USAID/GHANA Foreign Assistance Act 118/119 Tropical

USAID/GHANA FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS NOVEMBER 2019

DISCLAIMER This report is made possible by the support of the American People through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The Cadmus Group LLC and ICF prepared this report under USAID’s Environmental Compliance Support (ECOS) Contract, Contract Number GS00Q14OADU119, Order No. 7200AA18N00001, Contracting Officer's Representative Teresa Bernhard, Activity Specification Number AFR-010, Activity Manager Emmanuel Odotei. ECOS is implemented by ICF and its subcontractors. The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

USAID/GHANA FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS NOVEMBER 2019

Prepared by: The Cadmus Group LLC and ICF

Analysis Team: Michael Minkoff, Joshua Adotey, Yaw Atuahene Nyako, Maclean Asamani Oyeh, Mark Stoughton

Contributors: Paola Bernazzani, Taner Durusu, Jesse Gibson, Jon Hecht, Daniela Kaegi, Carmen Saab

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USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS i

ACRONYMS AfDB African Development Bank

ASGM Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

BCC Behavior Change Communications

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CCRI Community Conservation Resilience Initiative

CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

CPMR Center for Plant Medicine Research

CREMA Community Resource Management Area

CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

CSIR-FORIG Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana

CSO Civil Society Organization

DA District Assembly

DEMC District Environmental Management Committees

DO Development Objective

DRG Democracy, Rights, and Governance

EGO Economic Growth

EIAs Environmental Impact Assessments

EJF Environmental Justice Foundation

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

ETOA Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment

FAA Foreign Assistance Act

FASDEP Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy

FC Forestry Commission

FEU Fisheries Enforcement Unit

FIP Ghana Forest Investment Program

FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade

FoN Friends of the Nation

FORIG Forestry Research Institute of Ghana

FSC Forest Stewardship Council

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FTF Feed the Future

GCFRP Ghana’s Cocoa Forest REDD+ Program

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse gas

GIFT Genetically Improved Farm Tilapia

GIS Geographic Information System

GLSS6 Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6

GoG Government of Ghana

IBA Important Bird Area

IP Implementing partner

IRs Intermediate Results

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

IUU Illegal, unreported, and unregulated

LAP Lima Action Plan

MAB Man and the Biosphere Strategy

MESTI Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation

METASIP Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan

MMDA Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies

MOFA Minsitry of Food and Agriculture

MoFAD Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

NDPC National Development Planning Commission

NGO Non-governmental organization

NRM Natural Resource Management

PAs Protected Areas

PPA Protected Provenance Area

REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

SLWMP Sustainable Land and Water Management Program

SOW Scope of work

UN United Nations

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USG United States Government

VCS Verified Carbon Standard

VPA Voluntary Partnership Agreement

USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS iii

WBG World Bank Group

WD Wildlife Division

WRI Water Resources Institute

WWF World Wildlife Fund

USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................................................................. I EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................................... VIII

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................... VIII STATUS OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ............................................................................................... VIII THREATS AND DRIVERS ........................................................................................................................................................... IX EXTENT TO WHICH USAID PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTES TO ACTIONS NECESSARY ........................XIII HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA ................................................................................ XIV

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE USAID PROGRAM UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS .......................................... 1 1.3 PLANNED STRATEGIC POINTS OF EMPHASIS UNDER THE NEXT CDCS ....................................................... 3 1.4 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................................................... 4

2. COUNTRY CONTEXT AND BIOPHYSICAL SETTING ....................................................................................................... 5 2.1 COUNTRY CONTEXT .......................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 BIOPHYSICAL SETTING ........................................................................................................................................................ 7

3. GHANA’S TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ......................................................................................................... 9 3.1 MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES AND STATUS .................................................................................................................... 9 3.2 FOREST TYPE, STATUS, AND ASSOCIATED BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................ 14 3.3 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STATUS .................................................................................................................................. 16 3.4 GENETIC DIVERSITY ............................................................................................................................................................ 18 3.5 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS ........................................................................................ 19 3.6 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF KEY NATURAL RESOURCES OUTSIDE OF PROTECTED AREAS ... 21

4. VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL .................................................................................................................................. 24 4.1 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY .................................................................................................................................................. 24 4.2 ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES ........................................................................................................................... 24

5. LEGAL FRAMEWORK & INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE AFFECTING CONSERVATION/ NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................................ 29

5.1 NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES ..................................................................................................... 29 5.2 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS .................................................................................................................................... 33 5.3 GOVERNMENT OF GHANA AGENCIES ....................................................................................................................... 33 5.4 CONSERVATION INITIATIVES AND GAP ANALYSIS .............................................................................................. 35

6. THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTRY AND BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA .................................................................... 37 6.1 DIRECT THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA ................................................................................................... 37 6.2 INDIRECT THREATS (DRIVERS) TO BIODIVERSITY................................................................................................. 50

7. ACTIONS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ............ 60 8. EXTENT TO WHICH THE ACTIONS PROPOSED FOR SUPPORT BY THE AGENCY MEET THE ACTIONS NECESSARY ................................................................................................................................................................... 70

8.1 ACTION 1: STRENGTHEN NATURAL RESOURCE AND LAND USE GOVERNANCE (REGULATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND ACCOUNTABILITY) AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL ............................................................... 70 8.2 ACTION 2: PROVIDE TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ON SUSTAINABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS ............................................................................. 72 8.3 ACTION 3: PROMOTE DISTRICT AND COMMUNITY LEVEL ENGAGEMENT IN FAMILY PLANNING, LAND USE PLANNING, AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ................................................................... 73 8.4 ACTION 4: NURTURE NON-TRADITIONAL VALUE CHAINS WITH POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE OR “GREEN” GROWTH AND INCOME GENERATION ..................... 76

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8.5 ACTION 5: INCREASE INVESTMENT IN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, DETAILED ANALYSES, AND GIS/TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED SURVEILLANCE .............................. 78 8.6 ACTION 6: INCREASE ACCESSIBILITY TO AND AFFORDABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY OPTIONS TO CHARCOAL AND WOODFUEL ................................................................................................................ 79 8.7 ACTION 7: DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION OR RESTORATION ............................................... 80

9. PROGRAMMING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA UNDER THE NEW CDCS ................................ 82 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................................................................... 88 ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 97 ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK ........................................................................................................................................................ 98 ANNEX B: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON REPORT AUTHORS ....................................................................... 108 ANNEX C: SPECIES INFORMATION ......................................................................................................................................... 110 ANNEX D: RATIFIED INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS RELEVANT TO CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AND IMPROVED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................... 113 ANNEX E: KEY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERISTY IN GHANA ................................................................................................................................................ 116 ANNEX F: PROTECTED AREAS OF GHANA ......................................................................................................................... 120 ANNEX G: KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONS ......................................................... 131

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT ..................................................................................................................................................... 138 ANNEX H: CLIMATE ZONES OF GHANA.............................................................................................................................. 142

LIST OF TABLES TABLE ES. 1. MAPPING OF DRIVERS TO THREATS AND ACTIONS NECESSARY ...................................................... X TABLE ES. 2. HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ XIV

TABLE 1. USAID/GHANA 2013-2019 CDCS ................................................................................................................................ 2 TABLE 2. PREDOMINANT ETHNICITIES IN GHANA .............................................................................................................. 5 TABLE 3. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE BY AGE GROUP AND LOCATION ........................................................................... 5 TABLE 4. FOREST LOSS 2000-2015 BY SUBTYPE IN OPEN AND CLOSED FOREST COVER .................................. 14 TABLE 5. FAUANA DIVERSITY OF GHANA .............................................................................................................................. 17 TABLE 6. GENETIC DIVERSITY OF MAJOR CROPS IN GHANA ........................................................................................ 18 TABLE 7. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF PROTECTED AREAS IN GHANA ....................................................... 19 TABLE 8. PROTECTED AREA TYPES WITHIN ECOSYTEMS IN GHANA ....................................................................... 20 TABLE 9. TOTAL MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL PROTECTION IN GHANA AND AICHI TARGETS .................... 21 TABLE 10. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF ECOSYSTEMS IN GHANA .................................................................. 22 TABLE 11. KEY TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES .......................... 30 TABLE 12. KEY FORESTRY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES ...................................................................................... 30 TABLE 13. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING MARINE AND FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 TABLE 14. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING LAND TENURE, PLANNING, AND LAND USE MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................................................................... 32 TABLE 15. PRIORITIZATION OF THREATS IN GHANA BY ECOSYSTEM ..................................................................... 37 TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 60

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TABLE 17. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 1 ................. 70 TABLE 18. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 2 ................. 72 TABLE 19. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 3 ................. 73 TABLE 20. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 4 ................. 76 TABLE 21. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT OR PLANNED STRATEGY AND PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ACTION 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 78 TABLE 22. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 6 ................. 79 TABLE 23. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 7 ................. 80 TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING ...................................... 83 TABLE 25. KNOWN NUMBER OF FLORA SPECIES IN GHANA ..................................................................................... 110 TABLE 26. ENDEMIC , THREATENED, AND ENDANGERED SPECIES IN GHANA .................................................. 110 TABLE 27.IUCN RED LIST CATEGORY SUMMARY TOTALS FOR GHANA'S PLANTS AND ANIMALS.......... 110 TABLE 28. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FAUNA OF GHANA AND ASSOCIATED KEY THREATS ................... 111 TABLE 29. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FLORA OF GHANA .......................................................................................... 112 TABLE 30. CONVENTION, TREATY OR AGREEMENT BY YEAR ADOPTED AND RATIFIED ............................ 113 TABLE 31. CONSEVATION INITIATIVES IN FOREST AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES........................................... 116 TABLE 32. MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES ...................................................... 118 TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS .................................................................................................................................................. 120 TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES ..................................................................................................... 131 TABLE 35. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT OF GHANA INSTITUTIONS FOR ASPECTS RELATED TO THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ..................................... 140 TABLE 36. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST ............................................................................................................................................ 143 TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE ..................................................................................................................... 145 TABLE 38. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SAVANNA ................................................................................................................................................................................. 148 TABLE 39. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FRESHWATER RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................... 151 TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS) .............................................................................. 152

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. TOPOGRAPHY OF GHANA ........................................................................................................................................ 7 FIGURE 2. ECOREGIONS AND WATER BODIES OF GHANA ............................................................................................. 8 FIGURE 3. THE PRA RIVER NEAR ITS DELTA. THE MILKY, LIGHT BROWN COLOR IS INDICATIVE OF VERY HIGH SEDIMENT LOADING. NOW THE RIVER’S CONSTANT COLOR, THIS WAS RARELY OBSERVED A GENERATION AGO. .......................................................................................................................................................................... 12 FIGURE 4. FOREST LOSS 2000-2018 + 2014-2018 .................................................................................................................... 15 FIGURE 5. FOREST LOSS PER YEAR IN FOREST RESERVES ................................................................................................. 21 FIGURE 6. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ................................................................................................................................................. 24 FIGURE 7. POPULATION DENSITY CHANGE IN GHANA FROM 1984-2019, BY REGION ..................................... 51

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USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS vii

FIGURE 8. CROPLAND AND URBAN GROWTH IN GHANA 2000-2015 ...................................................................... 52 FIGURE 9 - CLIMATE ZONES OF GHANA (2015 DATA) .................................................................................................. 142




USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

This Ghana Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis was commissioned by USAID/Ghana to inform the development of its Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) for the period 2020-2025. Towards this end, it concludes with guiding principles and targeted recommendations for future USAID programming to best support conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity.

Sections 6 and 7 of this analysis fulfill requirements of Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961, as amended, which stipulates that actions necessary for tropical forestry and biodiversity conservation be identified and the extent to which USAID programming contributes to those actions necessary be characterized for all USAID country development strategies. The analysis also satisfies requirements for country strategy development specified by USAID’s Automated Directives System (ADS) 201 and is prepared in conformity with USAID best practice guidance.

Field work and stakeholder interviews for this analysis were conducted primarily in July 2019, in Accra, the coastal zone, and the north.

STATUS OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY

Forests and biodiversity in Ghana are in significant decline.

• Ghana’s small-pelagic marine fisheries, which are a proxy for the health of coastal ecosystems, are on the brink of collapse due to primarily to overfishing. Secondarily, widespread pollution and degradation of inshore waters and the productive seafloor, and the coastal wetlands with which they are ecologically linked exacerbates the risk of collapse.

• Savanna conditions and vegetation are moving south into former parts of the Eastern Guinean forest. Forest Reserves are in multiple cases highly compromised. This is globally significant: the Upper Guinean Forest Ecosystem, of which Ghana’s Eastern Guinean Forest is a part, is recognized as one of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots.

• Relatedly, forest cover and forest quality nationwide are decreasing, with closed forest (areas with more than 60% canopy cover) greatly reduced: Eastern Guinean forest degradation rates are at over 3% per year and deforestation rates are at approximately 1.7% per year. Stakeholders generally suggested that degradation and deforestation trends are only modestly better in Protected Areas, though recent studies suggest no difference in forest degradation rates between designated timber production areas and protected Forest Reserves and Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas.

• While data gaps make quantifying trends in terrestrial species biodiversity difficult, natural forests are by far the most terrrestially biodiverse areas in Ghana, and the ongoing, significant reduction and degradation in forest cover strongly suggest that the known long-term decline in terrestrial biodiversity continues unabated or is accelerating.

• Northern Ghana’s savanna landscapes are severely degraded, with a combination of poor land use management practices, changing climatic conditions, forest degradation, and wildfires contributing to eroding conditions.Northern Ghana’s savanna landscapes are severely degraded,

USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS ix

with a combination of poor land use management practices, changing climatic conditions, forest degradation, and wildfires contributing to eroding conditions.

THREATS AND DRIVERS

Based on stakeholder consultations, field visits, and desk research, the analysis characterizes direct threats to tropical forest and biodiversity and their drivers (i.e., root causes) (Section 6) as the means to identify actions necessary for conservation (Section 7). The table below enumerates these threats, drivers, and actions necessary and, beyond this, maps drivers to threats and to actions necessary (Annex I, Threats, Linked Drivers, and Associated Effects on the Status of Biodiversity, maps these threats and linked drivers to the status of biodiversity for each of Ghana’s ecosystems (savanna, forest-savanna transition, Eastern Guinean Forest, freshwater resources, and marine resources).

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TABLE ES. 1. MAPPING OF DRIVERS TO THREATS AND ACTIONS NECESSARY

Drivers

Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization

Disincentive to apply - or insufficient knowledge of - sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods

Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods

Road and infrastructure development

Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations

Insufficient public buy-in

Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement and (limited) land use planning

Poor sanitation and waste management systems

Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives

Thr

eats

Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities

x x x x x x x

Unsustainable agriculture and silviculture activities

x x x x x

Wildfires x x x x Sedimentation and siltation of surface waters

x x x x x

Unsustainable wood harvesting x x x x x x x x Overgrazing x x x x x Illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing x x x x x Unsustainable fishing x x x x Bushmeat hunting x x x x x Climate Change x x Pollution from mining x x x x x x Solid and liquid waste infiltrating/ overloading natural systems

x x x x

Invasive Species Coastal Erosion x Oil + gas exploration x Misuse (including overuse) of agrochemicals

x x x x

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Drivers










Act

ions

Nec

essa

ry

Action 1: Strengthen natural resource and land use governance (regulation, enforcement, and accountability) at the national level

x x x x x x x

Action 2: Provide targeted technical assistance on sustainable and best management practices for traditional livelihoods

x x x x x x

Action 3: Promote district and community level engagement in family planning, land use planning, and natural resource management

x x x x x x

Action 4: Nurture non-traditional value chains with potential for “green” growth and income generation competitive with common, illegal or unsustainable options

x x x x x x

Action 5: Increase investment in and development of education, scientific research, analyses, and technology assisted surveillance

x x x x x x

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Drivers










Action 6: Increase accessibility to and affordability of alternative energy options to charcoal and fuelwood

x

Action 7: Undertake direct environmental remediation or restoration

x x x x x

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EXTENT TO WHICH USAID PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTES TO ACTIONS NECESSARY

In conformity with FAA 118/119 requirements, the Analysis characterizes the extent to which USAID programming contributes to actions necessary (Section 8).

