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© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 8
The Information-Processing Approach
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning Goals
1. Describe the information-processing approach.
2. Characterize attention and summarize how it changes during development.
3. Discuss memory in terms of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
4. Draw some lessons about learning from the way experts think.
5. Explain the concept of metacognition and identify some ways to improve children’s metacognition.
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
The Information-Processing Approach
The Nature of theInformation-Processing
Approach
Mechanisms of Change
Information, Memory, and
ThinkingCognitive
Resources: Capacity and Speed
of Processing Information
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Information-processing approach…
Emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
Is analogous to computers.
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Resources
Developmental Changes - Increases in capacity and speed of information processing
Contributions of biology and experience Brain Structure Neural: synaptic pruning and myelination
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Change Mechanisms
Encoding: getting information into memory Automaticity: processing information with
little effort Strategy construction: discovering new
processing procedures Self-modification: represented by
metacognition, “knowing about knowing”
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
The Information-Processing Approach
Attention
Developmental Changes
What Is Attention?
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What Is Attention?
AttentionAttention is the focusing of mental processes
Selective attention Divided attention Sustained attention
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Developmental Changes in Attention
Increase in selective attention Increase in attention span Increase in cognitive control of
attention; less impulsivity Increase in attention to relevant stimuli
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Getting Students to Pay Attention
Make learning
interesting
Encourage attention and
minimize distraction
Use cues and gestures
for important material
Focus on active learning and be aware of
individual differences
Use media and technology to make learning enjoyable
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
The Information-Processing Approach
Memory
What IsMemory?
Storage
Retrieval andForgetting
Encoding
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Enter the DebateShould teachers require students to engage in rote memorization?
YES NO
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Memory
…is the retention of information over time.
Gettinginformationinto memory
ENCODING
Retaininginformationover time
STORAGE
Takinginformation
out of storage
RETRIEVAL
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Encoding Strategies
CONSTRUCTING IMAGES
DEEP PROCESSINGDeeper processing,
better memory
REHEARSAL Consistent repetition ofinformation over time
ELABORATIONAdds to distinctiveness
ORGANIZATIONAided by chunking
ATTENTIONConcentrate and focus
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Memory’s Time Frames
Sensory Memory – Retains information for an instant
Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retains for 30 seconds without rehearsal
Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long period of time
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Memory
Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory
ProceduralMemory
ProceduralMemory
DeclarativeMemory
DeclarativeMemory
Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Semantic Memory
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Representing Information in Memory
Nodes stand for labels and concepts
Network is irregular and distorted
Long-term searches are not exact
Retrieved information is fit into an existing formation (schema) Schemas: Concepts,
knowledge, or information about events that already exist in the mind and influence the way we encode information.
Schema TheoriesNetwork Theories
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Retrieval
Identify learned information, as in multiple choice
Recognition
Previously learned information, as in fill-in-the-blank
Recall
Associations form cuesEncodingSpecificity
Recall better at the beginning and end of list
Serial Position
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Forgetting
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
Caused by a lack of retrieval cues
Interference Theory
Other information (new or old) gets in the way of what we are trying to remember
Decay Theory Passage of time allows “memory trace” to disintegrate
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Improving Memory
Promote understanding Assist organization of knowledge Teach mnemonics
Method of loci Rhymes Acronyms Keyword
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Ms. Blackwood has assigned her students 20 spelling words to learn for the week. She notices that most of her students have no problems remembering how to spell the first few and the last few words, but many struggle with those in the middle of the list.
Information Processing Theory Theory into Practice
Q: Why might students have an easier time remembering how to spell the first and last few words, but struggle with those in the middle of the list? Explain.
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
The Information-Processing Approach
Expertise
AcquiringExpertise
Expertise andLearning
Expertise andTeaching
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Experts Detect features and meaningful patterns of
information Accumulate more content knowledge;
organize around important ideas and concepts
Retrieve important aspects of knowledge with little effort
Adapt an approach to new situations Use effective learning strategies
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
The Information-Processing Approach
Metacognition
The Good Information-Processing
Model
DevelopmentalChanges
Strategies andMetacognitive
Regulation
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Metacognition
“Knowing about knowing”
Metacognitive KnowledgeMonitoring and reflecting on one’s current or
recent thoughts
Metacognitive ActivityStudents consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and
purposeful thinking
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Improving Metacognitive Skills
Improvement of metacognitive skills results from:
Developmental changes as student matures cognitively in metamemory and theories of mind.
The Good Information-Processing model that includes specific learning strategies, knowing the similarities and differences in multiple strategies, and the benefits of using them.
Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and modifying when necessary.
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Crack the CaseThe Test
1. What are the issues in this case?
2. With what type of learning is George having difficulty?
3. What type of learning is easier for George?
4. Design a study skills program for George drawing on principles of the cognitive information-processing approach.