Contents

Acknowledgments ........................................................................ 2

About This Publication ................................................................. 3

Developing a Plan .......................................................................... 3

Obtaining Assistance .................................................................... 6

Planning the Landscape ................................................................ 7

Woodscaping ................................................................................. 8

Selling Timber.............................................................................. 13

Small-Scale Equipment .............................................................. 13

Conclusion .................................................................................. 15

Appendix A: Sample Management Plan ................................. 16

Appendix B: Measuring a Tree ................................................. 18

Appendix C: Cruising ................................................................ 19

Appendix D: Crop Tree Management .................................... 21

1

AcknowledgmentsSome of the information in this bulletin is from thefollowing North Carolina Cooperative ExtensionService Woodland Owner Notes: Note 28, ForestStewardship: Planning for Beauty and Diversity, byMark A. Megalos, and Note 34, Pruning WoodlandTrees, by James R. McGraw and Mark A. Megalos.

Partial funding to support this project wasprovided through an Urban and CommunityForestry Grant by the North Carolina Division ofForest Resources, Department of Environment andNatural Resources.

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About This PublicationMany timberland owners value their land for morethan just timber. They realize that the land canprovide many benefits and that management planscan be designed to achieve these benefits. A NorthCarolina survey shows that aesthetics is the pri-mary reason many people own timberland.1 Otherbenefits include recreation, timber production,water quality protection, and wildlife preservation.

Improving small woodlands is a step-by-stepprocess. This publication will help woodlandowners become familiar with these steps, with theconcepts of woodscaping, and with ways to inte-grate concerns for wildlife, beauty, and resourcemanagement in a manner that is compatible withcurrent land-use activities.

Developing a PlanBefore you start managing your woodland, youneed an orderly plan for reaching specific goals.Management plans can help you improve aestheticsand water quality, enhance wildlife habitat, andincrease recreational benefits. Specific practicesinclude thinning, crop tree management, wildlifeplantings, trail development, and edge creation.Some of these practices may also enhance timbermanagement and production, which may offsettheir cost. Developing a management plan for yourwoodland involves the following:• Finding out what you have• Identifying potential management practices• Assessing labor and financial resources• Developing an activity schedule• Keeping good records

For a sample management plan, see Appendix A.

Since forests take so long to grow, today’sdecisions can have long-term impacts and benefits.A management plan can save you money, increaseyour profits, and decrease your taxes. Managementplans consist of goals and objectives.

Goals are long-term desires or statements offuture conditions. In all cases, goals should beconsistent with your ultimate reason for owning theland. Goals must be realistic and achievable; theymust be compatible with the resources availableand the with the potential of the land. Examples oftypical landowner goals are listed below :

• To improve the aesthetic value of the woodlot

• To improve wildlife habitat

Objectives are specific actions or concrete stepsthat refine goals into workable tasks. By fulfillingthe various objectives, forest owners achieve theirgoals. Realistic, achievable objectives are specific,precise, and measurable; they also specify a targetdate of completion. Objectives guide managementdecisions and also help evaluate success andfailure.

To understand the relationship between goalsand objectives, consider the following examples.

Goal: To improve the aesthetic value of thewoodlot . . .

Objective: by planting ten flowering dogwoodsand releasing them from competitionover the next five years.

Goal: To see wildlife . . .

Objective: by createing diverse cover types toincrease the variety of song birds by20% over the next 4 years.

Woodscaping Your Woodlands

1 Report of the Governor’s Task Force on Forest Sustainability. 1996.Raleigh, NC, 54 pp. Responses are from 25% of the owners surveyed,which represents 10% of the timberland in North Carolina.

3

4

Woodscaping Your Woodlands

If flowering dogwood trees do not survive or if thevariety of song birds do not increase to 20%, thelandowner will need to develop a new set ofobjectives.

Plans should be evaluated and adjusted everyso often as goals and objectives change. Theimportant thing is to develop and implement a plan.Seek advise when developing a plan. Talk withnatural resource professionals about your ideas, andlearn from their experience. Many times suchprofessionals can make on-site visits to discussyour plan and verify that your goals and objectivesare ecologically possible, economically feasible,and socially and politically acceptable.

The following landowner profiles and question-naires will help you develop goals and objectivesfor your woodland property.

Establish Priorities For Your Management PlanEstablish priorities and develop objectives formanaging your land by answering these questions.

Owners: Chuck and Tamia

Age: Late 30s

Tract size: 35 acres

Distance to property: Future Home site

Interests: hunting, hiking, camping

Constraints: Have small farm equipment andmanpower to do wildlife and timber improve-ment. Would like to subsidize immediate projectswith a partial harvest.

Goals: Make the family forest a source ofrecreational enjoyment, a place to enjoy nature,and a future home site.

Objectives: Do a partial harvest in year 1 using aforestry consultant. Improve recreational accessby reseeding logging road and skid trails withclover and orchard grass following the harvest.Mow annually to maintain a clear walking path.Perform crop tree management annually toimprove wildlife and aesthetics by removing poorquality hardwoods for firewood.

Box 1. Landowner Profiles

Owners: Craig and Diane

Age: Mid-60s

Tract size: 5 acres

Distance to property: Home site

Interests: Walking, bird watching, visits fromgrandchildren

Constraints: Not physically capable of conduct-ing manual work. Are fairly comfortable inretirement and are willing to pay for service toimprove woodlot.

Goals: Want to provide a place for wildlife,improve the aesthetic value of the property, andhave a place to walk and enjoy the woods.

Objectives: Increase the number of songbirds byscalloping the forest edge near the home site inyear 1. Improve the attractiveness of the forestby crop tree release in year 1. Extend existingwalking trail by buiding a foot bridge over thecreek and developing a loop trail through theback five acres of property in year 2.