In summary, programming under the Mission’s current CDCS contributes significantly to multiple actions necessary, particularly—but not only—to components of Actions 2, 3 and 5. The current CDCS provides significant opportunities to address additional actions necessary and deepen contributions to others. The mission’s planned strong focus on behavioral change, geographic concentration of interventions, and cross-sectoral approaches in the next CDCS is fully consistent with these opportunities to change behavior and improve conservation outcomes. These synergies are highlighted here:

• Action 1: Strengthen natural resource and land use governance at the national level. IRs 1.2 (“Increased government accountability to better-informed citizens”) and 2.1 (“Increased competitiveness of major food chains “) provide the Mission with a pathway to strengthened programming for improved resource management (e.g., formalization of CREMA’s, improved tree tenure, adoption of silvicultural BMPs):

• Action 4: Nurture non-traditional value chains with potential for “green” growth and income generation… Within the current CDCS, there is little direct strategic emphasis on support to non-traditional value chains that could offer environmentally sustainable or ‘green growth” pathways. However, IRs 2.2 (“Improved enabling environment for private sector investment “) and 2.4 (“Increased government accountability and responsiveness”) do provide pathways for such support.

• Action 5: Increase investment in and development of education, scientific research, detailed analyses, and GIS/technology assisted surveillance. DO 2 (“Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth”) highlights the necessary role of environmental services in its core development hypothesis. DO2 and corollary elements of the Feed the Future strategy for Ghana highlight the requirement for improved fisheries management, and this has provided a platform for significant Mission programming in support of this Action with respect to fisheries. However, DO 3 (“Equitable Improvements in Health Status”) in principle provides an umbrella under which issues of environmental health and environmental justice could be addressed, including research on water quality impacts of mining and agriculture. DO1 (“Strengthened, Responsive Democratic Governance”) similarly provides an umbrella in principle under which such research and analysis in support of environmental health and environmental justice issues could be carried out, under both its IRs.

• Action 7: Undertake direct environmental remediation or restoration. DO 2 and particularly sub-IR 2.4.2 (“Improved community management of natural resources”) combined with IR1.1(improved local government performance) under DO1 provides a clear window in the CDCS for Mission programming in support of afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland restoration. In recognizing the key role of ecosystem services, the DO2 development hypothesis reinforces the basis for such programming. In practice, such programming has been limited to some work with mangrove areas in the coastal zone.

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The full extent to which analysis is provided in Section 8.

HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA

Based on the extent to which analysis and informed by the Mission’s current programming and input received from Mission staff, the Analysis team developed a set of recommendations for Mission programs and interventions. Table ES. 2, immediately below, shows selected “High Priority” recommendations organized by technical areas of focus, with highest priority actions identified for the Mission’s Economic Growth (EGO), Global Health, Democracy, Rights, and Governance (DRG) portfolio, as well as cross-sectoral actions that span each of those technical areas. The full recommendations are provided in Section 9.

TABLE ES. 2. HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

ECONOMIC GROWTH – AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY/NORTHERN ZONE

• Provide training on best management practices for sustainable/climate smart agriculture* • Promote intensification of agricultural production (rather than expansion)* • Address pesticide safety via increased education at the farmer level on pesticide safety/health hazard and

safer use) • Increase emphasis on landscape restoration and development of sustainable livelihoods assistance outside of

traditional agricultural value chains* o Cashew and mango production* o Shea production* o Strengthened environmental governance (e.g., establishment of landscape governing board at the

local and district levels working in coordination with traditional authorities) o Wildfire management (see below) o Afforestation

• Address pesticide safety by improving effectiveness of existing policies, particularly import enforcement and retail labelling regimes

• Identify and support higher-value agriculture/silvicultural products with potential for sustainable management o Technical assistance targeting best management practices and creating linkages across the value

chain o Where trade potential exists (e.g., cashew, shea) provide support to sustainable certification systems

and linkages to certifiers and international markets that will pay premiums o Engage with and support new governance structures (e.g., Shea-focused entity being developed

under Cocobod by end of 2019) to encourage competitive and sustainable market design/interaction • Heavy emphasis on / support to developing robust wildfire management systems, operating in participatory

manner at the community level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and developing consensus on approach across traditional authorities and district governance o Reduced attention on complete “no burn” practices; allow for controlled, legal burning in permitted

instances, ensuring proper controls/oversight entities are engaged o Leverage community frustration at losses incurred from uncontrolled wildfires o Identify high-value permanent crops that could be viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g.,

cocoa, cashew in forest-savanna zone)

* indicates alignment with or matching element in Global Food Security Strategy Ghana Plan

ECONOMIC GROWTH – COASTAL ZONES

• Identify—and provide support towards the realization of—sustainable alternative/supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities with potential to yield near-term economic benefit.*

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• Support rationalized management regime for wetlands o Must incorporate incentive structure that encourages adoption of effective co-management systems o Address existing inadequacy/fragmentation of existing planning and oversight bodies responsible for

wetlands management *would continue/build on SFMP and FCMCBSP under the current CDCS.

ECONOMIC GROWTH – POWER AFRICA/ ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

• Support increased grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with Government of Ghana renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPA.

GLOBAL HEALTH (FAMILY PLANNING)

• Focus family planning efforts along coast and forests and degraded landscapes; this can potentially be linked with Economic Growth Food Security initiatives both in northern Ghana and in coastal zones

DEMOCRACY, RIGHTS, AND GOVERNANCE

• Accountable Governance. Support to environmental justice, in the form of accountable management of natural resources

○ Strengthen environmental reporting (see Media, below), engage and strengthen environmental Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), create systems to reward/celebrate environmentally friendly political actors

○ Enhance systems to express grievances by community members related to environmental challenges/issues

• Media. Provide support to existing media outlets on environmental journalism, exploring linkages between inadequate enforcement of key natural resources, precipitous resource degradation, and impacts on individuals at the community level

CROSS-SECTORAL

• Land use planning and land tenure (DRG, EGO). Strengthen participatory land use and spatial planning* in combination with: targeted support to land tenure* that addresses clear land demarcation, fair, secure, enforceable, and transparent land lease arrangements; and targeted technical assistance on best management practices in sustainable agriculture/silviculture or other sustainable value chains (e.g., sustainable wood lots via acacia).

• Behavior Change Communications (BCC). Engage in a broad BCC activity for environmental sensibility and understanding (DRG and EGO, with HEALTH as noted) o Must emphasize value derived by communities from environmentally sustainable management

practices o Measures should be participatory, working across governmental and traditional authorities o Integrate elements of family planning, environmental health, natural resource management, and food

security to maximize resonance of messaging (HEALTH). o Tie BCC efforts to strengthening effective land use management and governance, motivating

community-level enforcement, and increased accountability at the DA level. • Community Resource Management Areas (CREMAs)* (DRG and EGO)

o Support and facilitate the process to gazette CREMA bye-law to give legal backing and enhance effective law enforcement at the CREMA levels

o Support policy and implementation of defined co-benefit approaches under CREMAs. o Explore the potentials of ecosystem services as a sustainability tools for community engagement

including CREMAs in natural resources management.

USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS xvi


o Support capacity building and assessment of the ground-water volume of targeted landscapes and areas.

o Support research on the cost and benefit analysis for watersheds and major water towers in targeted areas.

o Support CREMA communities and members with tools and equipment to enhance effective monitoring in the landscape.

USAID/GHANA | FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Ghana Mission (the Mission) is required by Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA), to prepare an analysis of the state of Ghanaian tropical forests and biodiversity (“the Analysis”) to inform development of the Mission’s 2019–2024 Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS).

Specifically, FAA Section 118 Tropical Forests and Section 119 Endangered Species, as amended, require that country development strategies, statements, or other country plans prepared by USAID include an analysis as follows:

The Analysis ensures compliance with these FAA 118/119 requirements and provides recommendations to inform the Mission’s 2019-2024 CDCS. The Analysis includes an evaluation of the status of Ghanaian tropical forests and biodiversity, an analysis of the legal and institutional frameworks affecting conservation, an economic valuation of ecosystems, a comprehensive appraisal of threats to biodiversity and the underlying drivers thereof, a summary of necessary actions to protect tropical forests and biodiversity, linkages to current USAID programs, and recommendations for strategic opportunities moving forward.

In developing recommendations, the Analysis team identifies key changes in the status of institutional management of conservation, use of natural resources, and biodiversity that must be considered at a programmatic level. It builds from the 2011 Ghana tropical forest and biodiversity analysis developed for USAID/Ghana’s current (2013–2019) CDCS.1

1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE USAID PROGRAM UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS

The overarching goal of the current USAID/Ghana CDCS is to support Ghana in “realizing its goal of becoming an established middle-income country by 2022.”2

Technical programming under the CDCS is implemented in pursuit of four Development Objectives (DOs), elaborated in Table 1 below. Each Mission technical office (Democracy, Rights and Governance

1 USAID/Ghana. USAID/Ghana Biodiversity and Tropical Forests Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment. May 2011. 2 USAID/Ghana. Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) 2013 – December 2019. December 2012.

FAA Section 118 (e) Country Analysis Requirements. Each country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1. The actions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests, and

2. The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

FAA Section 119 (d) Country Analysis Requirements. Each country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1. The actions necessary in that country to conserve biological diversity, and 2. The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

https://ecd.usaid.gov/faa/source/Ghana_2011.pdf

https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/CDCS_Ghana_December_2019_1.pdf


(DRG), Economic Growth, Health, and Education) has primary responsibility for implementation of one of the DOs.

TABLE 1. USAID/GHANA 2013-2019 CDCS

CURRENT CDCS DO

INTERMEDIATE RESULTS

DESCSRIPTION OF PROGRAMMING UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS

DO 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance

IR 1.1: Improved local government performance

The DO 1 development hypothesis is that if: low-capacity decentralized institutions improve their performance, better-informed citizens succeed in demanding more accountability at all levels of government, and election institutions and processes are strong enough to guarantee the fairness of Ghana’s elections, then democratic governance will be strengthened and more responsive to citizens—and that this is essential for Ghana’s transition to middle-income status.

A primary focus of programming under IR 1.2 is anti-corruption, strengthening the capacity of both Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and the National Audit Authority to hold government accountable, particularly at the DA level with respect to capital projects. IR 1.2 is also the foundation for a cross-cutting CDCS focus on increased government accountability/responsiveness across all DOs, each of which have an IR for this purpose.

DO 1 builds upon the 2011 Democracy and Governance Assessment and Ghana Gender Assessment, the Mission’s past programming, including evaluations, and broad stakeholder consultations.

IR1.2: Increased government accountability to better-informed citizens

IR 1.3: Strengthened election institutions and processes

DO2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth

IR 2.1: Increased competitiveness of major food chains

The DO 2 development hypothesis is that if agricultural productivity and nutrition practices are improved, and if environmental services are maintained, reliable electricity supply is improved, local governance of resources is ensured, and the business policy environment is enhanced, then local populations will be more food secure and play a larger role in an expanding economy. IR 2.4 has two foci: improved governance in the energy sector, and improved local community management of natural resources.

The DO2 agricultural, food security and natural resource management programming zone of intervention is 79 districts, divided between the majority in the north of the country and the coastal zone, with the focus in the latter on fisheries and coastal landscapes.

DO 2 directly supports the Government of Ghana (GoG) Shared Growth and Development Agenda, Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy, Food & Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP), Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program, the Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan METASIP), two U.S. Presidential Initiatives (Feed the Future and Global Climate Change), and the Partnership for Growth.

IR 2.2: Improved enabling environment for private sector investment

IR 2.3: Improved resiliency of vulnerable households and communities and reduced under-nutrition

IR 2.4: Increased government accountability and responsiveness

DO3: Equitable Improvements in Health Status

IR 3.1: Increased access to integrated health services

The DO 3 development hypothesis is that if Ghanaians have increased access to quality integrated health services, increased availability of community-based health resources, strengthened and responsive health systems, and improved governance and accountability in the health sector, then they will experience more

IR 3.2: Increased availability of


TABLE 1. USAID/GHANA 2013-2019 CDCS

CURRENT CDCS DO

INTERMEDIATE RESULTS

DESCSRIPTION OF PROGRAMMING UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS

community-based health resources

equitable improvements in their health status. Under these IRs, programming is implemented in the Malaria, HIV/AIDs, Family Planning, Nutrition and WASH technical areas. There is a significant government-to-government component.

In addition to GHI alignment, DO 3 also support USAID/Ghana’s nutrition programs under Feed the Future and reflect USAID/Ghana’s cross-cutting themes of gender equity, capacity building, and the need for improved governance and accountability.

IR 3.3: Strengthened and responsive health systems

IR 3.4: Improved health sector governance and accountability

DO4: Improved Reading Performance in Primary School

IR 4.1: Enhanced reading and math instruction

The DO 4 development hypothesis is that if instruction in reading and mathematics is enhanced, if it is supported through strengthened basic education management systems, and if education sector governance institutions are more accountable and transparent to citizens who can engage in school oversight, then children’s learning outcomes, specifically children’s reading performance in primary schools, will improve.

Programming is at the kindergarten to P3 level. It emphasizes education quality and supports the agency goal of improve reading skills for 100 million children in primary grades by 2015, as well as the GoG’s focus on educational quality in the Ghana Education Strategic Plan (ESP) 2010-2020. Emphasizing literacy, but including math, underscores the reciprocal benefits of mutually reinforcing skill-building of literacy and numeracy acquisition.

IR 4.2: Strengthened basic education-management systems

IR 4.3: Increased government accountability and transparency

1.3 PLANNED STRATEGIC POINTS OF EMPHASIS UNDER THE NEXT CDCS

The Mission’s new (2019–2024) CDCS is in development, and the draft results framework was not available to the Analysis team. However, the following directions/emphases were conveyed to the team and have been used to develop the recommendations presented in Section 9. The Mission expects to accomplish the following:

• Ensure a results-led—rather than intervention-driven—design by defining outcomes as specific behaviors required to achieve development goals.

• Continue programming around its current technical offices: DRG, Economic Growth, Health and Education.

• Maintain its existing geographic foci for agriculture, food security, and natural resource programming in the North (majority) and in the Western and Central coastal zone. However, to concentrate impacts, the total number of districts will be reduced from 59 to 17. The anticipated districts are: Northern Region: East Mamprusi, Gushiegu, Karaga, Mamprugu Moagduri, Mion, Sagnerigu, Nanton, Yendi; Upper East Region: Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Garu, Tempane; Upper West Region: Daffiama Bussie Issa, Nadowli-Kaleo, Sissala East, Sissala West, Wa East

• Geographically cluster, concentrate, and leverage cross-sectoral interventions to best achieve incrementally improved development outcomes


• Provide assistance in support of strengthening land tenure and increasing the accountability and capability of government at the local level.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

The Analysis consisted of three phases:

Phase 1: Pre-field work planning, desk-based research and writing, DC-based consultations, and logistical arrangements for in-country site visits and consultations.

Phase 2: In-country consultations and site visits.

Phase 3: Post-field work DC- and Ghana-based consultations; and draft and final report writing.

See Annex A for the Scope of Work and Annex B for the biographical information on report authors.

Analytical Methods used for this Assessment

1. Desk-based review of relevant scientific literature, published reports, and media accounts; 2. Stakeholder consultation with US- (predominantly Washington, DC) and Ghana-based key informants

from civil society, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), United States Government (USG), Government of Ghana (GoG), multilateral donors, and the private sector;

3. Limited in-country site visits; 4. Spatial analysis; and 5. Insight and professional best judgement from the core Analysis team.


