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The genomes of eukaryotic organisms are enormous and containmillions of nucleotide sequences that form their genes

Finding a specific gene amidst the DNA molecules of these hugegenomes is like searching for a needle in a haystack

Since the discovery of restriction enzymes in the 1970s, genetic engineershave developed a number of innovative ways of locating and isolating genes

As these methods have developed, geneticists have been able to isolate specific genes and incorporate them into host cells to create transgenic organisms

The ability to detect and isolate genes is at the core of this technology and, as more

and more genes are obtained and studied, it is hoped that this science will bring with it many health, economic and social benefits

Using this technology, cells have been converted into living pharmaceutical

factories; domesticated animals and crop plants have been modified to improve the

efficiency of food production and an understanding of genetic disease has been

greatly enhanced

Gene Technology - Obtaining GenesGene Technology - Obtaining Genes

The manufacture of human insulin and human growth hormone representtwo of the earliest successes of gene technology

Since that time, a number of other human proteins with medical uses havebeen successfully manufactured using this technology

• Factor V111 – used to prevent bleeding in haemophiliacs

• Interferons – used to fight viral infections

• Erythropoietin – used to stimulate red blood cell production in kidney patients

• Tissue plasma activator (TPA) – used to dissolve blood clots that block coronary arteries, causing heart attacks

Human Proteins and Gene TechnologyHuman Proteins and Gene Technology

In addition to the manufacture of human proteins, gene technology is being extensively used and researched in a variety of different industries

In the agricultural industry, gene technology has been used to improve the quality of fruits, to reduce the effects of pests on crop plants and to increase productivity

These older, already reddenedtomatoes tend to become ‘mushy’

during transport due to theaction of an enzyme manufactured

by the tomato cells

Traditionally tomatoes areharvested whilst they are green

and firm, and then ripenedafter transport by treatment

with ethene gas

Gene technologists have createdgenes that prevent the ‘mushy

enzyme’ from being transcribed

The introduction of these genes intotomato plants created tastier, ‘mush-resistant’

tomatoes known as the ‘Flavr Savr’ variety

Further Applications of Gene TechnologyFurther Applications of Gene Technology

Better tasting tomatoes are thosethat have been allowed to ripen

on the vine

A particularly potent herbicide called Basta is used extensively throughout theworld because of its ability to kill most weeds

As this herbicide also kills crop plants, it is necessary to apply the chemical toagricultural land before the crop plants begin to grow

Genetic engineers have developed specialised plasmids that are able to transfer the genefor resistance to Basta into crop plant cells

This genetically engineered oilseed rape crop is resistant to the herbicide Bastaand the land can be treated with with this chemical whilst the crop is growing

Further Applications of Gene TechnologyFurther Applications of Gene Technology

The cloning of plants and animals is generally viewed by gene technologistsas a means to improve a particular breed or variety

Cloning is also seen as a means of introducing genes into animals so that they will produce a variety of useful chemicals for man

In 1996, scientists at the Roslin Institute inScotland created the much-publicised

‘Dolly’ the sheep

Dolly was created by injecting a nucleus from amammary cell of a sheep into an egg

cell without a nucleus

This ‘fertilised egg’ developed into Dolly who istherefore a genetic clone of the sheep from

which the nucleus was taken

The creation of Dolly has aroused world-wideinterest and concern about the possibility

of human cloning

Cloning and genetic modification of humanindividuals is banned by international

law but there remain ethical implicationsfor the whole field of gene technology

Further Applications of Gene TechnologyFurther Applications of Gene Technology

Gene technology is a powerful technology offeringpotentially enormous benefits – but it is not without risks

Gene technology modifies the genetic make-up of livingorganisms and, as such, is viewed by some as unnatural

and potentially harmful

Legislation and regulations set standards for the responsible application and use of genetically engineered organisms

Various bodies are involved in decision-making regarding the use of genetechnology and these include:

• ACRE – The Advisory Committee on Release to the Environment

• GMAC – The Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee

• The Department of the Environment

• The Department of the Health

• An EU committee that considers the ethical aspects of biotechnology

• Various committees representing the Food and Agricultural Industries

Risks, Benefits and Ethical Implications of Gene Technology

Public opinion and various committees have raised some concerns regardingcertain aspects of gene technology

• The release of genetically modified organisms into the environment has the potential to disturb the balance of the ecosystem and is a threat to biodiversity

• The consumption of genetically modified foods may have unforeseen effects in humans

• The cloning of human embryos for research purposes could be exploited by some to create ‘designer babies’

• The technology increases the risk of biological warfare

Some Concerns of Gene TechnologySome Concerns of Gene Technology

• Increased productivity of essential crop plants, e.g. breedinginsect and disease resistant plants

• The improvement of farm animals, e.g. milk yields in cattle

• More efficient methods of Industrial Waste Management

• Faster and more reliable diagnostic tests for human disease

• The use of gene therapy for treating genetic disorders

• The use of genetic fingerprinting in tracking down criminals

• Effective vaccine and drug manufacture - gene technologists have made promising progress towards understanding the malarial parasite and the HIV virus that causes AIDS, and are developing vaccines to prevent them

Benefits of Gene Technology - Examples for DiscussionBenefits of Gene Technology - Examples for Discussion

Questions for Discussion

Should the living organisms/products resulting from gene technology become a commercial property through patenting?

Do gene technology decision-making processes take into account the cultural, moral and religious beliefs of a multicultural society?

Should we engineer living organisms to generate products useful to humans?

Can we be sure that animals used for gene technology do not suffer?

Is the cloning of human embryos for research purposes acceptable?

Who will have access to the genetic information obtained about individuals?

Are all genetically modified foods clearly labelled to allow full and informed customer choice?

Moral and Ethical Implications of Gene TechnologyMoral and Ethical Implications of Gene Technology