1. My property is used for (rank from 1–6, inorder of significance):_____primary residence _____future development_____weekend retreat _____recreation_____investment_____other (list)____________________________

2. Acreage_____open area/pasture _____house site_____woodland _____total

3. Priorities for the property (rank from 1–7, inorder of significance):_____residence_____wildlife management _____hunting

_____observation_____recreation/beauty_____water protection_____soil conservation_____timber mgmt. (__pine __hardwood__mixed)_____other (list)____________________________

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4. Activities that you use the property for (rank inorder of significance, with 1 being the highest):_____bird watching _____biking_____hiking _____firewood_____fishing _____camping_____horseback riding _____hunting_____boating _____nature walks_____wildlife observation_____other (list)____________________________

5. Woodland management goals (rank from 1–9, inorder of significance, with 1 being the highest):_____maintain forest health_____generate immediate income_____maximize forest beauty_____provide periodic income_____maintain mature forest_____maximize forestry income_____maximize wildlife benefits_____improve future income potential_____other (list)____________________________

6. Wildlife management orientation (rank from 1–6,in order of significance, with 1 the most signifi-cant):_____recreational hunting opportunities_____game species_____non-game species_____protection_____observation_____other (list)____________________________

7. Featured or target wildlife species:_____fox _____waterfowl_____wild turkey _____quail_____woodcock _____non-game species_____rabbit _____songbirds_____gray squirrel _____beaver_____raccoon _____mourning dove_____grouse _____birds of prey_____white-tailed deer_____other (list)____________________________

8. Soil and water management focus:_____stabilize existing erosion_____increase soil productivity_____improve water quality_____other (list)____________________________

9. Management constraints:_____limited capital_____need funding assistance_____lack equipment_____need technical assistance_____distance from property_____other (list)

10. Property history:

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

11. Outstanding or unique features (requiringprotection/special management):

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

12. Management philosophy:

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

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Woodscaping Your Woodlands

13. Ownership/family situation:

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

Obtaining AssistanceSome landowners are do-it-yourselfers who getsatisfaction by working with their hands. And whenactively managing your woodland, there will beplenty of tasks to do yourself. But even the mostself-reliant owner occasionally needs advice, andmost people need all the help they can get. One ofthe most difficult parts of problem solving isdetermining where to seek advice.

The local telephone book will list the localaddress and telephone number of the North Caro-lina Cooperative Extension Service Center (CountyAgent), the North Carolina Division of ForestResources (County Ranger), the North CarolinaWildlife Resources Commission (County WildlifeProtector2), the Natural Resources ConservationService (District Soil Conservationist), and theFarm Service Agency. When requesting informa-tion, be as specific as possible about the subjectsthat interest you. If you want information aboutpond management, a request for facts about fishmay not produce the information you want.

Most organizations, agencies, and associationshave both free and for-sale publications. Likewise,some slide sets and films are loaned free; others arerented or sold. Also, the number of free publica-tions available may be limited. A list of availablepublications and visual aids, along with theiraccompanying cost is usually available uponrequest.

The North Carolina Cooperative ExtensionService has a toll-free, state-wide telephone infor-

mation service called Extension Teletip: 1-800-662-7301. Various topics related to forestry and wildlifeare covered by this service.

The federal and state governments have imple-mented financial-incentive programs for woodlotowners. Many of these programs offer cost-shareassistance to reimburse land owners for forest andwildlife management activities. Other programsinclude tax incentives, tax credits, and deductionsfor reforestation expenses. Many of the federal andstate government programs require an approvedmanagement plan. Programs that provide cost shareare listed below:• The North Carolina Forest Development

Program (FDP) (state funding)• The North Carolina Agriculture Cost-Share

Program (state funding)• The Forestry Incentive Program (FIP) (federal

funding)• The Stewardship Incentive Program (SIP)

(federal funding)• The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)

(federal funding)• Environmental Quality Incentives Program

(EQIP) (federal funding)• Wildlife Habitat Improvement Program

(WHIP) (federal funding)

Tax credits and deductions are as follows:• Reforestation tax credit and amortization

deductions• Exclusion of cost-sharing payments from

income• Annual deductions• Long-term capital gains• Forestry present-use valuation (property tax

relief)

For further information on cost-share programs,contact your local office of the Cooperative Exten-sion Service Center, Division of Forest Resources,Wildlife Resources Commission, Natural Re-sources Conservation Service, and Farm ServiceAgency in your area.

1 Do not ask for the game warden. Ask for the district biologist. Call919-733-7291 for the local biologist.

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Planning the LandscapeManagement for scenic beauty and diversity can beviewed as landscaping on a grand scale. Just as youmight consider the size, color, arrangement, texture,and form of plants in your home or businesslandscape, so should you consider these factorswhen surveying your woodlands.

Defining ScaleWoodlands can be viewed at two levels or scales atthe same time: as a number of small micro-land-scapes or as one of a few macro-landscapes.Micro-landscapes are distinct areas within awoodland; they are usually visible from a singlevantage point. They can include a dense pine stand,a shady oak grove, or a hillside. Micro-landscapesbreak up the uniformity of the woodland. Slightdifferences in light, tree density, and speciescomposition characterize the woodland and affectthe way the land is viewed and appreciated.

Macro-landscapes, on the other hand, refer toprimary landforms and their scale, texture, contour,shape, and space. Macro-landscapes are fixed bynatural formations and by the vegetative patternsestablished by traditional land use. They are usuallyvisible from many vantage points and thus shouldbe managed carefully. Be sure to evaluate carefullythe effect that topography has on your managementoptions. In mountainous forest terrain, managementactivities are elevated and on display for all to see.Visual and spatial impacts must be consideredduring the planning process before any manage-ment activities occur. Remember, managementactivities that affect or alter the visual appearanceof familiar landscapes must conform to themacro-landscape.