2. COUNTRY CONTEXT AND BIOPHYSICAL SETTING

2.1 COUNTRY CONTEXT

Formerly known as the Gold Coast, Ghana gained independence from Britain in 1957, becoming the first sub-Saharan nation to emerge from colonial rule. 3 Ghana has a population of 29.6 million and a growth rate of 2.16% per year.

Ghana’s sustained strong economic growth from the early 1990s–2012 that helped reduce the country’s poverty rate from 52.6% in 1991 to 21.4% in 2012. Following a slowing in Ghana’s economy between 2013 and 2016, growth accelerated to 8% in 2017, driven by the mining and oil sectors, making it the second-fastest growing African economy, trailing only Ethiopia. However, during this recent strong, and largely steady, economic growth overall inequality has increased, with a pronounced gap in economic status of rural and urban households.4

Ghana is an ethnically diverse country with several ethnic groups (see Table 2), most of which include multiple tribes. Christianity is the largest religion in Ghana with 71.2% of Ghana’s population belonging to various Christian denominations while 17.6% identify as Muslim, and 5.2% follow an indigenous religion. Approximately 57% of Ghana’s population is under the age of 25. Increased life expectancy, due to better health care, nutrition, and hygiene and reduced fertility have

increased Ghana’s share of elderly persons; Ghana’s proportion of persons aged 60+ is among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa.5

Table 3 shows higher unemployment in younger age classes. This general trend is true irrespective of sex and locality of residence.6

TABLE 3. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE BY AGE GROUP AND LOCATION AGE (YEARS) URBAN

UNEMPLOYMENT RURAL UNEMPLOYMENT

OVERALL UNEMPLOYMENT

15-24 31.3% 20.8% 25.9% 25-44 11.9% 9.0% 10.6% 45-64 6.0% 5.9% 6.0% 65+ 9.9% 8.8% 9.2% Overall 13.4% 10.2% 11.9%

3 Central Intelligence Agency. “Ghana.” The World Factbook, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html. 4 Molini, Vasco & Paci, Pierella. Poverty Reduction in Ghana: Progress and Challenges. World Bank Group, October 2015. 5 Ibid. 6 Republic of Ghana. 2015 Labour Force Report. Ghana Statistical Service, December 2016.

TABLE 2. PREDOMINANT ETHNICITIES IN GHANA

ETHNICITY POPULATION

Akan 47.5% Mole-Dagbon

16.6%

Ewe 13.9% Ga-Dangme 7.4% Gurma 5.7% Guan 3.7% Grusi 2.5% Mande 1.1% All others 1.4%

Source: Central Intelligence Agency. “Ghana.” The World Factbook, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html.

Source: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015 Labour Force Report 2015. December 2016.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html

https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/22732/K8485.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y

http://webdeploy.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/publications/Labour_Force/LFS%20REPORT_fianl_21-3-17.pdf




Extreme poverty (i.e. subsistence on less than USD 1.90/day7) is a rural phenomenon, with about 2.2 million persons living in extreme poverty in Ghana’s rural areas, or approximately 15.6% of the Ghana’s rural population. Extreme poverty is most prevalent in rural parts of the northern savanna zone (Figure 2), which is susceptible to droughts and floods and has less access to transportation infrastructure, markets, fertile farming land, and industrial centers. Northern Ghana also has lower school enrollment, higher illiteracy, and fewer opportunities for women.8 Extreme poverty increased in these areas from 27.3% of the population in 2012–13 to 36.1% of the population in 2016–2017 and accounts for 75% of the extreme poor in Ghana; all other parts of the country have experienced at least modest declines in extreme poverty during this period. Nationwide, almost four million children live below the poverty line, and poverty reduction is not keeping pace with population growth.9 10

7 World Bank Group. “Access to electricity (% of population).” Accessed on August 27, 2019 from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=GH. 8 Republic of Ghana. 2015 Labour Force Report. Ghana Statistical Service, December 2016. 9 Gallagher, Katherine. “Ghana’s Poverty Rate and Inequality.” The Borgen Project, August 2017, retrieved from https://borgenproject.org/ghana-poverty-rate/. 10 Republic of Ghana. Poverty Trends in Ghana 2005–2017. Ghana Statistical Service, August 2018.

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=GHd


https://borgenproject.org/ghana-poverty-rate/

http://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/publications/GLSS7/Poverty%20Profile%20Report_2005%20-%202017.pdf


Since taking office in 2017, President Akuffo-Addo continues to pursue his election pledges such as building one factory per district, free secondary education, increased foreign investment, and curbing corruption.11

2.2 BIOPHYSICAL SETTING

Ghana is centered on latitude 7.95° N and longitude 1.03° W with a total land area of 238,535 square kilometers (km2).12 The country has a north-south extent of about 670 km and a maximum east-west extent of about 560 km. Ghana is bordered by Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to the east. To the south are the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. The highest elevation in Ghana, Mount Afadjato in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, rises 880 meters (m) above sea level. As illustrated by Figure 1, low plains stretch across the southern part of the country; the Southern Ashanti Uplands, stretch from the Côte d’Ivoire border in the west to the elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east; the Akwapim-Togo Mountains are located in the eastern part of the country; the Volta Basin occupies the central part of Ghana and covers about 45% of the nation’s total area; and high plains span northern and northwestern Ghana, outside the Volta Basin.13 Ghana contains extensive water resources, including Lakes Volta and Bosomtwi, as well seasonal and perennial rivers.14

Ghana has three distinct climatic zones. The South-Western system is the most humid part of the country, with mean annual rainfall between 1500 mm and 2000 mm. The Volta basin system, covering 11 “The World Bank in Ghana.” World Bank Group, Retrieved August 2019 from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/overview. 12 “Latitude and longitude of Ghana.” Latitude, retrieved July 2019 from https://latitude.to/map/gh/ghana. 13 Food and Agriculture Organization. “Ghana.” AQUASTAT Survey, 2005. 14 World Bank Group. “Ghana: Country Context.” Climate Knowledge Portal, retrieved July 2019 from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ghana.

Figure 1. Topography of Ghana Source: Comité Permanent Inter-étas de Lutte Contre la Sécharesse dal le Sahel (CILSS). West Africa: Land use and Land Cover Dynamics – The Republic of Ghana. U.S. Geological Survey EROS. 2016.

https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/overview

https://latitude.to/map/gh/ghana

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/GHA/GHA-CP_eng.pdf

https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ghana


the northern part of the country, has mean annual rainfall of about 1000 mm in the savanna area and about 1500 mm to 2000 mm in the forest area (See Annex H). The coastal basin system is the driest, with mean annual rainfall of about 900 mm. Ghana’s climate is tropical and strongly influenced by the West African monsoon. Seasonal variations in temperature in Ghana are greatest in the north, with highest temperatures in the hot, dry season (April, May, and June) at 27‐30°C; further south, temperatures are lower (June, August, September) at 22‐25°C. Mean annual temperature has increased by 1.0˚C, at an average rate of 0.21˚C per decade since 1960. The rate of increase has been higher in the northern regions of the country than in the south.15

15 World Bank Group. “Ghana: Country Context.” Climate Knowledge Portal, retrieved July 2019 from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ghana.

Figure 2. Ecoregions and Water Bodies of Ghana



3. GHANA’S TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY Current information on biodiversity in Ghana is not robust: according to Ghana’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), no major assessment of biodiversity has been carried out since the European Union funded Protected Area Development Programme (PADP) (1997-2000 and 2004-2010).16

However, as summarized in this section, landscape and ecosystem degradation is significant across the country, with observed deterioration of in marine, coastal and freshwater systems and declines in natural land cover including Ghana’s forests, dry and sub-humid savanna. This degradation necessarily has direct, adverse impacts on biodiversity. The remainder of this section provides brief discussion on species diversity and status in major ecosystems in Ghana.

As elaborated in Section 6, major threats to biodiversity include land-use conversions, habitat degradation, over-exploitation, invasive alien species, climate change, predation, wild fires and poaching. In Annex I, these major threats and linked drivers are directly mapped to their effects on the status of biodiversity for each of the ecosystems discussed in this section.

3.1 MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES AND STATUS

3.1.1 SAVANNA-GRASSLANDS AND SHRUBLANDS

Ghana has two distinct forms of savanna-grasslands: West Sudanian savanna (savanna) and Guinean forest-savanna (forest-savanna transition).17 Combined, the West Sudanian savanna and Guinea forest-savanna zones cover approximately 57% of the land area of Ghana.18 The hot, dry, and wooded West Sudanian savanna is composed mainly of large tree species and long elephant grass.19 It is separated from the Eastern Guinean forest by the Guinean forest-savanna.20 Unlike the rest of the country, the interior savanna has only one rainy season from April/May to October. Annual rainfall ranges from 800mm to 1000mm and declines from South to North.21

Information on species diversity and endemism in the savanna zone is very sparse,22 however the savanna ecoregion has clearly experienced substantial degradation in recent decades. Formerly uninterrupted savanna landscapes are now highly fragmented, and large tracts of natural habitat are broken into myriad patches of farmland, reducing habitat suitability for many types of wildlife.23 As

16 Republic of Ghana. CBD Fifth National Report – Ghana. Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation, Convention on Biological Diversity, 31 December 2015. 17 Resolve. “Ecoregions 2017.” Retrieved July 2019 from https://ecoregions2017.appspot.com/. 18 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 19 World Wildlife Fund, “Western Africa: Stretching from Nigeria to Senegal,” WWF, accessed July 2019 from https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0707. 20 Ibid. 21 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 22 Ibid. 23 “Land Use, Land Cover, and Trends in Ghana.” USGS. Accessed July 24, 2019 from https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land-cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana.

https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gh/gh-nr-05-en.pdf

https://ecoregions2017.appspot.com/

https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0707

https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land-cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana



elaborated in Section 6.1.2, unsustainable agricultural practices, including poor land use and slash-and-burn cultivation, serve as a primary driver of degradation, with about 93% of households in the rural savanna involved in agriculture.24

Changing climatic conditions (Section 6.1.4) such as increasingly frequent droughts and flooding—generally accompanied by high temperatures and intense heat—are also adversely impacting Ghana’s savanna zone, 25, 26 leading to soil erosion and fertility loss, sedimentation and siltation of surface waters, and reduced agricultural productivity—which often leads to uptake of additional resource extraction (e.g., charcoal production) and agricultural extensification.

Further, wildfires (Section 6.1.1) are prevalent and highly problematic throughout the savanna zone, driven by hunting, agricultural, and cultural practices,27 and insufficiently resourced and implemented fire management regimes.28

3.1.2 TROPICAL FORESTS

Tropical forest in Ghana covers 10.2% of the total land area, approximately 2.46 million hectares (ha), mainly confined to the southern-western and middle sectors of the country.29 The Upper Guinean Forest Ecosystem, of which Ghana’s Eastern Guinean forest is a part, is recognized as one of 34 global biodiversity hotspots. Despite the high concentration of biodiversity in this area, the region has lost about 80% of the original forest cover, and its remnants are continually threatened with destruction and degradation.30 The Guinean forest-savanna transition zone (see Figure 2 above), is a previously densely forested area within Ghana transitioning into savanna due to population growth, internal migration, urbanization, agricultural and silvicultural expansion, and mining activities (both legal and illegal), among other anthropogenic pressures. Most of the remaining primary forest in that area only exists in statutory Forest Reserves, with small patches of traditionally protected forest occurring as sacred groves outside the reserves and representing less than 2% of the total forest area.

Ghana’s forest resources include primary and secondary forest and both natural forests and plantations. Primary forests are composed of native tree species, with minimal human disturbance and where ecological processes are not significantly affected. Secondary forests may be defined as the “woody successional vegetation that regenerates after the forest cover has been removed by human intervention.”31 Within the Eastern Guinean forest, 1.76 million ha, or 21%, are permanently protected, with neither occupancy nor agriculture permitted within reserves.32 (As discussed in Section 6, de jure

24 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6): Main Report. Ghana Statistical Service, August 2014. 25 World Bank Group. 3rd Ghana Economic Update: Agriculture as an Engine of Growth and Jobs Creation, February 2018. 26 UNEP/UNDP. CC Dare: National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. November 2012. 27 In-country consultations with governmental, non-governmental, and private sector stakeholders. 28 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 29 Republic of Ghana. CBD Fifth National Report – Ghana. Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation, Convention on Biological Diversity, 31 December 2015. 30 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 31 Blay, Dominic. ”Tropical Secondary Forest Management in Humid Africa: Reality and Perspectives.” FAO, Workshop on Tropical Secondary Forest Management in Africa, December 2002. 32 Agyarko, Tabi. FOSA Country Report – Ghana. Forestry Outlook Study for Africa (FOSA), Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000.

http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/gssmain/fileUpload/Living%20conditions/GLSS6_Main%20Report.pdf

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/113921519661644757/pdf/123707-REVISED-Ghana-Economic-Update-3-13-18-web.pdf

https://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/downloads/ghana_national_climate_change_adaptation_strategy_nccas.pdf

https://www.fcghana.org/userfiles/files/Plantation%20Annual%20Report/Ghana%20Forest%20Plantation%20Strategy_24_01_16%20(2).pdf


http://www.fao.org/3/j0628e/J0628E12.htm

http://www.fao.org/3/ab567e/AB567E00.htm


protections and de facto conditions are often different.) Current forest coverage stands at 8.1 million ha in the Eastern Guinean forest.33 Outside of permanent reserves, forestland is extremely fragmented in Ghana.

Recent initiatives, such as the Forest Plantation Strategy (2016–2040) attempt to restore degraded land and create employment. Agroforestry is a highly important sub-sector in Ghana, and forest plantations are increasingly prevalent, especially for cash crops like cocoa and oil palm. A key component of Ghana’s Forest Plantation Strategy entails introducing Forest Plantations into heavily degraded forest areas, including on-reserve where applicable. While this won’t fully resolve loss or harm to biodiversity, it is part of Ghana’s strategy to improve forest connectivity and reduce loss of forest and canopy cover.

Between 1900 and 1990, Ghana lost 80% of its forest cover (from 8 million ha to 1.6 million ha), impacted by a combination of wildfires, excessive extraction of timber, and human encroachment for agricultural purposes.34 Reports indicate that more than 80% of agricultural expansions in Ghana between 1980 and 2000 resulted in deforestation or forest degradation.35 Approximately 11 million Ghanaians live in forest areas, and two-thirds of the population is supported by forest-related activities.36 In terms of forest coverage, there was a net gain in Ghana from 1990 to 2015, though that figure includes forest plantations; no nationwide inventories that could disaggregate primary, secondary, and plantation forest cover have been completed since 2001. However, in that same time period, the area of dense forest coverage (where forest canopy is greater than 60%) degraded by 9,816 km2, whereas the area of open forest cover (where the forest canopy is between 15% and 60%) expanded over the same period by nearly 15,000 km2. This indicates that while overall forest cover may have increased in Ghana over this time period, the forest area with dense canopy was degraded at a rate of about 460 km2 per year since 1990, and degradation rates have been sited at approximately 3.6% per year.37

3.1.3 FRESHWATER RESOURCES

Ghana’s inland aquatic resources include rivers, floodplains, reservoirs, lakes, and wetlands.38 Lake Volta, artificially created following the construction of the Akosombo Dam between 1961 and 1965, is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, covering 8,502 km2 and providing a major fishing ground and source of irrigation water for farms in the Accra plains below the dam site.39 Lake Bosomtwi, now a biosphere reserve, is the only natural lake system in Ghana. It covers approximately 50 km2 and has 11 fish species from nine genera and five families. Ghana’s river systems include the Black and the White Volta (and tributaries), River Oti, Afram, Volta, Tano, Ankobra, Pra, Densu, and Ayens,40 and Ghana’s six major river basins are Densu, White Volta, Ankobra, Pra, Tano, and Black Volta. The Volta River has

33 Ibid. 34 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 38 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 39 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 40 Anderson, Kwesi. “Ghana – Freshwater Ecosystem.” Convention on Biological Diversity, 14 August 2010, retrieved from http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/freshwater-ecosystem.

https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gh/gh-nbsap-v2-en.pdf

http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/freshwater-ecosystem


the largest catchment area, representing nearly 70% of Ghana’s total catchment. All of Ghana’s rivers drain to the Gulf of Guinea.

