Lemonia Antonoglou Ioannis A. Kozaris

Sergio Tasso Evangelia A. Varella

Innovative Approaches to

Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

Education

European Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Education Network

Thessaloniki 2015

The present publication comprises papers authored in the frame of the project European Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Education Network 2 (Lifelong Learning Pro-gramme – Call for Proposals 2012 (EAC/27/11) – Erasmus Pro-gramme: Erasmus Networks – Reference: 526259-LLP-1-2012-1-FR-ERASMUS-ENW).

Focused on chemical sciences, the work package titled: The Virtual Education Community dealt with learning objects in general, and with the development of a distributed repository of virtual learning objects related to chemistry, molecular sci-ences and chemical engineering.

The work package was co-ordinated by Ioannis A. Kozaris, Ar-istotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Valuable has further been the support offered by the co-authors Lemonia Anonoglou (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece) and Sergio Tasso (University of Perugia, Italy).

The work package titled: Re-tuning for Competences in Chemistry/Chemical Engineering for Europe 2020 dis-cussed evaluation and validation issues for short cycle higher education and intensive study programmes in chemical sci-ences; and proposed guidelines for curriculum design for mas-ter’s courses combining chemistry, chemical technology and chemical engineering.

The work package was co-ordinated by Evangelia A. Varella, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.

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The authors thank for their constructive comments Eugenio Ca-ponetti (University of Palermo, Italy), Osvaldo Gervasi (Univer-sity of Perugia, Italy), Antonio Laganà (University of Perugia, Italy), Terence Mitchell (European Chemistry Thematic Net-work), Artur Michalak (Jagiellonian University of Cracow, Po-land), Sanjiv Prasar (Rey Juan Carlos University of Madrid, Spain), Christiane Reiners (University of Cologne, Germany), Anthony Smith (CPE Lyon, France), Marjan Veber (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia).

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The Virtual Education Community

European Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Education Network

TOWARDS A VIRTUAL EDUCATION COMMUNITY FOR

CHEMICAL SCIENCES IN EUROPE

Ioannis A. Kozaris (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)

1. Introductory NotionsBuilding learning management systems integrated with infor-mation technologies has ubiquitously become an indispensable tendency, notwithstanding its complexity; and several software platforms were designed and used for these purpose. The over-all conviction has been that such techniques would enhance students’ competences, since they are flexible and adaptable to the needs of most learning styles. Reality is, however, more ambivalent. One learns and teaches using tools to which he is acquainted. Nonetheless, tools are rapid in changing, especially in the digital era, and the choice of appropriate means is a del-icate issue.

In this context, the significant impact of information and com-munication technologies on higher education1 results in the ne-cessity to investigate the meta-cognition of teachers and stu-dents, before examining the way a learning management sys-tem would influence their teaching and learning procedures, or their capacity to detect its errors. In addition, several systems

1 Cantoni, V., Cellario, M., Porta, M. (2004). Perspectives and Chal-lenges in e-Learning: Towards Natural Interaction Paradigms. Jour-nal of Visual Languages and Computing, 15 (5), 333-345.

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– e.g. Moodle® – are based on the constructivist learning the-ory; consequently, they aim at reducing the amount of redun-dancy and unnecessary repetition, and at encouraging prob-lem-solving skills. The systems thus claim to give students the opportunity to participate in the process of learning more ef-fectively and straightforwardly2, independently of teacher ca-pacity and the student ability.

2. Virtual Learning CommunitiesRecently, the unstructured data explosion – increasing up to the hundredfold every ten years – brought about the urgent necessity of a new approach converting information into com-municable forms of knowledge. Based on collaboration, knowledge management is a process that assists in identifying, selecting, organising, disseminating and transferring important information and expertise.

The rapid growth of digital material and the attempts to struc-ture it generated new kinds of learning communities. These virtual communities are developed by providing a well-defined environment using largely adopted tools for connecting with and learning from others through collaborative participation in building up new knowledge.

Using information and communication technologies to form learning communities is in fact one of the best means for sup-

2 Bruner, J.S., (199925). The Process of Education. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (U.S.A.), p. ix.

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porting teacher co-operation. Learning is a social process in-volving active construction of new knowledge and understand-ing through individual study, or group and peer interaction. Thus, communication is a key learning requirement. e-Learning utilises computers and computer networks as a communication channel supplementary and complementary to conventional ones; and able to connect students with learning media, other people (fellow learners, sources, facilitators), data (on learning, media, people), and processing power.

In this general frame, information technologies may develop tools supporting learning activities; and often diviided in those necessary for content transmission and those supporting com-munication. A physical learning environment generally inte-grates courses, resources (libraries), formal communication (boards), informal communication, administration, etc. Simi-larly, a virtual learning environment integrates a variety of tools supporting multiple functions, such as information, communi-cation, collaboration, learning, or management. The very idea of environment includes this notion of integration.

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Finally, blended (hybrid) learning is a type of learning facilitated by the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of instruction; and their applica-tion in an interactively meaningful learning environment. Hence, it is assumed that it carefully joins a face-to-face class-room (spontaneous verbal discourse) and Internet based learn-ing opportunities (reflective text-based discourse).

3. Learning Object RepositoriesDigital learning objects are the files used to construct e-learn-ing experiences, while repositories provide mechanisms to en-courage their discovery, exchange, and reuse.

Being small, modular and distinct entities of learning, digital learning objects may be used, reused or referenced to during technology-supported learning. In fact, they break educational content into small pieces functional in various environments, provided a clear and measurable educational objective has been designed.

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Learning object repositories may be considered as places for putting digital objects. A central repository would aggregate a collection of objects for a defined community or organisation and store them in a single locality. Repositories might hold col-lections of learning objects as a book warehouse might store books, or they could hold collections of information about learning objects as a library catalogue might hold descriptions of books. These catalogue descriptions are referred to as metadata.

4. Learning Management SystemsContent management is a crucial issue for all teachers involved in virtual learning environments. The dominant learning tech-nology employed nowadays are learning management systems organising and delivering on-line courses. Basic structural unit is the course, divided into modules and lessons, supported by tests and discussions, and often integrated into institutional student information systems.

Content/learning management systems include applications – e.g. Blackboard® or Moodle® – generating a shell, within which instruction contents may be organised. These platforms often provide extensibility interfaces, while they are able to integrate many different types of applications including virtual worlds, simulations, assessment engines, competency management tools, content repositories, reporting services, discussion boards, classroom management tools, intelligent tutoring sys-tems, performance support systems, knowledge management systems, and document management systems.

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THE ROLE OF LEARNING OBJECTS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

CHEMICAL SCIENCES

Lemonia Antonoglou (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki) Evangelia A. Varella (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)

1. On Learning Objects Types and Categories of Learning Objects

The systematic attempts of evaluating non-formal and informal learning, as well as the methodical modularisation of studies in order to endorse mobility, lead to an increasing importance of learning objects as educational tools within the European Higher Education Area. Defined as reusable small units of cog-nition; modular self-contained resources supporting learning activities; collections of content, practice and assessment items referring to a single learning objective – learning objects allude to the systemised and graduated subjects of instruction con-ceived in the late 18th century by J.H. Pestalozzi. Nonetheless, in their contemporary form as concise entities appended with standardised descriptive metadata permitting direct use or clustering, they certainly offer a revised conceptualisation of the learning process.

Static or dynamic, non-interactive learning objects include texts, poster or PowerPoint presentations, recorded contents and videos, as well as representations of systems in form of models. On the contrary, interactivity is a requisite for learning objects dealing with simulations of a system’s behaviour, as

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well as for those continuously revised on the basis of a shared responsibility. For both categories, the possibility of digitalisa-tion and on-line retrieval generated an immense variety of learning objects, even for non-interactive approaches.

Development of Learning Objects: The Wiki

Learning objects are usually presented in a final version, which does not permit discerning the steps in designing them, or rec-ognising the contribution of each partner. A valuable content management system to be used for a learning object elabo-rated by several experts, who care for transparency in the shared responsibility and for a clear documentation of all phases in this collaborative work, is the wiki. In a typical wiki, the content is developed without any defined co-ordinator, and with a structure emerging according to the needs of users, without obeying to any implicit scheme.

In chemistry, a number of teaching manuals in various lan-guages are constantly elaborated, detailed and adjusted in an open collaborative approach3. Their structure usually permits considering them as aggregations of learning objects on con-crete contents4. In addition, items targeting to more specific knowledge5 or addressing specific audiences – such as those

3 for example: http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/; http://en.wiki-books.org/wiki/General_Chemistry; http://wiki.pingry.org/u/chemis-try/index.php/Main_Page; http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemis-try/wiki/Main_Page 4 for example: http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Organic_Chemistry/Am-ides/Properties_of_Amides; http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemis-try/wiki/Expt:Separation_of_an_Acid_from_a_Neutral_by_Base_Ex-traction 5 http://nmrwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chemical_shift

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involved in Science Olympiads6 – enhance co-operation in the development of chemistry-related learning objects.

The following paragraphs discuss the advantages and limita-tions of various types of learning objects, and their specific role in teaching and learning chemistry.

2. The Role of Real Life Representations Videos as Learning Objects

Educational videos may be simple recordings of lectures, prac-tical work sessions and other analogous initiatives taking place in real life; or they may adopt a more complicated approach by following a scenario. If they meet the requisites of self-con-tainance and reference to a single learning objective, educa-tional videos may be identified as learning objects. Comple-menting other types of learning objects with the advantage of depicting authentic situations, these short focused-on record-ings are attractive and didactically effective tools in many mod-ularised teaching and learning settings.

In chemistry available educational videos reproduce lectures, laboratory sessions or industrial procedures7; but often their role is to visualise and explain macroscopic phenomena accord-ing to a well-designed scenario8. The great merit of these non-

6 http://scioly.org/wiki/index.php/Chemistry_Lab 7 for example: http://www.learnerstv.com/Free-Chemistry-video-lec-ture-courses.htm; http://freevideolectures.com/Univer-sity/MIT/Chemistry/Subject/Page1; http://www.freelance-teacher.com/videos.htm 8 for example: http://www.watchknowlearn.org/Category.aspx?Cate-goryID=126; http://www.rsc.org/Learn-Chemistry;

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interactive learning objects relies in their capacity to acquaint students with real life procedures, in which factors considered irrelevant may be encountered.

3. The Role of Models Models and Modelling

Main aim of models is to visualise abstract entities, and thus provide a basis for deriving assumptions and formulating pre-dictions. In this frame, a efficacious model should act as a re-search tool, used to obtain information on a system that cannot be observed or measured directly, and generate hypotheses, which may be tested against the target. Evidently characterised by analogy to the system under investigation, a model is none-theless kept as simple as possible by deliberately excluding some parameters; while it is developed through an interactive process permiting empirical data lead to re-evaluation and re-vision. Furthermore, multiple models can be developed for the same target, since there might be several approaches for ex-plaining or conceptualising the nature of the phenomenon ex-amined; and a variety of semiotic resources are available for constructing models. By representing different aspects of the same system or the same pattern with different levels of pre-cision, multiple models seem to involve a deeper understanding than the presumably best single model.

http://edutube.org/en/category/chemistry; http://www.learner.org/resources/series61.html; http://www.pta-ble.com/

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By challenging students’ internal knowledge schemes and en-couraging them to evaluate and assess the logic of their think-ing, model-based education is fully consistent with personal and social constructivist theories, in which all learning is de-pendent on language and communication. Learning with mod-els implicates learning about models and thinking with mental models; as well as learning from models and learning by mod-elling. In this context, the predictive nature of models should be emphasised, in order to prevent that students regard them as final versions of knowledge.

In science education – learning science, learning about science, learning to do science – models and modelling play a prominent role at connecting the macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic levels9. Thus, they affect students’ ability to move from alter-native to scientifically acceptable conceptions; and support the

9 Grosslight, L., Unger, C., Jay, E., Smith, C. (1991). Understanding Models and their Use in Science: Conceptions of Middle and High School Students and Experts. J. Res. Sci. Teach., 28(9), 799-822. - Harrison, A., Treagust, D. (2000). A Typology of School Science Models. International Journal Of Science Education, 22(9). - Trea-gust, D., Chittleborough, G., & Mamiala, T. (2004). Students' Under-standing of the Descriptive and Predictive Nature of Teaching Models in Organic Chemistry. Research In Science Education, 34(1), 1-20. - Coll, R., France, B., Taylor, I. (2005). The Role of Models and Analo-gies in Science Education: Implications from Research. International Journal Of Science Education, 27(2), 183-198. - Rushton, G., Lotter, C., Singer, J., (2011). Chemistry Teachers’ Emerging Expertise in In-quiry Teaching: The Effect of a Professional Development Model on Beliefs and Practice. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 22 (1), 23-52. - Barak, M., Hussein-Farraj, R., (2012). Integrating Model-Based Learning and Animations for Enhancing Students’ Understand-ing of Proteins Structure and Function. Research in Science Educa-tion, 43 (2), 619-636.

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development of mental models in what concerns structures, processes or notions. This role is further accentuated in the discipline of chemistry, since generating, evaluatimg and revis-ing models has always been a significant tool in elucidating properties of and changes in matter.

The predictive function of models provides students with the opportunity to apply inquiry-based learning in a chemistry classroom, and thus convert data and information into useful structured knowledge. Indeed, an initial prediction/hypothesis followed by the introduction of a model may motivate students to use the latter as a tool for developing a second prediction on the target phenomenon, which will subsequently verified. A metacognitive phase – reflection – at the end enhances aware-ness of the whole procedure, and on nature and purpose of models and modelling, enabling students to control over what they do and how they do it.

Models as Learning Objects: Animations

At all levels of science education, students have difficulties in visualising structures in three dimensions, in building their mental models of dynamic phenomena and processes, and in conceptualising abstract notions at submicroscopic level. In-structional aids utiised to overcome these barriers may be static or dynamic: the former can be manufactured constructions, nonetheless the latter are almost exclusively digital. When us-ing static models, learners have several evident benefits, since they may re-inspect different parts of the display, while en-hancing their generative processing, for example by mentally animating the representation or explaining the key changes from one position/frame to the next.

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On the contrary, dynamic representations – such as animations – may place heavy demand on learners’ working memory, dueto the continuous, self-paced integration of information in the sequence of positions/frames. In addition, they portray phe-nomena as mechanical and deterministic processes missing the element of randomness and probability. The benefits of using animations are, however, outreaching these limitations. Apart from assisting persons with lower spatial ability, the cognitive functions of animations consist in providing more detailed and accurate representations by displaying movement; elucidating the dynamic, interactive and multi-particulate nature of scien-tific processes; and offering the capability to control the speed of changing positions/frames so as to grant time for cause and effect reflection. On the whole, instructional animations con-tribute in making teaching more attractive, in highlighting im-portant significant points of a topic, in providing feedback, in granting a visual context for abstract notions, and in clarifying relationships through visual means10.