Inventory the PropertyThe purpose of inventorying the property is to gaina better understanding of what you own. Invento-ries provide information about aesthetic issues,recreational possibilities, timber, wildlife, andwater quality benefits. Anyone can take a simpleinventory. The experience can be a useful projectand an enjoyable recreational activity.

Landowners who do not want to hire a profes-sional will find that a systematic inventory offers anopportunity to gain a better understanding of their

land and its natural resources. A good inventorywill provide landowners information necessary todevelop a management plan. The information thatone collects during an inventory will guide futureland use activities. An inventory guide and amethod for measuring trees can be found in Appen-dices B and C.

To begin an inventory, sit down and think aboutwhat you want to know about your land. Do youwant to know the number of trees per acre and thequality of those trees as timber? What aboutwildlife habitat? Or the number of snags per acre?Do you have deeds, surveys, or maps of your land?These are just some of the questions you need toask when you develop a property inventory.

One of the best ways to take inventory is byusing aerial photographs, which provide abird’s-eye view of land uses and vegetative coverwithin your boundaries and on adjacent land. Yourtax department, local Natural Resources Conserva-tion Service (NRCS), or Farm Services Agency(FSA) offices should have aerial photographs ofyour land on file.

Once you obtain an aerial photo of your land,you can use a sketch or photocopy to develop aworking map that can be taken into the woods forcloser survey.

Preparing a Resource MapA useful resource map might include clearings,property boundaries, prominent land and waterfeatures (e.g., ponds, creeks, ridges, or swamps),and details on current or past land uses. The mapmight also include roads, trails, and developedareas such as houses or recreation sites; soil typesor classes; unique and sensitive areas such aswaterfalls or vistas; and the location of specialprojects such as wildlife improvement areas,firewood reserves, or wildflower meadows.

Fitting all of this information on a single mapcan be difficult. Choose a workable map scale, andbe selective when compiling the map. Put the mostimportant features in plain view. To avoid clutter,you may choose to make several copies for separateresource maps, or you may want to create separate,clear acetate overlays and use transparent markersto highlight features. Overlays are especially usefulbecause they put the total resource puzzle together

8

Woodscaping Your Woodlands

and simplify your management decisions. Regard-less of your approach, always display and recordresources with enough detail to make sounddecisions later.

One way to visualize the outcome of variousmanagement options is to make photocopies ofpanoramic photographs. With colored pencils, youcan mark proposed treatments — such as clearings,thinnings, and so on — on these photocopies. Thisinexpensive process depicts potential visual im-pacts without physically removing any vegetation.Use this simple method to explore different man-agement options before making final decisions.

Identifying DiversityYour aerial photograph can also be used to create adiversity map, which can help identify areas wheremore than three vegetational or successional typesconverge. These areas are associated with highlevels of wildlife activity and can be easily man-aged or reworked to improve diversity. The mapcan also help you identify and maintain corridors(important travel routes for wildlife). Figure 1demonstrates five different management types:open field; young stand (10 to 20 years old);mature stand (45 to 55 years old); riparian zone;bottomland stand (35 to 45 years old).

Note all resource information is suitable fordisplay on a map. Wildlife, timber, and otherhigh-value resources usually require detailedinventories; records are typically kept on tallysheets.

WoodscapingWhen the planning process is complete and theinventory conducted, you are ready to implementyour plan. How are you going to do it? Whattechnique and services are available?

Woodscaping may provide the answer to thesequestions. It is the art and science of enhancingaesthetics, recreational opportunities, and wildlifehabitats by using forest management principles andpractices. Woodscaping assumes a landscapingpoint of view: it is service-oriented and emphasizesthe residual forest.

Landowners often have to pay for woodscapingservices, and the costs of such services may not beoffset by forest products. In that sense,

woodscaping differs from the product-orientedlogging business. This difference should notsuggest that landowners interested in woodscapingare not interested in producing timber products orother alternative products. Woodscaping can blendservice-oriented and production-oriented forestry toachieve multiple goals. As a consequence, land-owners can make ecologically and socially awaredecisions about how to manage and defraywoodscaping costs by using funds earned fromwood products.

Woodscaping is for the small woodlot owner(i.e., someone who owns somewhere from 1 to 40acres). Site preparation, planting, weeding, thin-ning, and pruning are all components ofwoodscaping and all performed with small equip-ment. When used to manipulate forested land, thesetechniques can enhance aesthetics, recreationopportunities, wildlife diversity and woodlot health.

Site Preparation and PlantingBecause of natural regeneration, seedlings need notbe planted on many woodlots. Natural regenerationoccurs through the combination of (1) somedisturbance (harvesting, tree blow-down) and (2)sprouts, root suckers, or natural seed sources thatreestablish a stand of trees.

Woodlot owners sometimes plant seedlings oremploy direct seeding (artificial regeneration) to

Figure 1. An ariel photograph used to create a diversity map.Five management types are depicted: (1) open field; (2) youngstand, 10 to 20 years old; (3) mature stand, 45 to 55 yearsold; (4) riparian zone; (5) bottomland stand, 35 to 45 yearsold. Areas such as 1, 2, and 3 that converge on the left side ofthe figure are associated with high levels of wildlife diversity.

Convergence of successional types 1, 2, and 3

342

2

3

3 2 5

13

1

9

change species composition, improve wildlifehabitat, or enhance aesthetic quality. For artificialregeneration to be a success, the site must becarefully prepared and competition carefullycontrolled.

