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•THE "ARTISANS" OP SHAKESPEARE'S JULIUS CAESAR
by
JAMES ARTHUR MARTIN, B.A.
A THESIS
IN
ENGLISH
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Technological College in Partial .-̂ uifillraent of the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
/^-fM^ig^^^^-^^X
Accepted
De"§Ln of Graduate ifchool
August , 19'D6
fTEJOS TrCHNOUOGfCAi: COLLESt LUBBOCK, TEXAS LIBRARY
T3
AJO . { 0 3 Cop,'2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am deeply indebted to Professor J. T, McCullen
for his guidance and assistance in the writing of this
thesis.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. ARTISANRY IMAGERY IN THE PLAY 10
III. PARALLELISMS IN THE PLAY 2^
IV. CONCLUSION 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY i].2
ill
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Critics, in their enthusiasm over the nobility
of Brutus and their consequent overly scrupulous attention
to the demise of this conscientious, well-meaning Roman,
have all too often failed to observe the significance
of the play as a whole. Instead of regarding Brutus as
merely a representative of one of the factious elements
which characterize the actions of the drama, the tendency
has been to assume that the dramatic tension of the play
concentrates upon this one character, who seems to be
the focal point of the civil broil which is the subject
of the whole drama. A. C. Swlnbiu?ne, for exan?)le,
suggests of Julius Caesar that
It is in the main a play belonging to the same order as King Henry IV.; but it differs from otu? English Henriade...no7 more by the absence of Falstaff than by the presence of Brutus. Here at least Shakespeare has made full amends, if not to all modern democrats, yet assxiredly to all historical, republlcaiis, for any possible or apparent preference of royal to popular traditions. 'i'Jhatever manner of man may have been the actual Roman, our Shakespearean Brutus is undoubtedly the very noblest figure of a typical and Ideal republican in all the literature of the world."̂
•̂ Algernon Charles Swinburne, A Study of Shakestjeare (New York: AMS Press Inc., 1965), pp. 156-159.
M. W. MacCallxim states that, in the play, Shakespeare
"reserves his chief enthusiasm for Brutus,"^ and that
"throughout the piece, it is the personality of Brutus
that attracts our chief sympathy and concern."3 Parrott
says that Brutus is the true tragic hero and that he,
...like Hamlet, whom he much resembles, is a victim of his own character. A philosopher, an idealist, he is incapable of seeing things as they are. He undertakes a great action, the freeing of Rome from a tyrant without realizing the true situation or the probable consequences of the deed. He makes mistake after mistake and finally falls upon his sword a beaten m.an. Yet his high sense of honor, and his sweetness of temper are such that he never forfeits oxir 3jmpa.th.j,k-
Many further exan^les could be cited, such as Gildon's
contention that, although the play is called Julius
Caesar,
. . . i t ought r a the r to be c a l l ' d Marcus Brutus; Caesar i s the shor tes t and most inconsiderable p a r t i n i t , and he i s k i l l ' d in the beginning of the Third Act. But Brutus i s p l a i n l y the shining and dar l ing character of the Poet; and i s to the and of the Play the most considerable P e r s o n , . , ; 5
^M, W. MacCalliim, Shakespeare's Roman Plays (London: MacMillan and Co., L td . , 193F), p . 215.
3 l b l d . , p . 212.
^Thomas Marc P a r r o t t , William Shakespeare; A Handbook (New York: Charles Scr ibner ' s Sons, 193i|-)7 p . 156.
^Horace Howard Purness, J r . , ed . . The Variorum Shakespeare; Ju l iu s Caesar (Philadelphia: J . B. Llppincot t Company, 1913)» p . H*
3 .
but these llluatratlona ahould suffice to indicate that
critics have tended to concentrate their attention upon
this one character, who la, if not tragic, at least
pathetic becauae of hla complete failure and the inner
turmoil whicji he auffers.
As a matter of fact, the conflict raging In the
mind of Brutus devolves upon the peculiar intellectuality
of the man himself. He is predominantly Intellectual; his
emotional nature seems singularly iinderdeveloped—for all
motivation in the character of Brutus depends upon
rationalization and the courses of action prescribed by
thought. Brutus Is'not spontaneous in his reactions to
any situation; he is hardly Involved personally in any
action he performs. Emotional commitment is practically
non-existent: all his enterprises are performed because
of super-personal motivations. Upon hearing of Portia's
death, he fails to react emotionally. And upon Cassius's
inquiry concerning the cause of her death, he stoically
rationalizes her act. She was, he says.
Impatient of ray absence. And grief that yoimg Octavius with Mark Antony Have made themselves so strong:—for with her
death That tidings came;—with this she fell distract. And, her attendants absent, swallow'd fire.°
^"Julius Caesar," The Complete Works of Shakespeare, ed. Hardin Craig (Chicago: Scott, Poresman and Company, 1951), IV,ill,152-156. All citations will refer to this edition.
k In short, he logically Interprets the causes and effects
of her grief. In all his actions—the deliberation pre
ceding his alliance with the conspirators, the arguments
utilized in allowing Antony to live, his meditations
Justifying the killing of Caesar, his speech to the
populace in which he traces the reasons for Caesar's
death, his rationalizations for the conduct of the war,
even the reasonable basis for his own suicide—there
are always reasons for what he does. Nothing he does is
the result of personal feeling. Brutus, therefore, acts
as an Instrument/of his own rationalizations rather thsui ' I'
as an emotionally committed human being. *.
For a character to be tragic, he has to be a
personality; he has to feel. Brutus does not feel; he
merely thinks. And as a thinker, a rationalist, he
represents merely one aspect of human nature: that
principle which orders or makes thinkable human
existence.
In such a sense, Brutus may be allied to Julius
Caesar, who, at the beginning of the play, represents
rational order in Rome. Like Brutus, Caesar seems
impervious to the emotional content of human life.
Gaessu?, too, is primarily an intellectual, one who
hearkens' to reason and acts under the pronqjtlngs of
what his mind construes to be reasonable. As Brutus is
5
to Portia, so Caesar is to Galpurnla. Neither Brutua nor
Caesar is dissuaded from his enterprises by the emotional
appeals made to him by his wife. Caesar is temporarily ' -/••
dissuaded from going to the Capitol by the "in5)ort" of
his wife's dreams, not by the terror she feels. He Is
persuaded to go by Decius, who "re-interprets" Galpurnla*a
dream and who gives "reasons" why Caesar should go. That
Caesar is predominantly Intellectual is further indicated
by his reaction to the entreaties made by the conspirators
in behalf of Publius Gimber;
I could be well moved, if I were as you; If I could pray to move, prayers would move me: But I am constant as the northern star. Of whose true-flx'd and resting quality There is no fellow in the firmament. The skies are painted with xinnumber'd sparks. They are all fire and every one doth shine. But there's but one in all doth hold his place: So in the world; 'tis furnish'd well with men, And men are flesh and blood, and apprehensive; Yet in the number I do know but one That unassailable holds on his rank, Unshaked of motion: and that I am he. Let me a little show it, even in this; That I was constant Gimber should be banish'd, And constant do remain to keep him so.
