or Du Pont. This time the”top ten” seems to achieve higher numbers in the total patent count, gathering a 23% of the patent applications.


Patents%

Pioneer Hi Bred Int 308 3,9%Evogene Ltd 260 3,3%Du Pont 203 2,6%Atyr Pharma Inc 191 2,4%Pangu Biopharma Ltd 182 2,3%Basf Se 174 2,2%Celgene Corp 146 1,9%Kimberly Clark Co 145 1,9%Moderna Therapeutics Inc 122 1,6%Macrogenics Inc 104 1,3%

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Macrogenics Inc

Moderna Therapeutics Inc

Kimberly Clark Co

Celgene Corp

Basf Se

Pangu Biopharma Ltd

Atyr Pharma Inc

Du Pont

Evogene Ltd

Pioneer Hi Bred Int

No. Patents related to algae and biopolymers 2010 - 2018 per applicant

Figure 13: Most active patenting organizations of published patents under the search (Biopolymer* OR bioplastic* OR PHA OR PLA ) AND ( ALGA* OR microalg* OR macroalg*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

36


8.3 Looking to patents to measure algae-based biofuels relevanceA patent search was made covering the period 2010-2018 in order to haver a deeper understanding of the main trends related with the application of algae to biofuess production. Search terms were “fuel” and “alga*”.

- Temporal evolution of the number of published patents . In this case, it can be seen how the numbers clearly point to a period of strong increase in inventive activity in the period 2010-2014, and then a period of decline thereafter. However, current numbers are sensibly higher than the ones from the beginning of the decade.

YearPublished

PatentsAnual

Growth2010 1.717 44,29%2011 2.292 33,49%2012 2.569 12,09%2013 2.973 15,73%2014 3.316 11,54%2015 2.943 -11,25%2016 2.894 -1,66%2017 2.630 -9,12%2018 2.474 -5,93%

0

500

1.000

1.500

2.000

2.500

3.000

3.500

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Published Patents related to fuel and algae for the period 2010 - 2018

Figure 14: Temporal evolution of the number of published patents under the search (fuel and alga*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Derwent Innovation. Tables and charts: own creation

- Prominent patent families . The main technology areas to which relate the patent applications are related with preparation of different types of compounds, which is consistent with the possible uses of algae, mainly a source for subsequent products.

37


IPC Code Description

Published Patents

C12P7/64


1.486

C12N15/82

Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor for plant cells

1.221

C12M1/00 Apparatus for enzymology or microbiology 1.032

C12N1/12Microorganisms, e.g. protozoa; Compositions thereof. Unicellular algae; Culture media therefor

971

C10G3/00Production of liquid hydrocarbon mixtures from oxygen-containing organic materials, e.g. fatty oils, fatty acids

939

C12P19/14 Preparation of compounds containing saccharide radicals, produced by the action of a carbohydrase

840

C12P19/02 Preparation of compounds containing saccharide radicals. Monosaccharides

722

C12P7/06 Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds.

711

C10L1/02 Liquid carbonaceous fuels, essentially based on components consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only

698

C12N9/42

Enzymes, e.g. ligases (6.); Proenzymes; Compositions thereof, acting on beta-1, 4-glucosidic bonds, e.g. cellulase

685 0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600

C12N9/42

C10L1/02

C12P7/06

C12P19/02

C12P19/14

C10G3/00

C12N1/12

C12M1/00

C12N15/82

C12P7/64

No. Patents related related to fuel and algae 2010 - 2018 per subcodes

Figure 15: Patent main sub-codes under the search (fuel and alga*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

- Most active patenting countries . The data shows how the United States is once more leading the creation of patents in this field, accounting for a 60% of the whole production. Once again, an important percentage of patents with world scope is present, and Australia and Europe are again second and third in importance, far away from the first ones.

CountryPublished

Patents%

United States 14.335 60,21%World Patents 4.895 20,56%Australia 2.980 12,52%Europe 1.190 5,00%China 195 0,82%Other Countires 213 0,89%

60,21%20,56%

12,52%

5,00%0,82% 0,89%

Published Patents related to fuel and algae2010 - 2018 by country

United States

World Patents

Australia

Europe

China

Other Countires

Figure 16: Most active patenting countries of published patents under the search (fuel and alga*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

38


- Main applicants . The percentage of patents gathered by the “top ten” patenting

organizations is about 17%, showing that, altough there wolud be some organizations clearly ahead in these classification, the whole sector could be composed by a significant number of actor.


