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PUMS 99: 1 UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS
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SESI PENGAJIAN: OJ J 10
lya To~(" WD O/J ~1-H~",lC..1 (HURUF BESAR)
~ngaku membenarkan tesis (LPSI Smjanal Doktor Falsafah) ini di simpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah ngan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut:
1. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk tujuan pengajian sah~a. 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi. 4. ** Sila tandakan ( / )
(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keseJamatan ' atau kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di
SULIr dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972)
(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukakan TERHAD oleb organisasilbadan di man~ penyelidikan dijalankan)
TIDAK TERHAD Disahkan oleh
(TANDATANGAN PUSTAKA WAN)
amat Tetap: ~ I :n.tJ '.pAf-i.'1'>v"'; PVA I
:-1/ n.~ I ItvlN EPPL1l\ ~E4A~A I
NamaPeny ia
rikh: \ t I {, I )D \0 Tarikh: -------------------------- ------------------------
rAT AN: * Potong yang tidak berkenaan. * Jika tesis ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampiran surat daripada pihak berkuasa/organsasi
berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh tesis ini perlu dikelaskan sebagai SUUT dan TERHAD.
* Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana secara penyelidikan, atau disertasi b,agi pengajian seeara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan, atau Laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (LPSM).
EFFECT OF pH ON PHYSICOCHEMICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE TYPES OF MODIFIED GCWS SAGO STARCH.
TONG WOON SHENG
THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
DEGREE OF FOOD SCIENCE WITH HONOURS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
SCHOOL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
2010
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is my own except for quotations and summaries which have been duly acknowledge.
16 Apr 2010
ii
NAME
MATRIC NO.
TITLE
DEGREE
DATE OF VIVA
1. SUPERVISOR (DR LEE JAU SHYA)
2. EXAMINER 1
VERIFICATION
: TONG WOON SHENG
: HN2006-3623
: EFFECT OF pH ON PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERlsrICS OF THRESS TYPES OF MODIFIED GCWS.
: BACHELOR OF FOOD SCIENCE HONORS
: 14 MAY 2010
CERnFIEDBY
Signature
~. (ASSOC. PROF. DR. MOHO. ISMAIL ABDULLAH)
3. EXAMINER 2 (DR. MOHO ROSNI SULAIMAN)
4. DEAN
(ASSOC. PROF. DR. MOHO ISMAIL ABDULLAH)
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Dr Lee Jau Shya for all her guidance, advices, and support in this research work that had greatly helped me to complete this thesis. Her untiring patience to guide me and her constructive advices had allowed me to learn so many things and at the same time apply it in this research work. I would like to thank Teoh Han Boon for his advices on methods that could be applied carry out this research. Besides that, I must thank Lim Koon Eaik, Matthew Tan Chee Siang, Leong Kean Kee and Oon Xin Van for their support and time they had sacrificed to help me complete this thesis. To my family, course mates and friends, a million thanks to them for their cheers and support throughout my time spent in completing this thesis. Their relentless support had made this research possible. Last but not least, to everyone that had supported and helped me directly or indirectly in making completing this thesis, I express my sincerest gratitude to them. Thank you .
•
iv
ABSTRACT
This study is to investigate the effect of pH on cold water solubililty, swelling ratio,
spreadability, morphological and rheological dynamic properties of three types
(hydroxypropylation, cross-linking, dual modification) of modified GONS (Granular Cold
Water Soluble) sago starch. These three chemical modifications were combined with
alcoholic-alkaline treatment to produce chemical modified GONS. The physicochemical
characteristics were evaluated at pH 2 to pH 9. All modified GONS samples exhibited
good solubility (>50%) across pH 2 to 9. Cold water solubility was found decrease as
pH increased, while cold water swelling ratio, spreadability dynamic rheological
properties was found increased as pH increased. All modified samples were found to
be more solid-like dispersion with G' value higher than Gil value. Though
hydroyxpropyalted, H sample showed similar cold water solubility and swelling ratio
(p>0.05) as compared to the control sample; while lower spreadability and G' and Gil
value (p<O.OS). DM2 was found to have similar (p>O.OS) cold water solubility and
spreadability as H sample. However, the low degree of cross-linking resulted the
swelling ratiO, G' and Gil value of DM2 to be higher (p<0.05) than the control. Hand
DM2 were found rupture with fragmentation across whole pH range like the control
sample. The high degree of cross-linking in DMl caused it to have lowest cold water
solubility, swelling ratio, spreadability, G' and Gil value (p<0.05) among all modified
samples. On the other hand, the mildly cross-linking in CL brought higher swelling ratio,
spreadability, G' and Gil value (p<0.05) as compared to its control. Both DMl and CL
sample were able to retain their granularity throughout pH 2 to 9.