(111,1,58-73)
During 8U1 esirlier scene, in which Caesar and Antony are
discussing Cassius, Antony expresses his belief that
Cassius is not dangerous, that "he is a noble Romsui and
well given." Caesar will not accept this evaluation. He
says, '/ -ly-iy
Gome on my right hand, for this ear is deaf. And tell me truly what thou think'st of him.
rr,rr,2i3-2ii4.) Caesar, then, is deaf in one ear, an affliction which Is
symbolic of his one-sided view of human nature. He Is
unable to establish access to the emotional natxire of mani
Just as Brutus and Caesar have a parallel fvinction
in the play, that of intellectuality, so Cassius and
Antony have a parallel function, that of emotionality.
Whereas the actions of both Brutus and Caesea* are moti
vated by rational principles, the actions of Cassius and
Antony are motivated by emotional urges. That Antony is
dominated by his emotional natiire is made evident early
in the play: he is "gamesome" and "given to sports, to
wlldness, and much company." That he bears great love
and honor for Caesar is also made obvious by the humil
ity he displays in Caesar's presence during the early
stages of the play- He is Indolent and apparently without
personal ambition because he is content to remain in the
shadow of Caesar, whom he loves and venerates. His emo
tional urges are satisfied with trivial ajnusements.
After Caesar'a aaaaaaination, however, he la motivated
to act by feelinga of grief and indignation. He la
determined to wreak vengeance upon the conapirators,
even at the coat of aocial and political chaoa:
0, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth. That I am meek and gentle with these butchers] Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times. Woe to the hand that shed this costly bloodl Over thy wounds now do I prophesy,--Which, like dumb mouths, do ope their ruby lips, To beg the voice and utterance of my tongue— A curse shall light upon the limbs of men; Domestic fury and fierce civil strife Shall cumber all the parts of Italy; Blood and destruction shall be so in use And dreadful objects so familiar That mothers shall but smile when they behold Their Infants quarter'd with the hands of wsu*; All pity choked with custom of fell deeds: And Caesar's spirit, ranging for revenge. With Ate by his side come hot from hell. Shall in these confines with a monarch's voice Cry "Havoc," and let slip the dogs of war; That this foul deed shall smell above the earth With carrion men, groaning for burial.
(III,i,25ij--275)
Cassius is motivated by essentially the same
emotional principles as is Antony. Once the conspiracy
has substance, Cassius, out of love and deference for
Brutus, submits to the will of Brutus. Cassius's motives
in fomenting the conspiracy against Caesar are personal
and highly emotional. He hates Caesar and is jealous of
him. He admits that:
Caesar doth bear me hard; but he loves Brutus: If I were Brutus now and he were Cassius, He should not humour me, (1,11,317-319)
Both Cassius and Antony, therefore, although deferring
to the rationale of the titular leaders of the two
factions, nevertheless initiate the significant actions
8
which cause the civil turmoil and eventually culminate
in the re-formation of world order,
/ Brutus and Caesar, then, are the rational prin
ciples which justify the active, emotional urge that is
exemplified' in the characters of Cassius and Antony,
Just as the Dlonyslan, or creative, impulse requires the
Apolllnlan principle for validation or self-expression,
so does emotion require intellect in order to achieve
meaning. Brutus justifies Cassius's cause, just as
Antony validates his own actions by acting \inder the
rationale established by Julius Caesar-
In reality, it is Antony and Caasiua who are the
eigenta of "procreatlve \irge" that effecta change in the
world order. But in order to validate their revolutionary
character, it is necessary that they acquire the sanction
of the Intellect, Thus Cassius needs the approbation of
Brutus in order to bring about the change he envisages.
Brutus, after all,
.,.slts high in all the people's hearts...; (1,111,157)
euid, therefore, his approval will satisfy the multitude
and provide the needed sanction for Cassius's act.
Antony also enlists Octavius, the legal heir to Caesar's
Inheritance, in order to make his opposition to the
conspirators seem justified.
9
It is my intention in this thesis to demonstrate
that the alliance of the diverse functions of these
characters is requisite to the formation of any artic
ulate act or deed. Further, I intend to point out the
heavy emphasis that> Shakespeare puts upon what may be
appropriately called "the artisanry imagery" which
pervades the whole play. That these opposite aspects of
human nature must be allied In order to construct a world
order that Is tenable and valid for the multitude who are
to be under Its rule is an idea that is clearly asserted
in Julius Caesar, The architects of a new system of rule
over the affairs of men must be able not only to desire
the change they advocate, but also to justify the motion
and process that Initiates the change. Hence, I will con
sider Antony and Cassius as the active, emotional
(Dlonyslan) principles of the play, while Brutus and
Caesar will be considered the passive. Intellectual
(Apolllnlan) principles utilized by the former in order
to validate their actions. Incidentally, therefore, I will
show that Julius Caesar, Instead of having one protago
nist, is a drama with four—all equally important and
necessary for the development of the theme of the play.
CHAPTER II
ARTISANRY IMAGERY IN THE PLAY
Very little consideration has been given to
Shakespeare's use of Imagery in Julius Caesar, appar
ently because few have believed such a study to be of
imich value. Probably the views of Caroline Spurgeon con-
cernlng the imagery in the play are the ones that are
generally held:
Julius Caesar Is straightforward, slow-moving, restrained"]! almost bare in style; it has relatively few Images (less than half those in Gorlolanus, and less than one-third those in A.ntony "ancT Cleopatra), and a characteristic of these is that tney are clear, definite, and worked out In a full and leisurely way.
Antony's comparison of Lepldus to the ass turned out to graze is a good example of the peculiar amplification and slow movement of the se 3Imlle s.,,,
Others of like nature are the ladder of ambition, the state and the kingdom of man, the bonfire, the likeness of "hollow men" and the prancing mettlesome horses, the stricken deer, the setting sun, the turn of the tide and the northern star.