Animations in teaching and learning chemistry present phe-nomena or concepts at macroscopic level and enable conveying a complete mental image of changes in matter. Learners in a chemistry classroom may use animations in order to interpret

10 Yang, E., Andre, T., Greenbowe, T.J., Tibell, L., (2003). Spatial Ability and the Impact of Visualisation/Animation on Learning Elec-trochemistry. International Journal of Science Education, 25 (3), 329-349. - Tasker, R., Dalton, R., (2006). Research into Practice: Visualisation of the Molecular World Using Animations. Chemistry Ed-ucation Research and Practice, 2006, 7 (2), 141-159. - Yarden, H., Yarden, A., (2010). Learning Using Dynamic and Static Visualisa-tions: Students' Comprehension. Prior Knowledge and Conceptual Status of a Biotechnological Method. Research in Science Education, 40 (3), 375-402.

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a chemical process or to reason about a chemical phenomenon. Hence, animations encourage students in developing and ap-plying mental models of molecular processes; in discussing with others or exploring by their own chemical structures and reactions; in identifying misconceptions; and in transferring sci-entific perceptions to similar novel situations.

In addition to the use of available digital animations11, free web-base design tools permit developing new ones, in order to visualise chemical phenomena or concepts. Two largely recog-nised applications based on different approaches are Chem-Sense®, specific for chemistry education, and K-sketch®, gen-erating any type of sketches or animations. ChemSense® was developed as part of a non-profit research project at SRI Inter-national, funded by the National Science Foundation (USA), and and is licensed solely for evaluation purposes12. It is aimed at assisting students overcome their difficulties in understand-ing chemical concepts and imagine the world of molecular en-tities and reactions, so that they may express their understand-ing of chemical phenomena in a variety of dynamic models. K-Sketch® is a general public license software developed as re-search project at the School of Information Systems, Singapore Management University; and constitutes a general-purpose, flexible, informal, 2D animation, pen-based sketching system

11 for example: Chemical Principles (Mc Millan Education); ACS chemistry for life (American Chemical Society); Photodentro (Hellenic Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs); chemistry silberberg (Online Learning Center, Corporation of National and Community Service, USA); Teaching Flash Animations (Sam Huston State Univer-sity); Chemistry Animations (Oklahoma State University); Russell Kightley Media: Scientific Illustrator & Animator; Essential Chemistry (Mc Graw Hill Education); Mind Zeit Chemistry. 12 http://chemsense.sri.com/download/index.html

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relying on users’ intuitive sense of space and time, while still supporting a wide range of uses13. Although not specifically de-signed for chemistry, it efficiently illustrates phenomena like particle collision or oxidation reactions, while enabling to depict molecular orbitals or indicate the effect of lone electron pairs pair in the geometry of molecules. In this context, a number of portable devices supporting free on-line applications – smartphone, iPhone, iPad – may be used as valuable teaching tools, since they parmit direct use of animations in any class-room.

4. The Role of Simulations Simulating a System’s Behaviour

Should a model serve in interpretng a system, operation of the system over time may be efficiently represented by a simula-tion. Defined as appropriate technical – mathematical – imita-tions of a system’s behaviour through another system bearing different scales and modes, simulations are highly interactive and dynamic. Due to the fact, in recent years digital (computer) simulations by far outbalance conventional approaches in num-ber and complexity. Easily distributed over the web and the more often designed to allow for flexible use, simulations are largely incorporated into teaching and learning environments, since they simplify understanding of processes and therefore enhance motivation of learners, while reducing expenditure and risks. Nonetheless, a number of negative factors should carefully be dealt with. As an example, users do not interfere

13 http://ksketch.smu.edu.sg/app/sketch.html

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with the model itself and tend to confound with reality a sim-plified computer-generated environment, in which variables are easily, equally and independently controlled.

Simulations as Learning Objects

As a visual tool for teaching and learning processes or con-cepts, simulations are constructively integrated in science edu-cation, particularly in the form of virtual laboratories14. Based on a comprehensive learning management system, these are aimed at providing remote access to laboratories and at per-miting students conduct virtual experiments – as preparation for actual practical work, or simply for exploring the world of science in scenario-based activities. Thus, the learner is ac-quainted with the procedures and understands better the con-tents offered. In chemistry, concepts are visualised through in-teraction at various levels; and connenctions between qualita-tive or quantitative predictions and actual chemical phenomena are elucidated step by step, while hundreds of standard rea-gents can be selected and manipulated in a reality-like way.

Among a substantial number of computer-generated simula-tions related to chemistry15, the IrYdium Chem Lab® and the PhET Simulations® are of outstanding interest. The IrYdium Chem Lab® is an off-line/on-line free software developed by

14 Paul Kirschner, P., Huisman, W., (1998), Dry Laboratories in Sci-ence Education: Computer-Based Practical Work. International Jour-nal of Science Education, 20 (6), 665-682. - Harlen, W., (1999), Ef-fective Teaching of Science: A Review of Research. ed. Scottish Council for Research in Education (ed.), Edinburgh, 105 p. 15 for example: www.chemcollective.org; www.chemvlab.com

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The Chemistry Collective and available in a number of lan-guages16. Topics include molarity and density, stoichiometry and limiting reagents, quantitative analysis, chemical equilib-rium, solubility and solids, thermochemistry, acids and bases. Problem types encompass ‘predict and check’, virtual experi-ments, layered exercises, and scenarios; and are intended to function as supplements to classes, as homework in pre- and post-laboratory settings, and in designing a laboratory course. PhET Simulations® propose in a number of languages over a hundred research-based interactive simulations focused on teaching and learning physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology or geology at all levels of education17. The free software is aimed at implementing an environment for exploring and con-structing the understanding of new domains, mainly by reduc-ing cognitive load, and productively constraining and scaffold-ing interaction. It can be applied in the classroom, as home-work or during workshops and seminars.

16 http://collective.chem.cmu.edu/vlab/vlab.php 17 www.phet.colorado.edu

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DISTRIBUTING VIRTUAL LEARNING OBJECTS IN CHEMISTRY:

THE G-LOREP FEDERATION

Ioannis A. Kozaris (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki) Sergio Tasso (University of Perugia)

1. Introduction to Learning Objects General Framework

A learning object is defined as any digital resource that can be reused to support learning. Among the various types of teach-ing strategies, the following six categories directly affect learn-ing objects: tutorial and video tutorial; case study; simulation; problem solving; survey; and summary.

To be efficient and effective a learning object should be:

• modular • self-consistant • interoperable • available • reusable

The construction of a learning object requires special attention, because it is an item encompassing a content, a context, and a learning purpose. A written text of appropriate length should accompany a digital learning object.

The question arises as to the size of a learning object. Indeed, as a single, self-consistent learning unit it is usually equivalent

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to a two-hour-lecture; and is designed to be used in multiple contexts, being immediately available in a pertinent repository. Contents that are more complex are broken down and consid-ered parts of a teaching block. 1 ECTS credit would then be allocated to the eight-hour block.

Learning objects are described and classified in a standardised manner using metadata, which are implemented as markers defining each characteristic of the item.

Guidelines on How to Build a Learning Object

◊ Designing Learning Objects:• Keep your educational goal in focus• Choose a meaningful content that directly supports your

educational goal• Present the content in appropriate ways• Select appropriate activity structures.

Graphic Design: Each page or screen should be visually bal-anced. Use the physical placement on the screen or page to establish and strengthen visual relationships between items. Select one or two visual elements and use them throughout the piece to create a sense of rhythm. If the elements in your de-sign are not the same, make them very – not just slightly – different to create contrast. All elements should work together to create a harmonious whole.

• Design for Usability: Be consistent in the use of designelements, language, formatting, appearance, and func-tionality. Allow learners to control their interactions; givethem the freedom to choose how to complete tasks. Fol-low established standards of design and use conventions

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that are familiar to learners. Simplify the design wher-ever possible, and stick to basic principles of aesthetics.

• Design for Accessibility: Design for device independence.Provide alternative formats for visual and auditory con-tent. Allow learners to control moving content.

• Design for Reusability: Solve the copyright problem forothers who want to reuse your materials. Make sure your learning object is self-contained and can stand on its own. Design your learning object so it may be used by a different audience.

• Design for Interoperability: Include appropriatemetadata in learning objects. When you add learning ob-jects to a collection or library, provide requested metadata information.

• Choose Technology and Development Tools: Choose atechnology and a tool that is comfortable for you or the learner. Choose a technology that supports the features you want to include in your learning object. Choose a tool that is supported by your institution.

• Care for Your Learning Objects: Keep your learning ob-jects on a secure, stable computer with permanent In-ternet access. Provide contact information, copyright

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and use licenses, technical requirements, and version in-formation. Provide sample assignments, links to related resources, and other support material.

Guidelines on How to Describe a Learning Object

A learning object is described using metadata – data about data – needed for indexing, and for automatic management andprocessing. Several metadata schemes are available, so IEEE LOM, Dublin Core, IMS, ADL, CanCore, GEM, EdNA etc.

DUBLIN CORE METADATA SCHEME Simple Dublin Core

Element Set Qualified Dublin Core

Element Set Title Title Creator Creator Subject Subject Description Description Publisher Publisher Contributor Contributor Date Date Type Type Format Format Identifier Identifier Source Source Language Language Relation Relation Coverage Coverage Rights Rights

Audience Provenance Rights Holder

The Dublin Core Metadata Scheme was considered too simple for describing learning resources, thus a more complicated cat-egorisation was developed – IEEE 1484.12.1 Open Standard

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for Learning Object Metadata. IEEE LOM defines a learning ob-ject through nine categories, each one being composed of many elements.

IEEE LOM METADATA SCHEME LOM Categories

General

Lifecycle

Meta-metadata

Tecnical

Educational

Rights

Relation

Annotation

Classification

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Educational Category Element Description

Interactivity Type

active: Active learning (e.g. learning by doing) is sup-ported by content that directly induces productive action by the learner. expositive: Expositive learning (e.g. passive learning) oc-curs when the learners’ job mainly consists of absorbing the content exposed to them. mixed: A blend of active and expositive interactivity types.

Learning Resource Type exercise, simulation, questionnaire, diagram, figure, graph, index, slide, table, narrative text, examination, experi-ment, problem statement, self assessment, lecture

Interactivity Level very low, low, medium, high, very high

Semantic Density very low, low, medium, high, very high

Intended End User Role teacher, author, learner, manager

Context school, higher education, training, other

Typical Age Range (range)

Difficulty very easy, easy, medium difficult, very difficult

Typical Learning Time open text element

Description open text element

Language standardised definition

2. The Repository Federation G-LOREP Repositories are archives that collect and catalogue learning objects according to the rules provided by the descriptive metadata. A server equipped with a local Data Base Manage-ment System is physically representing them. G-LOREP 18 (Grid

18 http://glorep-mat.dmi.unipg.it/glorep/

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Learning Object Repository) is a distributed repository for edu-cational materials related to chemistry, molecular sciences and chemical engineering.

The repository architecture can be:

centralised or distributed

G-LOREP applies a hybrid architecture:

◊ G-LOREP Fault Tolerance: The shared database plays onlythe passive role of data storage. If the shared databasedoes not work:• all functionalities are on the servers• most of the shared information is replicated inside the

servers• each server works as expected with local and remote

data• new servers are not allowed to join the federation.

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◊ G-LOREP Scalability: Each server can receive participationrequests from new members wishing to join the federation.A wishing-to-join server is accepted by the federation if theauthentication data of the request are valid, and the feder-ation is open. When a new server joins the federation:• it must connect to the shared database• it receives a complete picture of the status of the feder-

ation• a bootstrap procedure is executed in order to download

remote metadata and cache files to the new server; andupdate the shared database and the other servers withits content.

◊ G-LOREP Synchronisation: When all servers and the shareddatabase have the same knowledge base of the federation,they are considered as synchronised. Every operation trig-gered on a node is then mirrored on the shared databaseand notified to all the servers to keep the federation in syn-chronisation.• contents are managed in Drupal® by introducing a new

node type called Linkable Object• each Linkable Object is identified by a Federation Unique

Identifier• through the Federation Unique Identifier each content is

recognised inside the federation• when an object is created, its metadata (Federation

Unique Identifier, title, description, Software Attach-ment, etc.) are sent to the shared database and then tothe federation

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• when a server receives a notification indicating that anew Linkable Object has been created, it creates a newnode that will represent the remote object.

◊ Software Attachment: The Linkable Object node can beused to create other types of content called Software At-tachments. These are programmes necessary to the enduser for managing certain types of contents downloadedfrom the federation, for instance visualisers for particular orprivate file formats• A learning object may depend on one (or more) software

attachments.• During an object upload it is possible to mark the new

Linkable Object as a software attachment, enabling newand/or existing objects to depend on it.

• To publish a new Linkable Object in the federation theadministrator has to go to the page “Content”, select theitem to be published and push the update button.

◊ G-LOREP Features:• Federation management: joining and leaving; distributed

search; synchronisation recovery; learning object man-agement; dependency management

• Moodle data import tools• New federation data transfer module• Classification with a new Assistant• Definition of an extended LO format (IEEE LOM based).

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Re-tuning for Competences in Chemistry/Chemical Engineering

for Europe 2020

European Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Education Network

A QUALITY LABEL FOR SHORT CYCLE HIGHER EDUCATION

IN CHEMICAL SCIENCES

Evangelia A. Varella (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)

1. General RemarksIn the Leuven/Louvain-la-Neuve Communiqué (2009), the Eu-ropean ministers responsible for Higher Education stated that higher education is being modernised with the adoption of a three-cycle structure including, within national contexts, the possibility of intermediate qualifications linked to the first cycle. They further anticipated that within national contexts, interme-diate qualifications within the first cycle can be a means of wid-ening access to higher education.

Three years later, in the Bucharest Communiqué (2012) the ministers agreed to explore how the QF-EHEA could take ac-count of short cycle qualifications (EQF Level 5) and encourage countries to use the QF-EHEA for referencing these qualifica-tions in national contexts where they exist. To this aim, they committed themselves to explore how the QF-EHEA could take account of short cycle qualifications in national contexts, at the European level, in preparation of the Ministerial Conference in 2015 and together with relevant stakeholders.

On the whole, there are two types of post-secondary educa-tion:

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Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Education

This type of education may be general or vocational. It has practically no links with higher education, is very often taking place in secondary schools, and offers a short specialisation or a preparation for first cycle studies.

This type of education falls under Level 4 in the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011). In this frame, it:

◊ Provides learning experiences building on secondary educa-tion preparing for labour market entry as well as tertiaryeducation.

◊ Aims at the individual acquisition of knowledge, skills andcompetencies below the high level of complexity character-istic of tertiary education.

◊ Is typically designed to provide individuals who completedISCED Level 3 with the qualifications that they require forprogression to tertiary education or for employment whentheir ISCED Level 3 qualification does not grant such access.

This type of education falls under Skill Level 2 in the Interna-tional Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO 2008), since the knowledge and skills required for competent performance in some occupations at this level requires comple-tion of vocation-specific non-tertiary education undertaken af-ter completion of secondary education.