v
A BSTRAK
EFFECT OF pH ON PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE TYPES
MODIFIED GCWS SAGO STARCH.
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk menyiasat kesan pH terhadap keterlarutan air sejuk,
pembengkakan air sejuk, kebolehsapuan, ciri-ciri morf%gi dan sifat dinanik rhe%gi
atas tiga jenis kanji GCWS terubah-suai (hidrosipropi/as~ paut-si/ang, dwi modifikasi).
Tiga jenis modifikasi telah dikenakan ke atas kanji sago sebe/um rawatan a/kohol-a/kali
untuk menghasi/kan kanji GCWS terubah-suai. Ciri-ciri fisikokimia te/ah diperhatikan
pada pH 2 hingga 9. Setiap kanji GCWS terubah-suai mencapai keterlarutan >50%
pada pH 2 hingga 9. Keterlarutan didapati menurun apabi/a pH meningkat.
Pembengkakan kebolehsapuan dan sifat dinamik rhe%gi didapati meningkat apabila
pH meningkat Semua ampaian kanji GCWS didapati /ebih bersifat pepeja/ dengan ni/ai
G' me/ebihi G'~ Wa/aupun dihidripropi/asikan, keterlarutan sampe/ H didapati sama
(p>0.05) dengan sampe/ kawa/annya; sementara kebo/ehsapuan, ni/ai G' dan G"
dipapati /ebih rendah (p<0.05) daripada kawa/annya. OM2 didapati mempunyai
keterlarutan dan kebo/ehsapuan yang sama (p>0.05) dengan sampe/ H. Wa/au
bagaimanapun, tahap paut-si/ang yang rendah pada OM2 mengakibatkan
pembengkaan, ni/ai G' dan G" /ebih tinggi (p<0.05) daripada sampe/ kawa/annya.
Sampe/ H dan OM2 didapati pecah dengan sepihan keci/ pada ju/at pH 2 hingga 9.
Pemerhatian yang sama juga didapati pada sampe/ kawa/annya. Tahap paut-si/ang
yang tiggi da/am sampe/ OM1, menyebabkannya mencapai keterlarutan,
pembengkaaan, kebo/ehsapuan, ni/ai G'dan G" yang paling rendah (p<0.05) antara
semua sampel. Seba/iknya, tahap paut-si/ang yang serderhana pada CL didapati
meningkatkan pembengkaan, kebo/ehsapuan, ni/ai G' dan G'" berbanding sampe/
kawa/annya. Kedua-dua OM1 dan CL didapati mampu mengekalkan kesempurnaan
granu/ da/am julat pH 2 hingga 9.