Proper site-preparation is essential to seedlingestablishment and survival. Preparation methodscan vary widely. For large planting jobs, heavyequipment is sometimes required; on other jobs,hand tools can be used to scrape away the competi-tion. Some common tools and issues related to site-preparation are listed below.

MachinesHeavy machinery such as a bulldozer may beneeded if a large area is to be planted. Using heavymachinery is an expensive alternative, but it is oftenthe most effective way to control hardwood compe-tition.

FireUsed with care, prescribed burning is a good wayto clean up debris (called slash) and control hard-wood competition while improving wildlife habitatand enhancing aesthetics. Wildlife habitat isimproved because food and cover are increasedafter burning. Aesthetic qualities are enhancedbecause burning increases plant diversity andproduces a more transparent (open) stand. Burningis often conducted in older pine stands (30 or moreyears) in the coastal plains and piedmont. Burninga site prior to planting also opens up the siteallowing for easier access for planting crews.

Poor-quality, low-value, shade-tolerant hard-woods, if not controlled, often crowd out youngpine seedlings and eventually dominate the stand.Prescribed burning can be very effective in control-ling hardwood competition when trees are less thanthree inches in diameter; such burning is mosteffective in controlling hardwood competitionduring spring or summer burns. Later in the year,hardwoods have used their stored carbohydrates inproducing new leaves and initial height growth.When burned during this period, hardwoods areless likely to sprout back and survive. Landownersinterested in prescribed burning can contact theirlocal county forest ranger for assistance.

HerbicidesHerbicides can be a safe, economical alternative tomanual or mechanical methods, since herbicidesmay be broadcast by air or ground (Figure 2). Theycan also be used to treat individual stems by treeinjection, stump treatment, or basal spraying.Herbicides applied shortly after plants leaf-out orgreen-up will be most effective at controllingundesirable competition. Applied in the fall,herbicides will have less impact visually becausehardwoods are losing their leaves.

The success of chemical weed control dependson the size, density, and composition of vegetation;on the kind and formulation of herbicide; on thevolume and timing of application; and on properequipment selection and calibration. Herbicidesapplied according to the label can be used with aminimal risk to humans, wildlife, soil, air, or water.

Other AlternativesHand tools can provide an effective, inexpensivemethod for clearing small areas, often just aroundthe area where the seedling will be planted. Toolsoften used in clearing include the machete, hoe,shovel, and bush-ax.

Source of SeedlingsSeedlings can be obtained through a variety ofcommercial and government-owned nurseries. Tofind out about nurseries in your area, contact your

Figure 2. Herbicides applied with a backpack sprayer.

10

Woodscaping Your Woodlands

local county Cooperative Extension Service orcounty forest ranger.

Planting SeedlingsHand planting is the best method for most ownersof small acreages. A variety of tools are available toassist in planting, but a shovel will often be all thatyou need. Proper planting techniques are illustratedin Figure 3. Always remember to tamp the soilfirmly after planting to remove air pockets andensure root contact with the soil.

Edge PlantingEdge planting is a common method for enhancingwildlife habitat. Edge plantings can be establishedor enhanced along roads, forest openings, yard

when the planted seedlings reach sapling size.Guidelines for cleaning are as follows:1. Clean before unwanted growth suppresses the

trees to be favored.2. To minimize resprouting, clean in mid-summer

when food reserves in the roots are at theirlowest.

3. Species that are tolerant of shade need lesscleaning than intolerant species.

4. When cleaning by mechanical means, take outfavored species if doing so will improve thestand. For example, remove crooked or dam-aged hardwood stems of wildlife value, sincehardwoods are capable of resprouting.

5. Make a list of desired species so that the leastdesired species are the first to be removed.

Figure 3. How to plant seedlings. With any method, tamp the soil firmlyafter planting to remove air pockets and ensure root contact with the soil.

edges, or on lake or pond borders.Plantings should be at least 20 feetacross (Figure 4). Shrubs, vines, andother vegetation can be planted orexisting vegetation favored. Species suchas grape vines, blackberry, plum, dog-wood, or serviceberry are excellentsources of wildlife food (see Table 1). Toestablish an edge, remove overstory treesand let succession take place. If morecontrol over species is desired, transplantdesired species from other parts of theproperty.

Intermediate Stand ImprovementAfter planting and before the forestreaches maturity, you can employ thefollowing tending operations to improvethe existing stand: weeding and cleaning,thinning, and pruning.

Weeding and CleaningWeeding and cleaning are used to releaseseedlings and small trees (less than 4inches in diameter at breast height ) fromunwanted competition. Weeding is theprocess of pulling or otherwise removingunwanted weeds from around newlyplanted seedlings. Weeding can often beavoided with proper site preparation.Cleaning is similar to weeding but iscarried out later in the life of the stand

Shovel

1 1 1

2

3

4

5

PlantingBar

Mattock

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

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ThinningThinning is used to control the growth of stands byadjusting stand density. Thinning improves foresthealth and aesthetics by enabling trees to grow.Unthinned stands may stagnate in growth, leadingto more stress, which often enables pests andpathogens to attack the suppressed trees. Treesrequire space to grow, and thinning is used toprovide such space. Thinning is a science-basedprocedure and is species-dependent. Landownersshould consult with a professional to determinehow many trees to thin. Foresters have rules ofthumbs to determine spacing between trees. In theSouth, two such rules are as follows, both of whichindicate the number of feet between trees:

Figure 4. The relationship of edge planting to the larger forest.

Table 1. Species that serve as excellent sources of wildlife food.