There is no leading or floating image in the play; one feels it was not written under the particular stress of emotion or excitement which gives rise to a dominating image. There is, however, a certain persistence in the comparison of the characters to animals: Caesar is a wolf, a lion, a falcon, a serpent's egg, an adder, a stricken deer; the Romans are sheep and hinds and bees; the conspirators are apes and hounds; Brutus is a lamb; Lepldus Is an ass, a horse; Metellus and Casea are curs; Cassius is a showy, mettlesome steed which falls at the moment
10
11
of trial; and Octavius and Antony are bears tied to the stake. But this animal imagery is not nearly so marked as in either King Lear or Othello, and entirely lacks con-slstency of character, so that it falls to produce the cumulative effect so strongly felt In both those plays.7
Many other critics have also noted the animal imagery in
Julius Caesar, and Maurice Charney has given detailed
consideration to the blood, fire, and storm Images of the Q
play. Aside from these Instances, however, the Imagery
of Julius Caesar has been largely Ignored.
Nevertheless, I believe there is a "leading" or
"floating" image in the play which has generally been
either overlooked or deemed Inconsequential; and I
believe this image is worthy of consideration because it
amplifies one of the basic themes of the play.
A clue to this dominant image may be discovered
simply by considering the natvu?e of the common people,
who greatly Influence the fortunes of the principal
characters in the play. The opening scene of Julius
Caesar, in which the commoners play an important part,
is an exposition in which the setting is established and
(London ^Caroline F, E. Spurgeon, Shakespeare's Imagery : Cambridge University Press, 1935)» PP. 3i\-0'3h7»
"Maurice Charney, Shakespeare's Roman Plays (Cambridge, Massachusetts;Harvard University' Press, 1961), pp. 14.1-66.
12
the reader is prepared for the action that follows. As
auch, this scene is considered to have two primary
fiinctions: (1) it vividly presents a turbulent Rome, a
Rome of factions and conquests; and (2) it reveals the
fickle or vaclllatory nature of the common people.
But the scene does even more. If Shakespeare had
wished to present the common people as sinply a fickle
mob, would they not closely resemble the citizen-mob of
Gorlolanus? In some ways they do; yet Shakespeare has
taken pains to mark a very distinct difference between
the commoners of the two plays; whereas the commoners of
Gorlolanus are merely a turbulent body, bent on vengeance,
the commoners of Julius Caesar are "mechanical"—the csu?-
penter and the cobbler. They are artlsajis—craftsmen occu
pied in shaping and reshaping the wares of their respec
tive professions. Nor is this a trivial differentiation
that Shakespeare has drawn between the citizens of the
two plays. The first thirty-six lines of Jvilius Caesar
are employed to state, to Iterate, and to reiterate the
point that these commoners are craftsmen. It is not
until Marullus's famous speech, beginning.
Wherefore rejoice? What conquest brings he home? What tributaries follow him to Rome? etc.,
(171737-38)
that the two "primary fxmctions" of this scene begin to
13
reveal themselves; for it is in this speech and the lines
which follow that we first become aware of the fickleness
of the Roman people and the turbulence of the political
conditions in Rome. The first thirty-six lines of the
play contain an abundance of terminology relating to
artisans and craftsmanship; the two commoners addressed
by Marullus and Flavlus are "mechanical"; they identify
themselves as a carpenter and a cobbler. The word "trade,"
meaning "craft" or "profession," is used no less than six
times in these thirty-six lines. The cobbler is a "mender
of bad soles" and a "surgeon to old shoes"; the carpenter
is a "fine workman." They speak of their "shop," their
"handiwork," of "mending" and "cobbling." There are refer
ences to the tools of their trades; the "leather apron"
and the "rule"; the "awl" is mentioned twice. The cobbler
refers to the finished product of his trade; "shoes" and
"neat's leather."
But what is the significance of this emphasis
placed upon artisanry? What do these lines presage? Cer
tainly, the fact that many of the commoners are craftsmen
is, in Itself, of no real Importance; but the heavy em
phasis given to artisanry at the beginning of the play
suggests that it is to be an important theme or image
which permeates the entire play.
The first scene of the play, then, not only sets
Ik
the stage for the action which follows by presenting the
unstable conditions that exist politically and in the
loyalties of the common people, but also establishes a
basic tone or atmosphere under which the actions take
place: that is, it suggests that artisanry is the domi
nant image which strongly accentuates the basic theme of
the play.
Julius Caesar is so replete with artisanry Images
that it would be superfluous to attempt here to pigeon
hole them all; however, several examples are perhaps
necessary for the validation of the contention that arti
sanry is, indeed, a dominant Image In the play. If one
were Interested In a statistical count of the frequency
with which certain words suggesting artisanry are used,
he would note that the word "Instrument" (a "tool") is
used five times in the play, a form of the verb "to
fashion" is used four times; and some form of "to bend"
is used no less than six times. In addition, there are at
least sixteen references to materials which are fashioned
by artisans: metal (or mettle) Is referred to six times;
stones, three times; lead, twice; steel, brass, iron,
blocks, and wood, once each. Forms of the words "constant"
(meaning "Immutable"), "move" (meaning "Influence or pre
vail upon"), "stir," "mark," and "draw" are used, cumula-
15
tlvely, no less than thirty times. This evidence alone
is, however, a rather weak point, since one might well
argue that these words need not necessarily suggest arti
sanry; Indeed, one might question whether the use of
these words really has anything to do with imagery, as
they may be used in a literal, rather than a figiirative,
sense. Certainly, Brutus's observation to the boy Lucius,
Thou hast no figures nor no fantasies. Which busy care drawa in the bralna of men.,.,
(11,1,231-232)
l a an a r t i s a n r y Image; on the o the r hand, however.
Assemble a l l the poor men of yovir s o r t ; Draw them to Tiber banks, and weep your t e a r s
I n t o the c h a n n e l , , . ( I , l ,62-6[) .)
Is not. Simply noting the frequency of the occiirrence of
certain words, then, although it certainly suggests the
emphasis of artisanry, has little validity in a consider
ation of artisan Imagery in the play. It will therefore
be necessary to view these artisanry words in the context
in which they appear.
Brutus»s comparison of care to the busy draftsman
that draws "figures" and "fantasies" in the minds of men
has already been noted. Cinna's observation that "...yon
gray lines/ That fret the clouds are messengers of day"
(11,1,102-103), and Cassius's explanation to Casca for
the unusual portents, i_. e_.,
16
But if you would consider the true cause... Why all these things change from their ordinance Their nature and preformed faculties To monstrous quality,—why you shall find That nature hath Infused them with these spirits, To make them Instruments of fear and warning
Unto some monstrous state, (1,111,62-71)
are similar to Brutus's "busy care" image in that all
three are Images which suggest artisanry but do not refer
to any specific character. They are somewhat Irqportant
because they reflect the artisanry Imagery that pervades
the play; but they warrant little consideration here,
since the primary subject with which this thesis is con
cerned is the artisans of Julius Caesar. Eii5)hasls, there
fore, will naturally be placed upon the artisanry Imagery
which apnlies to the characters in the play. As a matter
of fact, almost all of the imagery suggesting artisanshlp
does apply to one character or another, or to an entire
group of characters.