vi
TITLE DECLARATION VERIFICATION ACKNOLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURE LIST OF TABLE LIST OF ABBREVIATION LIST OF SYMBOL LIST OF APPENDIX
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of studies 1.2 Rationale 1.3 Objective
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
CONTENT
PAGES
ii iii iv v vi vii ix xi xii xiii xiv
1 4 5
2.1 Sago starch 6 2.1.1 Structure and organization 7 2.1.2 Characterization of sago starch 9 2.1.3 Application and market potential 10
2.2 Pregelatinized starch 11 2.2.1 Texturized pregelatinized starch 14 2.2.2 Granular Cold water swelling/soluble starch (GCWS) 17 2.2.3 Modified Granular Cold water soluble starch 19 2.2.4 Application 21
2.3 Chemical modification 22 2.3.1 Hydrpxypropylation 26 2.3.2 Crosslinked 28 2.3.3 Dual modification 30
2.4 pH effect on starch 32 2.4.1 Acidic 32 2.4.2 Alkaline 33
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Materials 3.2 Study design
vii
34 34
3.3 Dual modification 35 3.4 Crosslinked 36 3.5 Hydroxypropylation 36 3.6 Alcoholic-alkaline treatment 37 3.7 Moisture content determination 37 3.8 Phosphorus content 38 3.9 Molar substitution (MS) 38 3.10 pH 39 3.11 Ash content 39 3.12 Buffer solution preparation 40 3.13 Cold water solubility 41 3.14 Cold water Swelling ratio 41 3.15 Spreadability 42 3.16 Morphological study 42 3.17 Statistic analysis 43
CHAPTER 4: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Moisture content 44 4.2 Phosphorus content 45 4.3 Molar substitution (MS) 45 4.4 Ash content 46 4.5 pH 47 4.6 Cold water solubility 48 4.7 Cold water swelling ratio 53 4.8 Spreadability 58 4.9 Morphological study 63 4.10 Dyanamic rheological behavior 72
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion 79 5.2 Suggestion 81
REFERENCES 82 APPENDIX 96
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: a- 1, 4, linkages of amylose 12
Figure 2.2: Amylopectin 12
Figure 2.3 Hydroxypropylation reaction of starch with propylene oxide 28
Figure 2.4: Crosslinking of starch with STMP 31
Figure 4.1: Cold water solubility of modified GCWS sago starch samples from 53 pH 2 to 9.
Figure 4.2: Cold water swelling ratio of of modified GONS sago starch samples 58
from pH 2 to 9.
Figure 4.3: Spreadability of of modified GONS sago starch samples from pH 2 63 to 9.9
Figure 4.4: Light microscope micrographs of CL sample under 400x 65 magnification in pH 2 to pH 9
Figure 4.5: Light microscope micrographs of H sample under 400x 66 magnification in pH 2 to pH 9
Figure 4.6: Light microscope micrographs of OM1 sample under 400x 67 magnification in pH 2 to pH 9
Figure 4.7: Light microscope micrographs of OM2 sample under 400x 68 magnification in pH 2 to pH 9
Figure 4.8: Light microscope micrographs of C2 sample under 400x 71 magnification in pH 2 to pH 9
Figure 4.9: Light microscope micrographs of CL sample under 400x 72 magnification in pH 2 to pH 9.
ix
Figure 4.10: Storage modulus (G') of modified GCWS sago starch samples from 77
pH 2 to 9.
Figure 4.11: Loss modulus (G") of modified GCWS sago starch samples from pH 78
2 to 9.
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Chemical composition of sago starch 9
Table 2.2: Types of starch modification and its preparation 25
Table 2.3: Properties and application of modified starch 26
Table 3.1: Sample Preparation 36
Table 3.2: Buffer solution reagent 42
Table 4.1: Moisture content of modified starch 44
Table 4.2: Phosphorus content of chemical modified starch 45
Table 4.3: Molar substitution of chemical modified starch 46
Table 4.4: Ash content of respective chemical treated GCWS 47
Table 4.5: pH of alcoholic alkaline treated modified samples 47
Table 4.6: Cold water solubility of modified GCWS sago starch samples from 49
pH 2 to 9.
Table 4.7: Cold water swelling ratio of modified GCWS sago starch samples 55
from pH 2 to 9.
Table 4.8: Spreadability of modified GCWS sago starch samples from pH 2 to 60
9.
Table 4.9: Storage modulus (G')* of modified GCWS sago starch samples from 73
pH 2 to 9.