Increases in silt load resulting from changes in land use, such as agriculture or urbanization, or water use alter the natural evolutionary processes of river and stream ecosystems. In doing so, they cause several problems, such as the sedimentation and siltation of water resources, which lead to reductions in flow resulting in the progressive restriction of water bodies to smaller beds within the original channel.41 Additionally, Ghana’s gold rush has harmed water resources. Aside from harmful impacts of mercury contamination from mercury amalgamation and poor or nonexistent clean-up in illegal mining (galamsey) activities, mining is usually accompanied by deforestation and removal of fertile topsoil, adding to sediment loads and otherwise adversely affecting riparian communities and water bodies.42 Consequently, species richness in Ghana’s freshwater ecosystems is declining, especially among those species most sensitive to pollution.43 The construction of the Bui hydroelectric dam in 2009 led to the habitat loss of the White-collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquagus torquatus).44

Figure 3. The Pra River near its delta. The milky, light brown color is indicative of very high sediment loading. Now the river’s constant color, this was rarely observed a generation ago.

3.1.4 MARINE RESOURCES, INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS

Ghana’s marine ecosystems are ecologically and economically significant. Ghana’s entire 500-km coastline lies along the Gulf of Guinea and is lined with approximately 90 lagoons and other coastal wetlands, several estuaries, and rocky shore habitats which exhibit a distinct array of biodiversity. The varied habitats of the coast boast about 347 fish species.45 Production from marine fisheries in Ghana has been declining since 1999, from almost 420,000 tons to 202,000 tons in 2014.46 The coastal wetlands include five Ramsar sites: Keta Lagoon Complex, Songhor, Sakumo, Muni lagoons, and the Densu

41 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 42 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 43 “Ghana – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh. 44 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 45 Anderson, Kwesi. “Ghana—Marine Ecosystem.” Convention on Biological Diversity, 14 August 2010. Retrieved from http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/marine-ecosystem. 46 Food and Agriculture Organization. “The Republic of Ghana.” Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles; accessed July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en.

PHOTO: M STOUGHTON/CADMUS.


https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2534429


https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh

http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/marine-ecosystem

http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en


Delta.47 With partial exceptions for some of these Ramsar sites, Ghana’s coastal wetlands are generally significantly to severely degraded, with conditions progressively worsening.

Similarly, information on faunal, microbial, and floral diversity is generally sparse outside of Ramsar sites.48 Coastal wetlands suffer from organic pollution due to domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes, which results in increased organic loading of coastal waters and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) leading to inadequate oxygen supplies to support plant and animal life.49 These nutrients contribute to eutrophication of the sea, including algal blooms that result in high levels of dead organic matter that consumes oxygen as it decays, leading to hypoxic conditions which can be lethal to aquatic organisms. The erosion of coastal areas, driven heavily by sand mining for construction, can destroy life in the inter-tidal area and disturb it in near-shore coastal waters. Extensive coastal erosion can be detrimental for artisanal fisherman and may also result in the long-term degradation of vital fish spawning sites.50 The relatively high population density and concentration of industries in the coastal zone together with poor sanitation, have worsened environmental pressures and pollution both in coastal and marine zones with waters near metro areas heavily contaminated with sewage, and seafloor in some areas covered with plastics—severely impacting viability of breeding.51 This environmental degradation, adds to the impact of unsustainable artisanal fishing (Section 6.1.2) and illegal fishing (Section 6.1.2) (particularly commercial trawling) operations that have brought Ghana’s small pelagic (e.g., sardinella, anchovies, and mackerel) to the brink of collapse. See 6.1.3 for more information.

Ghana is also a hotspot for “aquatic bushmeat” (large marine species like dolphins, manatees, sea turtles and birds killed by direct hunting) as a result of decreasing fishery stocks and demand for human consumption.52 In Ghana, as well as Nigeria and Senegal, sources indicate an existing, albeit poorly documented, practice of using aquatic mammals and turtles for shark and cephalopod bait. Utilized bait tend to be small cetaceans, although manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) are known to have been targeted in Ghana.53 Along with the growing demand for aquatic bushmeat, the main threats to marine and freshwater species are overfishing, fishing bycatch, and habitat degradation. Many non-fish marine species are threatened by the fishing industry due to bycatch or incidental capture.54 For example, turtles are accidentally captured by gillnets, trawlers, and other fishing gear; seabirds are killed by collisions or drown after being hooked by longlines, and dolphins are susceptible to entanglement. The West African sawfish (mentioned above) is particularly threatened by entanglement due to their distinctive ‘tooth’ that extends far in front of its body.55

The Gulf of Guinea’s flora and fauna are limited relative to the neighboring West African Marine Ecoregion due to low salinity, high turbidity, and an ancient climate regression to cooler waters that has

47 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 48 Ibid. 49 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 50 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 51 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 52 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 53 Mintzer, VJ; Diniz, K; & Frazer, TK. “The Use of Aquatic Mammals for Bait in Global Fisheries.” Frontiers in Marine Science, June 2018. 54 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 55 Ibid.


https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/new-ndpc-static1/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2018/08/23/Medium-term+Policy+Framework-Final+June+2018.pdf

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made conditions less favorable to marine species. However, the Gulf of Guinea does support some important marine fisheries near Ghana where the coastal upwelling creates more favorable conditions, and cold-water reefs were discovered in 2017 off Ghana’s coast.56 While the Ghanaian coastal environment is devoid of any living coral reefs, the entire continental shelf is traversed by a belt of dead stony coral at a depth of 75m.57

3.2 FOREST TYPE, STATUS, AND ASSOCIATED BIODIVERSITY

3.2.1 EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST

Ghana contains moist and dry semi-deciduous forest, and wet, moist, and upland evergreen forest, as part of the Eastern Guinean tropical forest, which, together with the Western Guinean Lowland Forest (outside of Ghana), compose the Upper Guinean Forests Subregion.58 Ghana’s Eastern Guinean forests fall in the southwestern part of the country. The Guinean Forests are as one of 35 global “hotspots” for exceptionally high biodiversity combined with extreme deforestation make this hotspot one of the top global priorities for conservation.59 However, the Eastern Guinean portion of this hotspot supports fewer distinctive flora and fauna and has fewer endemic species than its neighboring Western Guinean Lowland Forest.60 Out of 3,725 higher plants known to be in Ghana, about 2,300 are found in the Eastern Guinean forest, including 730 tree species, and similarly, approximately 185 mammals of Ghana and about 200 of the over 700 resident birds in Ghana are present in the Eastern Guinean forest.61

TABLE 4. FOREST LOSS 2000-2015 BY SUBTYPE IN OPEN AND CLOSED FOREST COVER Closed Forest Deforestation Open Forest Deforestation

Forest subtype Annual Area

Lost Total Annual Area

Lost Total Wet Evergreen 10,810 162,150 11,022 165,330

Moist Evergreen 14,162 212,430 36,544 548,160

Moist Semi-Deciduous (SE + NW) 19,391 290,865 45,166 677,490

Upland Evergreen 687 10,305 586 8,790

Dry Semi-deciduous 1,657 24,855 34,788 521,820

Total 46,707 700,605 128,106 1,921,590 Source: Ghana’s National Forest Reference Level. National REDD+ Secretariat, Forestry Commission. January 2017. Accessed August 27, 2019: https://redd.unfccc.int/files/ghana_national_reference__level_01.01_2017_for_unfccc-yaw_kwakye.pdf

56 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 57 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 58 Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Ecosystem Profile: Guinean Forests of West Africa Biodiversity Hotspot. CEPF, December 31, 2015. 59USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 60 Ibid. 61 Republic of Ghana. Forestry Development Master Plan 2016-2040. Ministry of Lands & Natural Resources, September 2016.

https://redd.unfccc.int/files/ghana_national_reference__level_01.01_2017_for_unfccc-yaw_kwakye.pdf

https://redd.unfccc.int/files/ghana_national_reference__level_01.01_2017_for_unfccc-yaw_kwakye.pdf

https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/gfwa-ecosystem-profile-summary-2015-english.pdf


https://www.fcghana.org/userfiles/files/MLNR/FDMP%20Final%20(2).pdf


Due to extreme and extensive habitat fragmentation and degradation, the Guinean Forests are among the most severely threatened in the world and one of the most fragmented ecosystems on the planet.62 While in 1900, these forested areas were estimated to range between 8 and 9 million ha (approximately 34 to 38% of Ghana’s total land area), this was halved to 4.4 million ha (about 18% of Ghana’s land area) by 1946.63 Today, only 11% of the total land surface area of Ghana remains forested, and it is protected through the establishment of over 290 Forest Reserves that are spread throughout the country.64 Figure 4 below, shows—against a backdrop of Ghana’s forest density in 2000—the trends in forest loss both from 2000 to 2018 and then between the nearer term period of 2014 to 2018. Notably, these figures show substantial forest loss over both time frames in Forest Reserves, particularly in proximity to urban areas such as Kumasi and Sunyani.

Figure 4. Forest Loss 2000-2018 + 2014-2018

62 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 63 The REDD Desk. “Ghana.” Retrieved August 2019 from https://theredddesk.org/countries/ghana. 64 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

https://theredddesk.org/countries/ghana



3.2.2 MANGROVE FORESTS

Based on satellite data, Ghana had an estimated 76 km2 of mangroves in 2012, compared to 181 km2 in 1980,65,66,67 meaning that mangrove deforestation rates have exceeded that of the country as a whole. The most extensive mangrove areas are along the western coast, which includes the Greater Amanzule Wetland Complex and include both freshwater swamps and brackish swamps and lagoons. There is a secondary mangrove region along the lower Volta River and its delta. Mangrove loss principally represents unsustainable harvesting (mangrove is the preferred wood for fish smoking) and degradation and conversion of the wetlands themselves (see 3.1.4 and 6.1 and 6.2). Dominant mangrove species include red mangrove (Rhizophora), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), Conocarpus erectus, Laguncularia racemose, and Acrostichum aureum.68

While Ghana’s mangrove areal extent is very limited, mangrove loss is particularly concerning from a biodiversity perspective, as mangrove forests provide habitat and spawning grounds for many fish and shellfish, including key fisheries species. Additionally, mangroves provide coastal and flood protection that preserve coastal habitat. Via the food chain and as a direct spawning ground, they are directly linked to Ghana’s important coastal fisheries.

In Ghana, mangroves are not considered as forests under the law, and there are thus no gazetted mangrove reserves. They are rather subject to the legal regime protecting wetlands. As noted in 3.6 and 5.1.3, this offers a very low level of effective protection.

There are examples of successful, community-based mangrove protection and restoration efforts, particularly within the Greater Amanzule Wetland Complex. Education as to the value of the mangroves in combination with technical support to restoration and alternative/supplemental livelihoods were all consistently cited by stakeholders as essential to the success of such efforts.

3.3 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STATUS

Ghana’s Eastern Guinean forest is home to a diverse array of terrestrial species; the canopy stratification and micro-climatic differentiation in the Eastern Guinean forest provide numerous habitats and niches that support the highest levels of faunal diversity in the country (83% of the total number of recorded species).69 The wet evergreen forest harbors the highest levels of endemism and species richness. This region contains the most notable biological hotspots in the country: the Ankasa and Nimi-Suhien conservation areas.70 Table 5 below provides an overview of species diversity in Ghana’s fauna Table 28

65 2015 USAID FCMC Project. Mangrove Reserves in Five West African Countries. Citing Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011a). “Global distribution of mangroves forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” In Supplement to: Giri et al. (2011b). Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/21. 66 LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011b). “Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 20: 154-159. 67 Corcoran, Emily; Ravilious, Corinna; & Skuja, Mike. Mangroves of Western and Central Africa. UNEP-Regional Seas Programme/UNEP-WCMC, June 2007. 68 “Mangrove description – Ghana” retrieved from http://www.fao.org/forestry/mangrove/vegetation/en/gha/, citing Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp. 69 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 70 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/Mangrove_Reserves_Brief.pdf

http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/7768/-Mangroves%20of%20West%20Africa-20073922.pdf?sequence=3

http://www.fao.org/forestry/mangrove/vegetation/en/gha/


and Table 29, in Annex C, provides an overview of Ghana’s critically endangered animal and plant species.

TABLE 5. FAUANA DIVERSITY OF GHANA

Taxonomy Number

of Species

Number Threatened*

Number Endemic Selected Threatened Species (Latin name; status*)

Mammals 272 23 1

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes; EN), African Elephant (Loxodanta africana; VU), African Golden Cat (Caracal aurata; VU), Lion (Pantera leo; VU), Leopard (Pantera

pardus; VU), Black-bellied Pangolin (Phatagius tetradactyla; VU), Giant Eland (Tragelaphus debianus; VU), White-

thighed Colobus (Colobus vellerosus; VU), Lowe’s Monkey (Cercopithecus lowei; VU)

Reptiles 60 8 0

Slender-snouted Crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus; CR), Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetrapsis; VU), Green Turtle

(Chelonia mydas; EN), Olive Ridley (Lepdochelys olivacea; VU), Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea; VU)

Amphibians 86 7 5 Togo Slippery Frog (Conraua derooi; CR), Ringed River Frog (Phrynobatrachus annulatus, VU); Ukami Reed Frog (

Birds 741 23 0 White-Backed Vulture (Gyps africanus; CR), the White-

Headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis; CR), and the Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus; CR)

Fish 1001 59 0

Atlanti Horse Macherel (Trachurus; VU), Bigeye Tuna (Thunnus obesus; VU), Madeiran Sardinella (Sardinella maderensisl; VU), Red Belly Tilapia (Tilapia busumana;

VU) * Refers to Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU), as per IUCN Redlist classification. Source: IUCN Redlist 2019. Accessed August 27, 2019 from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/

Three frog species, one lizard species and 23 species of butterflies (out of a recorded 925) are endemic to Ghana.71

Notwithstanding, data on faunal, microbial, and floral diversity remain relatively sparse in Ghana outside from the six Ramsar sites—Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary, Muni Pomadze, Densu Delta, Sakumo, Songor, and Keta Lagoon Complex—where there is significant knowledge.72 For examples, the Convention on Biological Diversity country profile for Ghana notes there are 392 marine species recorded from 347 fish species;73 however the IUCN Redlist suggests a much greater number of fish species (per Table 29). The Department of Oceanography and Fisheries of the University of Ghana has reported indications of extremely high biodiversity of the benthos of the shallow waters of the continental shelf in recent studies. Approximately 60% of the soft bottom benthic macrofauna encountered are believed to be “new and unrecorded.”74 However, there is virtually no information on meiofauna (worms, oligochaetes,

71 “Ghana – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh. 72 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 73 “Ghana – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh. 74 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/search




and crustaceans) or microfauna (ciliates, amoebas, and foraminefera) in benthic waters.75 In 2015, deep water coral reefs were reported in the Ghanaian coastal environment.76 Ghana possesses 157 species of freshwater fauna representing 28 families and 73 genera, of which nine are endemic. Species richness is declining, especially among those species most sensitive to pollution. Approximately 121 species of fish have been recorded from the Volta system, which drains more than two-thirds of the country.77 Ghana’s total plant species richness is at 5,429, out of which 5,217 are Angiosperms (1,257 monocots and 3,950 dicots). There are also 46 recorded species of Bryophytes (35 mosses and 11 liverworts) and 12 species of Lycophytes (club and spike mosses).78 There are also seven species of Gymnosperms, one of which (Encephalortos barteri) is indigenous to Ghana.79

3.4 GENETIC DIVERSITY

Ghana possesses numerous ecologically and economically important species. There are several important varieties of fruits, vegetables, cereals, roots, tubers, and legumes cultivated in Ghana.80 Among these crops is significant genetic diversity (see Table 6).81The principal factors contributing to genetic loss in Ghana are the replacement of local varieties, land clearing, pests/weeds/diseases, population pressure, and changing agricultural systems. To combat this loss, Ghana practices both in situ (maintenance, protection, and management of a variety of life in their original habitats) and ex situ conservation (collection and maintenance of whole or parts of individuals of some species or their population in facilities away from their original habitats such as protected areas (PAs), gene banks, and zoological/botanical gardens). Sites for in situ conservation are both in wild and farmed areas, and they contain most of Ghana’s forest and wildlife resources. Maintaining the biodiversity of agricultural crops’ wild relatives is important as they serve as reservoirs of traits and characteristics useful for improving crop varieties, and they are best conserved in their natural habitats to allow evolution and adaptive changes.