There is a great deal of artisanry Imagery asso
ciated with all of the major characters in the play, and
much is associated with some of the minor characters.
Even the commoners (after all, they are "artissuns") can
"cull out a holiday" (1,1,5̂ -̂)- Ironically, the commoners,
who are the only literal artisans in the play, are gener
ally depicted as the raw materials fashioned by others,
Marullus, in scolding them for "culling out a holiday" to
17
re jo ice in Caesar 's trivunphs, c a l l s them "blocks" and
"stones" (1,1,14-0), Then, when they r e t i r e shamefacedly,
Flavlus comments;
See, whether t h e i r basest metal be not moved; They vanish tongue-tied in t he i r g u i l t i n e s s .
(1,1,66-67)
In speaking to the commoners, Antony later employs, in
his funeral oration, an image almost identical to
Marullus's, but Antony's comparison is negative; "You
are not wood, you are not stones, but men..." (III,il,ij.7).
This statement is ironic becavise Antony realizes, of
course, that the commoners are "wood" and "stones"; he is,
at the time, in the process of fashioning the commoners,
of making them feel "the dint of pity" (111,11,198). He
continues by saying that he is a "blvint" man who is
unable to "stir men's blood" (111,11,22?); but if he were
Brutus, and Brutus were Antony,
...there were an Antony Would ruffle up your spirits and put a tongue In every wound of Caesar that should move The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny.
(111,11, 231-231̂ .)
And Antony, of course, works upon the "stones of Rome"
and fashions them so that they will "rise and mutiny"
against the conspirators.
It seems significant that Antony's first appear
ance in the play is as a participant in the games at the
18
Lupercalia, when Caesar cautions him;
Forget not, in your speed, Antonius, To touch Galpurnla; for our elders say. The barren, touched in this holy chase. Shake off their sterile curse. (1,11,6-9)
Thus Antony, by implication, is immediately Identified as
an "artisan": he is to remold Galpurnla with his whip so
that she will become fertile. Antony, Indeed, proves to
be a great fashioner of people; besides the work he per
forms on the commoners to bend them to his will, it
should be recalled that he maneuvers Brutus into allowing
him to speak in Caesar's funeral. Furthermore, Antony
considers and uses Lepldus as a mere tool for achieving
his goals:
...though we lay these honors on this man. To ease ovirselves of divers slanderous loads. He shall but bear them as the ass bears gold. To groan and sweat under the business. Either led or driven, as we point the way; And having brought our treasure where we will. Then take we down his load, and turn him off. Like to the empty ass, to shake his ears. And graze In commons. (IV,1,19-27)
Antony also compares Lepldus to his horse:
It CAntony's horse3 Is a creature that I teach to fight.
To wind, to stop, to rvin directly on, His corporal motion govern'd by my spirit. And, in some taste, is Lepldus but so; He moist be taught and train'd and bid go forth; A barren-spirited fellow,.,. ...do not talk of him, But as a property. (IV,1,31-14-0)
J, A. H, Murray has pointed out that "property," as here
19
used, i s "a mere means to an end; an instrxoment, a t oo l ,
a c a t ' s paw."°
Thus Antony "touches" Galpurnla, "moves the stones
of Rome to r i s e and mutiny," manipulates Brutus, and uses
Lepldus as a "proper ty"--yet he does not p reva i l upon
Caesar. Nor should he be expected t o . As has been pointed
out previously , Antony loves and venerates Caesar; he i s
Indolent so long as Caesar l i v e s : i t i s Caesar 's death
which spurs Antony to ac t ion .
As a matter of f ac t , Caessu? would not believe
Antony or anyone e lse capable of preva i l ing upon him. The
p leas to Caesar in behalf of Publius Gimber "might f i r e
the blood of ordinary men" (111,1,37), 6ut Caesar believes
t h a t h i s blood can not be "thaw'd from the true q u a l i t y /
With t h a t which melteth fools" (III,l , i4.1-i |2). Caesar
bel ieves himself to be as "constant as the northern s t a r "
(111,1,60) , "linshaked of motion" (111,1,70). Of course,
Caesar ' s se l f -eva lua t ion i s only pa r t l y accvwate: t r ue ,
he w i l l not knowingly be moved by compassion, but he
succumbs to f l a t t e r y . When Cassius expresses to the other
conspi ra tors h i s fears tha t Caesar may not come to the
Capi tol , Decius gives reassurance:
9purness, 0£_. c i t . , p . 19li-.
20
Never f ea r t h a t : i f he be so r e s o l v e d , I can o 'ersway h i m , , , . Let me work; For I can give h i s humour the t r u e b e n t . And I w i l l b r i ng him to the C a p i t o l .
(11,1,202-211)
True to his boast, Decius instills in Caesar the determi
nation to meet with the senate; and Artemidorus, who has
noted that "There is but one mind in all these men [the
conspirators], and it is bent against Caesar" (11,111,
6-7), is very skillfully thwarted by Decius in his
efforts to caution Caesar against the conspirators. So
Gaesar falls victim to the plot of the conspirators, who
either "carve him as a dish fit for the gods" (11,1,173)
or "hew him as a carcass fit for hounds" (11,1,1714.).
Within the conspiracy Itself, there is an abundance
of artisanry imagery, much of which is associated with
minor characters. The artisanshlp of Decius has already
been demonstrated. More important among the minor char
acters, as far as artisanry Imagery is concerned, is Casca.
Brutus describes him as a "blunt fellow," -who was "quick
mettle when he went to school" (1,11,299-300). Cassius
says he is "dull," lacking "those sparks of life/ That
should be in a Roman" (1,111,57-58). Cassius further notes
that Gasca "puts on" a tardy form (1,11,303) and that he
"puts on fear" and "casts himself in wonder" (I,111,60).
Gasca, in turn, notes about Brutus that he
21
, , . 3 i t 3 high in a l l the people ' s hea r t s ; And tha t which would appear offence in us , His covintenance, l ike r i c h e s t alchemy. Will change to v i r tue and to worthiness.