Species Type Fruit Site requirements

Black cherry tree Aug.-Sep. intermediate, rich moistPrunus serotina

Eastern redcedar tree Sep.-Nov. intermediate, dry to moistJuniperus virginiana

Dogwood small tree Oct.-Nov. tolerant, deep, moist to light, well-drainedCornus florida

Persimmon small tree Sep.-Nov. intolerant, moist to dry, well-to poorly drainedDiospyros virginiana

Plum small tree Jun.-Oct. intolerant, moistPrunus sp.

Blackberry shrub Aug.-Sep. intolerant, barren-infertileRubus sp.

Inkberry shrub Oct.-Dec. tolerant, wet to well drainedIlex glabra

Serviceberry shrub Jun.-Oct. tolerant, moist to dryAmelanchier arborea

Bittersweet vine Aug.-Oct. intolerant, rich soilsCelastrus scandens

Grape vine Aug.-Oct. intolerant, moist to dryVitis sp.

Virginia creepervine vine Aug.-Feb. intolerant, moist to dryParthenocissus quinquefolia

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Woodscaping Your Woodlands

D + 6 (used for second-growth southern pines)

and

D x 1.75

where D = the average diameter at breast height(in inches) of the pre-thinned stand.

Thus, in the first example, if the tree has adiameter of 10 inches, you add (10 + 6 = 16) todetermine that there should be 16 feet betweentrees. In the second example, you multiply (10 x1.75 = 17.5) to determine that there should be 17.5feet between trees.

A good thinning technique for small woodlotsis to use crop tree release, which involves themarking of “crop trees” and then eliminating anytree in direct competition with the crop tree. Fifteenfeet of free space between crowns provides ad-equate growing space for the crop tree for 7-8years. Crop trees are selected based on criteriaestablished in land-owner objectives. Selectioncriteria can be developed for benefits to any or allof the following: aesthetics, wildlife habitat, waterquality, and timber growth. A complete guide oncrop tree management can be found in Appendix C.

When trees to be thinned are small or when nomarket exists, girdling or the use of herbicidesoffers an effective and safe method for thinning.Girdling is the process of destroying the cambiumand bark in a rough ring around the stem (Figure5). This is often done with an ax or chainsaw.Using an ax, you cut away a band of bark andliving tissue 3 to 5 inches wide in a circular patternaround the tree. Using a chainsaw, you make twocuts, approximately 1 inch deep and 3 to 5 inchesapart, in a circular pattern completely around thetree. By destroying the cambium and bark you havedestroyed the tree’s ability to transport food.Herbicides if used properly are a very safe andeffective tool for controlling competing vegetation(Figure 6). Herbicides are designed for specificpurposes, and the directions on the label must befollowed to ensure personal safety and to protectthe environment.

For small woody vegetation, less than 1 to 2inches in diameter, a foliar or basal spray is themost appropriate. Foliar spray is applied in mist tothe vegetation’s foliage. Basal application is eitherby brush or nozzle spray to the stem. The chemicals

are then absorbed by the plant, killing it within afew months to a year. For larger trees (two or moreinches in diameter), herbicides are injected directlyinto the stem. The herbicide is squirted into a frillthat encircles the stem.

PruningPruning is often done to improve the quality ofhigh-value timber species. But pruning can alsoimprove the aesthetic quality of a stand or recre-ational access. For aesthetic quality, trees are oftenpruned to obtain a more park-like appearance.Trees are often pruned along a trail to improveaccess or to allow more light to reach the forestfloor. Pruning is costly because it is labor intensive.But many landowners want to do hands on workand are often willing to do the pruning themselvesSharp tools are essential to successful pruning. Apole-saw enables efficient pruning up to andbeyond the first 16 feet. The teeth of these saws cuton the pull stroke, easily removing small limbswith a few strokes.

Pole-saws can be purchased in sectionallengths of 4 to 8 feet. A 4-foot pole-saw is efficientfor removing lower branches and limbs up to 8 feethigh.

Prune branches before they reach 1.5 inches indiameter to enhance wound closure (Figure 7).When pruning, never remove more than 1/3 of thelive crown. This will leave enough foliage for the

Figure 5. Examples of ax and chainsaw girdling.

13

tree to produce food necessary to support itself andcontinue to grow. Prune early and frequently forbest results. Prune in stages, removing only a fewbranches at a time. Remember, young, vigorouslygrowing trees have a disproportionate amount offoliage in the lower portion of their crown. Limitpruning to the dormant season, when weather andworking conditions are comfortable. Always avoidpruning during leaf-out when tree energy reservesare lowest. Also, avoid pruning during leaf-fallwhen trees are recovering vital compounds fromthe foliage.

Selling TimberTimber removed during woodscaping can be soldto help offset the cost of the woodscaping service.

How much of the cost can be offset depends on themarkets in your area. To improve your chance ofgetting a fair price for your timber, seek profes-sional help. Timber sales and matters that involvedeeds, contracts and other legal formalities areoften confusing. When selling timber, you need toknow what you are selling and its value; you alsoneed to sell in a competitive market. A professionalforester should help you protect your interest.Remember, buyers are trying to get the most timberfor the cheapest price.

Small-Scale EquipmentFarm tractors are the most commonly used machineon small wooded acres. Most often, tractors rangein size from 17 hp to 200 hp, with PTO and

Figure 7. Always prune bark immediately beyond the branch bark ridge and branch collar (line AB):(1) under cut, (2) limbing cut, (3) final cut.