Table 4.10: Loss modulus (G")* of modified GCWS sago starch samples from 74
pH 2 to 9.
xi
GCWS NaOH HCI v/v w/v M STPP STMP EPI DM CL H DS MS DSC RVA SEM NaCi N2S04
POCb
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Granular Cold water soluble/swelling Sodium hydroxide Hydrochloric acid Volume of solute in the total volume of solution Weight of solute in the total volume of solution Molar solution Sodium Tripolyphosphate Sodium Trimetaphosphate Epichorohydrin Dual modification Crosslinking Hydroxypropylation Degree substitution Molar substitution Differential scanning calorimetry Rapid Visco Analyser Scanning electron microscopy Sodium Chloride Nitrogen Sulfate Phosphoryl Chloride
xii
k/cm3
mLjg IJm Sjm °c mL rpm g L Mg % Hr M
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Intensity of light Viscosity Micrometer Salinity Degree Celcius Milliliter Revolution per minute gram liter milligram Percentage hour Molar
xiii
LIST OF APPENDIXS
Appendix A One way anova on moisture content for different chemical 96 modified samples
Appendix B One way anova on moisture content for different chemical 97 modified GONS samples
Appendix C One way anova on phosphorus content for different chemical 98 modified GONS samples
Appendix D One way anova on MS for different chemical treated samples 99
Appendix E One way anova on ash content for different chemical modified 100 GONS samples
Appendix F One way anova on pH value for different chemical modified GONS 101 samples
Appendix G One way anova on cold water solubility for chemical modified 102 GONS C1, H, DM1 and DM2 samples in different pH
Appendix H Pair t-test on solubility for chemical modified GONS C2 and CL 108 samples in different pH
Appendix I One way anova on cold water swelling for chemical modified 112 GONS C1, H, DM1 and DM2 samples in different pH
Appendix] Pair t-test on cold water swelling for chemical modified GONS C2 118 and CL samples in different pH
Appendix K One way anova on spreadability for chemical modified GONS C1, 121 H, DM1 and DM2 samples in different pH
Appendix L Pair t-test on spreadability for chemical modified GONS C2 and CL 127 samples in different pH
Appendix M One way anova on storage modulus for chemical modified GCWS 130 Cl f H, DM1 and DM2 samples in different pH
Appendix N Pair t-test on storage for chemical modified GONS C2 and CL 143 samples in different pH
xiv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Pregelatinized starch is a type of starch that is able to swell instantly without forming
any lump and without heating it to have thickening effect (Vaclaik and Christian, 2008).
Basically there are two types of pregelatinized starch namely the granular cold water
swelling starch (GCWS starch) and texturized pregelatinized starch (David and William,
1999). The difference between these two types of starch is that cold water swelling
starch granule does not experience rupture, whereas texturized pregelatinized starch
granule will rupture after treated with pregelatinized treatment (Zhao, 2007).
Pregelatinized starch is widely used in instant food such as soups, puddings, jellies, pie
fillings, instant dry mix desserts, sauces, and whipped toppings (Klingler et al., 2006) .
Pregelatinized starch can be prepared by various methods, such as drum drying
(O'Rourke, 1980), extrusion (Cheng et al., 1977), spray drying (Picheon et al., 1981),
alcoholic treatment with high temperature or pressure treatment (Eastman et aI., 1984;
Rajagopalan and Seib, 1992), and alcoholic-alkaline treatment (Jane and Seib, 1991).
Comparison between conventional treated pregelatinized starches and cook up starch
showed that there are differences in texture and solubility. Due to the ruptured granule,
pregelatinized starch would cause problems such as graininess, less sheen and less
flexibility towards processing condition. Consequently, the textures of instant foods
made with pregelatinized starch cannot be matched in terms of quality compared to
cook up starch (Chen and Jane, 1994a). Thus, further improvement was carried out in
order to improve the solubility of the starch while maintaining the granularity of starch.
Such improvement method is known as alcoholic-alkaline treatment. The treated starch
1
swells due to the reaction of starch granule with the alkaline reaction and the degree
of swelling is controlled by alcohol (Chen and Jane, 1994b). Alcoholic alkaline treated
starch is able to achieve cold water solubility from 50% to 94% (Jane and Seib, 1991).
Previous studies showed that alcoholic alkaline treatment was affected by
various factors such as temperature, concentration of sodium hydroxide and ethanol.