75 Ibid. 76 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid. 80 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 81 Ibid.

TABLE 6. GENETIC DIVERSITY OF MAJOR CROPS IN GHANA

CROP TYPE VARIETIES COLLECTED AND CONSERVED

VARIETIES BRED AND RELEASED TO FARMERS

Sweet potato 20 12 Cocoyam 39 3 Cassava 201 18 Yams* 121 3 Legumes** 1513*** 33**** * Includes species such as a D rotundadta Pair (white Guinean yam) and D. alata L. (water, winged, or greater yam) ** Includes: soybeans, cowpea, and groundnuts *** Comprised of 11 species **** 11 improved varieties of cowpeas, 20 of groundnut, and 2 of soybean Source: Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Arusha, TAWIRI, December 2018.


This is to ensure the availability of useful genetic source material of prime economic timber species for both natural regeneration and artificial manipulation.

Given the high concentration of tree plantations in Ghana, these provenance areas are important for protecting local populations from genetic infiltration of improved varieties. Similarly, in Ghana as in many other sub-Saharan African nations, the Nile Tilapia (Oreochromic niloticus) is the main aquaculture species, and native strains are widely considered inferior to the Genetically Improved Farm Tilapia (GIFT) strain and its relatives, such as the Ghanaian Akosombo variety. Local genetic diversity of Nile Tilapia, common throughout the Black Volta, White Volta, and Oti Rivers are at risk from GIFT varieties that have escaped from farms into the wild, especially considering the interconnectedness among rivers in the Volta Basin. This could mean that “pure” populations of O. niloticus in Ghana could become difficult or impossible to find in the wild in the foreseeable future.82

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Plant Genetic Resources Research Institute (CSIR-PGGRI), established in 1964, has a total of 4,412 accessions between two types of ex situ collections: orthodox seeds from cereals, vegetables, cucurbits, and legumes under cold storage holding 3,240 accession and 876 under field conditions.83. At CSIR-PGRRI, 259 accessions of root and tuber crops are under in vitro conservation.

3.5 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS

As shown in Table 7, Ghana has established 312 legal PAs, notably Forest Reserves, Wildlife PAs, and Ramsar sites. Currently, there are 294 gazetted Forest Reserves of which 201 are in the Eastern Guinean Forests and 102 are in the forest-savanna transition zone or savanna (see Table 8, below).84 Thirty (30) of these Forest Reserves are designated as Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas (GSBAs), covering an area of 2,001 km2.85

The current approach for maintaining the integrity of the Forest Reserves are boundary (internal and external) cleaning and patrolling, destruction of illegal farms, control of illegal harvesting of plantation and natural forest timber, prevention of illegal mining and sand mining, and illegal chain sawing, etc., with active involvement of the communities and Rapid Response Teams constituted by Forestry Commission (FC). The 30 GBSAs have been further demarcated, each with an established integrated resource

82 Anane-Taabeah, Gifty. “Characterization of the Molecular Genetic Variation in Wild and Farmed Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in Ghana for Conservation and Aquaculture Development.” Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg VA, September 18, 2018. 83 K Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 84 World Database of Protected Areas. Protected Area Profile for Ghana. Retrieved August 2019 from www.protectedplanet.net. 85 Food and Agriculture Organization. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources: Country Report: Ghana. Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, April 2012.

TABLE 7. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF PROTECTED AREAS IN GHANA

CATEGORY NUMBER AREA (KM2)

TOTAL AREA (% OF GHANA)

Forest Reserves 294 23713.85 9.9% Game Production Reserves 5 723.69 0.3%

National Parks 7 10431.79 4.3% Ramsar Sites 6 716.25 0.3% Total Terrestrial 312 35,585.59 14.8% Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/87410/Anane-Taabeah_G_D_2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y


http://www.protectedplanet.net/

http://www.fao.org/3/i3825e/i3825e29.pdf



management plan to support the conservation of forest genetic resources. Additionally 42 compartments throughout 26 Forest Reserves have been identified, demarcated, and pillared as Protected Provenance Areas (PPAs), designated for protection of economically threatened species from exploitation. 86 In total, about 4.4% of Forest Reserves are wholly dedicated to genetic resource conservation and ecosystem stabilization, and protected species include African Teak (Mlilicia excelsa), Chrysophyllum subdunum, and several others have been specifically targeted for protection.87 There are 21 legally constituted wildlife PAs under the management of the FC Wildlife Division (WD). Generally, wildlife PAs provide relatively better protection for tropical forests and biodiversity than other forms of protection in Ghana.

TABLE 8. PROTECTED AREA TYPES WITHIN ECOSYTEMS IN GHANA

ECOSYSTEM FOREST RESERVES

GAME PRODUCTION

RESERVE NATIONAL PARK RAMSAR

SITE

Guinean Forest 201 3 4 1

Forest-Savanna Transition 32 2 2 5

Savanna 70 1 2 0

Total 294 5 7 6

Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

*Protected areas that fall within more than one ecoregion are counted again

Despite the extent of protection, as illustrated in Figure 5 below, forest degradation is substantial within Forest Reserves; over the period of 2001 to 2018, Ghana’s Forest Reserves experienced 2.28 million ha of forest loss, an average of nearly 130,000 ha per year. Alarmingly, 52% of that loss occurred between 2014 and 2018, illustrating the acceleration of on-reserve forest degradation and loss. Recent research illustrates that these trends are present across all classes of forest management in Ghana. Analysis of satellite data on land use/land cover from 1990 to 2014 show equal forest degradation rates in PAs and GSBAs as in designated timber production areas.88 Further, numerous GSBAs – including Afao Hills Forest Reserve, the Atewa Range, and Cape Three Points, are heavily threatened by human activity—particularly mining for gold and other valuable minerals (e.g., bauxite, diamonds, iron ore).89

86 Food and Agriculture Organization. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources: Country Report: Ghana. Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, April 2012. 87 Ibid. 88 Ankomah, Frank; Kyereh, Boateng; Asante, Winston; & Ansong, Michael. “Patterns of forest cover change and their association with forest management regimes of forest reserves in the high forest zone of Ghana.” Journal of Land Use Science, 2019, DOI: 10.1080/1747423X.2019.1665116 89 Food and Agriculture Organization. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources: Country Report: Ghana. Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, April 2012.




Figure 5. Forest Loss per Year in Forest Reserves

Statutorily, five coastal wetlands and one inland wetland were designated as Ramsar sites in 1992 and backed by the 1999 Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulations. The sites are of global importance due to mangroves, resident and migrant water birds and turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea, Chelonia mydas and Dermochelys coriacea).90 Over the years, the total area of each site has been maintained although there is evidence of extensive degradation and changes in the habitat composition. Of these, urban wetlands such as the Densu Delta (2,460 ha) and Sakumo Ramsar (1,400 ha) sites are seriously threatened by rapid urbanization and industrial expansion. For example, 30 % of original catchment area of the Densu delta Ramsar site has been converted to settlement.91 Shrub and herbaceous grass cover has increased (approximately 6 %) in all wetlands but declined in Sakumo and Densu. The Keta Lagoon Complex (101,022 ha), Songhor Ramsar site (51,133 ha) and Muni-Pomadze Ramsar site (9600 ha) each have a site manager and small staff under the FC WD, but settlement areas within each are under municipal and/or district authorities,92 and local governance is often most effective in addressing infractions, illegal exploitation of resources, and development.

TABLE 9. TOTAL MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL PROTECTION IN GHANA AND AICHI TARGETS

CATEGORY NUMBER AREA (KM2) TOTAL AREA (% OF EEZ / % OF TZ)

2020 ACHI TARGET

Marine Areas 0 0 0 10% Terrestrial Areas 312 35,586 14.8% 17% Total 312 35,586 14.8% -- Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

3.6 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF KEY NATURAL RESOURCES OUTSIDE OF PROTECTED AREAS

Within Ghana, the management of natural resources outside PAs faces numerous challenges including the absence of comprehensive land use and management plans and poor land tenure arrangements

90 Clearing House mechanism of Ghana. “Ramsar Sites.” Convention on Biological Diversity, 2019. 91 Republic of Ghana. Ghana: State of the Environment Report 2016. Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana, December 2017. 92 In the case of the Muni-Pomadze site, a significant portion of the site is within the University of Education campus; the University is a key actor in overall management of the site.

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(Section 6.2.7), inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations (Section 6.2.5), and high population growth and urban expansion (Section 6.2.1). As elaborated in Sections 6.1.1 and 6.1.2, direct threats driven by the above factors include unsustainable harvesting of domestic wood and timber for domestic (primarily charcoal, wood fuel, and construction) and international markets, unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural practices, wildfires, illegal and poorly managed small-scale mining operations, sedimentation and siltation of surface water bodies.93

Ghana has made progress in enhancing local community involvement in the management of the forest and savanna woodland resources. There are currently 32 Community Resource Management Associations (CREMAs) in 26 districts spanning seven of Ghana’s regions. CREMAs seek to integrate natural resources management into the traditional livelihood strategies for communities located in ecologically important areas that fall outside of forest reserves and PAs. As such, some CREMAs operate at the fringes of PAs, serving as buffer zones, while others seek to offer improved protection along identified wildlife corridors. The Ghana Wildlife Society (GWS), in collaboration with BirdLife International, have currently identified 36 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) covering about 11,494 km2 (about 4.8% of the total land area of Ghana); these IBAs serve to support protection of habitat for nationally and globally important birds.

Notwithstanding, the perception that areas outside PAs are agricultural lands influences off-reserve land use and management. Both small- and large-scale farming practices significantly affect biodiversity in off-reserve areas. For example, the widespread adoption of high-yielding cocoa varieties that favor low shade/high sun exposure resulted in the removal of many shade tree species from off-reserve forest areas where cocoa is commonly grown. It is projected that approximately 4 million ha of off-reserve land areas across the Eastern Guinean forest, forest-savanna transition, and savanna zones will be targeted for either trees-on-farms, farm boundary planting, or climate smart agriculture by 2040, and about 2.68 million ha of fallow and shrub-land area could be sourced for forest plantation development.94

Finally, traditional religious and cultural belief systems include maintenance of Sacred Groves, small sacred areas with perceived links to deities or ancestral sprits, which continue to serve as vehicles for conservation at the local level within communities. There are roughly 2,000 to 3,200 sacred groves in

93 Republic of Ghana. Forestry Development Master Plan 2016-2040. Ministry of Lands & Natural Resources, September 2016. 94 Ibid.

TABLE 10. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF ECOSYSTEMS IN GHANA

ECOSYSTEM UNPROTECTED AREA (KM2)

UNPROTECTED (% OF ECOREGION)

TOTAL AREA (KM2)

TOTAL AREA (% OF GHANA)

Guinean Forest 63,795 80.1 79,693 33.2

Forest-Savanna Transition

63,491 88.9 71,426 29.72

Savanna 79,130 88.7 89,211 37.12

Total 206,415 85.7 240,330 100

Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net




Ghana. Their religious and cultural significance helps ensure that forest surroundings, watercourses, and other environmentally sensitive areas are demarcated and protected as shrines. The groves also serve important sociocultural and ecological functions by preserving virgin forests, serving as refuges for rare and useful local biodiversity, and providing sources of herbs for medicinal, social, and religious purposes.95 Sacred groves may range in size from a few stones or single trees to hundreds of hectares of forest. In Ghana, they are referred to variously as ‘nanamon mpow’ (ancestral groves), “abosompow/asoyeso” (shrine), “mpanyinpow” (ancestral forest), and “nsamanpow” (burial grounds) by the Akans.96

Along coastal areas, although the five Ramsar wetlands referenced in Section 3.5 are partial exceptions, the remainder of Ghana’s coastal wetlands are generally unmanaged and greatly threatened. General wetland management has not been fully integrated into the national land-use planning systems. Consultations indicated that there are insufficient technical and financial resources to enable active management of wetland areas that fall outside of PAs. The prevalent belief that wetlands are wastelands, rather than areas of great ecological importance, reduces motivation to implement or promote organized development, conservation, or management mechanisms to ensure their long-term viability. Most lagoons and estuaries experience heavy pollution from ineffectively or improperly managed domestic and industrial waste, upstream illegal mining activities, and agricultural run-off (including agrochemicals), with significant implications for near-shore marine waters. Three wetlands, Chemu Lagoon (Tema), Korle Lagoon (Accra) and Fosu Lagoon (Cape Coast), are considered “dead” as a result of heavy industrial and domestic waste.

Nonetheless, there are examples of local NGOs such as Hen Mpoano, Friends of the Nation (FoN), and Development Institute driving the development of CREMAs to support mangrove restoration and to promote sustainable coastal resource management. 97 As noted under 3.2.2, education as to the value of the mangroves in combination with technical support to restoration and alternative/supplemental livelihoods were all consistently cited by stakeholders as essential to the success of such efforts.

As noted above, Ghana has no marine preserves or PAs, so the entire off-shore marine aquatic environment is off-reserve. Consequently, for artisanal/traditional uses, the off-shore marine aquatic environment has been treated as an open-access resource and is over-exploited and significantly polluted.

95 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 96 Ibid. 97 Republic of Ghana. Ghana’s Sixth National Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (Draft). Convention on Biological Diversity, December 2018.

https://www.cbd.int/doc/nr/nr-06/gh-nr-06-en.pdf


4. VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL

4.1 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Ecosystem services are those values provided to society by the function and processes that take place within nature. Ecosystem services can be classified into three categories: the provisioning of directly utilized resources (environmental goods); non-material cultural services; and regulating services, which provide critical benefits through reliable ecosystem processes. Supporting services underlie the three former categories through extremely long-time horizons and broad-scale processes, such as soil creation and nutrient cycling (see Figure 6). Biodiversity is critical to the provisioning and long-term maintenance of these ecosystem services.98, 99 High-biodiversity areas provide over half of the ecosystem services on which the global poor depend, and conservation of those areas has an outsized effect: conserving the top 25% of the world’s high-biodiversity areas could provide 56–57% of the total potential ecosystem goods and service benefits.100

4.2 ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES

Ghana has a rich stock of biological diversity such as forests, water bodies, minerals, plants and animals. As a developing economy, much of the population depends on the country’s natural resource base for its livelihoods. The Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6) estimated that biodiversity products provide alternative income sources to over 6 million Ghanaians in the forestry and water sectors.101 However, according to Ghana’s 2016 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, the importance of biodiversity to the Ghanaian economy in terms of jobs creation, incomes for local communities, foreign exchange earnings through forest products export and protection of the environment has not been fully estimated.