A

BX

A2

Branchbark ridge

Branchcollar

3

A

B

1

Figure 6. Three methods of applying herbicides: foliar, basal, and hack and frill.

three-point hitches.Accessories include awinch, a knuckleboom loader andtrailer for forwardingoperations, a chipperfor cleaning updebris, or a brush hogfor weed control. Toensure operator safetyand to protect thefarm tractor vitalcomponents such asan oil pan, electric

Basal

14

Woodscaping Your Woodlands

wires and fuel lines, windows, lights, and valvestems should be protected or reinforced. Tire chainswill assist in traction. And at all times, keep afirst-aid kit and fire extinguisher readily available.

SkiddingSkidding is the process of dragging the trees out ofthe woodlot to a landing. In small woodlots,skidding can be done with a tractor and winch orby a horse (Figure 8). Key points to rememberinclude:• Plan and mark skid trails prior to skidding.• In general, leave 200 feet between skid trails.• Avoid side leaning, skid slightly uphill or

downhill.• Skid short distances.• Do not skid over rough terrain: drive through it,

and then winch the load to you.

WinchingWinching is the process of dragging the trees fromwhere they are cut to the skid trail. This is usually ashort distance of 50 to 100 feet. Key points toremember include:• Position the tractor on flat ground in line with

the direction of pull.• Do not winch from angles exceeding 3000

sideways• Use a snatchblock to avoid winching sideways

or when obstacles prevent direct winching.• Several logs can be winched at one time

ForwardingForwarding is the process of loading logs onto aforwarder (i.e., a tractor and trailer with uprights orbunks) and then hauling them to a log deck or pick-up point (Figure 9). The forwarding method beginsafter the logs are winched to the skid trail. The logsare loaded with a knuckle boom loader onto atrailer. After loading is complete, the grapple isplaced on top of the load. The logs are then hauledto the log deck.

Some knuckle boom loaders can be mountedon to the trailer tongue or the three-point hitch ofthe tractor. An advantage of mounting the loader onthe tongue of the trailer is that disconnecting thetrailer from the tractor also disconnects the loader.Forwarding enables more trees to be moved to the

log deck with fewer skidding trips and less soildisturbance.

ChippersChippers can produce chips to be used for burning,animal bedding, landscaping, and mulch. Chippersrange from the small homeowner size used in theyard for chipping up small limbs and debris lessthan 1.5 inches in diameter to larger whole-treechippers. The size and type of chipper to get willdepend on what is to be accomplished and howoften it is to be used. A common chipper used insmall woodlot management is mounted on thethree-point hitch of a tractor. Power requirementsvary from chipper to chipper, but a rule of thumb is7 to 10 hp per 1 inch diameter of round wood.Thus, to chip a piece of wood 5-inches in diameter,you need a 35 to 50 hp tractor.

Figure 8. Skidding done correctly (A) and incorrectly (B).

15

Brush hogsBrush hogs or brush slashers are multi-use ma-chines mounted behind a tractor using the three-point hitch. They can be used to keep vegetationdown under power lines, reduce the size of pruningresidue in orchards, clear fire breaks, and controlunwanted competition around plantings; they canalso be used to clear and maintain recreationaltrails, access roads, and skid trails.

ConclusionThis publication focuses on just one aspect ofnatural resource management. To continue learningabout natural resource management, seek furtherinformation and advice from your County Coopera-tive Extension Service or County Forest Ranger. Orjoin a local landowner association. If there is notone in your area, begin one. Seek opportunities tolearn more by attending workshops or collegeclasses.

Figure 9. Logs being loaded onto a forwarder.

Appendix A: Sample Management Plan

LandownerMr. and Mrs. Tree

Prepared byYour Consulting Forester

Management Objectives1. Manage current timber stands to generate

immediate income, improve future incomepotential, provide periodic income in thefuture, and maintain mature forest.

2. Manage woodland to improve quality andhealth of forest.

3. Improve wildlife habitat for deer, fox, rabbits,squirrels, quail, morning dove, beaver, water-fowl, raccoon, raptors, and songbirds.

4. Manage and protect riparian zones to at leastmaintain, if not enhance, water quality andstream-side management zone.

Table A1. Forest plan outline

Forest Type Acres Recommended Activity

Forest Type 1Shortleaf pine 16 Seedtree harvest.

Preharvest treatment to control competition.Vegetative screen between roads.Leave snags for wildlife.Maintain and mow trail periodically.Pile slash to create wildlife cover.Seed landings and skid trails with wildlife mixture.

Forest Type 2Upland hardwood 16 Thin the stand to 70 sq. ft. of basal area.

Use area wide thinning or crop tree release method.Maintain and mow trail periodically.Pile slash to create wildlife cover.Protect stream side management zones

Forest Type 3Mixed pine/hardwood 18 Make group selection cut 1/2 to 1 acre in size.

Perform competition control.Pile slash to create wildlife cover.Seed landings and skid trails with wildlife mixture.Maintain and mow trail periodically.Protect stream side management zones.

16

Table A2. Calendar of activities

ForestYear type Activity

1 1-3 Maintain and mow trail.1,3 Control preharvest competition.1-3 Prepare contract for harvest and thinning.

2 1-3 Maintain and mow trail.1-3 Harvest and thin.1-3 Rehab landing and skid trails.

3 1-3 Maintain and mow trail.1 Control postharvest competition.

4 1-3 Maintain and mow trail.1 Control postharvest competition.

5 1-3 Maintain and mow trail.1 Control postharvest competition.1-3 Revise management plan.

Figure A1. Forest-type map

1

1

2

3

LEGEND

State Road

Building

Driveway

Stream

Property Boundary

Forest Type

Forest Type Boundary

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Appendix B: Measuring a Tree

To conduct a tree inventory, you must know how tomeasure a tree. We often measure trees to estimatetimber volume, but measuring is also useful (forexample when you think you have a champion bigtree to measure. The two most frequently measuredcharacteristics of a tree are diameter and height.