This type of education falls under Level 4 in the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL). According to the Descriptors, relevant learning outcomes are:

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◊ Factual and theoretical knowledge in broad contexts withina field of work or study.

◊ A range of cognitive and practical skills required to generatesolutions to specific problems in a field of work or study.

◊ The ability to exercise self-management within the guide-lines of work or study contexts that are usually predicta-ble, but are subject to change.

◊ The ability to supervise the routine work of others, tak-ing some responsibility for the evaluation and improve-ment of work or study activities.

This type of education is not referred to in the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA).

Short Cycle Higher Education

This type of education may be general or vocational, and is understood as:

◊ Tertiary sub-degree education, embedded in higher educa-tion institutions.

◊ Tertiary education taking place in separate institutions – col-leges, centres for adult education, professional organisa-tions, companies – but having strong links with higher edu-cation institutions.

◊ Tertiary education taking place in separate institutions – col-leges, centres for adult education, professional organisa-tions, companies – and having no or only occasional linkswith higher education institutions.

◊ Post-secondary education having strong links with highereducation, and very often delivering identical qualificationsto those received in tertiary short cycle education.

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This type of education falls under Level 5 in the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011). In this frame, it:

◊ Has a minimum of two years full-time equivalent duration.◊ Is often designed to provide participants with professional

knowledge, skills and competences.◊ Is typically practically based, occupationally specific, and

prepares students to enter the labour market.◊ May provide pathways to other tertiary education pro-

grammes.◊ Includes academic programmes below bachelor or equiva-

lent.

This type of education falls under Skill Level 2 in the Interna-tional Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO 2008), since the knowledge and skills required for competent performance in occupations at this level are usually obtained as a result of study at a higher educational institution for a period of 1 to 3 years following completion of secondary edu-cation (short or medium cycle).

This type of education falls under Level 5 in the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL). According to the Descriptor, relevant learning outcomes are:

◊ Comprehensive, specialised, factual and theoreticalknowledge within a field of work or study and an aware-ness of the boundaries of that knowledge.

◊ A comprehensive range of cognitive and practical skills re-quired to develop creative solutions to abstract problems.

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◊ The ability to exercise management and supervision in con-texts of work or study activities where there is unpredictablechange.

◊ The ability to review and develop performance of self andothers.

This type of education is addressed in the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA) as short cycles linked to / within higher education first cycles. The Descriptor developed by the Joint Quality Ini-tiative as part of the Bologna process (Dublin Descriptor), cor-responds to the learning outcomes for Level 5 in the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL).

Thus, qualifications that signify completion of the higher edu-cation short cycle (within the first cycle) are awarded to stu-dents who:

◊ Have demonstrated knowledge and understanding in a fieldof study that builds upon general secondary education andis typically at a level supported by advanced textbooks; suchknowledge provides an underpinning for a field of work orvocation, personal development, and further studies tocomplete the first cycle.

◊ Can apply their knowledge and understanding in occupa-tional contexts.

◊ Have the ability to identify and use data to formulate re-sponses to well-defined concrete and abstract problems.

◊ Can communicate about their understanding, skills and ac-tivities, with peers, supervisors and clients.

◊ Have the learning skills to undertake further studies withsome autonomy.

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Concerning recognition of professional qualifications, the Di-rective 2005/36/EC, Art.11c states that relevant diplomas should certify successful completion of:

(i) either training at post-secondary level other than that re-ferred to in points (d) and (e) of a duration of at least one year or of an equivalent duration on a part-time basis, one of the conditions of entry of which is, as a general rule, the successful completion of the secondary course required to obtain entry to university or higher education or the completion of equivalent school education of the second secondary level, as well as the professional training which may be required in addition to that post-secondary course; or

(ii) in the case of a regulated profession, training with a special structure, included in Annex II [Paramedical and childcare training courses; Master craftsman sector, which represents education and training courses concerning skills not covered by Title III, Chapter II, of this Directive; Seafaring sector; Tech-nical sector], equivalent to the level of training provided for under (i), which provides a comparable professional standard and which prepares the trainee for a comparable level of re-sponsibilities and functions.

A distinction has to be made between countries having Short Cycle Higher Education at Level 5 in the European Qualifica-tions Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL), and coun-tries, where Short Cycle Higher Education is not part of the higher education structure as understood in the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA), but where vocational education at Level 5 in the Euro-pean Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL)

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is offered. In this document, the term Short Cycle Higher Edu-cation indicates study programmes, which are placed by the pertinent national ministries at Level 5 in the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA), and are also seen as an intermediate level within or linked to the first cycle of the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area, (QF-EHEA); and which are organised by universities, colleges, centres for adult education, or even upper secondary schools.

The following tables are summarising the situation in the Euro-pean Union, in what concerns Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Ed-ucation at Level 4 in the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL) with no possibility of transition to first cycle studies (TABLE I), Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Education at Level 5 in the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL) with possibility of transition to first cycle studies (TABLE II), and Short Cycle Higher Educa-tion (TABLE III).

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Use of ECTS &

DS Duration

Transition to First Cycle

Studies

Accreditation of Prior

Experiential Learning

Multilingualism National

Qualifications Framework

AT NO 1.0/2.0 YEARS

NO

NO YES YES BG NO 1.0/2.0 YEARS NO YES YES EE NO 0.5-2.5 YEARS NO NO YES EL NO 1.0-2.0 YEARS NO YES developing LT NO 1.0-2.0 YEARS NO NO YES PL NO 1.9-2.5 YEARS NO NO developing RO NO 1.0-3.0 YEARS NO NO developing SE NO 2.0 YEARS NO YES YES SL NO 0.5-2.0 YEARS NO NO developing SR NO 2.0-3.0 YEARS YES NO developing

TABLE I

Use of ECTS &

DS Duration

Transition to First Cycle

Studies

Accreditation of Prior

Experiential Learning

Multilingualism National

Qualifications Framework

CZ NO 2.0 YEARS

YES

NO NO developing DE NO 2.0/3.5 YEARS YES YES YES HR NO 1.0/2.0 YEARS YES YES YES IT NO 1.0-3.0 YEARS YES NO developing

TABLE II

Use of ECTS &

DS Duration

Transition to First Cycle

Studies

Accreditation of Prior

Experiential Learning

Multilingualism National

Qualifications Framework

BEde YES 180 ECTS

YES

YES YES developing BEfr/adult YES 120 ECTS YES NO developing

BEnl YES 90/20 ECTS YES YES YES CH/adult NO part-time variable YES YES YES

CY YES 60/120/180 ECTS YES YES developing DK YES 90-150 ECTS YES YES YES ES YES ECTS 120 ECTS YES NO developing FI YES 120 ECTS YES YES YES

Use of ECTS &

DS Duration

Transition to First Cycle

Studies

Accreditation of Prior

Experiential Learning

Multilingualism National

Qualifications Framework

FR YES 120 ECTS

YES

YES YES YES HU YES 120 ECTS NO YES YES IE YES 120 ECTS YES NO YES IS YES 30-120 ECTS NO YES developing LI YES part-time variable NO YES developing LV YES 120-180 ECTS YES YES YES LU YES 120 ECTS YES YES YES ME YES 120 ECTS YES YES YES MT YES 90-120 ECTS YES YES YES NL YES 120 ECTS YES YES YES NO YES 120 ECTS YES YES YES PT YES 60-90 ECTS YES NO YES SI YES 120 ECTS YES YES developing TR YES 120/180 ECTS NO YES developing

UKewni YES 120 ECTS YES NO YES UKsc YES 60/120 ECTS YES YES YES

TABLE III

Curricula purely dealing with chemical sciences are not often encountered in Short Cycle Higher Education. Nevertheless, topics related to chemistry and chemical technology are fre-quently included in study programmes dealing with biotech-nics, environmental studies, restoration, agriculture, do-mestic sciences, engineering, health care, and product devel-opment. The following table is summarising relevant results for Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Education and Short Cycle Higher Education (TABLE IV).

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Chemistry Biotechnics Environmental Studies Restoration Agriculture Domestic

Sciences Engineering Health Care

Product Development

AT YES YES YES YES YES YES BEde YES BEfr YES YES YES BEnl YES YES YES YES BG YES YES YES YES YES YES CH YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES CY YES YES CZ YES YES YES YES YES YES YES DE YES YES YES YES YES DK YES YES YES YES YES YES YES EE YES YES YES YES YES EL YES YES YES YES YES ES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES FI YES YES YES YES FR YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES HR YES YES HU YES YES YES YES YES YES YES IE YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES IS YES IT YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES LI YES LT YES YES YES YES YES YES

Chemistry Biotechnics Environmental Studies Restoration Agriculture Domestic

Sciences Engineering Health Care

Product Development

LV YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES LU YES YES YES YES ME YES YES YES YES MT YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES NL YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES YES YES YES YES PL YES YES YES YES YES YES YES PT YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES RO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES SE YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES SI YES YES YES YES YES SL YES YES YES YES YES YES SR YES YES YES YES YES TR YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES

UKewni YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES UKsc YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES

TABLE IV

2. The DescriptorsThe qualification may be awarded to any study programme bearing at least 120 ECTS credits and meeting the require-ments set, even if it is not clearly assigned as a Chemistry cur-riculum, provided it is placed at Level 5 in the European Quali-fications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL), and is seen as an intermediate level within or linked to the first cycle of the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Edu-cation Area (QF-EHEA).

The following tables are bringing together the Descriptors de-fining Levels 4/5/6 in EQF-LLL (TABLE V), and the Descriptors referring to Short Cycle and First Cycle in QF-EHEA vs. the De-scriptors defining Levels 5/6 in EQF-LLL (TABLE VI).

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KNOWLEDGE SKILLS COMPETENCE

In the context of EQF, knowledge is described as the-oretical and/or factual.

In the context of EQF, skills are described as cognitive (involv-ing the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking) and practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of meth-ods, materials, tools and instru-ments).

In the context of EQF, compe-tence is described in terms of responsibility and autonomy.

LEVEL 4 LEARNING OUTCOMES

Factual and theoretical knowledge in broad contexts within a field of work or study.

A range of cognitive and practi-cal skills required to generate solutions to specific problems in a field of work or study.

Exercise self-management within the guidelines of work or study contexts that are usually predictable, but are subject to change. Supervise the routine work of others, taking some responsi-bility for the evaluation and im-provement of work or study ac-tivities.

KNOWLEDGE SKILLS COMPETENCE

In the context of EQF, knowledge is described as the-oretical and/or factual.

In the context of EQF, skills are described as cognitive (involv-ing the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking) and practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of meth-ods, materials, tools and instru-ments).

In the context of EQF, compe-tence is described in terms of responsibility and autonomy.

LEVEL 5

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Comprehensive, specialised, factual and theoretical knowledge within a field of work or study and an aware-ness of the boundaries of that knowledge.

A comprehensive range of cog-nitive and practical skills re-quired to develop creative solu-tions to abstract problems.

Exercise management and su-pervision in contexts of work or study activities where there is unpredictable change. Review and develop perfor-mance of self and others.

LEVEL 6 Advanced knowledge of a field of work or study, involving a critical understanding of theo-ries and principles.

Advanced skills, demonstrating mastery and innovation, re-quired to solve complex and unpredictable problems in a specialised field of work or study.

Manage complex technical or professional activities or pro-jects, taking responsibility for decision making in unpredicta-ble work or study contexts. Take responsibility for manag-ing professional development of individuals and groups.

TABLE V

EQF-LLL QF-EHEA

LEVEL 5 (EQF-LLL)

SHORT CYCLE (QF-EHEA)

Learning outcomes are: ◊ Comprehensive, specialised, factual and

theoretical knowledge within a field of workor study and an awareness of the bounda-ries of that knowledge.

◊ A comprehensive range of cognitive andpractical skills required to develop creativesolutions to abstract problems.

◊ Exercise management and supervision incontexts of work or study activities wherethere is unpredictable change.

◊ Review and develop performance of selfand others.

Qualifications are awarded to students who: ◊ Have demonstrated knowledge and understanding in a field

of study that builds upon general secondary education andis typically at a level supported by advanced textbooks; suchknowledge provides an underpinning for a field of work orvocation, personal development, and further studies to com-plete the first cycle.

◊ Can apply their knowledge and understanding in occupa-tional contexts.

◊ Have the ability to identify and use data to formulate re-sponses to well-defined concrete and abstract problems.

◊ Can communicate about their understanding, skills and ac-tivities with peers, supervisors and clients.

◊ Have the learning skills to undertake further studies withsome autonomy.

EQF-LLL QF-EHEA

LEVEL 6 (EQF-LLL)

FIRST CYCLE (QF-EHEA)

Learning outcomes are: ◊ Advanced knowledge of a field of work or

study, involving a critical understanding of theories and principles.

◊ Advanced skills, demonstrating mastery andinnovation, required to solve complex and unpredictable problems in a specialised field of work or study.

◊ Manage complex technical or professionalactivities or projects, taking responsibility for decision making in unpredictable work or study contexts.

◊ Take responsibility for managing professionaldevelopment of individuals and groups.

Qualifications are awarded to students who: ◊ Have demonstrated knowledge and understanding in a field

of study that builds upon and their general secondary edu-cation, and is typically at a level that, whilst supported by advanced textbooks, includes some aspects that will be in-formed by knowledge of the forefront of their field of study.

◊ Can apply their knowledge and understanding in a mannerthat indicates a professional approach to their work or voca-tion, and have competences typically demonstrated through devising and sustaining arguments and solving problems within their field of study.

◊ Have the ability to gather and interpret relevant data (usu-ally within their field of study) to form judgements that in-clude reflection on relevant social, scientific or ethical issues.

◊ Can communicate information, ideas, problems and solutionsto both specialist and non-specialist audiences.

◊ Have developed those learning skills that are necessary forthem to continue to undertake further study with a high de-gree of autonomy.

TABLE VI

It is evident that Level 5 in the European Qualifications Frame-work for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL) requires learning out-comes that go clearly beyond the restricted perspective of Level 4, but do not attain the complexity and independence of Level 6. Thus, knowledge should be comprehensive and specialised,even though critical understanding of theories and principles is not required. Skills should permit developing solutions to ab-stract problems, but not to complex and unpredictable ones. Responsibility and autonomy should reach the stage of facing activities where there is unpredictable change; nevertheless, decision making in complex unpredictable contexts is not asked for. In the same frame, the competence of developing perfor-mance of self and others should be acquired, however without managing professional development of individuals and groups. Although the approach is somehow diverse, the above-men-tioned Descriptors for Level 5 in the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL) can be paralleled to the Dublin Descriptor referring to the Short Cycle in the Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA). As a matter of fact, the relevant Dublin De-scriptor requires that knowledge and understanding are sup-ported by advanced textbooks; and are providing an underpin-ning for a field of work or vocation, personal development, and further studies to complete the first cycle; while learning skills permit undertaking these more advanced studies with some autonomy. These requisites correspond to the Level 5 knowledge learning outcomes, asking for comprehensive, spe-cialised, factual and theoretical knowledge within a field of work or study and an awareness of the boundaries of that knowledge.