Patents%

Xyleco Inc 821 3,4%Exxonmobil Res & Eng Co 578 2,4%Novozymes Inc 510 2,1%Novozymes As 449 1,9%Uop Llc 335 1,4%Rohm & Haas 327 1,4%Univ California 298 1,3%Dow Global Technologies Llc 270 1,1%Solazyme Inc 259 1,1%Heliae Dev Llc 246 1,0% 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Heliae Dev Llc

Solazyme Inc

Dow Global Technologies Llc

Univ California

Rohm & Haas

Uop Llc

Novozymes As

Novozymes Inc

Exxonmobil Res & Eng Co

Xyleco Inc

No. Patents related to fuel and algae 2010 - 2018 per applicant

Figure 17: Most active patenting organizations of published patents under the search (fuel and alga*) for the period 2010-2018. Data Source: Lens.org. Tables and charts: own creation

8.4 Brief Conclusions of the Patent Study.

From the analysis carried out, the following relevant conclusions can be drawn:

- From the point of view of inventive activity:

o The exploitation of marine resources for the production of enzymes has experienced a moderate growth this decade, which could indicate the beginning of a certain level of maturity of this field of knowledge.

o The use of algae for the manufacture of biopolymers is by contrast a field of great and constant growth, with a rate that has managed to double in 2018 the production of 2010.

o The use of algae for the production of biofuels presents from 2015 a downward trend in annual production, although it suffered an important growth in the period 2010-2014.

- In all cases, the predominant topics place these marine resources as raw materials for the elaboration of other compounds, or their implementation in genetic technologies.

- The United States is in all cases a leading actor, producing in the worst case half of the total patents, with Australia and Europe being the next patent producers, although quite far from the first. No Asian country (frequent in other fields of knowledge) seems to be relevant in these cases.

39


- The percentages accumulated by the main patenting organizations show outstanding

actors, although they are not yet majority, which seems to indicate potential competitive markets.

In addition to the analysis carried out, a series of references to some representative patents on marine industrial biotechnology have been included as an annex to this document.

9 CONCLUSIONS

The Industrial Biotechnology KET has multiple links with the marine environment. In this report we have analysed some of the applications that can be considered most relevant currently. On the one hand, the search for new enzymes in the marine environment will allow to improve the efficiency and sustainability of chemical processes, taking advantage of the specific characteristics presented by the organisms that inhabit this environment. The development of methods and technologies to improve and lower the cost of exploration processes are key issues for research activities.

On the other hand, various chemical products can be produced from marine feedstocks (bioproducts or biomaterials). In this sense, the two main current applications in industrial biochemistry are biopolymers and biofuels. In both cases, in order to achieve an effective industrial implementation, it is necessary to improve current technology in terms of costs and efficiency given that, in general, the products obtained by conventional methods from traditional raw materials are more economical than those obtained from marine feedstocks (for example, microalgae). In any case, the use of marine biomass for the production of chemical products should go through an integral use of biomass in a concept of biorefinery similar to conventional fossil refineries.

40


10 ANNEX: Representative Marine Industrial Biotechnology Patents

Some representative recent patents on marine industrial biotechnology are shown below (free patent databases like Espacenet83 can be used to consult them in more detail):

- Marine Derived Microoganisms or Enzymes:

o Zhao Xinqing. “Marine Streptomyces S063 And Anticomplement Activity Application Thereof”. CN 108130292 A.

o Falkowski Paul, Frada Miguel, Wyman Kevin, Gibson James. “Compositions And Methods For Enhancing Lipid Production In Marine Microalgae”. US 2012/0282676 A1.

o Lopez-Cervantes Jaime, Sanchez-Machado Dalia Isabel, Rochin Karl Reiner Fick. “Biodegradation Process And Composition”. US 2011/0151508 A1.

o Jeong Deok Shim. “Manufacturing Method Of Fermentation Fisheries Using Enzyme Fermentation Zymotechnics”. KR 20120113493 A.

o Sowers Kevin R. “Method Of Converting Marine Fish Waste To Biomethane”. US 2017/0166929 A1.

- Bio based polymers:

o Lindell Scott R, Reddy Christopher, O'neil Gregory W. “Use Of Marine Algae For Producing Polymers”. US 9879288 B2.

o Kruse Inge, Wolber Rainer, Woeller Karl-Heinz. “Self-adhesive Polymer Matrix Containing A Seaweed Extract”. US 7820177 B2.

o Shi Bo, Wang James H, Kimberly Clark Co. “Algae-blended Compositions For Thermoplastic Articles”. US 8524811 B2.

o Zdor Olesya Anatolevna, Chadova Tatyana Vladimirovna. “Biodegradable Polymer Composition”. RU 2674212 C1.

- Algae derived biofuels/energy systems:

o Fulton Robert. “Fluidizable Algae-based Powdered Fuel And Methods For Making And Using Same”. WO 2010/124125 A2.

83 https://worldwide.espacenet.com/

41

https://worldwide.espacenet.com/


o Michaels Anthony F, Caron Dave, Nealson Kenneth H. “Device For Efficient, Cost-

effective Conversion Of Aquatic Biomass To Fuels And Electricity”. WO 2010/034023 A1.

o Tronstad Inge. “Algae And Oxy-fuel Process System”. GB 2492239 B.

o Hatcher Patrick G, Salmon Elodie. “Process For The Selective Production Of Hydrocarbon Based Fuels From Algae Utilizing Water At Subcritical Conditions”. US 8778035 B2.

o Halachmi Katchanov Eliezer. “Energy Production From Algae In Photo Bioreactors Enriched With Carbon Dioxide”. US 8510985 B2.

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