(1,111,157-160)
A s imi lar image i s applied to Brutus by Ligar ius ,
who t e l l s him;
Thou, like an exorcist, hast conjured up My mortified spirit. (11,1,323-3214-)
Ligarius, \to.o has been ill, "discards" his sickness
(11,1,321) and follows Brutus "with a heart new-fired"
(11,1,332). Nevertheless, although Brutus is certainly
one of the most significant characters in the play, he
appears as a rather poor artisan. Although he does under
take to "fashion" Ligarius (11,1,220), his success is of
little consequence since, in the first place, Ligarius
already "doth bear Caeaar hard" (11,1,215) and therefore
requlrea little fashioning; and, in the second place,
Ligarius's presence in the conspiracy is of no real
importance. Brutus does attempt, of course, to fashion
the commoners in his oration, but his efforts are rather
inept in comparison to those of Antony. Nevertheless, in
spite of the fact that Brutus, as an artisan, is some
what ineffectual, much artisanry Imagery is associated
with him, for two principal reasons; (1) as T. S. Dorsch
has pointed out, Brutus's language is more metaphorical
and rhetorical than is that of any other character in the
22
play ; and (2) Cassius goes to grea t e f for t s to fashion
Brutus, to seduce him into joining the conspiracy..,
Some examples of Brutus 's use of a r t i sanry imagery
have already been given; the image of care drawing f igures
and f an ta s i e s in the minds of men, h i s descr ip t ion of
Gasca, and h i s statement tha t he wi l l "fashion" Ligar ius .
I t i s Brutus who suggests that the conspirators "carve"
r a the r than "hew" Caesar. Many fur ther exait^jles of
Brutus ' s use of a r t i s an ry Imagery could be c i t e d . To
mention but a few, Brutus be l ieves , vhen Caesar 's ghost
appears to him, tha t i t i s the weakness of h i s eyes tha t
"shapes" the appar i t ion (IV,11,227); at h i s camp near
Sard l s , he descr ibes Cassius as a "hot fr iend cooling,"
one of the "hollow men" who, " l ike horses hot at hand, /
Make ga l l an t show and promise of the i r mett le" (IV,11,
19-214-). On the Lupercalia, when Cassius points out to
Brutus Caesar 's Inept i tudes and h in t s a t the need for
Caesar ' s removal, Brutus informs Cassius tha t "rthat you
would work me to , I have some aim" (1,11,163), but t ha t ,
a t the present , he "would n o t . . . b e any further moved"
(1,11,166-167). He l a t e r admits to himself tha t
Since Cassius f i r s t did whet me against Caesar, I have not s l e p t . (11,1,61-62)
^^T. S. Dorsch, ed . , The Arden Shakespeare; Ju l ius Caesar (London: Methuen and Co. Ltd. , 1955)» P* 1x11.
23
Cassius extends this artisanry imagery when he
soliloquizes:
Well, Brutus, thou art noble; yet, I see. Thy honorable metal may be wrought Prom that it is disposed.... (I,il,312-31il-)
Brutus, then, is the clay, the tool, the metal to be
wrought, whereas Cassius is the potter, the craftsman,
the smith who fashions Brutus. Indeed, Cassius is a
gifted artisan who fashions, not only Brutus, but also
Casca and, apparently, with the exception of Llgarlua,
all of the other conspirators.
CHAPTER III
PARALLELISMS IN THE PLAY
So many parallels exist between the opposing
forces in Julius Caesar that they are almost mirror
Images of each other. The parallel functions of Brutus
and Caesar apd of Cassius and Antony have already been
mentioned and shall be dealt with In greater detail later,
with particular emphasis given to the great influence of
the artisans of the two factions, Cassius and Antony,
upon the courses of action followed by the factions as
a whole. The two factions in the play (1_. e_., the Caesar-
Antony faction, or the "old order," and the Brutus-
Casslus faction, or the "new order") also bear great
resemblsLnce to each other- Both have similar purposes,
the destruction of the opposing faction, because both
believe that Rome would suffer xinder the rule of the
other. Brutus believes that, under the old order, the
Roman people were In bondage;
Had you rather Gaesar were living and die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live all free men? (III,li,23-2l|.)
Antony, on the other hand, states that, when Caesar fell,
0, what a fall was there, my countrymen] Then I, and you, and all of us fell down. Whilst bloody treason flourish'd over us.
(Ill, II,191̂ -196)
Both factions, too, use the commoners as pawns in the
2h
25
s t ruggle for power. Marullus and Flavlus , who are r ep re
sen ta t ives of the Brutus-Casslus fact ion In tha t they
oppose the "old order" of Caesar, chide the commoners for
p ra i s ing Gaesar, " tha t comes In triumph over Porapey's
blood" (1 ,1 ,56) . Antony also "moves t he i r basest metal"
when he chides the commoners for pra is ing Brutus, who
triumphs over Caesar 's blood. Furthermore, both fac t ions
u t i l i z e minor characters as mere tools for fi ir thering
t h e i r desigr^s. The minor conspirators and Lepldua are but
pawns to be manipulated by Cassius and Antony, The Ins ig
nif icance of these minor characters Is evidenced by the
fac t t h a t , once they have served t h e i r purposes, they are
ec l ipsed from the p lay . Finally, both fact ions r e s o r t to
\inscrupulous means to ra ise money. Cassius i s "condemn'd
to have an i t ch ing 'pa lm; / To s e l l and mart ChisJ off ices
for gold/ To undeservers" ( IV , i l l , 10 -12 ) , whereas Antony
sends Lepldus for Caesar 's wi l l In order to determine
"how to cut off some charge in legacies" (IV,i ,9)«
Many p a r a l l e l s can be drawn among the four p r inc ipa l
charac ters in the play, pa r t i cu l a r l y between Brutus and
Caesar, the t i t u l a r leaders of the two fac t ions , and
between Cassius and Antony, the a r t i sans of the two fac
t i o n s . Cassius, In f ac t . Implies a nea r - Iden t i ty of
Brutus with Caesar when. In a conversation with Brutus,
he s t a t e s :
26
Brutus and Caesar: what should be in that "Caesar"?
'iVhy should that name be sounded more than yours? Write them together, yours is as fair a name; Sound them. It doth become the mouth as well; Weigh them, it Is as heavy; conjure with 'em, Brutus will start a spirit as soon as Caesar.
(1,11,114-2-147)
At other points In the play, Antony declares tha t Brutus
"was Caesar 's angel" (111,11,165);-Caesar 's ghost Iden
t i f i e s I t s e l f as Brutus 's "evi l sp i r i t " . ( IV , i l i , 2d2 ) ; and,
a f t e r Brutus ' s o ra t ion , one of the commoners c r i e s out,
"Let him be Caesar" (111,11,56), and another observes that
./'Caesar's better parts/ Shall be crown'd In Brutus" -*
JIII,II,56-57).