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In addition, the Dublin Descriptor requires that knowledge and understanding are applicable in occupational contexts, and re-sponse to well-defined concrete and abstract problems is as-sured. These requisites correspond to the Level 5 skills/compe-tence learning outcomes, asking for a comprehensive range of cognitive and practical skills necessary for proposing creative solutions to abstract problems, for exercising management and supervision in contexts where there is unpredictable change, and for developing performance of self and others.

Finally, the Dublin Descriptor requires that graduates can com-municate about their understanding, skills and activities with peers, supervisors and clients. These requisite is included in the Level 5 competence learning outcomes, asking for the ability to exercise management and supervision, and to review and de-velop performance of self and others.

The relevant Dublin Descriptor is specified for chemical sci-ences as the Budapest Descriptor for the First Cycle. Ac-cording to it, qualifications that signify completion of the first cycle in chemistry are awarded to students who:

◊ Have a good grounding in the core areas of chemistry: in-organic, organic, physical, biological and analytical chemis-try; and in addition the necessary background in mathemat-ics and physics.

◊ Have basic knowledge in several other more specialised ar-eas of chemistry.

◊ Have built up practical skills in chemistry during laboratorycourses, at least in inorganic, organic and physical chemis-try, in which they have worked individually or in groups asappropriate to the area.

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◊ Have developed generic skills in the context of chemistrywhich are applicable in many other contexts.

◊ Have attained a standard of knowledge and competencewhich will give them access to second cycle course units ordegree programmes.

Such graduates will:

◊ Have the ability to gather and interpret relevant scientificdata and make judgements that include reflection on rele-vant scientific and ethical issues.

◊ Have the ability to communicate information, ideas, prob-lems and solutions to informed audiences.

◊ Have competences which fit them for entry- level graduateemployment in the general workplace, including the chemi-cal industry.

◊ Have developed those learning skills that are necessary forthem to undertake further study with a sufficient degree ofautonomy.

In correlating the Dublin Descriptor for the First Cycle, devel-oped in the frame of the Qualifications Framework for the Eu-ropean Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA), to the corresponding Budapest Descriptor, it is clear that several general issues are almost taken over, thus the statements that qualifications are awarded to students who have the ability to gather and inter-pret relevant data (usually within their field of study) to form judgements that include reflection on relevant social, scientific or ethical issues; can communicate information, ideas, prob-lems and solutions to both specialist and non-specialist audi-ences; and have developed those learning skills that are nec-essary for them to continue to undertake further study with a high degree of autonomy. In the same context, generic skills

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developed in the context of chemistry are considered in a broad way as applicable in many other contexts, and therefore are not expressly dealt with.

Nevertheless, the generalised statements on knowledge and skills become in the Budapest descriptor subject-specific and by far more detailed. In fact, compulsory and optional chemis-try-related knowledge and skills are enumerated, and their level is referred to the access to second cycle programmes, or entry to employment in the general workplace, including the chemical industry.

In order to evaluate study programmes with regard to the Bu-dapest Descriptor for the Short Cycle, it is of outmost im-portance to specify the educational input and learning out-comes considered necessary for Level 5 in the European Qual-ifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF-LLL).

For the short cycle, subject knowledge and subject-related competences are practically based and occupationally specific. They build upon general secondary education and are at a level supported by advanced textbooks; and offer comprehensive, specialised, factual and theoretical knowledge within the field of study, as well as a comprehensive range of cognitive and practical skills required to develop creative solutions to abstract problems. Their aim is to prepare students to enter the labour market, or to provide pathways to other tertiary education pro-grammes.

In the frame of chemical sciences, subject knowledge refers to the main areas of chemistry, as well as to mathematics and physics. Practical skills, which are acquired during laboratory

56

courses, should include exercises in inorganic, organic and physical chemistry.

Taking into account the above-cited frame, the Budapest De-scriptor for the Short Cycle reads as follows:

Qualifications that signify completion of the short cycle (within or linked to the first cycle) in chemistry are awarded to students who:

◊ Have a good grounding in the main areas of chemistry, es-pecially analytical chemistry; and in addition the necessarybackground in mathematics and physics. This fundamentalknowledge should be practically based and occupationallyspecific, and built upon general secondary education at alevel requiring the support of advanced educational mate-rial.

◊ Have basic knowledge in several other more specialised ar-eas of chemical sciences and/or chemical technology, as re-lated to their particular field of study.

◊ Have built up practical skills in chemical sciences and/orchemical technology during laboratory courses, in whichthey have worked individually or in groups as appropriate tothe area. Although chiefly relevant to each particular fieldof study, laboratory courses should include exercises in in-organic, organic and physical chemistry.

◊ Have developed generic skills in the context of chemistrywhich are applicable in many other contexts.

◊ Have attained a standard of comprehensive, specialised,factual and theoretical knowledge and competence whichwill allow them to continue studies in order to complete thefirst cycle.

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Such graduates will:

◊ Have the ability to identify and use data to formulate crea-tive responses to well-defined concrete and abstract scien-tific problems and ethical issues.

◊ Have the ability to communicate about their understanding,skills and activities with peers, supervisors, clients and anyinformed audience.

◊ Have competences which fit them for practically based, oc-cupationally specific, performance related employment inthe general chemistry-related workplace, including thechemical industry.

◊ Have developed those learning skills that are necessary forthem to undertake further studies with some autonomy.

3. The Quality LabelThe Quality Label19 is addressing the need of evaluating inter-mediate qualifications linked to the first cycle in the area of chemical sciences and chemical technology at a European level, in order to assist widening access to higher education in the Bologna Process signatory countries. Primary aim of the qualification is to provide a short cycle de-gree which will be recognised by other European institutions as being of a standard providing automatic right of access (though not right of admission, which is the prerogative of the receiving

19 Based on the Chemistry Eurobachelor® Framework document: http://ectn-assoc.cpe.fr/chemistry-eurolabels/n/el40_Documenta-tion.htm

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institution) to further studies within first cycle programmes in chemical sciences, and ensuring recognition of knowledge and competences obtained during short cycle studies. Degrees awarded by Label holding institutions are mutually recognised as being of equivalent standard. Therefore, no additional recog-nition procedures are necessary for students wishing to con-tinue their education within the first cycle: course modules leading to learning outcomes relevant to first cycle programmes in chemical sciences and chemical technology are automatically recognised.

In the frame of Label holding institutions graduates should, pro-vided that their performance has been of the required standard, be able to continue their tertiary education either at the degree-awarding institution, or at another equivalent institution in any Bologna Process signatory country. This continuation may ei-ther be immediate or, depending on the career planning of the individual, may take place after an intermediate period, for ex-ample in industry; and will typically lead to a first cycle degree in chemistry or related fields.

The expected outcomes of a short cycle study programme are described by the appropriate Budapest Descriptor, which forms the basis of the qualification. The Label is based on 120 ECTS credits. Nevertheless, it may be used to accredit programmes leading to short cycle degrees, and equivalent to 150 or even 180 ECTS credits. In this case, all requisites of the two year programme have to be met, and the remaining modules are considered as an added value to the curriculum.

Institutions providing short cycle programmes of the proposed type are completely free to decide on the content, nature and

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organisation of courses or modules. The depth, in which indi-vidual aspects are treated, will vary with the nature of specific programmes. The Label asks for a minimum of obligatory or semi-optional modules dealing with the main areas of chemis-try, as well as physics and mathematics. The relevant contents obey the usual patterns of the discipline at Level 5 in the Euro-pean Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning, as clari-fied below. The remaining ECTS credits are freely allocable.

a. Learning Outcomes

In the frame of chemical sciences, subject knowledge refers to the main areas of chemistry, as well as to physics and mathe-matics. Subject-specific competences include cognitive abilities and skills related to chemical sciences and chemical technology, and involving intellectual tasks; and practical skills, typically in-volving the conduct of laboratory work in analogous topics. Fur-thermore, every curriculum should intrinsically develop key competences of a general nature, applicable in many other con-texts.

By following this pattern, employability prospects for graduates will be significantly broadened, while their proficiency for con-tinuing studies within first cycle programmes will be greatly en-hanced.

In the frame of the Quality Label, it is suggested to ensure that students become conversant with the main aspects of chemis-try, and develop the main abilities and competences expected by the end of a short cycle programme. It should be made clear that the learning outcomes listed in the following paragraphs

60

are intended to be indicative rather than a prescription to be adopted word-by-word across all relevant curricula.

◊ Subject Knowledge• Major aspects of chemical terminology, nomenclature and

units.• Major types of chemical reactions and the main characteris-

tics associated with them.• Basic procedures used in chemical analysis and the char-

acterisation of chemical compounds.• Basic concepts of instrumentation.• Characteristics of the different states of matter and theories

used to describe them.• Fundamental aspects of the structure and properties of at-

oms and molecules.• Basic principles of thermodynamics and their applications to

chemistry.• Basic kinetics of chemical change, including catalysis.• Characteristic properties of elements and their com-

pounds.• Fundamental notions of stereochemistry.• Characteristic properties of organic compound classes.• Standard reactions in organic chemistry.

◊ Chemistry-Related Cognitive Abilities and Competences• Ability to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

well-defined facts, concepts, principles and theories relatingto the subject areas identified above.

• Ability to apply such knowledge and understanding to thesolution of standard qualitative and quantitative problems ofa familiar nature.

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• Competences in the evaluation, interpretation and synthesisof uncomplicated chemical information and data referring totaught subjects.

• Ability to recognise and implement basic measurement sci-ence and practice.

• Competences in presenting well-defined scientific material,in writing and orally, to an informed audience.

• Basic computational and data-processing skills, relating tochemical information and data.◊ Chemistry-Related Practical Skills

• Skills in the safe handling of chemical materials, taking intoaccount their physical and chemical properties, includingany specific hazards associated with their use.

• Skills required for the conduct of standard laboratory proce-dures and operation of broadly used instruments in syntheticand analytical work, in relation to both organic and inorganicsystems, and referring to well-defined topics in the frame ofthe subject areas identified above.

• Skills in the monitoring, by observation and measurement,of chemical properties, events or changes related to well-defined topics in the frame of the subject areas identifiedabove, and the systematic and reliable recording and docu-mentation thereof.

• Ability to collect data derived from standard laboratory ob-servations and measurements.

• Ability to conduct risk assessments concerning the use ofchemical substances and laboratory procedures related towell-defined topics in the frame of the subject areas identi-fied above.◊ Key Competences

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• The capacity to apply knowledge in practice, in particularproblem-solving competences, relating to both qualitativeand quantitative information.

• Numeracy and calculation skills, including such aspects asorder-of-magnitude estimations and correct use of units.

• Information-management competences, in relation to pri-mary and secondary information sources, including infor-mation retrieval through on-line computer searches.

• Ability to analyse material on well-defined topics.• The capacity to adapt to new situations.• Information-technology skills, such as word-processing and

spread sheet use, data-logging and storage, subject-relateduse of the Internet.

• Basic skills in planning and time management.• Interpersonal skills, relating to the ability to interact with

other people and to engage in team-working.• Basic communication competences, covering both written

and oral communication, in one of the major European lan-guages (English, German, Italian, French, Spanish), as wellas in the language in which the study programme is deliv-ered.

• Study competences needed for continuing professional de-velopment. These will include in particular the ability to han-dle work situations with a certain degree of autonomy.

• Ethical commitment.

b. Contents

It highly recommended that all course material should be pre-sented in a modular form. Although the ECTS-credit value of

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modules is freely set by each institution, modules should pref-erably correspond to at least 5 ECTS credits. The use of double or perhaps triple modules can certainly be envisaged, for ex-ample in the case of industrial placements. Students should be informed in advance of the expected learning outcomes for each module.

It appears logical to define modules as being compulsory, semi-optional (where a student is required to select one or more modules from a limited range), and elective (where the student may choose one or more modules from a normally much wider range). Compulsory modules will deal with the main sub-disci-plines of chemical sciences – analytical chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry – as well as physics and mathematics, and contain the necessary elements for achieving the learning outcomes for subject knowledge de-scribed previously. Semi-optional modules will deal with sub-disciplines referring to more specialised areas of chemical sci-ences and/or chemical technology, as related to the particular field of study offered.

Practical courses may be organised as separate or integrated modules. Both alternatives have advantages and disad-vantages: if they are organised as separate modules, the prac-tical content of the curriculum will be more transparent, never-theless integrated modules offer better possibilities for synchro-nising theory and practice.

c. Distribution of Credits

Each individual institution will make its own decision as to the distribution of ECTS credits between compulsory, semi-optional

64

and elective modules. It will however be necessary to define a recommended minimum number of credits for the main sub-disciplines of chemical sciences, mathematics and physics.

In this context, modules corresponding to a total of at least 90 ECTS credits should deal with chemical sciences, physics and mathematics. Within these 90 credits, at least 30 should corre-spond to compulsory modules. The remaining 60 (or less) will typically focus on a particular field of study, and correspond to fully applied modules, which will assist students in developing specific chemistry-related cognitive abilities and practical skills intended to foster their expertise in a well-defined discipline. The 30 ECTS credits still available in a two-year curriculum may come from courses not dealing with chemistry, physics and mathematics. Study programmes equivalent to more than 120 ECTS credits may use all surplus credits in the way best fitting their purposes.

In case a sub-discipline seems to be inadequately represented in terms of course units, it is advisable to search if the relevant contents and learning outcomes are nevertheless present in other course units. The conditions will then be met; neverthe-less, it will be recommended to the institution to make all sub-disciplines clearly visible.

Students attending a Label holding programme should be pro-ficient in a second major European language (these being Eng-lish, German, Italian, French and Spanish), as well as the lan-guage of their home country. Proof of proficiency in a second major European language can be given by successfully taking compulsory or semi-optional modules, or by submitting general or individual proof of knowledge acquired outside/prior the study programme. Only students fulfilling this condition may

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have the relevant qualification acknowledgement on their Di-ploma Supplement.

The Label does not recommend compensation, in which failed modules/course units are considered to be "passed" because of an overall grade average. Only students not benefiting from compensation may have the relevant qualification acknowl-edgement on their Diploma Supplement.

d. Recognition of Credits Gained Abroad

The label is concerned with mobility and recognition. Thus, La-bel holding institutions must guarantee automatic recognition of credits gained at other institutions, if they have been ob-tained according to the terms of a learning agreement. The in-stitution must comply with the standard ECTS procedures:

◊ Learning agreements must be concluded with students go-ing abroad before their departure and corrected if necessaryduring the stay at the host institution.

◊ Because the learning agreement is a contract, it must besigned by someone in the home institution who is responsi-ble for recognition as well as by the student and by a re-sponsible representative of the host institution.

◊ Credits listed as gained in the learning agreement must berecognised automatically and should be referred to or listedin the Diploma Supplement issued to the graduate. Alterna-tively, the Transcript of Records issued by the host institu-tion can be appended to the Diploma Supplement.

