CHAPTER II

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK : NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND ITS PROGRAMME

"Integrated education is thus a horizontal process to cover the various facets of his life and the spectrum of his interests just as life-long education is a vertical process comprising inter-related phases of pre-adult formal education in school and college, and - adults' exposure to various kinds of training opportunities and learning environments.The two are essential components of one concept Life-long integrated education."

IAEA Round Table Conference 1968,

CHAPTER II

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND ITS PROGRAMME

CONTENTS

2.1 Introduc tion

2.2 Formal vs Non-Formal Education

2.3 Non-Formal Education

2.4 Views about Non-Formal Education

2.5 Non-Formal Education in the East

2.6 Life-Long Education

2.7 Present study and Non-FormalEducation

34

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Education seems to have run into a crisis of faith.The one common charge is that it is irrelevant to the lear­ner, society and even to educational goals themselves. It offers a frozen curriculum which has validity only in a frozen time frame. It claims to prepare young persons for life as if life were static. The young man steps out of the educational system to take it up. Besides, preparation 'for life' has only a narrow connotation for most often it only prepares for employment. Even in this objective, it falls far shorter, since the world of work is undergoing fast technological and sociological transformations. Life is much more than work, but the education system does not take notice of all those aspects: viz., the individual's own personal development, the social development and the relati­onship between the individual and society.

The existing .Educational system has several limita­tions regarding its possibilities to reach all potential learners who feel the need for learning and acquiring skills. Formal education lacks the power to reach children, adole­scents and adults coming from different social backgrounds.By and large it is the priviledged group who avail them­selves of educational facilities through schools, colleges

35

and universities. Due to rigidities and formalities in the school system* the working population is handicapped as compared to the non—working members of the middle—class and well-to-do families. Children and youngsters coming from poor rural areas or peasants either do not get into the-system at all or leave it before they can gain anything worthwhile for their life struggle or work requirements.The formal' education system is oriented towards the need of those who can afford full-time sequential education, rather than of those who are deprived. This aggravates social disparities.

Non-formal education, however, could contribute in various ways to solving these problems and everybody is free to searching for the knowledge through out his life. Before considering in detail about non-formal education, it is important to compare the systems of formal education and non-formal education.

2.2 FORMAL EDUCATION VS NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

sense that both are organised by societies to improve upon the informal learning process. In other words, to promote and facilitate certain experiences types of valuable lear­ning that individuals cannot readily acquire through

Formal and non-formal education are alike in the

36

exposure to the environment. They differ mainly in their instructional arrangements as well as procedures and to a considerable extent in their subject matter and learning contributors. Occasionally their differences merge in "hybrid" programmes combining significant features of both.

In the ideal of education, non-formal education would not be^an-^ithetic to the formal system of education.

Both would constitude one integrated whole. However, until that state of perfect equilibrium, is reached, one has to recognise the limitations of the formal system as it opera­tes now, so that it may be possible to define what forms, styles and patterns non-formal education could take. For this, a comparative view about formal and non-formal educa­tion systems have been briefly outlined below s

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION -is life long with learning integrated with life and

work and life upgraded and enriched by learning.

-is a process of understanding the individual's own needs, the environmental situation, the social goals and mutual interrelationships.

FORMAL EDUCATION ' -is finite, limited to period of 'being taught' as against a period of life and work.

-is geared to impersonal goals of knowledge acquisition.

37

-is motivated by Employ­ment and status orientation.

-has fixed pre-deter- mined curricular concepts and content,

-is imposed by 'giver' on the 'receiver' with little interaction between the two«

-fasters an uncritical command obedience syndrome ,

-Works towards selecting successes by weeding out failures.

-nurtures the status- quo and discourages deviation ,

-is motivated by individual growth,, self-renewal and maximising human potential.

-has a diversified flexible curriculum, responsive to learner and environmental needs.

-is a process of sharing exploring, analysing and judging, together with full learner participation.

-creates an open-ended, -critical and self-reliant awareness.

-works on the principle of universal success (rela­tive, evidently, but gene­ralised) through universal learner satisfaction.

-provokes questioning, encourages healthy points of departure

. towards progress.

38

-works within a contem­porary social frame and hence gets quickly out- of-step with social change.

-prepares individuals andsociety for a state of being in a static social and cultural frame-work.