^. Both men, too, are high-minded and proud. Brutus
t e l l s Cassius tha t
There i s no t e r r o r , Cassius, in your t h r e a t s . For I am armed so strong in honesty That they pass by me as the Idle wind. Which I respect no t . (IV,111,66-69)
He l a t e r assures Cassius tha t he wi l l never be taken
pr i soner because he "bears too great a mind" (V,1,113),
The high-mlndedness and arrogance of Caesar i s so ev i
dent t ha t I t need hardly be mentioned. For example, he
emphasizes the point tha t he cannot fee l f ea r . To Antony
he says,
I r a the r t e l l thee what Is to be f ea r ' d Than what I fear ; for always I am Caesar.
(1,11,211-212)
Later he tells Galpurnla that
27
...danger knows full well That Caesar Is more dangerous than he; We are two lions litter'd in one day. And I the elder and more terrible.,.,
(11,11,14-14.-14.7)
Coupled with their pride and arrogance is the trait
of absolutism. Neither Caesar nor Brutus will brook oppo
sition to their dictates. They are determined to have
their own way. Caesar, of course, means to be established
as a king; he reigns supreme over the senate, and although
he may ask the opinions of others, he will nevertheless
not be prevailed upon. Despite the appeals in behalf of
Publius Gimber, he remains "constant as the northern
star." Brutus, once he commits himself to the conspiracy
against Caesar, assumes the role of dictator. It is
Ironic that he rejects Cicero as a conspirator on the
grounds that "he will never follow anything/ That other
men begin" (II,l,l5l-l52): he might well have been de
scribing himself. Despite the arguments set against him
by Cassius, Brutus Insists on allowing Antony to live
and to speak In Caesar's funeral; and, despite the fact
that Cassius Is a soldier "older In practice" (IV,ill,31),
Brutus overrides the objections of Cassius and determines
their military strategy himself.
The \inity between the characters of Brutus and
Caesar is further implied by the appearance of only two
26
women in the play, Portia and Galpurnla, the wives of
Brutus and Caesar. Generally associated with the married
man, as opposed to the batchelor, are the attributes of
stability, responsibility, respectability, and rational
ity. The batchelor is more likely to be unstable, irre
sponsible, rakish, and subject to impulsive action.
Obviously, so broad a generalization, particularly when
applied to specific cases, has little validity; never
theless, the tendency Is to use this rule of thiimb In
judging the character of others. Of course, Brutus and
Caesar are not the only married men in the play, but
Galpurnla and Portia are the only women to be granted
even a passing reference. In other words, these char
acters are presented from a slanted viewpoint; the
implication Is that, among the major characters, Caesar
and Brutus are more settled, more responsible, more
orderly in their conduct, whereas Antony and Cassius
are less disciplined and more impulsive.
In the early stages of the play, Cassius and
Antony seem to be characters of entirely different
natures. Caesar observes to Antony that Cassius "has a
lean and hungry look" (1,11,1914-) and that
...He reads much; He is a great observer and he looks Quite through the deeds of men; he loves no plays, As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music;
29
Seldom he smiles, and smiles in such a sort As If he mock'd himself and scorn'd his spirit That could be moved to smile at anything.
(1,11,201-207)
In contrast to Cassius, Antony is a lover of plays; he is
"gamesome" and of "quick spirit" (1,11,26-29); he Is
"given/ To sports, to wlldness and much company" (11,1,
188-169); and he is one "that revels long oi nights"
(11,11,116).
To conclude, however, that the natures of Oassius
and Antony are incompatible would be a superficial and
inaccurate judgment, for it must be borne In mind that
they are representatives of opposing factions: the for
tunes of one are the misfortunes of the other. Cassius,
who hates Caesar, is disquieted as long as Caesar reigns
supreme; Antony, who loves Caesar, is happy and compla
cent under Caesar's authority. The character of Cassius
is softened, however, after the death of Caesar. It Is,
as Dorsch points out, "As though the death of the object
of his hatred has liberated more generous instincts in
him..,,"11 For example, Cassius, viien his conference with
Brutus is interrupted by the poet, is able to laugh and
to treat the poet with greater tolerance than Is Brutus
(IV,111,129-138), The death of Gaesar also effects a
11 Ibid,, p, xlvl.
30
grea t change in the character of Antony: he cas t s aside
h i s f r i v o l i t i e s and becomes the schemer and shrewd con
t r i v e r tha t Cassius was. The tab les are turned: Antony,
in e f f ec t , becomes "lean and hungry"; he wi l l "be never
a t h e a r t ' s ease" u n t i l Caesar 's death Is avenged.
That both Cassius and Antony are motivated p r in
c ipa l l y by t he i r emotional urges has already been demon
s t r a t e d in the Introduction to th i s t h e s i s : Cassius i s
obsessed with an Intense hatred for Gaesar, and Antony i s
obsessed with the desire to have vengeance on Caesar 's
a s s a s s i n s . Their emotional urges, t he i r des i res , do not ,
however, stem from nor culminate In any personal ambition.
Cassius i s qui te wi l l ing to allow Brutus to assume leader
ship of the consp i ra to r i a l fac t ion . Although he disagrees
with many of Brutus 's decis ions , he never presses the point
very f a r , even when he i s r e l a t i v e l y ce r t a in tha t Brutus
Is wrong. As for Antony, any personal ambitions tha t he
may have are subordinated to h is designs for vengeance on
the consp i r a to r s . Immediately following Caesar 's death,
when Cassius t e l l s him tha t "Your voice shal l be as
strong as any man's/ In the disposing of new d i g n i t i e s "
(111,1,177-173), Antony ignores th i s offer of an equal
share of the power and glory ant ic ipa ted by the con
s p i r a t o r s and chooses r a the r to embark on a course of
31
act ion vriilch promises nothing but danger and uncer ta in ty .
Dorsch observes t h a t . In Antony's o ra t ion .
There Is nothing In the speech to suggest tha t Antony Is seeking anything for himself ; everything has been d i rec ted towards two ends, the ex t inc t ion of Caesar 's murde re r s , and the re-establ ishment of Caesar 's name and fame. For himself he has gained only a long period of warfare and per11.12
Antony and Cassius are also p a r a l l e l In tha t they
both have a keen Insight Into the character of o thers ,
an a t t r i b u t e which Is emphasized by I t s absence in both
Caesar and Brutus. Caesar recognizes tha t Cassius i s a
t h r ea t to him, but he Is completely deceived by Brutus,
Casca, and Decius, a l l of whom he believes to be h i s
f r i ends . Brutus sees Antony as "but a limb of Caesar"
(11,1,165) who "can do no more than Caesar 's ariV When
Caesar ' s head I s off" (11,1,162-163). Brutus i s fur ther
deceived in to bel ieving tha t Antony i s wi l l ing to accept
pass ive ly the death of Caesar and to throw in hla l o t
with the consp i ra to r s .