◊ Grade transfer, if it occurs, must be carried out on the basisof ECTS rankings. If the foreign host institution does not useECTS rankings, a procedure for grade transfer must be used

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which does not result in “downgrading” of the grades awarded by the host institution.

◊ Mobility can also involve students seeking to enter pro-grammes from elsewhere without a learning agreement; in such cases institutions will make judgements on an individ-ual basis.

e. ECTS and Student Workload

Workload indicates the time students typically need to com-plete all learning activities (such as lectures, seminars, pro-jects, practical work, self-study and examinations) required to achieve the expected learning outcomes.

A European average for the total expected student workload ranges from 1,500 to 1,800 hours for an academic year; this figure refers to full-time students in a standard academic pro-gramme. Generally European institutions seem to expect their students to do degree-relevant work during 36-40 weeks per year. 60 ECTS credits are attached to the workload of a full-time year of formal learning (academic year) and the associ-ated learning outcomes; thus one credit corresponds to 25 to 30 hours of work.

It is important to have clear guidelines on student workload distribution. These should always include definition of pre-ex-amination study periods and examination periods separate from the teaching period, as these periods form an integral part of the total workload. When defining workload for the different teaching/learning elements of a curriculum, it must be taken into account that, for example, the total workload connected with a one-hour lecture is different than that corresponding to

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one hour of practical work. Factors thus have to be introduced when workload is being estimated.

Initial institutional estimates of workload for the average stu-dent will of course not necessarily be correct; thus there must be a clear mechanism for continuous student feedback on ac-tual workload and the use of this feedback to correct the struc-ture of programmes where necessary.

f. Modules and Mobility

Mobility must be an important feature for Label holding institu-tions. It is only be possible in the second and third years, but will be restricted unnecessarily if it is decided that a high pro-portion of course modules must be taken at the home institu-tion. Thus, wherever possible, only first-year modules should be treated as non-transferable.

Modules or course units should be fully described according to the ECTS Key Features. Thus, the following information is nec-essary for each course unit:

◊ Course title ◊ Course code ◊ Type of course ◊ Level of course ◊ Year of study ◊ Semester/trimester ◊ Number of credits allocated (workload based) ◊ Name of lecturer ◊ Objective of the course (expected learning outcomes and

competences to be acquired) ◊ Prerequisites

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◊ Course contents ◊ Recommended reading ◊ Teaching methods ◊ Assessment methods ◊ Language of instruction.

ECTS credits are based on the workload students need in order to achieve expected learning outcomes, and acquire antici-pated competences. Learning outcomes describe what a learner is expected to know, understand and be able to do after successful completion of a process of learning. They re-late to level Descriptors in national and European qualifications frameworks.

g. Methods of Teaching and Learning

Chemical sciences are a complex subject in that students not only have to learn, comprehend and apply factual material, but also spend a large proportion of their curriculum on practical courses with hands-on experiments. Practical courses must continue to play an important role in overall chemical educa-tion, in spite of financial constraints imposed by the situation of individual institutions.

Lectures should be supported by multimedia teaching tech-niques and problem-solving classes. The latter offer an ideal platform for teaching in smaller groups, and institutions are ad-vised to consider the introduction of tutorial systems. In fact, the capacity for learning may be enhanced with a constant flow of small learning tasks, for example in the form of regular prob-lem-solving classes where it is necessary to give in answers by datelines clearly defined in advance. It is obviously vital to have

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regular contacts between the teachers involved in the modules being taught to a class in any one semester to avoid overload-ing the student.

Assessment of student performance will be based on a combi-nation of the following:

◊ Written examinations◊ Oral examinations◊ Laboratory reports◊ Problem-solving exercises◊ Oral presentations.

Additional factors which may be taken into account when as-sessing student performance may be derived from:

◊ Literature surveys and evaluations◊ Collaborative work◊ Preparation and displays of posters.

Assessment should be carried out with examinations at the end of each term or semester. Written examinations will probably predominate over oral examinations, for objectivity reasons; these also allow a second opinion in the case of disagreement between examiner and student. Examinations should not be overlong; 2-3 hour examinations will probably be the norm.

Examination questions should be problem-based as far as pos-sible; though essay-type questions may be appropriate in some cases, questions involving the reproduction of material learned more or less by heart should be avoided as far as possible. Questions should be designed to cover the following aspects:

◊ The knowledge base◊ Conceptual understanding

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◊ Problem-solving ability ◊ Experimental and related skills ◊ Transferable skills.

Students should be provided with feedback wherever possible in the form of model answers.

The ECTS ranking system will obviously form an integral part of the assessment. While the national grading systems will no doubt initially be used alongside ECTS grades, which are by definition based on ranking rather than absolute assessment criteria, it seems necessary to aim for the establishment of a recognised pan-European ranking system.

h. The Diploma Supplement

All graduates should be provided with a Diploma Supplement (as described under http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/ds_en.htm) in English and the language of the degree-awarding institution.

i. Quality Assurance

Since the Label is a qualification applicable in the whole of the European Higher Education Area, quality assurance must be thorough and transparent.

In most cases, institutions have a well-established internal quality assurance system, in addition to the national system evaluating and accrediting all programmes in the country. Should quality control at institutional level not be present, a relevant commission must be introduced and made operational for the study programme awarded the Label.

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VALIDATION OF INTENSIVE STUDY PROGRAMMES

IN CHEMICAL SCIENCES

Evangelia A. Varella (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)

1. General RemarksIn recent years, validation of non-formal and informal learning grows into a major issue for education at all levels. As a matter of fact, attributes of informality and formality are present un-der various forms of interrelationships in every learning situa-tion; and any type of learning should be considered as valua-ble, on condition that its outcomes are made visible. Hence, non-formal and informal learning needs to be identified, rec-ognised in accordance to lifelong learning policies, and properly used in the labour market for the benefit of the indi-vidual and society at large.

For the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and De-velopment formal learning refers to learning through a pro-gramme of instruction, which operates in an educational insti-tution, adult training centre or the workplace, and is generally recognised in a qualification or a certificate. On the contrary, non-formal learning refers to learning through a programme, but it is not usually evaluated and does not lead to certification. Informal learning refers to learning resulting from daily work, family or leisure activities; it is not organised or structured in

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terms of objectives, time or learning support; and may be in-tentional and directed but also, as in most cases, be done quite incidentally.

In a general way, recognition of non-credentialed knowledge, skills and/or competences includes formal recognition, estab-lished at political level and accompanied by entitlement to en-ter the education system and labour market; and social recog-nition, in which competences receive appreciation – largely be-low political level – by industry or society. On the other hand, recognition is often one of the mechanisms activated in pro-moting lifelong learning. Under qualification are understood skills, knowledge and/or competences that are required to per-form the specific tasks attached to a particular work position and made visible through an official document awarded by an accredited body.

In an analogous setting, the policy paper released in 2003 by the European Youth Forum addresses non-formal education as an organised educational process, which takes place along-side the mainstream systems of education and training, and does not typically lead to certification, and in which individuals participates on a voluntary basis, while taking active role in the learning process. On the opposite, in informal education learn-ing happens less consciously.

The Council of the European Union and the Commission of the European Communities propose slightly differenti-ated definitions, according to which formal learning takes places in education and training establishments and leads to recognised certificates and qualifications; and non-formal learning takes place outside the main systems of general and vocational education and does not necessarily lead to the

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award of a formal certificate. Non-formal learning is embedded in planned activities which contain an important learning ele-ment, but are not always explicitly designated as learning in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support. It can take place in the workplace and as part of activities by bodies and groupings in civil society, and can also be provided through organisations or services that have been set up to complement formal systems. Informal learning, on the other hand, is the natural accompaniment to everyday life. It is not necessarily intentional learning, and so may well not be recog-nised even by individuals themselves as contributing to their knowledge and skills.

Within the European Union, recognition is understood as vali-dation of learning outcomes, i.e. the confirmation by a compe-tent body that knowledge, skills and/or competences acquired by an individual have been assessed against predefined criteria and are compliant with the requirements of a standard. In this frame, validation of non-formal and informal learning presup-poses identification, seen as a process which records and makes visible the individual’s learning outcomes, providing thus the basis for formal recognition; and is based on assess-ment of these outcomes with respect to concrete requirements or standards. The process is concluded with the award of a formal document, although actually it is only fully accom-plished if the certification is accepted by society as valid, cred-ible, and equivalent to those obtained through formal learning.

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2. Validation Aspects and Procedures in theEuropean Union A number of recent surveys and official position papers eluci-date the overall situation within the European Union, eventu-ally in parallel to what happens beyond its borders. The steps taken in each country permit further homogenise the multitude of approaches and present best practice examples.

In January 2010, the Education Policy Committee, Directorate for Education, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, released a document titled: Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Learning – Country Prac-tices. Sixteen of the twenty two participating countries were European. Data related to demography, the labour market, hu-man capital development, or formal education and training systems, provided the appropriate context for describing prac-tices in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning outcomes. For countries contributing in the survey, labour market effectiveness is one of the most frequent justifications for systems that recognise non-formal and informal learning outcomes. Indeed, in order to match skills and labour market needs, recognition of non-formal and informal learning out-comes appears to be a credible alternative or complement to training. Furthermore, there are two approaches in developing and structuring a recognition framework, the first based on a legislative line and the second on the search for a consensus among the social partners and stakeholders involved – formal education bodies, enterprises, adult education providers, vol-untary organisations.

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In this context, the document recommends to simplify and strengthen the procedures by providing a directory of qualifi-cations that can be obtained through recognition processes; by enlarging the range of competences that can be assessed; and by integrating recognition processes within existing quali-fication standards and frameworks. The Skills Outlook sur-vey published in 2013 constitutes a detailed and valuable source of documentation along this track.

Almost simultaneously to the above-cited report, the Euro-pean Guidelines for Validating Non‑Formal and Infor-mal Learning, resulting from the collaboration of twenty five countries, emphasise that validation of non‑formal and infor-mal learning should be seen as an integral part of each national qualifications system, and results should be transferable to the formal qualifications system. Consequently, clear reference points such as standards and qualification levels should be used; while methodologies should be based on learning out-comes; and quality assurance mechanisms should be devel-oped for the identification of reference points, the involvement of stakeholders, the assessment and certification.

Furthermore and in agreement with the Conclusions on Common European Principles for the Identification and Validation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning – for-mulated in 2004 by the Council of the European Union – the Member States, the Commission, the EEA-EFTA and accession countries and the social partners are invited to develop and support coherent and comparable ways of presenting the re-sults of the identification and validation of non-formal and in-formal learning at European level, and to consider how existing instruments can contribute to this. In 2010, as European tools

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and frameworks enhancing comparability and transparency are listed the European Qualifications Framework, European credit systems, and Europass –a set of documents recognised across Europe, which enable individuals to visualise and vali-date their learning outcomes, by properly presenting their skills and qualifications.

Consequently, the Recommendation on the Validation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning, issued by the Euro-pean Commission in September 2012, proposes that Member States should provide by 2015 every citizen with the oppor-tunity to have skills acquired outside formal education and training systems validated, and to use this validation for work-ing and learning purposes throughout Europe. It further reaf-firms that national systems of validation of non-formal and in-formal learning should focus on the following four fundamental aspects of validation: the identification of learning outcomes, their documentation, their assessment against agreed stand-ards and finally their certification.

According to the above-cited studies and recommendations, the recognition/validation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes involves a succession of phases. The first step con-sists in identification and documentation of learning outcomes in clear form – a phase often requiring counselling – as well as edition of a self-evaluation. The second step is validation per se, a procedure based on persons authorised to judge and as-sess if the individual’s competences satisfy the relevant points of reference or standards. The third step deals with certifica-tion by an accredited body. The last step involves various forms of social/societal acceptance. Social validation of learn-ing is, however, a much broader process, in which formal

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recognition does not always occur, since in the labour market the individual is often simply documenting achievements against requirements, and is evaluated with regard to this ev-idence.

The concept of points of reference is essential for the recogni-tion of non-formal and informal learning outcomes, mainly dur-ing the assessment phase. In general, qualifications and vali-dation may relate to occupational or to education/training standards, two main categories operating according to different logics, and reflecting different sets of priorities. Indeed, occu-pational standards are classifications and definitions of jobs ex-pressed in terms of outcomes and competences needed to per-form them successfully. Education standards focus on teaching requisites and qualification specifications, and only recently be-gun being formulated not in terms of input but of learning out-comes.

Not all forms of validation of non-formal and informal learning result in award of a qualification. In fact, formative approaches to assessment – a major tool for human resource management in enterprises – do not aim for formal certification of learning outcomes, but draw attention to the identification of knowledge, skills and wider competences, providing a basis for personal or organisational improvement, and representing a crucial part of lifelong learning. On the other hand, summative approaches to assessment aim explicitly at the formalisation and certification of learning outcomes, and need to have a clearly defined and unambiguous link to the standards used in the national qualifications system.

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The nature and methods of assessing non-formal and informal learning outcomes are central to all discussions on their recog-nition. From self-assessment to summative assessment in ac-cordance with the formal system of education, several meth-ods are used, most often in conjunction. On the whole, assess-ment procedures reported to be in use in the European Union comprise evaluation of the evidence of competency included in a recording system – learning portfolio or competence pass-port; structured interviews; observation in an authentic or sim-ulated situation; evaluation of products turned out and effects realised; feedback by colleagues and external individuals on competencies of a person from their perspectives; presenta-tion of information or debate on a considered argument in a way appropriate to subject and audience; tests and examina-tion, including electronic testing systems.

A learning portfolio is an organised collection of materials that presents and verifies skills and knowledge acquired through ex-perience. Among national examples one could cite the Libretto in Italy, the Kompetansepass in Norway and the particularly detailed ProfilPASS in Germany. At European level, the Eu-ropass portfolio has been established in December 2004 with the Decision on a Single Community Framework for the Transparency of Qualifications and Competences, issued by the European Parliament and the Council. It consists of five documents destined to make the individual’s skills and qualifi-cations clearly and easily understood throughout the European Union. Among these documents, the Curriculum Vitae, the Lan-guage Passport and the European Skills Passport permit a for-malised and transparent self-assessment of competences; while the Europass Mobility records the knowledge and skills

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acquired in another European country; and the Certificate Sup-plement or Diploma Supplement respectively describe the knowledge and skills acquired by holders of vocational educa-tion/training certificates or higher education degrees.

Assessable knowledge, skills and mind-settings include subject-specific and cross-functional key competences. The Recom-mendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, released by the European Parliament and the Council in De-cember 2006, sets out eight fundamental key competences, necessary for developing in contemporary knowledge society. These are: communication in the mother tongue; communica-tion in foreign languages; competences in mathematics, sci-ence and technology; digital competence; learning to learn; in-terpersonal, intercultural and social competences, and civic competence; sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and cul-tural awareness and expression.