Treatment at a lesser concentration of ethanol with a greater concentration of sodium
hydroxide and a higher reaction temperature was able to produce GONS starches with
greater cold water solubility (Chen and Jane, 1994a). Further effort on optimization of
alcoholic-alkaline treatment on sago starch has identified the optimum condition as
40.7% - 50.5% ethanol and 278.5 - 296.3g sodium hydroxide (Lee et al., 2008). The
treated starch under the optimum condition was able to achieved 52.2% cold water
solubility, with particle size 25.4lJm and retained starch granule. High concentration of
sodium hydroxide is able to increase the amylose leaching. On the other hand,
excessive sodium hydroxide causes the starch granules to rupture (Lee et al., 2008).
In order to reinforce starch granular structure and increase solubility and
swelling of the GONS starch, attempts was carried out by combining chemical
modification such as crosslinking, hydroxypropylation or dual modification prior to
alcoholic-alkaline treatment (Teoh, 2009; Lee et aI., 2009; Yap, 2009). Teoh (2009)
produced hydroxypropylated GONS sago starch by mixing native sago starch with 8%
hydrxypropylation reagent followed by NaOH:Starch ratio 3:1 and 50 % ethanol with
75.15 % cold water solubility. Hydroxypropylation is a substitution reaction of starch
where starch is reacted with propylene oxide to form the hydroxypropyl starch which
improves the freeze thaw stability, clarity and textural properties of the starch paste
(Aziz et al., 2004). Studies showed that the hydroxypropylation weakens the bonding
between starch molecules and allows it to swell more readily and more soluble (Lawai
et al., 2008). Hydroxypropylation prevents retrogradation, resulting in more fluid paste
with improved paste clarity resulting in a product with desired textural properties
2
(Singhal, 2008). The maximum permitted concentration of hydroxpropylation reagent
to be use in hydropropylation reaction is 25 % (FDA, 2009).
Yap (2009) produced cross-linked GDNS sago starch that was able to achieve
cold water solubility higher than 60% while retaining granularity. Study found that the
mixture of phosphate salts sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) and sodium
tripolyphosphate (STPP) is more efficient than other cross-linking reagent
(Wattanachant et aI., 2003). Combination treatment of 0.05 % STMP: STPP, 60 %
ethanol and NaOH:starch 3:1 had been suggested to achieve highest cold water
solubility of 66.2% without rupturing the starch granules (Yap, 2009). Cross-linking
was chosen to modify the starch before alcoholic-alkaline treatment as it is able to
tolerate higher temperature, higher shear and more acidic conditions (Yoneya et a/.,
2003). Cross-linking starch is one of the chemical modification techniques by reacting
two or more different hydroxyl groups of the native starch with bi or poly-functional
chemical reagent (David and William, 1999). The cross-linking reagent reacts and bond
covalently with the granular structure to strengthen it (Acquarone and Rao, 2003).
Apart from that, cross linked starch would show reduction of paste clarity and
improvement in pasting properties (Dumitriu, 2005). The extent of cross-linked starch
is able to be verified by the phosphorus content (Deetae, 2008). The maximum
permitted concentration of cross-linking reagent should not exceed 0.4% (FDA, 2009).
From previous study, it is found that two combinations of dual modified GDNS
sago starch was able to achieve cold water solubility that is higher than 60 % while
maintaining starch granule (Pang, 2009). These combinations are 0.07 % cross linking
reagent and 9 % hydroxypropylation reagent, as well as combination 0.08 % cross
linking reagent and 7 % hydroxypropylation reagent. The treated starch was reacted
by 50 % ethanol and NaOH : Starch 1:3 (Pang, 2009).
Dual modification was suggested to be carried out before alcoholic-alkaline
treatment because dual modification could improve physiochemical characteristics of
3
starch. Previous study found that dual modification was able to improve freeze-thaw
stability of rice starch (Deetae et aI., 2008). Besides that, the dual modified sago
starch was showed no viscosity breakdown and no significant difference in pasting
characteristics when applied in different pH condition (Wattanachant et aI., 2002b).