This section describes some of the key ecosystem goods and services that provide value to Ghana,

98 Balvanera, Patricia et al. “Chapter 4: The links between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.” Routledge Handbook of Ecosystem Services. 1st Ed. Marion Potschin, Roy Haines-Young, Robert Fish, R. Kerry Turner, Eds. Pp 45-49. January 2016. Routledge Handbooks, New York, NY. 99 Harrison, Paula et al. “Linkages between biodiversity attributes and ecosystem services: A systematic review.” Ecosystem Services, 9 September 2014: 191-203. 100 Turner, Will R; Brandon, Katrina; Brooks, Thomas M; Gascon, Glaude; Gibbs, Holly K; Lawrence, Keith; Mittermeier, Russell A; Selig, Elizabeth R. “Global Biodiversity Conservation and the Alleviation of Poverty.” BioScience 62: 85-92. January 2012. 101 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

Figure 6. Ecosystem Services

Source: The Cadmus Group 2017, adapted from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Ocean Assessment (Mid-Atlantic Regional Planning Body 2019 citing CEQ 2010).

https://www.academia.edu/1517458/Global_biodiversity_conservation_and_the_alleviation_of_poverty



broken down by the categories of provisioning services, cultural services, and regulating services.

4.2.1 PROVISIONING SERVICES

Provisioning services arise from the direct use of goods, such as food, fuel, water, timber, non-timber forest products, medicine, and raw materials. Many different ecosystems produce provisioning services, but the focus in this report is on the two dominant sources of provisioning services in Ghana: forests and fisheries.

FOREST MATERIALS Forests are important sources of ecosystem goods and services across Ghana, and the majority of the rural population (2.5 million people) depends on the forests for their livelihood or for the provision of food, clothing, shelter, furniture, potable water, and bushmeat.102 According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the gross value added from forestry was USD 287 million in 2015.103 Ghana’s export value for forestry production and trade was USD 415 million in 2017.104 The timber industry is the third-most important foreign-exchange earner of the country. The FAO estimates that there were 3.55 thousand people employed in Ghana’s Forestry sector in 2010.105 According to the European Timber Trade Federation, the Ghanaian timber industry produced about 2.6 million m3 of roundwood in 2015, the majority of which is used within the country since teak is the only species for which the export of logs is permitted. In total, the export of all primary timber products (i.e., beyond just logs) accounted for a total export value of USD 230.2 million in 2015. In terms of exported value in 2014, the three most important Ghanaian tree species for production are teak, ceiba, fromager, and abachi.106

Rural/urban energy is an important aspect of the forest economy and depends largely on wood fuels (fuel wood and charcoal). According to the GLSS 6, about 16 million m3 of wood valued at about USD 200 million is consumed in various forms as energy per year: this accounts for about 86% of urban energy. In rural areas, wood fuel makes up more than 95% of energy consumption. Traditional energy accounts for 85.8% of primary energy used in Ghanaian homes and provides income-generating activity (charcoal producers, transporters, and retailers) to a substantial part of the rural community. In 2000, 16 million metric tons (MT) of fuel wood were consumed, 9 million of which were converted to charcoal.107

Non-timber forest products also significantly contribute to Ghana’s economy. It is estimated that 380,000 tons of bushmeat are consumed annually with an estimated value of about USD 350 million. Animal and plant products used in traditional medicine and cultural practices have an estimated value of about USD130 million. Over 600,000 women in the northern Ghana collect about 130,000 tons of nuts yearly, 40% of which are exported. This contributes about USD 30 million annually to the national economy.108 According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), the top exported nuts from Ghana

102 Kuudaar, Elvis (2015). Ghana Case Study. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Ghana, October 2015, 1-39. 103 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Country Report: Ghana. FAO, Rome, 2014. 104 Food and Agriculture Organization. “FAOSTAT.” Accessed August 24, 2019 from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data 105 “Ghana Country Profile.” Global Forest Watch, Retrieved August 24, 2019 from globalforestwatch.org. 106 European Timber Trade Federation. Ghana. TimberTrade Portal, updated 25 March, 2019. Retrieved from: http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/ghana/. 107 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 108 Ibid.

http://www.fao.org/3/a-C0183e.pdf

http://www.fao.org/3/a-az221e.pdf

http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data

https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/GHA?gladAlerts=eyJsYXRlc3REYXRlIjoiMjAxOS0wOC0xOSJ9&map=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%3D

http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/ghana/



are coconuts, brazil nuts and cashew nuts.109 A small-scale processing facility for production of thaumatin, a sweetener from seeds of the miracle berry (Thaumatococus danielli), has been established at Samerboi and the value of exports of this product in 2014 was reportedly USD 430 million.110

Most of the rural population depends on the forests for their survival as forests are important for food, clothing, shelter, furniture, potable water and bushmeat. The forests are also highly valued as sources of natural medicines commonly used for health treatment and in conjunction with mystical and ritual practices.111

FISHERIES Fisheries contribute significantly to national development objectives related to food security, employment, poverty reduction, GDP, and foreign exchange earnings. According to official statistics, the country produces around 440,000 tons of fish annually from its marine fisheries, inland waters and aquaculture; the fisheries sector in Ghana contributes a total of 4.5% of GDP;112 and the fisheries industry generates an estimated USD 25 million in revenue annually.113 Research suggests that these are likely significant underestimates, at least until the current near-collapse of the small pelagic fishery.114

The fishing industry provides employment to many rural people and urban dwellers, with one in ten Ghanaians economically dependent on fisheries115 and over 135,000 fishermen directly employed in Ghana’s marine capture fisheries.116 Women provide approximately 70% of the labor force in the fisheries post-harvest sector, but they also own canoes and finance capture-fishing operations. It is estimated that the fisheries sector overall contributes 4.5% to GDP and 12% of the agricultural GDP.117 Small-scale fisheries in Ghana contribute about 3% to the national GDP.118 In addition to economic benefits, fish supply 60% of the animal protein in the national diet with annual per capita fish consumption in 2014 growing to 28kg, well above the world average of 18.9kg and well above the average for Africa of 10.5kg.119 Small pelagic fish, which include mackerel, sardines, and anchovies, account for about 70% of the total marine fish capture but are generally recognized to be on the verge

109 World Trade Organization. “Ghana and the WTO.” Accessed August 25, 2019 from https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ghana_e.htm. 110 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 111 Agyarko, Tabi. FOSA Country Report – Ghana. Forestry Outlook Study for Africa (FOSA), Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000. 112 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 113 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 114 Belhabib, Dyhia; Sumaila, U. Rashid; & Pauly, Daniel. “Feeding the poor: Contribution of West African fisheries to employment and food security”Ocean and Coastal Management , 111, 2015,72–81 115 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 116 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 117 Coastal Resources Center. Fisheries and Food Security: A briefing from the USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project. The USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP). Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. January 2018. 118 USAID. Fishing for Food Security: The Importance of Wild Fisheries for Food Security and Nutrition. April 2016. 119 Coastal Resources Center. Fisheries and Food Security: A briefing from the USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project. The USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP). Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. January 2018.

https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ghana_e.htm




https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/legacy.seaaroundus/researcher/dpauly/PDF/2015/Articles+in+Refereed+Journals/Belhabib+et+al+-+2015+-+Feeding+the+poor.pdf



https://www.crc.uri.edu/download/GH2014_POL055_CRC_FIN508.pdf

https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-gateway/resources/archived-projects/measuring-impact/mi-project-resources/fishing-food-security-wild-fisheries-food-security-nutrition/view



of collapse.120 121 Large pelagic species of the family Thumidae (tunas) are of major commercial importance in Ghana as a result of export revenues and their relative sustainability, which has been estimated at 100,000 tons annually by the Fisheries Commission122. However, some research indicates they are also being overexploited.123 Valuable demersal fish (fish living close to the sea floor), including sole, shrimp, cuttlefish, and burros are similarly exploited, especially during upwelling seasons, when cold, nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface.124

DRINKING WATER The economic value of the provision of water in Ghana has not been comprehensively estimated. However, the mountainous Atewa forest range, 100 km northwest of Accra, is the most important source of drinking water for the lowlands in the Greater Accra Region, yet is being targeting for mining development, which could have significant detrimental impact on water supply. An estimated 2.5 million citizens rely on the catchment area for their daily water needs.125

4.2.2 CULTURAL SERVICES

Cultural services result from meaningful interactions that people have with ecosystems, which include outdoor recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, education, and the intrinsic spiritual value of land.

NATURE-BASED TOURISM Ecotourism earns USD 1.6 billion in annual revenue generation and is projected to become the number one foreign exchange earner in Ghana’s national economy in the future.126 Conservation of biodiversity and subsequent development of ecotourism have yielded substantial economic benefits to both national and local economies. For instance, the Kakum National Park with its 33m-high canopy walkway draws an average of 270,780 visitors each year and created over 5,000 tourism-related jobs around the park, generating over USD 350,000 as revenue. The current draft version of Ghana’s National Biodiversity Policy estimates that a specialized package of bird and butterfly watching tours could generate over USD 1 million annually.127

OTHER CULTURAL SERVICES Ghana’s biodiversity also has spiritual and cultural values for some ethnic groups. Traditionally protected forests (sacred groves) are forest relics found within and outside of gazetted government PAs. These protected forests are conserved, protected and governed by traditional norms, beliefs and systems.128

120 Food and Agriculture Organization. “The Republic of Ghana.” Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles; accessed July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en. 121 Lazar, N., Yankson K., Blay, J., Ofori-Danson, P., Markwei, P., Agbogah, K., Bannerman, P., Sotor, M., Yamoah, K. K., Bilisini, W. B. Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP): Status of Ghana’s small pelagic stocks and recommendations to achieve sustainable fishing 2017. Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. April 2018. 122 Food and Agriculture Organization. “The Republic of Ghana.” Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles; accessed July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en. 123 Mawuko, A.G. Assessment of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of the Tuna Fishery in Ghana and its Application in Management (Masters Thesis). University of Ghana, Department of Marine and Fisheries Sciences. 2015. 124 Ibid. 125 The Green Utility Network. The Value of Watershed Services of the Atewa Forest, Under Various River Basin Management Scenarios. IUCN, n.d. 126 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 127 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 128 Ibid.


https://www.crc.uri.edu/download/GH2014_SCI042_CRC_FIN508.pdf



http://197.255.68.203/handle/123456789/8878

http://197.255.68.203/handle/123456789/8878

https://www.iucn.nl/files/klimaatfinancieringdawca/factsheet_green_utility_network_ghana.pdf




The conservation of these areas contributes to the maintenance of biodiversity, supports ecological processes, provides important environmental services and improves access to traditional medicines. There are an estimated 2,000 to 3,200 sacred sites, about 80% of which occur in the southern half of the country. Several studies have established the commitment of people to support any measures that will contribute to the continued existence of sacred forests and the maintenance of their ecological integrity. Some wild animals are regarded as sacred or totems for certain clans and ethnic groups. They are protected by taboos and traditional beliefs that prohibit their hunting. Streams and rivers are also regarded as deities by several communities.129

4.2.3 REGULATING SERVICES

Regulating services include the functions and processes that ecosystems deliver that provide value to human beings. Key regulating services provided by natural areas in Ghana include forest and watershed services and carbon sequestration and storage.

FOREST AND WATERSHED SERVICES Forests ecosystems provide many regulating services such as water filtration and soil protection. In addition to herbaceous cover and tree-crop plantations, forests also contribute to capturing and storing carbon from the atmosphere, thus contributing to the maintenance of favorable global climatic conditions. The productivity of agriculture is dependent on how biodiversity is managed within the production landscape.130 For example, cocoa agroforestry in Ghana can be managed to create optimal exposure to—and protection from—sunlight, improve water-nutrient cycling, and provide regulating services such as pest and disease control.131

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND STORAGE Carbon sequestration refers to the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis; the carbon then becomes stored in the trees or other plants and soils. The world’s terrestrial carbon stocks account for 2,500 gigatons (Gt) out of the total 48,000Gt.132 Ghana’s total terrestrial carbon stocks are estimated as 2.04Gt comprising 1.6Gt in above and below ground forest carbon. Between the savanna and Eastern Guinean forest, carbon stocks range from 30.88-93.47 tons of carbon (MgC)/ha to 28.64MgC/ha -34.05MgC/ha. In cultivated areas within the Eastern Guinean forest, soil carbon stocks range from 28.27 MgC/ha to 72.7MgC/ha, whereas those in the savanna areas have carbon stocks that range from 18.46 MgC/ha to 32.04MgC/ton.

Mangrove distributions along the Ghanaian coast are quite substantial. Mangrove above ground biomass ranges from 378 to 2,077MgC/ha for undisturbed, with degraded mangrove areas, carbon stocks ranges from 146.88 to 529.59 MgC/ha.133

129 Ibid. 130 Ibid. 131 Ibid. 132 Hariah K, Dewi S. Agus F, Velarde S, Ekadinata A, Rahayu S and van Noorwijk M. Measuring Carbon Stocks Across Land Use Systems. World Agroforestry Centre, Indonesia, 2010. 133 Republic of Ghana. Third National Communication Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. UNFCC, Accra. 2015.

http://www.asb.cgiar.org/PDFwebdocs/Measuring%20Carbon%20stocks%20across%20land%20use%20systems.pdf


https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/ghanc3.pdf


5. LEGAL FRAMEWORK & INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE AFFECTING CONSERVATION/ NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

5.1 NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES

Sections 5.1.1-5.1.4 provide a brief overview on the key policies, acts, and strategies governing wildlife, forest, marine and freshwater resource management and land use and tenure arrangements. Annex E provides an expanded set of key policies for the conservation and management of Ghana’s tropical forests and biodiversity.

5.1.1 TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

Policies and acts governing wildlife management in Ghana include the Wild Animals Preservation Amendment Law of 1982 (PNDCL 55); the Wildlife Conservation (Amendment) Regulation of 1982 (LI 1983); and the Act Establishing the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana.134

Most of the policies and methods, especially in situ conservation methods, have experienced administrative challenges over the years as a result of budgetary allocations, lack of infrastructure, and lack of field equipment.135 At time of writing, a new wildlife act—which has been in development for approximately 18 years—is again sitting with parliament. This act contains provisions that would strengthen the effectiveness of CREMAs, better enabling local derivation of benefits from these resource management arrangements. Similarly, the Analysis team received a copy of the 2019 draft Biodiversity Policy, likewise with parliament awaiting passage. The Biodiversity Policy, if passed, would seek to achieve conservation, and sustainable and equitable utilization, of biodiversity, by mainstreaming conservation of biodiversity into all economic sectors, enhancing safeguarding of Ghana’s ecosystems, and promoting sustainable use of biodiversity through improved planning, research, management, knowledge sharing, capacity, and monitoring and evaluation.

A number of recent and ongoing actions have been taken with regards to biodiversity conservation. In 2018, the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed a national Man and the Biosphere (MAB) strategy in alignment with the Lima Action Plan for the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme.136 The strategy focuses on Ghana's three (3) Biosphere Reserves: Bia (1982), Songor (2011) and Lake Bosomtwi (2016) with the aim of meeting targets of the United Nations (UN) CBD, the Government’s Economic Development Framework, the National Biodiversity Policy (still in draft), the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, the National Environmental Policy, and the National Climate Change Policy.

134 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 135 Ibid. 136 Ghana Man and the Biosphere (MAB) National Committee. Report on Progress of Implementation of the Lima Action Plan (2016-2025) Presented to the 31st Session of the MAB Council. UNESCO, Paris, France, June 2019.

https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ghana_national_report.pdf



TABLE 11. KEY TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES

Key Policies • Forest and Wildlife Policy (2012) • Biodiversity Policy (2019 draft)

Key Laws and Regulations

• Wild Animals Preservation Amendment Law of 1982 (PNDCL 55) • The Wildlife Conservation (Amendment) Regulation of 1982 (LI 1983) • The Act Establishing the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana.