Nevertheless, it would be erroneous as well as pretentious to assume that non-formal education is an over­all remedy. It has also other educational and socio-cultu- ral patterns, its own limitations, and inherent short­comings. Along with formal education and schooling, it is also in general biased by the overall frame imposed on all social activities, although to a lesser degree and with greater possibility >for escape from certain external cons­traints. At the same time, what is gained in relevance may be lost in systematisation of knowledge, what is reached in flexibility and functionality may be lessened by non-

iretention and superficiality. Acceptance of the principle and development of the non-formal education practice is a long way from realising its rich potential, and avoiding its traps and pitfalls.

-provokes questioning, encourages healthy points of departure towards progress.-anticipates and prepares for change, for the unknown future.

39

2.3 NGN-FORMAL- EDUCATION

A concept of non—formal education is clearly dis­tinguished from informal on the one hand and the formal on the other. There are some misconceptions in many minds that non-formal and informal/incidental are identical. The fact is that informal/incidentical education is restricted to parents, especially mothers, peer groups and the general propaganda- be it of political parties, family planning or of the nation on the march etc. The non-formal education does not do any such thing. It is an organised system which is merely offered at convenient places, time and according to the level of understanding the children or adults have. Therefore, unlike the formal system of education, it niether offers a fixed time-table nor does it have a pre­determined course, of study and of course it does not equip any one with a graded certificate. It is at once so diffe­rent from the formal with which we are so familiar and so distinguishable from the informal which we live through all our lives. The non-formal system has nothing in common with the formal which suffers largely from an authoritarian

1. R.P. Singh and Shukla Neerja, Non-FormalEducation, New Delhi $ Bahre Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1979, P. 2-11.

40

outlook, fixed goals, pre-determined curricula and very qualified academic teachers, whose sole purpose is to see that their wards succeed at the terminal examinations. As against the formal, the non-formal is non-competitive and open-ended. It has limited goals and purposes.

Models of Non Formal Education :

Scholars suggest that models should not be normally employed to clarify any concept. We believe that paradigms or models are the best means to explain any function, process or concept. Here, models which explain non-formal education from different points of view are presented*

41

Figure 4 Shows Educational Charafcteristics 2

2. Thomas J. Belle La. Liberation, Development andRural Non-Formal Education. In Rechard 0. Niechpff (Ed.) Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and Rural Poor, Michigan :Michigan State University, 1977.

Figure s 5 Explains' the characteristics3of Non-formal approach

3. Ibid® P. 10

43

FORMAL NON FORMAL1. Objectives

i) Societal Elitest Egalitarianii) Personal Job-oriented1 Life-Style

enrichment

2. Clientele Class-structured

Classless

3. Entry By age Multiple-pointentry

4. Expenses Social + Personal (Input-Output fiase)

Inexpensive(WelfareActivity)

5 $ Curriculum Graded Ungraded

6. School plant Obligatory Voluntary(Non-essential)

7. Evaluation Certification Functional

8. End-product Qualified/Trained

Well-adjustedIndividual

Persons

Figure 6 : Shows an alternative model4of the Non-Formal approach.

These models help to form understanding of the concept of Informal Education.

4. Ibid. P.9.

2.4 VIEWS ABOUT NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Educators are typically eager to express their idea about the philosophical framework of non-formal educa­tion within which they approach their work. For the present study different values and .attitudes emerged as did wide ranging views on re levant’concepts and issues. These viewsare presented here looking to the observations as they

5relate with non-formal education? R.P. Singh quoted m his words?

"Non formal education is being offered as an alter­native to the traditional system of adult education. It is a learning-network where needs and interests are defined and articulated by those involved in the learning processes and where the centre-periphery model is completely reversed."

6 ilProf. Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah s The Non-formal education is wide ranging because it comprehends all lear­ning outside the formal system and has no parameters of time and space. It can be classified as s Pre-school', unschooled, and underschooled children in the age-group 1-15, and for youth and adults, unschooled, underschooled -

5. R.P. Singh and Shukla Neerja?Non-Formal Education, New DelhiBahri Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1979, P. 5.

6. Ibid. P. 5

45

or needing new additional skills in the age—group 15—60, ...Non formal learning thus reaches out to preschool educa­tion, and provides training programmes for school and college drop-outs, the unemployed and underemployed, agri­cultural farms, animal husbandry, fishery,.extension agents, illiterate adults and adult education instructors,..-,-^' technicians and university alumni."

