Child Development Theorists

Sigmund Freud

Neurologist who became known as one of the founding fathers of psychoanalysis

1856-1939

Id, Ego and Super Ego

Id: The seat of our impulses

Ego: Negotiates with the id, pleases the superego

Superego: Keeps us on the straight and narrow

Psychosexual Development Freud believed that personality develops

through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain areas.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life

Psychosexual Development cont.

If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur

Oral Stage

Birth to age 1 infant's primary source of interaction occurs

through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.

conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers.

Fixation at this stage- issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

Anal Stage Age 1 to 3 years major conflict at this stage is toilet

training--. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

Parents too lenient : anal-expulsive personality could develop Messy, wasteful or destructive

Parents too strict: anal-retentive personality could develop Stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive

Parents should use rewards and praise

Phallic Stage Age 3 to 6 years Children begin to discover the difference

between males and females boys begin to view their fathers as a

rival for the mother’s affections (oedipus complex) but also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings (castration anxiety)

Electra complex is the term he used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls

Latent Period

Age 6 to puberty time of exploration in which the

sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.

important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

Genital Stage

Age puberty to death Develops strong sexual interest in

the opposite sex  other stages have been completed

successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring

Jean Piaget

1896-1980 Developmental

psychologist and philosopher

Sensorimotor stage

Birth to 2 years Infant knows the world through

movement and sensations Learns object permanence (things still

exist even though they can’t be seen) They are separate beings Actions can cause things to happen in

the world around them

Preoperational stage

Age 2 to 7 Children begin to think symbolically

and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. They also tend to be very egocentric, and see things only from their point of view.

Concrete Operational Stage

Age 7 to 11 begin thinking logically about

concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Formal Operational Stage

Age 12 and up Abstract thought emerges. Teens begin to think more about

moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.

Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Lev Vygotsky

1896-1934 Developmental

pyschologist

Social Development Theory social interaction has a vital role in the

cognitive development process. Vygotsky argues that social learning

comes first before cognitive development.

cultural development of a child is firstly on the social level called interpsychological, and secondly on the individual or personal level called intrapsychological.

Erik Erikson

1902-1994 Developmental

psychologist

Psychosocial Stages

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. 

8 stages

Trust vs. Mistrust

Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Autonomy vs. Shame Doubt

Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Autonomy: moral responsibility and accountability for one’s actions

Initiative vs. Guilt

Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

B. F. Skinner

1904-1990 Psychologist,

behaviorist, author, inventor, philosopher

Operant Conditioning

changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. 

3 types of Responses

Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

 Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.▪ Paying parents $5 when your bed isn’t made, you will begin

to make your bed to avoid paying $5 thus strengthening the behavior to make your bed

 Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Urie Bronfenbrenner

1917-2005 Developmental

psychologist

Ecological Systems Theory

The Micro System direct environment we have in our lives. Your

family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents.

The Mesosystem relationships between the microsystems in one's

life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers.

The Exosystem setting in which there is a link between the context

where the person does not have any active role, and the context where is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.

The Macrosystem actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts

involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.

The Chronosystem transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may

also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.

Lawrence Kohlberg

1927-1987 Psychology

professor at Harvard

Theory of moral development

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1 - Obedience and PunishmentAt this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 - Individualism and ExchangeAt this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3 - Interpersonal RelationshipsOften referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Orderpeople begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rightspeople begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 - Universal PrinciplesAt this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.