1.2 Rationale
This study is a continuous effort to further characterize the properties of the modified
GCWS sago starch which consists of combination of chemical modification (dual
modification, cross-linking and hydroxypropylation) and alcoholic-alkaline treatment
that was carried out in the laboratory previously. Studies on cold water solubility and
starch microscopic structure of modified GONS sago starch were done previously
(Pang 2009; Teoh, 2009; Yap, 2009).
GCWS starch has been widely used in various types of food systems which can
be acidic or alkaline. Based on FDA (2009), pH of the common foods are in the range
of pH 2 to 9. For instance, pregelatinized starch was used in production of reduced fat
cream cheese which was coagulated in the mild acidic condition. Cream cheese is
usually stored under refrigerated condition (Finocchiaro, 1997). Cream cheese usually
have the pH value of 4.10 - 4.79 (FDA, 2007). GONS starch also has been applied in
instant pudding (O'Rouke, 1980). The pH value of lime flavor pudding can be as low as
2.60 (FDA, 2007). Besides that, modified GONS starch also has potential to be applied
with egg to produce custard, and egg usually has pH value of 8 (FDA, 2007). Thus it is
important to understand the behavior of the modified GONS starch in the range of pH
2 to 9. Wattanachant et al. (2002b) found that chemical modified starch was able to
resist wide range of pH. However, there is no any study on pH effect towards
physicochemical properties of these modified GONS starch. The result of the study
allows us to determine suitability of modified GCWS sago starch in the potential
industrial processing condition and food system which could be either acidic or alkaline.
4
Based on the earlier studies, different chemical modified starch have different
characteristics. For instances, cross-linked starch would have higher stability towards
swelling, heat shear and acidic condition (Yoneya et at., 2003). The hydroxypropylated
starch would have improved clarity of starch paste, greater viscosity, reduced syneresis
and freeze-thaw stability (Wu and Seib, 1990). Mean while, dual modified reaction is
able to improve paste consistency, smoothness and freeze-thaw stabilities (Sing et at.,
2007). Therefore, we anticipated different chemical modified GCWS starch would
behave differently when compared to GCWS sago starch that was solely produced by
alcoholic-alkaline treatment.
In Malaysia, sago palm is inexpensive and not agriculturally intensive as rice.
Presently, commercial production of sago flour in Malaysia occurs mainly in Sarawak
and small parts of Johor. In Sarawak, the planting area of sago is estimated above
50, 000 hectare which is the fourth largest area for crops in Sarawak. Sarawak is also
one of the biggest exporters of sago. Sago brings above RM50 million in exports
earning in latest year for Sarawak (Aziz, 2002; DOA, 2009). This value is expected to
rise in coming year, therefore by understanding the new application of sago starch it
would able to boost up the starch industry by diversify the usage of sago starch and
increase the value of the sago starch.
1.3 Objective
To study the effect of pH on cold water solubililty, cold water swelling, spreadability,
morphological study and rheological dynamic properties of three types
(hydroxypropylation, cross-linking, dual modification) of modified GCWS (Granular cold
water soluble) sago starch.
5
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Sago starch
Sago starch is extracted from the sago palm which is a hepaxanthy (once flowering),
monocotyledonous plant which belongs to the species of the genus Metroxylon sub
family of Calamoideae, and family of Palmae. Sago palms usually are 6-14m tall and
hapaxantic which mean the sago palm will die after it flowered once (Singhal et al.,
2008). The extraction of sago starch usually can be done in two methods which are
the traditional method and the modern method (Karim et al., 2008; Nishimura and
Laufa, 2002).
The traditional extraction usually involves four major processes which start with
harvested mature sago palm. It follows by cutting sago palm into partitioned logs.
Followed by pounding or crushing of the sago pith and lastly is the washing of sago
piths for starch extraction (Nishimura and Laufa, 2002). The fibrous pith will be rasped
by a sharpened piece of hardwood. The rasped pith will mix with water and streams
through the sieve, to filter the fibre out. The starch will settles on the bottom of the
vessel (Flach, 1997).