The non-formal education team of the center for7International Education working in Ecquador "Non-Formal

education is a tool for social rather than personal or economic development. In other words non-formal approach is an innovation. It is a functional arrangement designed to succeed. In the absence of any rigid programme where teachers could.be drafted frofn any walk of life both in approach and content it is an innovation of the highest order."

gA.B. Shah and S. Bhan ? "Non-formal education is of special significance to developing, societies. It certa­inly has an important part to play in the creation of a learning society.in developing countries, all the more so

7. Non-formal Education in Ecquador 1971-75, AnApproach to Non-Formal Education, Massachusetts University of Massachusetts, 1975.A.B. Shah and S. Bhan, Non-Formal Education and the NAEP, New Delhi : Dhawan Printing Works, 1980.8.

46

in view of the growing pace at which knowledge and techno­logy are advancing. But developing societies, which are increasingly becoming an integral part of a single world because of the revolution in communications, have also to cope with some additional problems of their own.11

QS,R. Mohsini"; "Non-formal education is defined asboth a non-formal approach in organising educational ac^i-

\

vities and as a special programme organized outside the formal system, offers the most feasible option not only for providing life-long education but also for catering to the variety of human needs, according to an - individual1s skill and ability."

Now it is worth considering a few models of non- formal education programmes in different countries around Thailand, for their social and cultural background does not' differ widely with that of the target country.

9, S,R. Mohsini, Eradication of Illiteracy!Towards a Comprehensive Programme,Indian Journal of Adult Education,Vol. 43 No. 8-9, 1982, P. 21.

kl

2.5 NON FORMAL EDUCATION IN THE EAST

There is a considerable diversity in the use,of terms referring to the adult education in the Asian and Pacific countries. Moreover, the terms used and the mea­nings attached to them are changing in several countries.Some countries use 'adult education' or an equivalent term in a very comprehensive manner. Others have a precise and restricted meaning, such as ‘basic education1 for adults.The term 'non-formal education' however, has recently been adopted in several countries and can be used in more than one sense.

In a country where the government is trying to build an equal society, its objective is to solve the basic needs of the people, hence education is regarded crucially impor­tant for improving the quality and standard of living of people which would help them to live happy as good and useful subjects of the country.

2.5.1 AUSTRALIA10

Adult Education needs in Australia are met by avariety of agencies; i.e. Universities, Colleges, Agricultu­ral extension services as well as health education agencies

UNESCO, Adult Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for educa­tion in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok; 1982, PP.10-13.

10

48

etc. are involved in that provision. The smaller towns referred to are not large enough for these agencies to esta­blish a permanent base for their work.

Two programmes are now working successfully in New South Wales in South-eastern Australia have helped overcome some of the problems of isolation. These, are providing learning opportunities for adults in rural areas who were previously denied reasonable access to adult education.

Programme I :Country Adult Education Associations

The New South Wales Board of Adult Education, which is the government body to develop and co-ordinate adult edu­cation in the state, is encouraging the formation of volun­tary community groups in towns which do not have a college or other centres of adult education.

An Adult Education Association is formed which any person in the community can join. The annual meeting elects committee which is responsible for managing the association's activities throughout the year. The primary tasks of the organisation are to identify local needs and then make arra­ngements for those needs to be net.Programme IIManagement Education for Farmers :

The nature of agriculture in Australia means that

49

farms are large and the farming community is very scattered. The agricultural extension services have been the major age­ncies providing adult education to farmers. The mode of delivery has been through meetings, field days and the mass media to solve particular farm problems as they arise. Thus an Extension officer may conduct a field day to demonstrate a new method of disease control, hold a meeting to explain new marketing methods or write a newspaper article to inform farmers of a new variety of wheat.

The learning process is dependent on a combination of the following methods :

1. Information provided through various media,2. Farm economic planning exercises on actual farm

data,3. Farm visits by the Extension officer^4. Monthly group meetings with the district

Extension Officer,5. A one-week residential school at the university

and a week-end course in regional centres.

50

2*5.2 CHINA11

The general principles of running Chaina*s schoolsare to combine learning with production; take measures >tosuit local condition; teach students in accordance withtheir aptitude; and maintain•flexibility.