Altogether, assessment of non-formal and informal learning outcomes must clearly deliver valid, transparent and consistent results. Apart from applying appropriate assessment tech-niques, this requires establishing thorough quality assurance procedures; and using competent, impartial and well-trained evaluators. In a general way, quality assurance should follow the European Principles for Quality Assurance in Edu-cation and Training, as annexed to the Recommendation on the Establishment of the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning, released by the Euro-pean Parliament and the Council in April 2008. In the context under discussion, outmost attention should be given to the fol-lowing items: quality assurance should include context, input,

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process and output dimensions, while giving emphasis to out-puts and learning outcomes; quality assurance systems should include: clear and measurable objectives and standards, guidelines for implementation with stakeholder involvement, appropriate resources, consistent evaluation methods compris-ing self‑assessment and external review, feedback mecha-nisms and procedures for improvement. In addition, quality assurance should be a cooperative process across education and training, involving all relevant stakeholders within Member States and across the Community; while quality assurance guidelines at Community level should provide reference points for evaluations and for peer learning. Finally, since effective operation of validation processes greatly depend on counsel-lors and assessors, training of all those involved in recognition of non-formal and formal learning is a matter of decisive im-portance.

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3. Validation Policies in the European HigherEducation Area Although recognition of non-formally or informally acquired competences is largely an issue of interest in vocational train-ing, higher education is as well often confronted with analo-gous questions. As stated in the Europe 2020 Integrated Guidelines for the Economic and Employment Policies of the Member States, published by the European Commis-sion in April 2010, validation of non-formal and informal learn-ing at tertiary level is actually an important factor for achieving that higher education becomes more open to non-traditional learners.

In the same context, the European Universities’ Charter on Lifelong Learning, presented by the European University Association in 2008 includes the commitment that universities will develop systems to assess and recognise all forms of prior learning, in a global era where knowledge is acquired in many different forms and places.

The student-centred Bologna Process approach offers an opti-mal framework for developing transparent validation schemes for non-formal and informal education and training. Major fac-tors are the enhanced modularisation of formal study pro-grammes, and the focus on learning outcomes – sets of com-petences, expressing what the student will know, understand or be able to do after completion of a process of learning – and not the input process. At the same time, quality assurance, as understood in the European Higher Education Area, is largely considered a precondition for systematically validating non-for-mal and informal learning.

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It is interesting to note that the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is following the same line by encouraging an outcomes attitude across all learning set-tings; by stressing that it is assessment of learning outcomes that makes it possible to find or keep a job and/or resume stud-ies at an appropriate level; by recognising the assistance of credit transfer and accumulation systems; and by stating that the existence of standards constitutes an additional incentive to recognise non-formal and informal learning.

Validating non-formal and informal learning poses challenges to formal education in terms of the range of learning that can be validated and how this process can be integrated with the formal curriculum and its assessment. On the whole, validation may lead to entry to a study programme leading to an award; credit towards an award, or exemption from the obligation of attending certain course units/modules to acquire a qualifica-tion; or eligibility for a full award. Discharge from some curric-ulum requirements appears to be the commonest and more multifaceted case, in spite of the fact that most countries have introduced a limit for the number of credits that can be at-tributed through validation.

Higher education institutions largely operate all types of vali-dation autonomously and in relation to their internal educa-tional standards. Within the European Higher Education Area, the European Qualifications Framework and its national coun-terparts, as well as the European Credit Transfer and Accumu-lation System, ensure comparability of points of reference. Generally, the specific learning outcomes of a course unit or module are used through the validation process as standards against which the competences acquired by the individual can

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be assessed. In this context, assessment methodologies usu-ally combine several of the techniques previously cited, use of portfolios often having a central role. In this context, quality assurance involves inter alia guidance and training for those who manage and carry out validation processes.

4. Validation of Intensive Study ProgrammesValidation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes ac-quired in intensive schools and seminars/workshops is a con-stant issue of concern for higher education students and insti-tutions. Frequently arising questions tackle all aspects of vali-dation, i.e. the identification and documentation of learning outcomes; the definition of standards; the adoption of appro-priate assessment procedures; the actual assessment of learn-ing outcomes with respect to the standards; and the certifica-tion, usually expressed as exemption from concrete curriculum requirements and award of the relevant credits. Another ele-ment of critical importance is the overall reliability of the body proceeding to validation of competences outside the formal frame. Use of proficient and systematically trained evaluator, proved expertise at all steps, and transparent quality assurance procedures in every phase are essential factors in developing trust and enhancing the social value of intensive study pro-grammes.

First step in the validation process is the identification and doc-umentation of learning outcomes, without reference to specific educational activities. Apart subject-specific knowledge and

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skills, the learning outcomes of intensive schools or seminars comprise key competences, which are acquired in either non-formal or informal ways. In intensive programmes, both types of outcomes need to be clearly formulated by the organising institution or consortium in all necessary detail. They should be made available to participants in advance, along with a thor-ough list of courses, problem-solving classes and/or practical sessions.

In parallel, points of reference for the evaluation of learning outcomes have to be defined. In the case of intensive study programmes, these requirements should be taken over by the relevant formal curricula, and be visible in advance. Introduc-ing standards implies agreeing with all involved stakeholders on the level of studies the learning outcomes refer to; the course unit/module they partly cover or correspond to; and the credits they should be allocated.

In the largely trans-national environment of the majority of intensive programmes, the use of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System is most appropriate. Indeed, accord-ing to the ECTS User’s Guide, issued by the European Com-mission in 2009, there is no reason why non-traditional learners should not benefit from the transparency and recognition which institutions can provide by using ECTS. Recognition of non-for-mal and informal learning should be automatically followed by the award of the number of ECTS credits attached to the cor-responding part of the formal programme. ECTS credits are based on workload, i.e. the total time students typically need to complete all learning activities – lectures, seminars, projects, practical work, self-study, examinations – required to achieve

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a learning outcome. In most cases, one ECTS credit corre-sponds to twenty five to thirty hours of work.

Last step to be concluded before the event takes place is the selection of assessment procedures. Levelling candidate com-petences – including skills in the language of instruction – in the initial phase is a type of assessment, which may proceed straightforwardly by using a focused-on learning portfolio, by asking for feedback in form of recommendation letters, by in-viting individuals to present a pre-set argument, by testing their knowledge on the basis of determined material for intro-ductory study; or finally by combining several methodologies. This largely internal matter of the organising body should be beforehand fully clear in conditions, and evaluation methods and techniques. Personalised counselling of candidates on how to meet selection criteria should as well be available.

In order to have their efforts recognised participants need to be assessed as to the learning outcomes acquired during the intensive study programme. With the exception of informally acquired interpersonal, intercultural and social key compe-tences, the approach should this time be greatly summative, as the evaluation is meant to serve for exempting from the obligation of attending parts of the formal curriculum at home. Most appropriate types of assessment appear to be the obser-vation of authentic laboratory situations; the presentation of information or the debate on a subject dealt with during the intensive programme; and evidently tests and examination on the overall topic. It is advisable to use all above-cited methods in conjunction, in order to form an objective picture of compe-tences acquired.

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Assessment of identified learning outcomes with respect to de-fined standards and using appropriate methodologies, should take place in a most transparent and unbiased way. The role of assessors is hereby critical. A register of experts needs to be formed, listing proficient evaluators according to pre-estab-lished requisites. These should foresee systematic training, in-cluding an on-line training course.

The certificate should be well documented, and clearly indicate the institution or consortium delivering it. It should be accom-panied by a short report on these bodies, as well as by the topics taught, and the problem-solving classes and laboratory sessions organised, along with the relevant learning outcomes. Informally acquired key competences can as well be men-tioned. A data base should be kept, encompassing all details on the event and listing qualifications awarded.

The body validating the learning outcomes of intensive study programmes could be the organising institution or a third party. In both cases, quality assurance mechanisms should give proof of its expertise and proficiency in performing all steps of recog-nition procedures and train the appropriate assessors. Thus, the whole procedure will earn formal and social reliability and reach the sustainability necessary in all certification processes.

Quality assurance of the validating body should move along the lines of the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning. Internal quality assurance deals with the in situ eval-uation of each intensive study programme in what concerns context, input, process and output dimensions, with emphasis in assessment methodologies. The external review is not con-nected to the schedule of events, and focuses on timely devel-opment and publication of learning outcomes, standards and

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assessment techniques; transparency and objectivity of assess-ment procedures; overall proficiency of evaluators; finally pres-ence of feedback and amelioration mechanisms.

5. Best Practice Examples in ChemicalSciences The validation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes acquired in intensive schools and seminars/workshops in the area of chemical sciences does not present substantial distinc-tive features. Thus, the systematisation proposed can easily be individualised as to this discipline. Concrete best practice ex-amples may evidence it.

An Intensive School on Analytical Techniques Applied in Cultural Heritage Preservation took place during the aca-demic holidays at the premises of a small university. The School lasted eight days, and was organised by the European Chem-istry Thematic Network Association, the local university and two more universities having lately co-ordinated analogous events. It addressed twenty-two participants – seventeen sec-ond cycle science students and several active professionals with at least a relevant first cycle degree. A multinational team of thirteen experts delivered lectures and run problem-solving classes, while local research/technical staff tutored students in operating analytical and spectroscopic instrumentation. The courses were held in English. Learning outcomes were formu-lated in regard to analogous formal education standards, as they have been collected and systematised by the Core Chem-

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istry Group, European Chemistry Thematic Network Associa-tion. The detailed programme, the learning outcomes expected and the relevant standards were timely available on the web.

Eight members of the register of experts kept by the European Chemistry Thematic Network Association performed student selection on a threefold basis, i.e. the learning portfolio; a num-ber of on-line examinations, namely EChemTest® assessment sessions in the basic chemical disciplines, and a specific English for Chemistry test at level B1/B2; and presentation of infor-mation on a given argument, actually ad hoc authoring an ab-stract on a given scientific article. A recommendation letter was as well asked for.

Successful candidates were offered in advance on-line didactic and self-assessment material on the topics to be considered. Two weeks before entering the School, they were on-line tested on the understanding of this material, and eventual lev-elling advice was given. During the eight-hour daily schedule, lectures were held in the morning and early afternoon, and were directly followed by the relevant problem-solving and/or laboratory sessions. In interactive workshops students had to individually participate in all exercises, while practical classes were organised in groups of four, so as to give every student full hands-on opportunities.

Assessment proceeded in a multifaceted way. Thus, theoretical knowledge was evaluated by a written examination in essay form, and through the pertinent EChemTest® sessions. Fur-thermore, each student publicly presented an issue he built up during the seminars. Concerning skills related to instrumenta-tion, participants were independently observed in an authentic in situ situation.

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Internal evaluation of the school was performed by an inde-pendent member of the register of experts. Validation was car-ried out and certification awarded jointly by the European Chemistry Thematic Network Association and the organising university. Informally acquired interpersonal, intercultural and social key competences were mentioned in the document ac-companying the certificate, along with a short report on the organisers, the detailed curriculum and the relevant learning outcomes. The three ECTS credits allocated to the school took into account the work done during the preliminary phase, as well as the workload corresponding to the eight school days, examinations and the relevant self-study included.

A Training Workshop on Key Competences for Doctoral Candidates was organised by the European Chemistry The-matic Network Association and the Department of Chemistry of a large university. Seventeen PhD students of the above-men-tioned and neighbouring academic institutions participated on a voluntary basis, and courses were held in either the national language or English. The forty-four hours of interactive after-noon classes were co-ordinated by seven foreign and four res-ident members of the register of experts kept by the European Chemistry Thematic Network Association; and three of them were based on video-conferencing. Lecturers belonged to the academic or business world, and the subjects read: manage-ment of human resources; design and management of pro-jects; quality assurance of projects; dissemination and exploi-tation of scientific results; communication in multilingual envi-ronments; young scientists and the European labour market.

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Learning outcomes were formulated in regard to analogous for-mal education standards, as they have been collected and sys-tematised by the Erasmus/Accompanying Measures project ti-tled: A Framework for a Third Cycle Qualification in Chemistry, and the European Chemistry Thematic Network Association. The detailed programme, the learning outcomes expected and the relevant standards were timely available on the web.

Adequate study material, as well as relevant exercises, could be obtained well in advance. Students worked on the topics first by themselves and later during the seminar in groups of three. The exercises were publicly presented and a debate was launched for each of them. Assessment was completed with a written examination, in form of an essay on an issue compara-ble to those elaborated.

Internal evaluation of the seminar was performed by an inde-pendent member of the register of experts. Validation was car-ried out and certification awarded jointly by the European Chemistry Thematic Network Association and the host univer-sity. The certificate was accompanied by a document reporting on the organisers, the curriculum and the relevant learning out-comes. The two ECTS credits allocated to the training seminar took into account the total workload for participating in the classes, as well as for self-studying and preparing the exercises and examinations.

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GUIDELINES FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN

FOR MASTER’S COURSES COMBINING CHEMISTRY, CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Evangelia A. Varella (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)

1. General RemarksAccording to the International Standard Classification of Education 201120, master’s degrees are classified as Level 7, and should be identified as follows:

Programmes at ISCED level 7 are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a second de-gree or equivalent qualification. Programmes at this level may have a substantial research component, but do not yet lead to the award of a doctoral qualification. Typically, programmes at this level are theoretically based, but may include practical components and are informed by state-of-the-art research and/or best professional practice. They are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions.

20 http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/isced-2011-en.pdf

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In a complementary line, the Dublin Descriptor for the Sec-ond Cycle21 states that:

• Qualifications that signify completion of the second cycleare awarded to students who:

• Have demonstrated knowledge and understanding thatis founded upon and extends and/or enhances that typ-ically associated with Bachelor’s level, and that providesa basis or opportunity for originality in developing and/orapplying ideas, often within a research context.

• Can apply their knowledge and understanding, and prob-lem solving abilities in new or unfamiliar environmentswithin broader (or multidisciplinary) contexts related totheir field of study.

• Have the ability to integrate knowledge and handle com-plexity, and formulate judgements with incomplete orlimited information, but that include reflecting on socialand ethical responsibilities linked to the application oftheir knowledge and judgements.

• Can communicate their conclusions, and the knowledgeand rationale underpinning these, to specialist and non-specialist audiences clearly and unambiguously.

• Have the learning skills to allow them to continue tostudy in a manner that may be largely self-directed orautonomous.

21 https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/bologna/dublin_de-scriptors.pdf

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In relation to chemical engineering master’s programmes, the European Quality Label for the Accreditation of Engi-neering Programmes EUR-ACE®22, implemented by the Eu-ropean Network for the Accreditation of Engineering Educa-tion23, defines the following framework standards:

Knowledge and Understanding: The underpinning knowledge and understanding of science, mathematics and en-gineering fundamentals are essential to satisfying the other programme outcomes. Graduates should demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of chemical engineering, and also of the wider context of engineering.

Second Cycle graduates should have:

• An in-depth knowledge and understanding of the princi-ples of chemical engineering.

• A critical awareness of the forefront of chemical engi-neering.