Cassius, though, i s not deceived by Antony. He
recognizes tha t Antony Is a "shrewd contr iver" (11,1 ,
158); and, when Brutus grants Antony permission to speak
in Caesar 's funeral , Cassius admonishes Brutus:
I 2 i b l d . , p . l l v .
32
You know not what you do: do not consent That Antony speak in his funeral: Know you how much the people may be moved
By that which he will utter? (111,1,232-235)
Cassius recognizes Antony for what he is; he sees through
Casca and knows that he can influence him by appealing to
his grosser nature—his jealousy and hatred of Caesar;
and he understands Brutus, in some respects, better than
Brutus understands himself. He appeals to Brutus's finer
nature—his high Ideals and sense of honor--to Influence
him, and he knows before Brutus does that Brutus will
join the conspiracy: on the eve of the Ides of March,
while Brutus is still at war with himself, trying to
determine which course of action to follow, Cassius con
fides to Casca;
...you and I will yet ere day See Brutus at his house: three parts of him Is ours already, and the man entire Upon the next encounter yields him oiirs,
(1,111,153-156)
Antony also knows Brutus well. After Caesar's death,
he appeals to Brutus's vanity to gain his confidence and
respect. He sends his servant to flatter Brutus and to
lead him to believe that ...Mark Antony shall not love Caesar dead So well as Brutus living; but will follow The fortunes and affairs of node Brutus Thorough the hazards of this untrod state With all true faith, (111,1,133-137)
In his meeting with the conspirators, Antony does not
33
hesitate to express the love and honor he bore for Gaesar.
In expressing his feelings for Caesar, Antony attains two
ends: (1) he gains greater respect from Brutus, who also
loved and honored Caesar; and (2) although superficially
appearing dangerous for Antony, his authentic emotional
display stamps him as an honest and unhypocrltlcal man;
and his expressed desire to cast his lot with the con
spirators Is lent an air of sincerity. Brutus, of course,
is completely taken in.
Perhaps a more striking example of Antony's under
standing of hviman nature is his oration to the common
people. Unlike Brutus, he does not attempt to use cold
reason to move the populace. He appeals to their emotional
nature, relying upon mob-logic to validate his assertions.
His methods are, of course, much more effectual in
fashioning the commoners than are those of Brutus.
Cassius and Antony are not only "great observers"
who "look quite through the deeds of men," but also
great manipulators who fashion the deeds of men. Cassius
and Antony are, as a matter of fact, the primary artisans
In the play: It is they who make things happen. At no
point in the play do we find them being fashioned by
others. True, they submit to the wills of the leaders
of their respective factions, but they do so as a matter
31̂
of choice rather than of compulsion. They are fashioned
by none, but they are the fashioners of many. To recoimt
briefly, Antony manipulates Brutus Into allowing him to
speak in Caesar's fvmeral; he moves the populace to "rise
and mutiny"; and he uses Lepldus as a tool for achieving
his goals, Cassius fashions all of the conspiracy, except
Ligarius, We gee him at work on only two, Brutus and
Casca; but in these two are embodied all the others, for
Brutus and Casca represent opposite extremes in the con
spiracy, Brutus, "the noblest Roman of them all" (V,v,66),
joins the conspiracy "In a general honest thought/ And
common good to all" (V,v, 71-72), whereas "dainned Casca,
like a cur" (V,l,l)-3), rises against Caesar because he Is
"envious" (111,11,179). Cassius uses different techniques
In fashioning these two men of opposite natures: he appeals
to Brutus's Intellect, his pride, his vanity; and he
appeals to Casca's emotlons--hls jealousy and hatred of
Caesar. By showing Cassius at work on these two men,
Shakespeare Implies that Cassius fashions the other con
spirators by using the proper admixtures of these tech
niques, dependent upon the degree of nobility and baseness
in the character of the individual to be fashioned.
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION
Julius Caesar contains relatively few Images, and
many of these seem to be of very little significance. The
animal Imagery in the play, which has been noted by many
critics, may be discounted as trivial Insofar as its
enhancement of the action or the theme of the play is
concerned. Animal Imagery recurs throughout the works of
Shakespeare, as it almost inevitably must, if for no
other reason than for vivid character delineation. 'Ihe
"blood-flre-storm" Imagery is somewhat significant in
that it emphasizes the civil broil, the chaotic and
destructive forces at work In the play. Of greater
Importance Is the artisanry Imagery In the play, because
it accentuates the creative forces, the forces that
reshape others and effect a new form of world order.
The significance of artisanry Imagery In Julius
Caesar Is evidenced by the strong emphasis that
Shakespeare places upon it. Particularly throvigh the
first three acts, there Is an abundance of artisanshlp:
Brutus fashions Ligarius; Cassius fashions Brutus, Casca,
and, by Implication, all of the other conspirators; Decius
fashions Caesar; Antony maneuvers, first Brutus, then the
populace, finally Lepldus and, to some extent, even
35
36
Octavius. An Investigation of the final two acts reveals,
as one might naturally expect, a sharp decrease in the
number of artisanry Images: after the third act—or to
be more precise, after Antony underglrds his position by
using Lepldus as a scapegoat and by joining forces with
Octavius to validate his position—artisanry Imagery
becomes functionally useless. All the forces have been
set in motion; the fashioning has been done; it only
remains for the forces to collide and for the conflict
to be resolved. Throughout the first three acts, however,
the affluence of artisanry Imagery emphasizes the impor
tance of artisanshlp, of fashioning or molding others,
in creating the forces which institute all the signif
icant actions in the play.
As artisanry Images are used to emphasize the
important actions, so parallels are used to show the
alliance of the forces participating In these actions.
Many of these parallels have been demonstrated: the two
opposing factions are similar In their beliefs, their
goals, and their methods; Brutus and Caesar are rational,
high-minded, and proud; Cassius and Antony are emotional,
shrewd, and contriving. These parallels are so numerous
and unequivocal as to preclude accident: Brutus and Caesar
are, in effect, "two lions lltter'd in one day" (11,11,
I4.6), as are Cassius and Antony; they are counterparts.
37
one of the other.