I, The types of Schools for Peasants' Education :

1. Literacy classes or groups set up by production teams.

2. Part-time primary schools or middle schools run by production brigades.

3. Part-time primary and middle school classes'set up by full-time schools in rural areas.

4. Peasants' school run by communities; these schools are often used as models to the whole community.

5* Technical schools to develop special technologiesneeded by the workers in workshop run by Production brigades.

6. Full-time schools or work-study schools set up by communes.

7. Peasants' technical middle schools or technical colleges set up by countries.

11. Ibid. pp. 33-35.

51

II. Administrative Systems

For the management of adult education# China has established a special system at each level of government# and provided full-time personnel to administer adult educa­tion affairs.

There is a 'Worker-Peasants Bureau' in the Ministry of Education# and Worker-Peasants Department in each of the Bureau of Education in the provinces and countries,

- Adult education deals with aspects of government, as well as with Labour Unions# Youth League, Women's Federa­tions# Scientific associations and other mass organizations. China mobilizes the whole society to make the undertaking a success. According to instructions given by the State Council# the Board of Worker Peasants' Education has been set up by local governments at each level to mobilize the whole society# work out programmes and realize the goals of adult education.

2e5,3 INDIA12

Adult Education in India is aimed mainly at the illiterate population between the age of 15 and 35, The edu­cation imparted is to be a package# comprising acquisition

12. Ibid, pp. 37-40

52

of basic literacy skills, functional development and build­ing up of social awareness. A variety of implementary agen­cies, both official and non-official, have been involved; and a number of programmes have been launched to achieve the success of the programme,

I. Rural Functional Literacy Project (RFLP)

One such scheme is the Rural Functional Literacy Project (RFLP). These are pace-setter projects fully finan­ced by the Central Government but administered by the states. Under the scheme, projects of up to 300 Adult Education Centres with an average enrolment of 30 per cent are estab­lished, The. geographical spread is confined to two develo­pment blocks (a block is an administrative unit for deve­lopment activity and the average population is 100,000).The instructional period is about 300-350 hours spread over 9-10 months. There are a part-time instructors for the centre and full-supervisors (one for 30 centres) and Project Officers (one for each project),

The RFLP was evolved out of the programmes of Farmers* Training and Functional Literacy started in 1967-68 and ^Ton-Formal Education started in 1975. The farmer prog­rammes had three distinct components; i.e. (i) Functional Literacy, (ii) Farmers Training and (iii) Radio Programmes.

53

The responsibilities were shared by the Ministry of Educa­tion, Agriculture and Information and Broadcasting. The latter confined itself to the 15-25 age group. Its signi­ficant aspect was the emphasis on locally relevant and diversified content.

II. Administrative arrangements andResource structure

The Directorate of Adult Education of the Centre is the national resource agency. State resource centres have been set up in practically all states to decentralize efforts. These resource centres impart training to functi­onaries, develop reading and teaching materials (including post-literacy and follow-up materials).

Separate Directorates of Adult Education have been set up and there is provision for District Adult Education Officers. Advisory boards have been set up at national, State and district levels.

An important feature is regular monitoring and evaluation. The appraisal of project in the field is done by instructions of social science research and of highereducation.

54

2.5.4 INDONESIA13

One of the efforts of community education (Penmas) is a programme of vocational skills apprenticeship. This activity is designed to encourage and develop community ta­lents so that the productive skills of learners can be put to use directly in the community. Apprenticeship is learning done through work. Some of the basic reasons why this is a valuable form of education are the following.

1.

2..

3

4.

5,

Skilled and productive people are needed to develop a community, especially in rural areas.Natural resources, especially in rural areas, are waiting to be used.The existing potential resources of the community are not yet utilized.Large numbers of the community who are unemployed lack skills and knowledge to obtain work.It is easy to organize people who intend to learn a certain skill in an apprenticeship programme within their village.

I. Schedule of apprenticeship activities

The organizer of the programme corrposed the following schedule of courses from which the learners could choose to

13 Ibid. P. 41

55

study. If the learners intend to study all these courses, it will take them 24 months, working 7.5 hours per day.