Key Strategies

• Ghana’s Lima Action Plan for the Man and the Biosphere (2016-2025) and Man and the Biosphere Strategy (2015-2025)

• National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2016) • Ghana’s Sixth National Report to the UN Convention of Biological Diversity (2018 draft)

5.1.2 FORESTRY MANAGMENT

Beginning in 1948, the colonial government of Ghana adopted a Forest Policy Act to 1) regulate the creation and management of permanent forest estates, II) research all branches of scientific forestry, III) maximize utilization of areas not dedicated to permanent forestry, and IV) provide technical advice and cooperation to prevent soil erosion and support land use planning.137 However, in practice the Forest Policy Act of 1948 promoted the conversion of off-reserve forests to nonforest lands, leading to massive degradation of land and forests, and significant loss of biodiversity. The 1992 Constitution of Ghana in Chapter 21, Article 269 and sub-section 1 provides for the establishment of the Forestry Commission (FC). In 1994, the first For and Wildlife Policy was passed, in an effort to refine the forestry sector, incorporate improved governance, transparency, and derivation of benefits to reduce poverty. The 1994 policy had mixed success, increasing formality of the sector, but it did not sufficiently address the major challenges that faced Ghana’s forests such as illegal timber and mining operations. The Forestry Commission Act of 1999 (Act 571) re-established the FC with a responsibility of regulating and managing the utilization of forest and wildlife resources, conserving and managing those resources, and

coordinating policies related to them. In 2012, a new Forest and Wildlife Policy was adopted, targeting increased conservation and sustainable development of forest and wildlife resources. While the policy seeks to maintain environmental stability and the continuous flow of optimum benefits from the sociocultural and economic goods and services that the forest provides and to fulfill Ghana’s commitments under international conventions and agreements,138 the forestry sector continues to face significant pressure from illegal timber extraction, mining operations, and expansion of agricultural and

137 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 138 Ibid.

TABLE 12. KEY FORESTRY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES

Key Policies Forest and Wildlife Policy (2012)

Key Key Laws and Regulations

The Forest Protection Amendment Act; the Control and Prevention of Bushfire Law, 1990; the Forest Improvement Fund (Amendment) Act of 1962; the Forest Fees Amendment Regulation 1993 (LI 1576); the Economic Plants Protection Decree of 1979; the Timber Resources Management Act of 1998 (Act 547). The Forestry Commission Act of 1999 (Act 571)

Key Strategies

Forestry Development Master Plan (2016-2036); Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy (2016-2040)


silvicultural activities, both on and off reserve.

Additionally, existing policies governing tree tenure further undermine conservation and management of forest resources, particularly in areas with expanding agricultural production. Under existing statute, naturally growing trees are property of the state, regardless of where they are located, eroding motivation for those cultivating the land to conserve any trees. This, in turn, leads to complete land clearing for agriculture or mono-culture tree cropping. Through the Ghana Forest Investment Program (FIP), implemented with financial support from the World Bank, efforts are underway at time of writing to rework the existing law. The proposed changes to the law would allow for those that cultivate the land (who may be lease holders, as described in Section 5.1.4) to register the trees and thus derive direct benefits from those trees. However, some consulted stakeholders highlighted the potentially onerous prospect of Ghana effectively implementing such a registration system, noting the potentially billions of trees that would require registration for the system to be properly executed.

5.1.3 MARINE + FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

There are relatively fewer policies and laws governing marine and freshwater resources in Ghana than there are for terrestrial biodiversity leading to misuse and degradation of marine and freshwater environments. The Fisheries Act is the most significant legislative framework for marine and freshwater management in Ghana, although it lacks important elements to maximize effectiveness. The management of fisheries has not been decentralized making it difficult for District Assemblies (DAs) to enforce fisheries legislations or enact fisheries-related by-laws, especially as no staff of a DA in Ghana has been appointed as an “authorised officer” to exercise enforcement powers.139 For instance the content of the management plan of a small, community-owned lagoon would need to be approved by the Minister and Cabinet; this creates enough additional bureaucratic steps to routinely undermine conservation and management efforts at the local level without external support.

The initial fisheries regulation of 1968 went through a series of amendments to arrive at the current regulation dated 2015 (LI 2217). The National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy underpinned key initiatives such as development of the Fisheries Management Plan of Ghana (2015-2019) consistent with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, and the establishment of fisheries co-management (i.e., systems in which the resource users/local fishermen are granted substantive responsibilities in the management of the fisheries and related resources; successful co-management typically includes embedding these local management structures within state governance institutions, whether at the district, regional, or national level).140

With regards to enforcement, Ghana’s Fisheries Enforcement Unit (FEU)—comprised of the Fisheries Commission, the Ghana Navy, and the Marine Police Unit of the Ghana Police Service—was established in 2013 in line with the Fisheries Act of 2002 (Act 625). The FEU, operating from Tema and Takoradi, conducts sea patrols, beach combing, quayside inspections and electronic vessel monitoring, and enforces regulations on fishing gear, fishing zones, fishing documentation, and fish landings. The FEU was

139 Tsamenyi, M. Analysis of the Adequacy of the Legislative Framework in Ghana to Support Fisheries Co-management and the Suggestions for a Way Forward. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, April 2013. 140 Coastal Resources Center. A National Framework for Fisheries Co-management in Ghana. USAID Integrated Coastal and Fisheries Governance Program for the Western Region of Ghana. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Hɛn Mpoano Policy Brief No. 4, February 2013.

https://www.crc.uri.edu/download/GH2009IFISH008_508.pdf


http://pubs.iclarm.net/resource_centre/WF_3619.pdf


created under the West African Regional Fisheries Programme (WARFP; 2012-2018), which sought to strengthen Ghana’s capacity to sustainably govern and manage fisheries.

A key policy guiding coastal and marine conservation is the Riparian Buffer Zone Policy for Managing Freshwater Bodies in Ghana of 2011. The policy requires a 60- to 90- m buffer for municipal reservoir shorelines; a 10- to 60- m buffer for major perennial rivers and streams; a 10- to 50- m buffer for streams within forest reserves; and a 30 m buffer around the highwater point for wetlands. However, in practice, effective enforcement of the buffer zone policy is greatly challenged, and stakeholder consultations confirmed that between illegal (and, at times, legal) mining operations, agricultural expansion, population growth, and urban sprawl, there are many anthropogenic activities occurring within the restricted buffer areas. Additionally, while the policy is an important achievement and an essential step for strengthening environmental protection of Ghana’s freshwater systems, it is limited only to those freshwater bodies. Additional legislature to protect coastal water bodies would further support protection of Ghana’s severely threatened marine fisheries.

Finally, Ghana does not currently have any policy explicitly governing the protection of wetlands; this gap—in addition to the prevailing attitudes around wetlands characterized in Section 3, contributes to the ongoing degradation of Ghana’s wetland areas and represents a serious legislative need for the country.

5.1.4 LAND TENURE, PLANNING, AND LAND USE MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS

Ghana’s Constitution vests all public land and minerals to the President, and customary land holdings; 80 to 90% of land is vested under customary holdings. The customary land tenure framework consists of multiple categories of ownership, most prevalent of which are allodial title (‘stools’ or ‘skins’), freehold title (land acquired via sale or gift from the allodial owner), customary freehold title (rights held by a group or individual on behalf of the community with ownership via lineage), and leasehold title (land use 141 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

TABLE 13. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING MARINE AND FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY

Key Policies • Marine, Coastal, and Environmental Policy of Ghana, the Fisheries Law of 1991 (PNDCL 256);

• The Fisheries Commission Act of 1993 (Act 457); and the Water Resources Commission Act of 1996 (Act 522)141

• National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy (2008)

• Riparian Buffer Zone Policy for Managing Freshwater Bodies in Ghana (2011)


• The Fisheries Act 2002, Act 625 • The Fisheries (Amended) Regulations 2015

(LI 2217); Fisheries Co-management Policy of Ghana

• Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulation, (1999)

Key Strategies

Fisheries Management Plan of Ghana (2015-2019)

TABLE 14. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING LAND TENURE, PLANNING, AND LAND USE MANAGEMENT

Key Policies

• National Land Policy (1994)


• The State Property and Contracts Act of 1960; the State Lands Act of 1962

• The Land Title Registration Act of 1986 • The Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands

Act of 1994 • The Lands Commission Act of 2008 • The Marriage Ordinance of 1884

Key Strategies

• National Land Use and Spatial Planning Framework (2016)


granted by allodial or freehold title holders; leases may be held for up to 50 years by foreigners or 99 years by Ghanaians). Common lease arrangements entail sharecropping, such as abunu, in which the sharecropper provides half of their harvest to the landlord, or abusu, in which the one-third of the harvest is given to the landlord.142

Ultimately, existing systems for land tenure, title, and registration are complex and often cumbersome, with both the GoG and customary land owners frequently misusing their authority when it comes to derivation of benefits from land ownership or leasing arrangements.143 This undermines motivation at the local level to invest in and value land, particularly for smallholder farmers that typically are granted land use rights through lease. In areas such as the forest-savanna transition zone, these arrangements can contribute to practices of silvicultural and agricultural expansion—including into Forest Reserves. Some stakeholder consultations noted that existing tenure systems indirectly encouraged participation in illegal on-reserve cultivation; given existing limitations in enforcement, such illegal cultivation activities often result in revenue that does not have to be shared with land owners, unlike traditional tenure and lease arrangements.

5.2 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

Ghana is party to numerous key international agreements relevant to the conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity. These include the UN CBD, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Ramsar Convention, the World Heritage Convention, and the International Tropical Timber Agreement. Ghana has developed and adopted the UNESCO MAB Programme, consistent with the 2016 to 2025 Lima Action Plan for the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The action plan seeks to “collectively and responsibly build thriving societies in harmony with the biosphere.”

A more comprehensive listing of international agreements to which Ghana is party can be found in Annex D.

5.3 GOVERNMENT OF GHANA AGENCIES

Natural resource governance in Ghana is managed at national, regional, district, and local levels. The key entities engaged in management of tropical forest and biodiversity resources are characterized below.

5.3.1 NATIONAL GOVERNING ENTITIES

Ghana’s FC is responsible for managing Ghana’s forest and wildlife resources and is comprised of five distinct divisions: Forest Services Division (FSD), WD, Timber Industry Development Division, Forestry Commission Training Centre, and the Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC). The FSD is responsible for implementation of laws, policies, and regulations guiding management or use of Ghana’s forest resources. The WD is responsible for the conservation of Ghana’s wildlife, with direct oversight for the National Parks, Resource Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Strict Nature Reserves. The WD also has management responsibility for Ghana’s five coastal Ramsar sites. The RMSC is responsible for 142 USAID. “Landlinks – Ghana Country Profile.” Retrieved August 27, 2019 from: land-links.org/country-profile/ghana/#land 143 Frimpong Boamah, Emmanuel & Clifford Amoako, “Planning by (mis)rule of laws: The idiom and dilemma of planning within Ghana’s dual legal land systems.” Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1177/2399654419855400.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2399654419855400


monitoring and reporting on the status of Ghana’s forest and wildlife resources, assisting with development of management plans and systems governing these resources and providing related assistance.

Other key national bodies include MESTI, which has primary responsibility for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity; the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR), which works in coordination with the Wildlife and Forest Services Divisions of the FC to support conservation through formulation of Forest Reserves and PA management plans, as well as regulating the trade and export of forest products; the EPA, which is responsible for implementation and oversight of Ghana’s Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) requirements and procedures.

Ghana’s fisheries are predominantly managed by the Fisheries Commission and Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MoFAD), though they work in collaboration with the Water Resources Commission, FC’s FSD, EPA, and MESTI, as well as regional and local governance (see below). Stakeholder consultations—and professional experience within Ghana’s fisheries and coastal conservation by an Analysis team member—indicate that efforts by various government agencies to contribute to fisheries and coastal conservation are often sporadic and uncoordinated. Attempts to establish an inter-ministerial platform comprising the Ghana Police, Navy, Ministry of Interior, MoFAD, Fisheries Commission and other relevant agencies have not been successful.

A table providing a more comprehensive listing—and elaborated roles—of Ghana’s central governmental entities responsible for management and/or oversight of natural resources is provided in Annex G.

5.3.2 REGIONAL AND DISTRICT GOVERNANCE

Regional Coordinating Councils. Regional governance in Ghana is organized through the Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs), which are envisioned to play a key role as Ghana continues to pursue decentralization. In response to local demand for greater decentralization, Ghana designated six new regions, increasing the country’s total from 10 to 16, in turn increasing the number of RCCs and localized governmental management—including as pertains to natural resource management and land use planning. The RCCs are comprised of the Regional Minister and their deputies; a presiding member of each District Assembly and the District Chief Executive within the region; two chiefs from the Regional House of Chiefs; and, as applicable, the regional heads of decentralized ministries within the region (non-voting members).144

Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies. Assembly level government is organized into Metropolitan (districts with more than 250,000 people), Municipal (districts with between 75,000 and 250,000 people), and District (districts with less than 75,000 people). Collectively, this assembly level is often referred to as MMDAs; for this analysis, when speaking of assembly-level government we’ll refer predominantly to DAs. DAs have a key role in management of natural resources through the District Environmental Management Committees (DEMCs), although stakeholder consultations and site visits indicated that DAs and respective DEMCs often lack the technical capacity, financial means, or political will to enact or enforce environmental management requirements or procedures with special reference

144 Ghana’s Local Government Act 1993 (Act 462). Accessed August 27, 2019 from: http://laws.ghanalegal.com/acts/id/167/section/141/Composition_Of_Regional_Co-Ordinating_Councils.

http://laws.ghanalegal.com/acts/id/167/section/141/Composition_Of_Regional_Co-Ordinating_Councils


to the coastal and marine landscapes. It is noteworthy that wildlife and biodiversity are ultimately protected not by laws or regulations but by people. Therefore, poor policy coordination, harmonization, communication to the citizens; limited civil society participation and lack of resources for implementation impede efforts to achieving sound results in biodiversity conservation.

Chieftaincies. The chieftaincy is a traditional form of authority in Ghana, with often significant informal power based on traditional or cultural rule. While the power of the chieftaincy is attenuated in cities and other areas with ethnically mixed populations, in many rural communities the chieftaincy serves as the first court for domestic and neighborly disputes, controls uses of stool lands (which are extensive in many parts of the country), provides social welfare services, and serves as a key interlocutor—often the interlocutor—between the community and formal government bodies. Within formal governmental arrangements, the participation of chiefs is limited to the National and Regional Houses of chiefs, and Traditional Councils, the latter of which is largely designed as a mechanism to resolve disputes with the chieftaincy, and support clarification and establishment of customary law(s).

5.4 CONSERVATION INITIATIVES AND GAP ANALYSIS

Ghana has numerous ongoing conservation initiatives, many of which focus on improving on-reserve forestry management throughout the Eastern Guinean forest and forest-savanna transition zones; sustainable land use in northern Ghana; and sustainable fisheries management along the coastal zones. Consolidated tables of key current conservation initiatives in forest and savanna landscapes (Table 32) and marine fisheries and coastal areas (Table 33) are provided in Annex E.

5.4.1 CONSERVATION OF FORESTS AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES

There is substantial investment in Ghana in support of strengthen forestry management and sustainable management of landscapes and water resources. Current major initiatives include the World Bank and Africa Development Bank (AfDB) funded Forest Investment Program (FIP), implemented by FC, and the World Bank-funded Sustainable Land and Water Management Program (SLWMP). USAID’s Agriculture and Natural Resources Management (AgNRM) program likewise operated in this space. Other donors providing support to strengthened management of Ghana’s forest include the United Kingdom (UK), European Union (EU), and the United Nations Development Program. Donor support in the forestry sector has targeted a range of issues, including sustainable cocoa production, forest plantations, forest management and resource development, institutional capacity building, data collection and scientific analysis, governance (including policy and institutional reforms), and biodiversity conservation.