Among the major characters, Cassius and Antony
emerge as the chief artisans: they fashion others to
their designs and initiate all the significant action
in the play, 'They are the creators, driven to act by
emotional (procreatlve) urges, Cassius, being dissat
isfied with the old order, desires a change; but he
realizes that he c^not be the representative of a new
order, for he Is
...yoked with a lamb That carries anger as the flint bears fire; Who, much enforced, shows a hasty spark...;
(IV,111,110-112)
he Is "choleric" (IV, 111,14-3) and b-urdened with a "rash
humour" (IV,ill,120). Brutus is essential to the con
spiracy if it is to have any hopes of success, for he
can make its cause seem
...necessary and not envious: Which so appearing to the common eyes, We Cthe conspirators] shall be call'd
purgers, not murderers. (II,i,178-l60)
Without Brutus, the conspiracy against Caesar would
be a meaningless assassination, appearing as a vile act
precipitated by jealousy and hatred. Cassius therefore
draws Brutus Into the conspiracy and allows the leadership
to devolve upon him, for his appearance In the conspiracy
makes it seem reasonable and justified. Brutus represents
38
the new order to be established after Caesar's death. As
a matter of fact, order is temporarily restored: Caesar's
death is accepted by the populace; Brutus is acclaimed a
hero; and the citizenry desire to make Brutus another
Caesar (111,1,53-56).
The establishment of the new order would be an
accomplished and accepted fact, were it not for Mark
Antony. He. like Cassius, is not content to allow the
opposing faction to rule. He Incites a covmter-revolu-
tlonary action against the new order. Also like Cassius,
however, Antony cannot reasonably expect, on his own
merits, to assume leadership of his faction. The reaction
of the commoners against the new order is an expression
of sympathy for Caesar and of abhorrence for his assas
sins rather than of acceptance or approval of Antony. If
Antony is to displace the new order, he must rely upon
the rationale established by Caesar. To this end, he
validates his actions by joining forces with Octavius,
who also represents rational order, who is. In actu
ality, Julius Caesar reincarnate. Maurice Charney points
out that
An obvious dramatic conflict Is generated In the latter part of the play by the fact that Octavius also assumes the role of Caesar, We hear of him first from his Servant, who tells Antony that Octavius Is coming to Rome (3.1.279),
39
and at the end of 111,11 we learn that he "Is already come to Rome" (3.2,267). Our first sight of him Is as a fully functioning Triumvir In the proscription scene (IV,1). But the real strength of Octavius is not felt until the fifth act. Here we find him beginning to take the power of command from Antony and to act Indeed as Caesar's personal successor. This action clearly parallels Brutus' overbearing of Cassius....13
Concerning Octavius's assertion of his will against
Antony, i_. e_.,
Ant. Octavius, lead your battle softly on. Upon the left hand of the even field. Oct. Upon the right hand I; keep thou the left. Ant. Why do you cross me in this exigent? Oct'. I do not cross you; but I will do so,
(V,1,16-20)
Charney further observes that
This use of "will" seems to echo the emphatic tone of Julius Caesar, for example in his words to Decius: "The cause is in my will: I will not come" (2.2.71). Octavius' words In V,l also Insist on the Imperial style, and he uses the familiar, and perhaps conteirptuous, "thou" form for Antony. It Is In this scene, too, that Octavius Is called "Caesar" by both Antony (5.1.2I1-) and Brutus (5.1.56), and he also refers to himself as "another Caesar" (5.1.51+), The repetition of the same name for both Julius and Octavius tends to establish a strong phonetic link between the two in the ears of the audience, Octavius' self-conscious pride in being Caesar resemoles that of Julius Caesar, and the fact that he Is Julius' nephew and adopted son gives his situation an hereditary cast,lU
•'••̂ Charney, 0£. clt., pp. 75-76.
l^Ibld., p.'76.
As a final proof that Octavius represents order. It Is
he who fulfills the Elizabethan tragedlc convention that
the person who Is to restore and maintain order speak
the last lines of the play.
Antony and Cassius, then, represent the active,
emotional (Dlonyslan) principles that Initiate change
in world order- They are motivated to navigate uncharted
waters by their emotional (procreatlve) in'ges, but they
are dependent upon the rational, orderly principles
represented by Brutus and Caesar (and Octavius, Insofar
as he represents the same rationale as does Caesar). Any
Independent action toward the construction of a new world
order by Cassius or Antony would be me.anlngless in that
it would not satisfy the masses viio would be under its
rule; such action would result in chaos and fallvu?e. A
Brutus or a Caesar Is required to justify and validate
the actions Initiated by a Cassius or an Antony.
Conversely, a Cassius or an Antony is necessary
to initiate the actions that effect change in world
order- Brutus, for example, feels the same dissatis
faction with the old order as Cassius does (1,11), but he
lacks the procreatlve urge needed to initiate the actions
necessary to effect a change. He suffers passively, "with
himself at war" (1,11,1+6), deciding nothing, initiating
no actions until the conspiracy has already been formed
1+1
and he has been thoroughly fashioned by Cassius.
Thus the major characters of Julius Caesar are
Interdependent upon one another: Brutus and Octavius
(representing passive, rational order) must rely on
Cassius and Antony to Initiate the actions which effect
a change In world order; aad Cassius and Antony (repre
senting active, emotional Impulse) must depend upon
Brutus and Caesar (both Julius and Octavius) to make
their actions valid and meaningful.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
C h a r n e y , M a u r i c e . S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Roman P l a y s . Cambr idge , M a s s a c h u s e t t s ; Harva rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 .
D o r s c h , T, S . , e d . The Arden S h a k e s p e a r e : J u l i u s C a e s a r . Kespe London; Methuen and Co,, Ltd,, 1955.
Purness, Howard Horace, Jr,, ed. The Variorum Shakespeare: Julius Caesar, Philadelphia: J. 3, Llppincott C omp any, 1913•
Knight, George Wilson, The Imperial Theme, London: Oxford University Press, 1931.
MacCallum, M. ¥. Shakespeare's Roman Plays, London: MacMillan and Co, , Ltd,, 1935̂ ^
Parrott, Thomas Karc. William Shakespeare; A_ Handbook, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, l9"3l4-»
Shakespeare, William. "Julius Caesar-" The Complete Works of Shakespeare, ed, Hardin Craig, Chicago: Scott, Poresman and Company, 1951-
Spurgeon, Caroline F. E. Shakespeare's Imagery. London: Cambridge University Press, 1935.
Swinburne, Algernon Charles, A Study of Shakespeare. New York: AMS Press Inc,,~l965.
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