IX. programme output

During the seven years the output of the programme can be classified into several areas :

1. The learners : ja) In the first batch (1973-1976) : there were 29

learners?-Three were appointed as resource persons(instructors) -Twenty three worked at other institutions,-Three opened their own workshops. • -

b) In the second batch '(1977-1978) s

There were 34 learners;-Four were appointed as resource persons(instructors), -Twenty worked at other institutions -Ten opened their own workshops.

c) In the third batch (1979-Nov. 1980):There were 24 learners;

i

-Although they were learning, they were able to earn money by doing jobs for private individuals as well as for institutions that required servicesto repair their machines

56

2, Resource Persons (Instructors)

When the programme was first implemented there were two resource persons serving 15 learners. Thus, the ratio between the resource persons and the learners was 1 s 7. At present there are eight resource persons and 24 learners; so the ratio is 1:3. There is a 100- per cent improvement in service to the learners.

3. Conclusion

A great deal of useful information about the nature of learning activities in the form of apprenticeship pfcogra- mraes can be summarized as follows :

(1) The apprenticeship programme has been able to produce people sufficiently trained in a certain skill and to enable them find jobs®

(2) The learners are able to earnlf money while studying.

(3) The follow-up support for- the graduates of the programme is not difficult because they can immedi­ately apply their skills either by working for them­selves or for some one else®

57

2•5•5 JAPAN(

Adult Education in Japan has two aims : (i) thebetterment in the overall quality of life, and- (ii) the imp­rovement of vocational ability and skills.

With regard to vocation, adult education is by and large provided in the form of on-the-job training both in the private and public enterprises. These enterprises have been making every effort to improve on-the-job training. The effectiveness of such training is widely recognised in Japan.

In 1976, a law was promulgated to create, out of miscellaneous schools, a new category of educational insti­tution called special training schools which satisfied the prescribed level and scale of systematic instruction. In 1979, there were 2387 special training schools attended by 416,438 students and 5,508 miscellaneous schools with the students numbering 770,959.

The municipal and pre^ector|.l governments establi­

shed and maintained citizens, public halls, libraries, museums, youth centres, women's study classes for adults, women youth and the aged. These classes offered courses mainly of general education and practical knowledge and skills.

14. Ibid. pp. 51-53

58

1. Adult Education and Women

Changes in family life, specifically, the prevalence of the 'nuclear family' and the use of time-saving devices, have reduced domestic chores and stimulated the desire of housewives to study and work, after having completed child­

rearing.

In 1977, 738,000 women attended adult education classes organized by local boards of education accounting for 70 per cent of the total attendance. The main topics include English conversation, Japanese painting, Pottery, gardening and so on.

2. New Demand for Continuing Education

More diversified, sophisticated and specialized courses are called for. Newspaper comphnies, broadcasting companies and other private entities mostly in big cities, have organized these courses to meet the demands. The main topics dealt with in such courses include vocational guidance, household affairs and family life, general education and artistic skills.

In response to the demand for more specialized know­ledge, a few pre-factoral and metropolitan boards of education have already organized systematic and specialized

59

courses in collaboration with the universities, colleges and upper secondary schools.

2.5.6 MALAYSIA15

Malaysia is steadily moving on to greater diversifi­cation. At the same time formal and non-formal education have a role to play in providing the variety of skills needed to sustain greater economic growth.

The following programmes in Adult and Non-formal Education are organized in Malaysia s

1) Further Education Classes (FEC).. The Further Educa­tion Classes were started in 1958, following a recommenda­tion of the Razak Committee on Education. The FEC is the best example of *seccnd-chance-education' in Malaysia. The system consists of evening classes in selected centres and centres for people who are:

A) Over-aged regular school;B) Unable to continue their education in

regular schools; andC) Employed but wishing to improve their

qualifications.

15 Ibid. pp. 60-67

60

2) In-service- education for teachers. Although up tonow, the Ministry of Education has not insisted that serving teachers should attend in-service courses periodically during their career, there are several programmes which teachers attend.

According to an official of Ministry of Education the main objectives of in-service education for teachers

aresa) To improve the language skills of teachers in

Bahasa Malaysia as a medium of instruction and English as a second lenguage;

b) To increase the academic and professional knowledge and experience of trained teachers;

c) To equip teachers with sufficient knowledge and skills to enable them to play effective roles; and

d) To provide training in educational administration and management for head teachers, school organizers and administrators.