General agreement and ease both dictate thatdiameter is measured at 4.5 feet above the ground(on the uphill side). This measurement is expressedas diameter at breast height or DBH. Diameters arecommonly measured with a Biltmore stick ordiameter tape (Directions for measuring with aBiltmore stick are included in Figure B1).

If a Biltmore stick is not available, a regularcloth tape can be used to measure circumference.

Circumference can be converted to diameter asfollows:

circumference (inches) ) 3.1416 = diameter.

In forestry, tree height is often based on thenumber of merchantable logs or half-logs. A log is16 feet in length; a half-log is 8 feet in length.Height measurement is taken from the estimatedstump height to the highest usable portion of thetree trunk. This is usually the minimum top diam-eter of 4 inches.

A Merritt hypsometer, which is often found onthe back side of a Biltmore stick, is used formeasuring tree height (see Figure B2 for instruc-tions on using a Merritt Hypsometer).

Figure B1. Using a Biltmore stick: hold the stick 25inches from your eye; check with a tape measure untilyou get the proper distance. With the left end of thestick in your line of sight to the left edge of the treeand without moving your head, read the scale whereyour line of sight intersects the right edge of the tree.On trees that are oblong, instead of round, take tworeadings and calculate the average.

Figure B2. Using a Merritt hypsometer. Pace out 66feet from the tree, remaining level with it—neitheruphill or downhill from its base. Hold the hypsometervertically 25 inches from your eye. With the bottom ofthe stick aligned to where you want to estimate thestump height, read the scale where your line of sightintersects the hypsometer as you look up at theminimum diameter (usually 4 to 6 inches) near thetop of the tree.

18

25

read

inches

here

eye

66 feet1lo

g2

log

s3

.5lo

gs

Appendix C: CruisingThe following equation can be used to determinethe number of plots to sample:

TS

x P = Number of plots to sample

where:T = total area of woodlandS = size of sample plotP = percent of total area to be sampled

Thus, if you owned 7.5 total acres of woodland,and the size of your sample plot is 0.1 of an acre,and you are sampling 0.30 of your total area, youwould apply the equation as follows:

interest includes nests, cavities, and signs of pest orpathogens. A typical tally sheet is presented on thefollowing page.

To summarize the data for the total tract,determine the trees in all plots by species and sizeclass. Calculate the correction factor for expandingthe samples as follows:

TA

= Correction factor

On a map of the area to be inventoried, drawparallel lines that cover the tract reasonably well.Draw the lines perpendicular to drainage patternsso that you pick up changes in vegetation causedby changes in soil moisture and elevation. FigureC1 depicts a typical layout.

A 0.1 acre plot has a radius of 37.24 feet.Using a tape, measure several radii from plotcenter, like spokes on a wheel. Indicate the outermargins of the plot by marking boundary trees withflagging or chalk. Measure trees within the bound-ary, marking them off with an X. It is best tomeasure in a clockwise direction. When collectingdata, develop a tally sheet for the information thatis needed in guiding future decisions. In general,the information gathered includes species, diameter(measured at 4.5 feet above the ground), andestimated height. Other information that may be of

where:T = total area of woodlandA = total area in plots

Thus if you owned 7.5 total acres and you had 23sample plots each of which was 0.1 acre, yourcorrection factor would be:

7.523 x 0.1

= 2.3

Multiply your totals by the correction factor to geta reasonable estimate of the trees in your tract.

Figure C1. Preparing an inventory map

19

0.30 = 22.5 plots or 23 plots7.5 acres

0.1 acres per plotx

Sta

teH

igh

wa

y

Stream

N

Tract_______________________

Plot__________ Date_________

Species Height (feet) Diameter (inches) Other

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

20

Appendix D: Crop Tree Management

Landowners today are interested in a managementsystem that promotes forest stewardship andprovides other benefits as well. Crop tree manage-ment is just that kind of system. It consists ofseven steps that provide multiple benefits to thelandowner, including the enhancement of wildlife,the protection of water quality, the production oftimber, and the development of an aestheticallypleasing environment. Crop tree managementfocuses on individual trees and their potential formeeting the landowner’s objectives. The systemthus requires the landowner to make decisions atthe tree level rather than the stand level.

Crop Tree Management: The Process

Step 1. Identifying Property Goals.Goals reflect your ultimate reason for owning theland. They should be realistic and achievable, andthey should be based on a long-term view of yourland. In all cases, they should be compatible withthe resources available and the land’s potential.Goals provide the foundation for developing soundobjectives. Here are some examples of typicallandowner goals:• Improve deer and turkey habitat for increase

opportunity in hunting• Enhance recreational use of the property.• Enhance the beauty of the property around the

house and road.

Step 2. Establish Stand-Specific ObjectivesBy developing stand-specific objectives, you focusyour attention on the stands that have the greatestpotential of meeting your goals. Not every standwill have that potential. Remember, objectives must

be specific to be effective. Specific objectivesinclude:• Improve deer habitat by increasing hard-mast

production of the oak-hickory stand.• Improve recreational use by turning old log-

ging roads into hiking trails.• Increase the variety of fall colors that can be

seen from the road and house.

Step 3. Develop Crop Tree Selection CriteriaCrop tree selection criteria are developed to matchspecific objectives. Like objectives, selectioncriteria may differ from stand to stand. Any treethat meets multiple selection criteria will beespecially valuable. Examples of selection criteriafor different benefits are listed below; trees withattractive fruits, flowers, and fall color are listed inTable D1.