The modern extraction is more or less similar to the traditional method which it
involve machinery and able to extract in a bigger scale. The bark of the sago palm was
removed and the debarked section will be fed into the mechanical rasper to rasp the
pith into finer pieces. The rasped product will mix with water and form starch slurry to
pass through series of centrifugal sieves to separate the coarse fibres. The further
6
purification was done by using nozzle separator through sieve bends and a series of
cyclone separators to produce very pure starch (Singhal et al., 2008).
The sago palm usually grow optimally under humid tropical lowlands which at
the altitude of 700m and the temperature of the environment of 25°C, relative air
humidity of 70%, the inditental light 800 k/cm2 per day and salinity should not exceed
1/8 of the salt concentration of the sea water. These are the optimum conditions for
sago palm to grow. Therefore sago starch commonly can be found in countries such
as Malaysia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Aziz, 2002).
The starch granule are made up by two major type of polymer which known as
amylose and amylopectin. There are some other minor constituents such as lipids,
proteins, phosphate and ash which it did playa role in affect the functional properties
of the starch in starch application (David and William, 1999). Sago starch is different
compare to other types of starch by its size of granule, swelling power, gelatinization,
retrogradation and the synerisis of the starch (Wattanachant et al., 2002).
2.1.1 Structure and organisation
Sago starch contains 27% amylase and 73% amylopectin, in its polymer structure. The
amylose and amylopectin moelecules was arranged readily and made up starch
granules which contain crystalline and non crystalline regions in alternating layers
(Fennema, 1996). The amylose content of the sago starch is higher if the starch is
extracted from the upper part of the lower part of the trunk compare to the starch that
is extracted from the upper part of the trunk (Tomoko et al., 2000). The grain size
distribution of sago starch is about 16 - 25.4l.Jm. The grain size will increase up to 40
I.Jm as the age of the trunk getting old until initiation of the inflorescence. The sago
starch had bigger average granule size compared to other starch bases such as waxy
maize, waxy barley, tapioca, wheat, corn and rice (Satin, 2000). The molecular weight
for amylose is ranged between 1.41 x 106 - 2.23 X 106 and the amylopectin molecular
weight is 6.70 x 106 - 9.23 X 106 (Colonna et aI., 1984); (Roger et aI., 1993). The
7
chemical composition of sago starch can be shown in Table 2.1. The amylose and
amylopectin ratio play important role in affecting the viscosity, shear resistance,
gelatinization, textures, solubility, tackiness, gel stability, cold swelling and
retrogradation of the starch (Satin, 2000).
Table 2.1: Chemical composition of sago starch
Constituent Amylose Amylopectin Lipids Portein Ash
Dry weight basis (0/0) 27 73 0.1 0.1 0.2
Phosphorus 0.02 Source: (Singhal et al., 2008)
Amylose is one of the essential linear polymer compose made up almost the
whole a- 1,4 linked D-glucopyranose (Fennema, 1996). The simplified amylose polymer
can be shown as in Figure 2.1. Usually amylose exist in long helical structure which it
have molecular weight about 1.41 x 106 - 2.23 X 106 (Karim et a/., 2008). The interior
of the helix structure contains hydrogen atoms which are hydrophobic; the exterior of
the helix structure consists of hydroxyl groups (David and William, 1999). The amylase
forms a 3-dimensional network when the molecules associate upon cooling which this
phenomenon responsible for the gelatinization of the starch pastes (Vaclaik & Christian,
2008).
8
OH OH
Figure 2.1: a- 1, 4, linkages of amylose
Source: (David and William, 1999)
300-6000H
Amylopectin is the major component of starch (comprising 70-80%) and is a
much larger branched molecule in which about 5% of the glucose units are joined by
al-6 linkages (Jobling, 2004). The structure of amylopectin can be shown as in Figure
2.2. The higly branched amylopectin will packed together in the form of double helices
and it forms many small crystalline areas containing the dense layers of starch
granules and alternate with less dense amorphous layers (Fennema, 1996).
o a
Amylopectin: a·( 1~) branching points. For exterior chains a = ca. 12·23. For interior chains b = ca. 20 . 30. Both a and b vary according to the botanical origin.
Figure 2.2: Amylopectin
Source: (Tester, Karkalas and Qi, 2004)
0-
9
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