3) Vocational, technical and professional education.A well known category of adult education relates to progra­mmes of instruction in vocational, technical and professio­nal competence. It is in this branch of non-formal education that we find very significant developments as well as a wide

61

range of institutions. Following a UNESCO definition, this category of non-formal education comprises programmes for preparation of the adult for a first job, or for a newjob. It includes schemes of further study for the adultto keep him up-to-date on new developments in his occupa­tion or profession.

4) National Solidarity Classes. 'Education for civic,political and community competence' is a recognized categoary of adult or non-formal education. In Malaysia the best example of a programme under this classification is offici­ally designed as Education for National Solidarity, and it is the responsibility of the National Unity Board, a statutory body.

2.5.7 PHILIPPINES16

Non-formal Education as a part of the Philippine educational system is not new. Adult eduction, which is a component of non-formal education, has been going on ever since the enactment of Commonwealth Act No. 80 in 1935. This Act created the office of Adult Education, to provide citizenship training to adults. Citizenship training was interpreted to mean the provision of literacy education

16. Ibid. pp. 98-104

62

vocational and occupational training and the development of good moral character, personal discipline and civic cons­cience. The objectives of NFE are as varied.as the needs of individuals and communities, but the goal is the develo­pment of self-reliant, self-sufficient, self-disciplined, individuals and communities.

Allied Organizations.Non-formal education.is the concern of all agencies,

both public and private. Government ministries such as Agriculture, Agarian Reform, Health, Human Settlements, Labour, Local government and Community Department and Natu­ral Resources are active in NFE. Private and public colle­ges and institutions have programmes for non-formal education Non-governmental agencies, civic organizations give unlimi­ted support to the programmes.

Areas of Concern.In the delivery of NFE, the activities are the

following :1) Literacy; general education;2) Rural development, improving quality of family and

community life;3) Training for occupational skills;4) Information and communications.

Non-Formal Education Plans for 1979-1983.Based on the problems and needs of NFE as implemented

from its inception in 1911, the goals have been evolved for the period 1979 and 1983 as listed below :

1) Human resources development,2) Information and publication management,3) Research and evaluation,4) Management and co-ordination,5) School-on-the-Air programme, and6) implementation of the' AEP for out-of-school

youths.and adults.

2e 5.8 SINGAPORE17

1, Continuing Education

The vocational and Industrial Training Board (VITB) of Singapore is the- national authority for the development, provision and regulation of vocational and industrial trai­ning in Singapore, with concomitant responsibility for con­tinuing education which includes all training and educatio­nal activities provided on a part-time basis. The programmes are organized with the aims of making a worker more efficient and productive, a better citizen and a better individual.

Th VITB's continuing education efforts may be

17 Ibid. pp. 111-115

84

classified into four programmes; (i) skills development courses (industrial and commercial skills) ; (ii) academic education courses; (iii) Language courses; and (iv) personal

enrichment courses. This programme deals with the VITB s

operation in the area of industrial slkill development

courses for adult workers*

2.. Part-time skills development courses- the past.

For many years, part-time skills development courses for workers were structured on training syllabuses converted from full-time programmes. They were generally of two years' duration. Part-time trainees were required to attend the entire course, and then sit for the end-of-course tests to quality for the trade certificate. The criticisms that were

levelled against these training programmes were :

(1) The duration of the courses required sustained effort

and commitment on the part of the worker for a few

years.

(2) The courses did not take into account the skills and

technical knowledge acquired by the workers in framing the courses of their work.

(3) The courses were made up of subjects which were

distributed in content over a few years' duration.(4) The course content made an artificial distinction

65

between theory and practice.

3. Retraining of workers and evaluation

. The modular approach',is amply suited and widely applicable to the retraining of unskilled or semi-skilled workers whose skills have become obsolete or redundant owing to a change in technology and the economic structure of the country. The workers recognize the benefits and advantages of the modular system of training as an effective means of • retraining. In 1979, the VITB launched a pilot project to provide industrial training to workers in non-technical occupations and low-wage jobs.

The modular system-of training is still in its infancy in Singapore. The VITB is closely monitaring the new approach to training, introduced less than a year ago.