Engineering Analysis: Graduates should be able to solve en-gineering problems consistent with their level of knowledge and understanding, and which may involve considerations from out-side their field of specialisation. Analysis can include the iden-tification of the problem, clarification of the specification, con-sideration of possible methods of solution, selection of the most appropriate method, and correct implementation. Graduates should be able to use a variety of methods, including mathe-matical analysis, computational modelling, or practical experi-

22 http://www.enaee.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/EUR-ACE_Framework-Standards_2008-11-0511.pdf 23 http://www.enaee.eu/eur-ace-system

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ments, and should be able to recognise the importance of so-cietal, health and safety, environmental and commercial con-straints.

Second Cycle graduates should have:

• The ability to solve problems that are unfamiliar, incom-pletely defined, and have competing specifications.

• The ability to formulate and solve problems in new andemerging areas of their specialisation.

• The ability to use their knowledge and understanding toconceptualise engineering models, systems and pro-cesses.

• The ability to apply innovative methods in problem solv-ing.

Engineering Design: Graduates should be able to realise en-gineering designs consistent with their level of knowledge and understanding, working in cooperation with engineers and non-engineers. The designs may be of devices, processes, methods or artefacts, and the specifications could be wider than tech-nical, including an awareness of societal, health and safety, en-vironmental and commercial considerations.

Second Cycle graduates should have:

• An ability to use their knowledge and understanding todesign solutions to unfamiliar problems, possibly involv-ing other disciplines.

• An ability to use creativity to develop new and originalideas and methods.

• An ability to use their engineering judgement to workwith complexity, technical uncertainty and incomplete in-formation.

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Investigations: Graduates should be able to use appropriate methods to pursue research or other detailed investigations of technical issues consistent with their level of knowledge and understanding. Investigations may involve literature searches, the design and execution of experiments, the interpretation of data, and computer simulation. They may require that data ba-ses, codes of practice and safety regulations are consulted.

Second Cycle graduates should have:

• The ability to identify, locate and obtain required data.• The ability to design and conduct analytic, modelling and

experimental investigations.• The ability to critically evaluate data and draw conclu-

sions.• The ability to investigate the application of new and

emerging technologies in chemical engineering.

Engineering Practice: Graduates should be able to apply their knowledge and understanding to developing practical skills for solving problems, conducting investigations, and de-signing engineering devices and processes. These skills may include the knowledge, use and limitations of materials, com-puter modelling, engineering processes, equipment, workshop practice, and technical literature and information sources. They should also recognise the wider, non-technical implications of engineering practice, ethical, environmental, commercial and industrial.

Second Cycle graduates should have:

• The ability to integrate knowledge from differentbranches, and handle complexity.

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• A comprehensive understanding of applicable techniquesand methods, and of their limitations.

• A knowledge of the non-technical implications of engi-neering practice.

Transferable Skills: The skills necessary for the practice of engineering, and which are applicable more widely, should be developed within the programme.

• Second Cycle graduates should be able to:• Function effectively as an individual and as a member of

a team.• Use diverse methods to communicate effectively with the

engineering community and with society at large.• Demonstrate awareness of the health, safety and legal

issues and responsibilities of engineering practice, theimpact of engineering solutions in a societal and envi-ronmental context, and commit to professional ethics,responsibilities and norms of engineering practice.

• Demonstrate an awareness of project management andbusiness practices, such as risk and change manage-ment, and understand their limitations.

• Recognise the need for, and have the ability to engagein independent, life-long learning.

• Function effectively as leader of a team that may becomposed of different disciplines.

In an analogous setting, the Budapest Descriptor for Sec-ond Cycle Studies in Chemistry24 affirms that:

24 http://www.tuningjournal.org/index.php/tuning/article/view/31/19

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Second cycle degrees in chemistry are awarded to students who have shown themselves by appropriate assessment to:

• Have knowledge and understanding that is foundedupon and extends that of the Bachelor’s level in chemis-try, and that provides a basis for originality in developingand applying ideas within a research context.

• Have competences which fit them for employment asprofessional chemists in chemical and related industriesor in public service.

• Have attained a standard of knowledge and competencewhich will give them access to third cycle programmes.

Such graduates will:

• Have the ability to apply their knowledge and under-standing, and problem solving abilities, in new/unfamil-iar environments within broader/multidisciplinary con-texts related to chemical sciences.

• Have the ability to integrate knowledge and handle com-plexity, and formulate judgements with incomplete orlimited information, and to reflect on ethical responsibil-ities linked to the application of their knowledge andjudgements.

• Have the ability to communicate their conclusions, andthe knowledge and rationale underpinning these, to spe-cialist and non-specialist audiences clearly and unambig-uously.

• Have developed those learning skills that will allow themto continue to study in a manner that may be largelyself-directed or autonomous, and to take responsibilityfor their own professional development.

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Additionally, the European Quality Label Chemistry Euro-master®25, monitored by the European Chemistry Thematic Network26, requires that graduates have developed the follow-ing abilities and skills:

Chemistry-Related Cognitive Abilities and Skills:

• Ability to demonstrate knowledge and understanding ofessential facts, concepts, principles and theories relatingto the subject areas studied during the master’s pro-gramme.

• Ability to apply such knowledge and understanding tothe solution of qualitative and quantitative problems ofan unfamiliar nature.

• Ability to adopt and apply methodology to the solutionof unfamiliar problems.

Chemistry-Related Practical Skills:

• Skills required for the conduct of advanced laboratoryprocedures and use of instrumentation in synthetic andanalytical work.

• Ability to plan and carry out experiments independently,and be self-critical in the evaluation of experimental pro-cedures and outcomes.

• Ability to take responsibility for laboratory work.

25 http://ectn-assoc.cpe.fr/chemistry-eurolabels/n/lib/2_em/2-Euro-master_Documentation.pdf 26 http://ectn-assoc.cpe.fr/

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• Ability to use an understanding of the limits of accuracyof experimental data to inform the planning of futurework.

Generic and Transferable Competences:

• Study skills needed for continuing professional develop-ment.

• Ability to interact with scientists from other disciplines oninter- or multidisciplinary problems.

• Ability to assimilate, evaluate and present research re-sults objectively.

• Advanced communication competences in a second Eu-ropean language, along with the mother tongue.

Using a different approach, the International Standard Classification of Occupation 200827 categorises both chemists and chemical engineers under sub-major group 21 – Science and Engineering Professionals – and states the following:

Chemistry (Unit Group 2113):

Chemists conduct research, improve or develop concepts, the-ories and operational methods, or apply scientific knowledge relating to chemistry, to develop new knowledge or products, and for quality and process control.

Tasks include:

• Conducting research and improving or developing con-cepts, instruments, theories and operational methods

27 http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_172572/lang--en/index.htm

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related to chemistry. • Conducting experiments, tests and analyses to investi-

gate chemical composition and energy and chemical changes in various natural or synthetic substances, ma-terials and products.

• Developing procedures for environmental control, qual-ity control and various other procedures for manufactur-ers or users.

• Conducting programs of sample and data collection andanalysis to identify and quantify environmental toxi-cants.

• Participating in interdisciplinary research and develop-ment projects working with chemical engineers, biolo-gists, microbiologists, agronomists, geologists or other professionals.

• Using micro-organisms to convert substances into newcompounds.

• Determining ways to strengthen or combine materials ordevelop new materials.

• Reproducing and synthesising naturally occurring sub-stances and creating new artificial substances.

• Preparing scientific papers and reports.

Chemical Engineering (Unit Group 2145):

Chemical engineers conduct research and develop, advice on and direct commercial-scale chemical processes and produc-tion of various substances and items such as crude oil, petro-leum derivatives, food and drink products, medicines or syn-thetic materials. They direct maintenance and repair of chem-ical plant and equipment, and study and advice on chemical aspects of particular material, products or processes.

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Tasks include:

• Conducting research and advising on, and developingcommercial-scale chemical processes to refine crude oiland other liquids or gases, and to produce substancesand items such as petroleum derivatives, explosives,food and drink products, medicines, or synthetic mate-rials.

• Specifying chemical production methods, materials andquality standards and ensuring that they conform tospecifications.

• Establishing control standards and procedures to ensuresafety and efficiency of chemical production operationsand safety of workers operating equipment or workingin close proximity to on-going chemical reactions.

• Designing chemical plant equipment and devising pro-cesses for manufacturing chemicals and products.

• Performing tests throughout stages of production to de-termine degree of control over variables, including tem-perature, density, specific gravity, and pressure.

• Developing safety procedures to be employed.• Preparing estimates of production costs and production

progress reports for management.• Performing laboratory studies of steps in manufacture of

new products and testing proposed process in smallscale operation such as a pilot plant.

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2. Best Practice ExamplesTaking into account the above-cited general framework, and on the basis of relevant representative study programmes28

28

Master’s Programme Title Responsible University Industrial Engineering: Technical Chemistry J. Kepler University of Linz (AT) Technical Chemistry Graz University of Technology (AT) Industrial Sciences: Chemical Engineering University of Leuven (BE) Chemical & Materials Engineering Free University of Brussels (BE) Chemical & Biochemical Engineering Sofia University of Chemical Technology &

Metallurgy (BG) Engineering & Technology Prague University of Chemistry & Technology

(CZ) Chemical & Bioengineering Zurich Federal University of Technology (CH) Chemical Engineering Applied University of Munster (DE) Process Engineering G.S. Ohm Applied University of Nurnberg (DE) Chemical & Energy Engineering O.v. Guericke University of Magdeburg (DE) Industrial Chemistry Munich Technical University (DE) Materials Technology Aalborg University (DK) Technology of Wood & Plastic Tallinn University of Technology (EE) Chemical Technology Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (EL) Chemical Science & Technology University of the Balearic Islands (ES) Industrial Chemistry & Introduction to Chemical Research

Autonomous University of Barcelona (ES)

Chemical Engineering Åbo Akademy University (FI) Chemical Engineering University Pierre & Marie Curie Paris 6 (FR) Science & Engineering Superior National School of Mines in St.

Etienne (FR) Engineering of Biotechnological Processes Superior School of Chemistry, Physics,

Electronics in Lyon (FR) Chemical Engineering University of Limerick (IE) Industrial Chemistry University of Bologna (IT) Industrial Chemistry University of Milan (IT) Sustainable Chemistry & Technology Ca` Foscari University of Venice (IT) Technical Chemistry Al Farabi Kazakh National University in Almaty

(KZ) Molecular Engineering Technical University of Eindhoven (NL) Chemical Engineering Delft University of Technology (NL) Applied Chemistry A. Mickiewicz University of Poznan (PL) Chemical Technology: Sustainable Fuels Economy

AGH University of Science & Technology (PL) in Krakow

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within the European Higher Education Area, three diversified best practice examples elucidate – in TABLE I, TABLE II and TABLE III – the various ways, in which master’s courses com-bining chemistry, chemical technology and chemical engineer-ing are operating. In spite of the different approaches and mind-settings, a number of common features may be dis-cerned, which permit proposing guidelines for curriculum de-sign.

The case studies in consideration deal with two-year, 120-ECTS-credit curricula, since these represent the large majority in the forty-seven countries of the European Higher Education Area.

Chemical Technology Tomar University of Technology (PT) Petrochemical Synthesis & Technology Kazan National Research Technological

University (RF) Chemistry & Biotechnologies M.V. Lomonosov Northern Federal University in

Archangelsk (RF) Chemical Engineering Karlstad University (SE) Environmental & Sustainable Chemical Technologies

University of Nova Gorica (SI)

Chemical Technologies Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava (SK)

Green Chemistry & Sustainable Industrial Technology

University of York (UK)

Chemical Process Research & Development University of Leeds (UK) Chemical Technology & Management University of Strathclyde (UK)

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Master in Industrial Chemistry

Course Title ECTS Credits

Course Type Lecture Practical Problem-Solving

Self-Study

YEAR 1 Industrial and process analytical chemistry 10 Semi-Optional

(students choose three courses for a total of 30

credits)

48 30 24 148

Inorganic chemistry 10 48 30 24 148 Organic chemistry 10 48 30 24 148 Physical chemistry 10 48 30 24 148 Development and management of the industrial chemical processes 10 Compulsory 48 30 24 148

Industrial polymeric products 10 Compulsory 48 30 24 148 Applied metallurgy 6

Semi-Optional (students choose two

courses for a total of 12 credits)

38 0 14 98 Biotechnology of fermentations 6 38 0 14 98 Chemistry of catalysis 6 38 0 14 98 Environmental technologies and certification 6 38 0 14 98

Industrial organic chemistry 6 38 0 14 98 Metallorganic chemistry 6 38 0 14 98 Physical chemistry of functional materials 6 38 0 14 98

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YEAR 2 Chemical reactors and separation process technology 10 Compulsory 56 0 36 158

Methodologies for the experimental research 7 Compulsory 0 90 12 73

Advanced inorganic chemistry 4

Elective (students choose two courses for a total of 8

credits)

26 0 10 64 Advanced organic chemistry 4 26 0 10 64 Bioreactors and unit operations in bi-otechnology 4 26 0 10 64

Chemical processes with low environmental impact 4 26 0 10 64

Chemistry of natural organic substances 4 26 0 10 64

Electroanalytical chemistry 4 26 0 10 64 Environmental physical chemistry 4 26 0 10 64 Metallic materials 4 26 0 10 64 Physical chemistry of the solid state 4 26 0 10 64 Polymer technology 4 26 0 10 64 Work placement 3 Compulsory 75 0 0 0 Final examination 30 Compulsory 750

TABLE I

Master in Chemical Technology

Course Title ECTS Credits Course Type Lecture Practical Problem-

Solving Self-Study

YEAR 1 Philosophical problems of science and technology 2 Compulsory 12 0 24 36

Theoretical and experimental research methods in chemistry 3 Compulsory 18 0 18 72

Business foreign language 2 Compulsory 0 0 36 36 Foreign language 3 Compulsory 0 0 36 72 Philosophy 3 Compulsory 0 0 36 72 Mass transfer processes in systems with solid phase 8 Compulsory 42 82 12 154

Chemistry of basic organic and petrochemical synthesis 5 Compulsory 16 42 06 116

Technology of basic organic and petrochemical synthesis 7 Compulsory 27 18 0 207

Principles of design and equipment for organic synthesis plants 4 Compulsory 36 30 06 72

Fundamentals of research work in organic synthesis 3 Elective

(students choose one course of each pair for

a total of 9 credits) 36 18 0 54 Application of computers in

engineering calculations 3

Engineering principles of intensification of organic and petro-chemical synthesis

3 36 12 0 60

Mathematical modelling of chemical and technological processes 3

Standardisation and certification of organic products 3 36 18 0 54 Oilfield chemistry 3 Research placement & research thesis work I 14 Compulsory 0 504 0 0

YEAR 2 Economic analysis and management 2 Compulsory 12 0 24 36 Catalysis and mechanisms of chemical reactions 4

Elective (students choose one course for a total of 4

credits)

24 30 06 84

Innovative educational activity 4 24 30 06 84 Information technology supporting lifecycle of chemical production 4 24 30 06 84

Prospects for the development of the chemical industry and technology

4 24 30 06 84

Industrial logistics 4 24 30 06 84 Enterprise management 4 24 30 06 84 Chemistry of basic organic and petrochemical synthesis 2 Compulsory 27 18 0 27

Industrial organic chemistry 6 Compulsory 24 54 06 132 Research placement & research thesis work II 40 Compulsory 0 1440

Master thesis authoring and presentation 6 Compulsory 0 0 216 0

TABLE II

Master in Chemical Engineering

Course Title ECTS Credits

Course Type Lecture Practical Problem-Solving

Self-Study

YEAR 1

Foundations, analysis & contexts of technological sciences

6 Compulsory 90 0 0 not given

Multidisciplinary project 8 Compulsory 8 0 52 172 Introduction to catalysis 3

Semi-Optional (students choose five courses of one group

for a total of 15 credits & two courses of the

other group for a total of 6 credits)

20 0 0

not given

Chemistry of catalytic systems I 3 20 0 0 Chemistry of catalytic systems II 3 20 0 0 Techniques for surface analysis 3 20 0 0 Industrial chemistry and processes 3 20 0 0 Computational chemistry 3 20 0 0 Nuclear magnetic resonance 3 20 0 0 Electrochemistry 3 35 10 0 Synthetic organic chemistry 3 30 0 0 Physical organic chemistry 3 20 0 0 Advanced organic chemistry 3 20 0 0 Advanced macro-molecular chemistry

3 20 0 0

Protein engineering 3 20 0 0 Organic electronics 3 20 0 0

YEAR 2 Master’s thesis 38 Compulsory 0 940 80 80 Industrial work placement 20 Compulsory 0 480 10 70 Alterable courses provided by the University

27 Elective 20 0 0 not given

TABLE III

3. Proposal on Guidelines for CurriculumDesign Based on the comparative study of a large number of relevant second cycle programmes, the following paragraphs propose guidelines for curriculum design for master’s courses combining chemistry, chemical technology and chemical engineering.