Timber• Dominant or co-dominant Trees• Large, healthy crown• No forks or major branches for the first 20 feet• No dead upper crown branches• Stump sprouts ok• U-shaped connections ok• High valued commercial species• Expected longevity of 20 or more years

Wildlife: Mast Producing Trees• Dominant or codominant trees• Large, healthy crowns• Hard mast producers• Expected longevity of 20 or more years

Wildlife: Cavity Trees• Any species, size class, and crown position

21

22

Woodscaping Your Woodlands

Aesthetic• Attractive flowers or colorful foliage• Large, healthy crowns• Stump sprouts and understory trees ok• Expected longevity of twenty or more years• Distinctive trees• Visible from house and travel ways

Water Quality• Dominant or co-dominant Trees• Large, healthy crown• Tree tolerant of flooding• Species that are good nutrient accumulators• Trees that are young 15 to 25 years of age

Step 4. Inventory the PropertyTake an inventory of the property to determine thenumber of crop trees per acre. By using a tallysheet similar to the one at the end of this section,the landowner can determine how many crop treesthere are per acre, which trees to cut, and whichtrees may be left uncut.

Step 5. Review the Proposed TreatmentReview the proposed treatment by setting up a fewfifth-acre plots. A fifth-acre plot is larger then atenth-acre plot and thus allows for a better demon-stration of the proposed treatment. Use brightlycolored flagging to mark the crop trees. Reviewhow the crop trees were selected and which com-peting trees will be cut. Mark the trees to be cutwith a different color flagging. Remember that onlytrees in direct competition with the crop trees will

be cut. Those trees whose crowns are not in directcompetition with the crop tree will remain in thestand.

Step 6. Decide How Many Crop Trees to Cutper AcreThe number of crop trees cut per acre depends onthe number of trees meeting the criteria and thelandowner’s objectives. If the number of crop treesper acre to release will create a cutting that is tooheavy, then reduce the intensity of the cutting byreducing the number of crop trees selected forrelease, not by reducing the amount of release foreach crop tree crown (Figure D1).

Table D1. Trees with attractive fruits, flowers, or fall color

Fall leaf colorFruits Flowers Red Yellow

apple apple blackgum ashblackgum catalpa cherry beechcherry cherry dogwood birchdogwood plum hornbeam catalpaholly redbud maple elmhophornbeam sourwood red oak hickorymaple yellow-poplar white oak pecanmulberry persimmon redbudpawpaw sassafras sycamorepersimmon sourwood yellow-poplarplum sweetgumredcedar

Figure D1. If the landowner wants a lighter cutting,adust the cutting intensity by releasing fewer trees.Do not compromise the system by selecting morecrop trees than you can fully release.

If this cutting is too heavy...

then reduce the intensity of cut by...Correct Incorrect

of crop treesreducing the number

selected for release

reducing the amountof release given

each crop tree crown.NOT

23

Step 7. Decide Which Trees to Cut to Releasethe Crop TreesTo determine which trees are to be cut, look up intothe crown of the crop tree and divide the crowninto four equal quadrants. Examine each quadrantto determine if the crop tree has adequate space togrow. This is known as determining thefree-to-grow ratio (Figure D2). A crop tree is notfree to grow in that quadrant if there is only 1 to 2feet between the crop tree’s crown and the neigh-boring crown. Free-to-grow ratios range from 0 to4. A ratio of 0 means the crop tree crown hascompetition from neighboring crowns on all foursides. A free-to-grow ratio of 4 means the crop treehas adequate space to grow on all four sides.Fifteen feet of free space between crowns provideadequate growing space for the crop tree for 7 to 8years.

SummaryCrop tree management focuses on individual treesand their potential to meet the landowner’s objec-tives. It is a system that puts stewardship principlesinto practice while obtaining multiple landownerbenefits. It was develop for implementation onsmall (i.e., 100 acres or fewer) forested acreage, butcan be used quite successfully on larger areas.

Figure D2. The crop tree in the center of this illustra-tion has been divided into four equal quadrants. Afree-to-grow rating is determined by evaluating eachquadrant for competition from neighboring crowns.

1 2

34

Quadrants 1, 3, & 4 free of competition

15 ft. of space

crop tree

competingcrown

betweencrowns

Tally Sheet for Crop Tree Release

Landowner: Date:

Stand History:

Stand Number: Type: Age:

Acres: BAF: Site:

Landowner Objectives:

Crop Tree Categories* Other Tree Categories**

T,WSpecies DBH HT A, WQ FTG #/ac*** C,L #/ac***

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

* T = timber, W = wildlife, A = aesthetics, WQ = water quality, FTG = free-to-growratio.

** C = cut trees, L = leave tree.

*** #/acre = number of trees per acre represented by a tree of the measured DBH forthe selected BAF. Obtain the number of trees per acre from the chart at right, orcalculate it using the following formula: #/acre = 43,560/{DBH(rf)]2 (3.14)rf = 2.75 for 10 BAFrf = 1.9445 for 20 BAF

Avg #Category Total* # plots trees/ac**

Timber (T)

Wildlife (W)

Aesthetics (A)

Water quality (WQ)

Total all categories

Crop Tree Totals

Avg #Category Total # plots trees/ac**

Cut trees (C)

Leave trees (L)

* If a tree qualifies in more than one category(example: T and W), count it only once in thecategory in which it makes the greatest contributionto your primary objectives.

** Average number of trees per acre = total/#plots.

Non-crop Tree Totals

Number of Trees per Acreby BAF and DBH

DBH 10 BAF3 203.7

4 114.6

5 73.36 50.9

7 34.7

8 28.69 22.6

10 18.3

11 15.112 12.7

13 10.8

14 9.415 8.1

16 7.2

17 6.318 5.7

19 5.0

20 4.621 4.1

22 3.8

23 3.424 3.2

24