2.6 blEE E©.N.<3 EUdGAT/IQM :

In recent years broader view of education has been held widely by scholars and planners. Advocates of life­long education assert that education is a process that con­tinues in.one form or another throughout life, and that

66

its purposes and forms must be adopted to the needs of individuals at different stages in their development* Edu­cation is Meek/as an integral part of living and all the instructions of society with an educative potential are con­sidered resources for learning. These ideas, as the Inter­national Commission on the Development of Education noted,are not new, but the potential for their realization is

greater today than ever before i

"Where they do so consciously or, not, human beings keep on learning and training themselves throughout their lives, above all through the influence of the surrounding environment and through the experiences which mould their behaviour, their conceptions of life and the content of their knowledge. However, until the present day, there were few structures in which this natural dynamism could find support, so as to transcend chance and become a deliberate pro­ject. Especially preconceived ideas about instruc­tion- it was for the young and took place in schools- privented people generally from conceiving life-long education in normal educational terms. Therefore, it is true that in the space of only a few years the same obvious fact has come home to people from one end of the world to the other : Most men are not sufficiently equipped to face the conditions andvicissitude of life as lived in the second half of

67

the twentieth century" 18

^While ideas about life-long education may sound

like little more than enlightened common sense,, in fact they represent a design for the restructuring of educational systems that has revolutionary implications for preparatory as well as adult education. First, the concept of life-long education contradicts the tenacious conventional wisdom and the ramifications thereof, that education is limited to what goes on in schools and colleges to ^prepare children and young people for adulthood. A second profound implication. is that society must make adequate provision to meet the educational needs of adults who have left formal schooling.A third implication, and perhaps the most far-reaching., is that the formal educational system must be reorganized so, that it is flexible enough to accommodate individual options and to prepare young people to continue their education as self-directed and competent adult learners,. At the very , least, this last goal would require much greater emphasis

19in schools and colleges on learning how to learn." ■

The concept about the life-long education has been

18. UNESCO, Learning to Be. p. 14219. Robert M. Smith and Key K. Haverkamp, Toward

the theory of Learning Hnw to Learn, Adult, Education No. 1, 1977. p. 3-21.

clarified with the help of the following schematic

representation i

I NEEDS 12

INDIVIDUAL 3

12

SOCIETY3

to develop to know and to be known To love and to be loved

II.* AIMS

EDUCATIONFOR

to develop to preserve the cultural identity to ensure its security,

1. Bread2. Knowledge

and wisdom3. Love4. Development5. Culture6. Peace

III. EDUCATION is NOT 1. going to school2. acquiring information3. possessing degrees or diplomas4. one-way preaching5. a facility for social elite.

IV. EDUCATION is 1. Learning2. Learning how to learn3* Combination of different

learning skills4. Learning through use of

all modern techniques5. Learning in school, factory,

home, church, club, theatre.6. Learning which is democratized.

V. CHARACTERISTICS 1. not stage bound2. nos time bound3. education a continuam4. provision of equal opportunities5. scientific humanism6. flexibility7. democratic outlook of the teacher8. teacher- a co-learner9. provision of opportunity

and motivation10. adaptability and innovative

function11. improvement of quality of life

Figure 7 : Diagram of Life-Long Education

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"Education is what" and "What not" enable to know about the life-long education. The life-long education process consists cf three main components which are inter related as shown in the figure belowi

Non-formal education services are provided in all three components with varying degrees of intensity depending upon the number of services already provided by other agencies in each component.

Ministry of Education, Introduction to the Non-Formal Education Department, Thailand United Production Press, 1984, P. 20.20.

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2.7 PRESENT STUDY AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

The present study is "an investigation in the atti­tude of the teacher educators towards the programmes of non- formal education leading to life-long education in Thailand."

Non-Formal Education is flexible. It is life, envi- , ronment and learner-oriented. It is diversified in content and method. It is non-authoritarian. It is built, on learner participation. It mobilises local resources, and enriches human and environmental potential. However, to make it clear non-formal education may not be identified either exclusively with adult education or with the education of the drop-outs. Indeed, non-formal education has its basis in adult-education, education for the drop-outs and also rural education but at the same time it does not ignore urban poor, the slum-dwell­ers and even the well-to-do persons for the simple reason that this class of people may also be looking out for solu­tion to their life® Problems and to that extent non-formal and life-long education are identical concepts. We might therefore, look at the non-formal education as an alternative to the formal system.

This definition of non-formal education would provide guidelines to the teacher educators serving in Formal Educa­tion System to indicate their feelings and beliefs aboutNon-Formal Education.