It appears that a crucial factor in all study programmes is to provide solid fundaments in the basic disciplines of chemistry, as well as in the more specific ones that are related with the specialisations offered. At the same time, technical aspects of the above-mentioned chemical topics are included, along with courses on the design and monitoring of chemical processes in industrial plants, and on aspects of ecology or environmental protection issues.

Transferable competences are largely focused in preparing stu-dents for future positions in industry, by introducing modules on management, on planning and handling innovation, on fac-ing budgetary and market-oriented questions, or – from an-other point of view – modules on foreign languages for specific purposes.

Finally, the master’s thesis and the industrial work placement are of outmost importance, being considered as an in-depth application of all competences acquired. In some 120-ECTS-credit programmes, this individual work may correspond to al-most a year’s workload.

On the whole, master’s courses combining chemistry, chemical technology and chemical engineering in the European Higher Education Area consistently cover the framework standards of

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the European Quality Label for the Accreditation of En-gineering Programmes EUR-ACE®, while at the same time addressing the requirements set by the Budapest Descriptor for Second Cycle Studies in Chemistry and the European Quality Label Chemistry Euromaster®. The steady in-crease in the number of relevant quality label holders has greatly contributed in developing this common approach.

TABLE IV compares in detail the two qualifications frame-works, visualising the fact that they practically coincide in what concerns key and transferable competences, and quite often ask for the development of the same cognitive or practical abil-ities and skills. Main criterion for allocating the study pro-grammes under consideration to chemical engineering or ap-plied industry-oriented chemistry is the overall focus of the uni-versity.

TABLE V is ascribing to each course category the competences required by the European Quality Label for the Accredi-tation of Engineering Programmes EUR-ACE®, the Bu-dapest Descriptor for Second Cycle Studies in Chemis-try and the European Quality Label Chemistry Euro-master®.

The competences, which would permit the degree holder to effectively enter the labour market of industrial chemistry and chemical engineering, are fully covered in the proposed scheme.

In fact, the requirements set by the European Quality Label for the Accreditation of Engineering Programmes EUR-ACE® and the European Quality Label Chemistry Euro-master® are along the same line with the frame established

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by the International Standard Classification of Occupa-tion 2008 for chemistry and chemical engineering profession-als.

TABLE VI is assigning to each course category the compe-tences asked for by the International Standard Classifica-tion of Occupation 2008 for chemistry and chemical engi-neering professionals.

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Budapest Descriptor for Second Cycle Studies in Chemistry

& Requirements of the European Quality Label

Chemistry Euromaster®

Framework Standards of the European Quality Label for the

Accreditation of Engineering Programmes EUR-ACE®

• Knowledge and understanding that is foundedupon and extends that of the Bachelor’s level inchemistry, and that provides a basis for originalityin developing and applying ideas within a re-search context.

• Competences which fit them for employment asprofessional chemists in chemical and related in-dustries or in public service.

• A standard of knowledge and competence whichwill give them access to third cycle programmes.

• In-depth knowledge and understanding of theprinciples of chemical engineering.

• Critical awareness of the forefront of chemical en-gineering.

• Ability to use creativity to develop new and origi-nal ideas and methods.

• Ability to apply their knowledge and understand-ing, and problem solving abilities, in new/unfamil-iar environments within broader/multidisciplinarycontexts related to chemical sciences.

• Ability to use their knowledge and understandingto design solutions to unfamiliar problems, possi-bly involving other disciplines.

• Ability to investigate the application of new andemerging technologies in chemical engineering.

• Ability to integrate knowledge and handle com-plexity, and formulate judgements with incom-plete or limited information.

• Ability to use their engineering judgement towork with complexity, technical uncertainty andincomplete information.

• Ability to integrate knowledge from differentbranches, and handle complexity.

• Ability to demonstrate knowledge and under-standing of essential facts, concepts, principlesand theories relating to the subject areas studiedduring the master’s programme.

• Ability to use their knowledge and understandingto conceptualise engineering models, systemsand processes.

• Demonstrate an awareness of project manage-ment and business practices, such as risk andchange management, and understand their limi-tations.

• Ability to apply such knowledge and understand-ing to the solution of qualitative and quantitativeproblems of an unfamiliar nature.

• Ability to adopt and apply methodology to the so-lution of unfamiliar problems.

• Ability to solve problems that are unfamiliar, in-completely defined, and have competing specifi-cations.

• Ability to formulate and solve problems in newand emerging areas of their specialisation. Abilityto apply innovative methods in problem solving.

• Skills required for the conduct of advanced labor-atory procedures and use of instrumentation insynthetic and analytical work.

• Ability to take responsibility for laboratory work.

• Ability to design and conduct analytic, modellingand experimental investigations.

• A comprehensive understanding of applicabletechniques and methods, and of their limitations.

• A knowledge of the non-technical implications ofengineering practice.

• Ability to plan and carry out experiments inde-pendently, and be self-critical in the evaluation ofexperimental procedures and outcomes.

• Ability to plan and carry out experiments inde-pendently, and be self-critical in the evaluation ofexperimental procedures and outcomes.

• Ability to use an understanding of the limits of ac-curacy of experimental data to inform the plan-ning of future work.

• Ability to identify, locate and obtain requireddata.

• Ability to critically evaluate data and draw conclu-sions.

• Ability to interact with scientists from other disci-plines on inter- or multidisciplinary problems.

• Ability to function effectively as an individual andas a member of a team.

• Ability to function effectively as leader of a teamthat may be composed of different disciplines.

• Advanced communication competences in a sec-ond European language, along with the mothertongue.

• Use diverse methods to communicate effectivelywith the engineering community and with societyat large.

• Ability to communicate their conclusions, and theknowledge and rationale underpinning these, tospecialist and non-specialist audiences clearly andunambiguously.

• Ability to assimilate, evaluate and present re-search results objectively.

• Learning skills that will allow them to continue tostudy in a manner that may be largely self-di-rected or autonomous, and to take responsibilityfor their own professional development.

• Study skills needed for continuing professionaldevelopment.

• Ability to recognise the need for, and have theability to engage in independent, life-long learn-ing.

• Ability to reflect on ethical responsibilities linkedto the application of their knowledge and judge-ments.

• Ability to demonstrate awareness of the health,safety and legal issues and responsibilities of en-gineering practice, the impact of engineering so-lutions in a societal and environmental context,and commit to professional ethics, responsibilitiesand norms of engineering practice.

TABLE IV

Course Category

Competences required by the European Quality Label for the Accreditation of

Engineering Programmes EUR-ACE®

& the European Quality Label Chemistry Euromaster®

Advanced courses on basic and more specific chemical disciplines

• Knowledge and understanding that is founded upon and extends that of the Bach-elor’s level in chemistry, and that provides a basis for originality in developing andapplying ideas within a research context.

• Competences which fit them for employment as professional chemists in chemicaland related industries or in public service.

• A standard of knowledge and competence which will give them access to third cy-cle programmes.

• Ability to apply their knowledge and understanding, and problem solving abilities,in new/unfamiliar environments within broader/multidisciplinary contexts relatedto chemical sciences.

• Ability to integrate knowledge and handle complexity, and formulate judgementswith incomplete or limited information.

• Ability to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of essential facts, concepts,principles and theories relating to the subject areas studied during the master’sprogramme.

• Ability to apply such knowledge and understanding to the solution of qualitativeand quantitative problems of an unfamiliar nature.

• Ability to adopt and apply methodology to the solution of unfamiliar problems.• Skills required for the conduct of advanced laboratory procedures and use of in-

strumentation in synthetic and analytical work.• Ability to plan and carry out experiments independently, and be self-critical in the

evaluation of experimental procedures and outcomes.• Ability to take responsibility for laboratory work.• Ability to use an understanding of the limits of accuracy of experimental data to

inform the planning of future work.

Advanced courses on engineering analysis, engineering design and engineering

• In-depth knowledge and understanding of the principles of chemical engineering.• Critical awareness of the forefront of chemical engineering.• Ability to solve problems that are unfamiliar, incompletely defined, and have com-

peting specifications.• Ability to formulate and solve problems in new and emerging areas of their spe-

cialisation.

practice • Ability to use their knowledge and understanding to conceptualise engineeringmodels, systems and processes.

• Ability to apply innovative methods in problem solving.• Ability to use their knowledge and understanding to design solutions to unfamiliar

problems, possibly involving other disciplines.• Ability to use creativity to develop new and original ideas and methods.• Ability to use their engineering judgement to work with complexity, technical un-

certainty and incomplete information.• Ability to identify, locate and obtain required data.• Ability to design and conduct analytic, modelling and experimental investigations.• Ability to critically evaluate data and draw conclusions.• Ability to investigate the application of new and emerging technologies in chemi-

cal engineering.• Ability to integrate knowledge from different branches, and handle complexity.• A comprehensive understanding of applicable techniques and methods, and of

their limitations.• A knowledge of the non-technical implications of engineering practice.

Courses on transferable competences

• Ability to interact with scientists from other disciplines on inter- or multidiscipli-nary problems.

• Advanced communication competences in a second European language, alongwith the mother tongue.

• Learning skills that will allow them to continue to study in a manner that may belargely self-directed or autonomous, and to take responsibility for their own pro-fessional development.

• Ability to reflect on ethical responsibilities linked to the application of theirknowledge and judgements.

• Ability to communicate their conclusions, and the knowledge and rationale under-pinning these, to specialist and non-specialist audiences clearly and unambigu-ously.

• Study skills needed for continuing professional development.• Ability to assimilate, evaluate and present research results objectively.• Function effectively as an individual and as a member of a team.• Use diverse methods to communicate effectively with the engineering community

and with society at large.• Ability to demonstrate awareness of the health, safety and legal issues and re-

sponsibilities of engineering practice, the impact of engineering solutions in a so-cietal and environmental context, and commit to professional ethics, responsibili-ties and norms of engineering practice.

• Demonstrate an awareness of project management and business practices, suchas risk and change management, and understand their limitations.

• Ability to recognise the need for, and have the ability to engage in independent,life-long learning.

• Function effectively as leader of a team that may be composed of different disci-plines.

Master’s thesis & Industrial work placement

In-depth application of all competences acquired.

TABLE V

Course Category Competences

required by the International Standard Classification of Occupation 2008

Advanced courses on basic and more specific chemical disciplines

• Conducting research and improving or developing concepts, instruments, theoriesand operational methods related to chemistry.

• Conducting experiments, tests and analyses to investigate chemical compositionand energy and chemical changes in various natural or synthetic substances, mate-rials and products.

• Developing procedures for environmental control, quality control and various otherprocedures for manufacturers or users.

• Conducting programs of sample and data collection and analysis to identify andquantify environmental toxicants.

• Using micro-organisms to convert substances into new compounds.• Determining ways to strengthen or combine materials or develop new materials.• Reproducing and synthesising naturally occurring substances and creating new arti-

ficial substances.

Advanced courses on engineering analysis, engineering design and engineering practice

• Conducting research and advising on, and developing commercial-scale chemicalprocesses to refine crude oil and other liquids or gases, and to produce substancesand items such as petroleum derivatives, explosives, food and drink products,medicines, or synthetic materials.

• Specifying chemical production methods, materials and quality standards and en-suring that they conform to specifications.

• Establishing control standards and procedures to ensure safety and efficiency ofchemical production operations and safety of workers operating equipment orworking in close proximity to on-going chemical reactions.

• Designing chemical plant equipment and devising processes for manufacturingchemicals and products.

• Performing tests throughout stages of production to determine degree of controlover variables, including temperature, density, specific gravity, and pressure.

• Developing safety procedures to be employed.• Performing laboratory studies of steps in manufacture of new products and testing

proposed process in small scale operation such as a pilot plant.

Courses on transferable competences

• Preparing scientific papers and reports.• Participating in interdisciplinary research and development projects working with

chemical engineers, biologists, microbiologists, agronomists, geologists or otherprofessionals.

• Preparing estimates of production costs and production progress reports for man-agement.

Master’s thesis & Industrial work placement

In-depth application of all competences acquired.

A proposal as to curriculum design for the master’s courses under consideration can by definition not be very precise, since specialisation is one of the main characteristics of sec-ond cycle study programmes. Nevertheless, a number of as-pects should be present, in order to ascertain that the overall profile of currently operating master’s courses combining chemistry, chemical technology and chemical engineering is taken into account, and the duality of the approach is re-spected. TABLE VII provides the general structure for a curriculum combining chemistry, chemical technology and chemical engi-neering. Course units and concrete ECTS credit allocation may vary according to the specific demand, nevertheless learning outcomes should always refer to the above-cited re-quirements.

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Course Category ECTS Credits

Advanced courses and practical laboratories on the basic and on more specific chemical disci-plines, with the focus on technical aspects re-lated to the specialisation offered

30-45

Advanced courses and laboratories on engi-neering analysis, engineering design and engi-neering practice, with the focus to prepare graduates for the design and monitoring of in-dustrial chemical processes

30-45

Modules on key competences, including courses on management, planning, handling innovation, budgetary and market-oriented is-sues, and foreign languages for specific pur-poses

5-10

Distinct or combined master’s thesis and indus-trial work placement, as an in-depth applica-tion of all competences acquired

30-55

TABLE VII

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