Key Gaps: Despite extensive donor support to the sector, as illustrated in Section 3.2, it is clear more donor support to the forestry sector is needed given trends in forest degradation and loss; in essence, the gap is more a matter of scale rather than intervention type. All the same, and while there has been recent investment under FIP to analyze issues around small-scale mining (specifically illegal mining), management of these activities would clearly benefit from additional attention. Stakeholders consulted noted that it is not always illegal activities creating issues but instead sometimes legal operations for which large trucks and heavy machinery are brought into ecologically sensitive areas, with little regard for environmental safeguarding. Further, some stakeholders consulted indicated a need for engagement with GoG to think through and develop a concrete action plan for addressing both illegal and poorly implemented mining activities. Other areas that emerged as clear needs during consultations include:


support in creating land and resource (e.g., tree) tenure policies that incentivize land users to sustainably manage the land they are cultivating, and increased capacity building and awareness raising coupled with institutional strengthening and economic incentives to address wildfires (particularly in the forest-savanna transition zone and the savanna.

5.4.2 MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

While not as robust as support in the forestry sector, there are numerous initiatives targeting marine fisheries and coastal resources (particularly selected wetlands). In addition to USAID’s Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP) and technical assistance to the University of Cape Coast, key initiatives include: an Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) project targeting illegal fishing activities, working in concert with local NGOs such as Hen Mpoano and FoN; the IUCN-backed Community Conservation Resilience Initiative (CCRI), which is delivering support along the Weto Range and near the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar Site; and the West Africa Fisheries Governance Improvement Project, which is being implemented in 30 districts spanning Western, Central, and Greater Accra Regions to address overfishing and illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) practices.

Key Gaps: The numerous ongoing initiatives represent important steps toward addressing the severe threats to Ghana’s marine fisheries and coastal ecosystems. Regardless, a key area that presented during site visits and stakeholder consultations as requiring prioritized attention is the conservation of wetland areas proximate to—and being destroyed by—pollution and infill associated with urbanization and sprawl, infrastructure development, and oil and gas exploration. While numerous initiatives are supporting wetland restoration and coastal protection, few of these focus specifically on areas in closest proximity to urban centers.145

In addition, while there has been significant experimentation and piloting of supplemental and alternative livelihoods activities for coastal communities, successful, scalable supplemental and alternative livelihoods initiatives have proved elusive. As discussed in 6.2.3 the lack of such livelihoods is a key driver to threats to coastal ecosystems.

145 See 6.1.3 for discussion of the ecological linkage between the marine fisheries and coastal wetlands and inshore ecosystems.


6. THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTRY AND BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA

6.1 DIRECT THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA

Per the FAA Sections 118/119 Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis Best Practices Guide146 (Best Practices Guide), a threat is “a human action or unsustainable use that immediately degrades biodiversity (e.g., unsustainable logging, overfishing or mineral extraction).” Table 15 below provides a mapping of the most significant threats within each of Ghana’s ecoregions, reflecting findings from extensive stakeholder consultations and accompanying analysis elaborated herein. Importantly, threats in Table 15 are coded based on relative threat level within each ecosystem; this classification is applied in recognition that some geographies in which USAID/Ghana may deliver programming may not be those facing the most significant threats to biodiversity nationwide. The below table thus guides prioritization and decision making for threats specific to a given ecoregion.

TABLE 15. PRIORITIZATION OF THREATS IN GHANA BY ECOSYSTEM

Eastern Guinean Forest

Forest-Savanna Transition Zone Savanna Freshwater

Resources

Marine Resources (including coastal

wetlands)



Climate change

Pollution from multiple sources (mining activities; misuse (including oversuse) of agricultural chemicals)

Coastal wetland, fragmentation, and loss oil and gas exploration and other infill),



Wildfires Sedimentation and siltation of surface waters

Pollution from multiple sources (Solid and liquid waste infiltrating/overloading natural systems; mining activities; misuse (including oversuse) of agricultural chemicals

Unsustainable wood harvesting

Unsustainable wood harvesting

Unsustainable agriculture practices

IUU fishing and unsustainable fishing

Mining activities (pollution) and misuse (including overuse) of agrochemicals

Wildfires Overgrazing Climate change

146 USAID. “Foreign Assistance Act Sections 118/119 Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis Best Practices Guide.” February 2017.


TABLE 15. PRIORITIZATION OF THREATS IN GHANA BY ECOSYSTEM

Eastern Guinean Forest

Forest-Savanna Transition Zone Savanna Freshwater

Resources

Marine Resources (including coastal

wetlands)

Unsustainable wood harvesting Coastal erosion (e.g.,

via sand mining) Darker shading = more significant threat

Subsections 6.1.1-6.1.5 provide a discussion of direct threats to biodiversity and forestry in Ghana, organized as follows: Deforestation and habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss; overexploitation and unsustainable use of resources; pollution; climate change; and invasive species. See Annex I for more information regarding the effects of these threats on biodiversity by ecoregion.

6.1.1 DEFORESTATION AND HABITAT DEGRADATION, FRAGMENTATION, AND LOSS

ILLEGAL AND/OR POORLY IMPLEMENTED MINING ACTIVITIES Galamsey or illegal mining is any mining activity by individuals or group without (i) License issued by the MLNR; (ii) Environmental Permit issued by the EPA (Act 703, Section 18); and (iii) Operating Permit issued by the Inspectorate Division of the Minerals Commission (Act 703 Section 102). Some illegal mining activities are undertaken in unauthorized areas including Forest Reserves, river bodies, buffer zones, farmlands, and within communities.147 Illegal mining activity has spiked in Ghana in recent years in response to (i) the relatively high price of gold, making the activity economically attractive; (ii) traditional authorities, landowners, or opinion leaders coordinating with foreign nationals to operate in remote areas using heavy earth-moving equipment; (iii) Ghanaians fronting for foreign nationals (particularly Chinese) to operate in the small-scale mining sub sector;148 (iv) political interference and corruption.149 Other factors contributing to the increase in galamsey activities include bottlenecks in obtaining licenses, traditional land tenure systems, and inadequate institutional support.150 Most legal and illegal mining activities are conducted in the Eastern Guinean Forest or forest-savanna transition zones and thus pose significant threat to biodiversity given the considerable natural resource value in these areas. The proportion of Ghana’s gold that is mined through artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has increased from 6% in 2000 to 23% in 2010151. ASGM has become by far the single most important source of destruction of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity loss while expanding throughout the developing world as a result of high global demand.152

Illegal and poorly managed artisanal mining significantly degrade the physical environment through destruction of flora and fauna, significant pollution of land and water bodies (Section 6.1.3), and soil 147 Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018. 148 Isaac Ibrahim. 2018. “Gold Exports and Cost Implications of Illegal Gold Mining in Ghana.” British Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences, January 2018, Vol. 15 (1). 149 University of Ghana Business School (2017). “The Galamsey Menace in Ghana: A Political Problem Requiring Political Solutions?” UGBS, Policy Brief No.5, June 2017. 150 Isaac Ibrahim. 2018. “Gold Exports and Cost Implications of Illegal Gold Mining in Ghana.” British Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences, January 2018, Vol. 15 (1). 151 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 152 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017.

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714559_Gold_Exports_and_Cost_Implications_of_Illegal_Gold_Mining_in_Ghana

https://ugbs.ug.edu.gh/sites/default/files/public/documents/The%20Galamsey%20Menace%20in%20Ghana-%20A%20Political%20Problem%20Requiring%20Political%20Solutions.pdf




erosion and surface water sedimentation. A recent study suggests that the land degradation associated with a single Eastern Guinean forest mining site has increased from 15,000 ha in 2015 to 43,224 ha in 2018. The Ofin, Tano, Jeni, Oda and Birem Rivers have experienced increased sedimentation due to galamsey activities along their tributaries, and adjacent forests are at risk of severe degradation or deforestation from mining activities.153 Galamsey mining groups often destroy forest resources without regard to any environmental protection laws and regulations, at times even diverting the natural course or rivers to mine gold in the river bed irrespective of damage to the environment.154155 Even formal mining companies in Ghana frequently operate without regard to sustainability requirements.156 Galamsey operations, through erosion, mercury amalgamation, and other practices, leave behind a trail of uncovered pits, pools of heavily contaminated water, large tracts of land with no vegetative cover, and contaminated lands and rivers resulting from the dangerous chemicals used in these illegal operations.157 158

Local population growth, diminished soil fertility or agricultural productivity, decreased cash-crop profitability, inadequate access to farming inputs, market failures, or natural disasters and climate extremes may serve as push factors to convince farmers to shift from subsistence farming to gold mining. ASGM also tends to offer a higher return on labor, a lower risk than agriculture, the generation of cash to meet non-food needs, and other economic opportunities associated with development and urbanization.159

UNSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND SILVICULTURE ACTIVITIES While Ghana has a relatively large amount of cultivated land per capita, most lands are characterized by low fertility and are subject to degradation.160 Slash-and-burn is the predominant agricultural practice throughout the country, but permanent tree crops, compound farming, mixed farming, and special horticultural farming systems are also prevalent.161 Subsistence agricultural practices, such as slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, and mechanization all result in declining soil quality and land degradation and are estimated to affect about 150,000km2 of agricultural land per year. Clearing land for cultivation creates various hazards for Ghana’s biodiversity.162 Landscapes are denuded of forest resources created fragmented forest cover (where forest still remains); additionally, land clearing exposes fields to soil erosion and the loss of plant nutrients and habitats, perpetuating a cycle of land degradation and continued agricultural expansion. Limited access to irrigation and the subsequent overreliance on favorable climatic conditions frequently results in low output for many farmers; this then drives farmers 153 Ababio, Joseph Osei and Bonsu, Kofi. “Change Detection Analysis on the Impact of Illegal Mining (Galamsey) in Ghana; Case Study focusing on Land cover Changes in some Selected Districts within the Country.” FIG Congress 2018. Istanbul, Turkey, May 6–11, 2018. 154 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016. 155 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 156 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 157 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021-Volume 1: Policy Framework. 2018 158 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 159 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 160 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 161 Ibid. 162 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2018/papers/ts03h/TS03H_osei_ababio_9636.pdf


http://africainequalities.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Ghana_Poverty_and_Inequality_Analysis_FINAL_Match_20161.pdf






to supplement their output and income by clearing more land to find higher-fertility soil, clearing trees and other vegetation for fuelwood, or abandoning farming altogether in favor of illegal mining activities.163 The threat from agricultural expansion is exacerbated by the increasing demand for food and raw materials in Ghana, putting pressure on remaining forests and PAs.164 Forestry and silviculture are also highly relevant in the context of Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. Despite this, unsustainable management practices are common within Ghana’s forest plantations; proper site-species matching is not observed in many cases, and planting material of unknown provenances are often used.165 Additionally, plantation agriculture for oil palm, rubber, bananas, and cocoa drive substantial forest degradation and loss via displacement of large swaths of forest.166 As cocoa is a dominant source of foreign exchange and farmer income, farmers were long encouraged to grow cocoa, exacerbating the rate of deforestation.167 Growing global demand for chocolate and decreasing productivity due to aging trees and poor tree/soil management provide an economic incentive for the conversion of forest land into cocoa plantations.168

WILDFIRES Bush burning practices are prevalent in many parts of Ghana, particularly the northern savanna and the more central forest-savanna transition zones. Stakeholders almost uniformly reported that the primary reasons for bush burning, in order of relevance, are group hunting activities, traditional “fire festivals,” slash-and-burn agricultural practices, and to accelerate grass regeneration for cattle grazing. These practices combine with ineffective fire management regimes to perpetuate annual recurrence of fire outbreaks in the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones.169 Especially during the dry season, these almost exclusively man-made fires increasingly result in unmanaged wildfires that cause significant damage across the landscape, destroying cropland, degrading forest, and contributing to ongoing loss of soil fertility. Stakeholders noted that climate change is extending the dry season (historically 6 months, now often closer to 8 months) and projected increases in temperatures and increased variability in rainfall are likely to increase the preponderance of fires in Ghana.

Beyond the direct impact wildfires have on the landscape, stakeholders noted that the prevalence—and expectation—of dry season wildfires discourages adoption of improved land use management practices and longer-term agricultural investment that could yield higher value over longer time horizons. A study conducted in the Afram headwaters Forest Reserve revealed that between 2002 and 2012 the Forest Reserve experienced on average of six fires, averaging 31 ha of coverage, each year. Notably, this average was lowered as a result of a joint GoG and Government of Netherlands fire management project between 2004 and2011. Both prior to and following conclusion of this project, the average number and/or extent of fire increased underscoring both the need for active management.170

163 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 164 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 165 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 166 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 167 Quacou, Ikpe Emmanuel. “Unsustainable Management of Forests in Ghana from 1900-2010.” International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 4(6), 2016, 160-166. 168 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 169 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 170 Agyemang, Sandra Opoku, Müller, Michael, and Barnes, Victor Re. “Fire in Ghana’s Dry Forest: Causes, Frequency, Effects, and Management Interventions.” USDA Forest Service Proceedings, RMRS-P-73. 2015.



https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gh/gh-nbsap-v2-en.pdf.



https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p073/rmrs_p073_015_021.pdf



OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION An increase in oil and gas activities and establishment of associated infrastructure, particularly in the western corridor of Ghana, threaten both tropical forests and biodiversity through habitat fragmentation (in both terrestrial and aquatic areas), dislodgement of marine organisms, and degradation of farmlands and wetlands. Wetlands, often considered wastelands in both rural and urban settings, frequently become repurposed as sites for oil and gas exploration/extraction infrastructure, and the insufficiency of governance structures to ensure environmentally sound site management exacerbates the risk such siting presents. (As noted below, wetlands are also subject to other infill activities; solid waste and fill may be dumped in wetlands as part of a deliberate infill strategy by abutters.) Conversely, landowners are ready to lease lands, whether farmlands or plantations, to oil and gas companies for any infrastructure development given that the economic benefits are appreciable. Cost of living escalates as farmlands that initially produce vegetables and other food crops for local consumption are converted for oil and gas related infrastructure. This puts further economic pressure on individuals living in these areas, and—in the face of limited economic alternatives (Section 6.2.3) increases motivation to engage in unsustainable, extractive, or harmful economic activities (e.g., galamsey, logging, charcoal production) that adversely impact Ghana’s forests and biodiversity.

Fishermen cited the occurrence of oil spills which, though accidental, has negative implications for marine and coastal organisms. The impact of an actual oil spill could be devastating given that there is no clear strategy for oil pollution prevention.171 Oil rigs often serve as makeshift marine parks for fishes, but seismic activities around the rigs can harm marine organisms. Fishermen reported regular stranding of whales and dolphins, which may be as a result of the seismic surveying conducted during exploration activities. Community leaders and members lose motivation to actively protect the affected natural resources given the perception that they do not benefit directly from oil and gas exploration yet are “heavily” impacted by the operations; stakeholders consulted suggested that investments made by (some) oil and gas companies in support of alternative or supplementary livelihoods are inadequate relative to number of affected persons.172

SEDIMENTATION AND SILTATION OF SURFACE WATERS Sedimentation and siltation of surface water have clear effects on freshwater biodiversity in Ghana including effects to channel morphology that impact species that spawn in riverbed substrate. These problems are caused largely by the depletion of forest and vegetative cover.173 High sedimentation occurs during run-off from rainfall and at points of discharge from drains, sewers, and other water pipes. Additionally, the increase in suspended matter reduces the penetration of light into the water, which is likely to affect productivity.174 Siltation resulting from changes in land use (such as agriculture and urbanization) or water use affects a range of biophysical processes and can negatively impact freshwater biodiversity.175 The deposition of fine particles of silt on substrates can reduce oxygen availability to

171 Monney, I., & Ocloo, K. “Towards sustainable utilisation of water resources: A comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s National Water Policy.” Water Policy, 19(3), February 2017: 377–389. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2017. 172 Stakeholders consulted routinely advocated for GoG to negotiate better settlement plans on behalf of the coastal communities where oil and gas is extracted and/or where impacts are experienced most directly. 173 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 174 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 175 Ibid.

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benthic organisms and degrade spawning habitat.176 Furthermore, vegetation can establish within areas of deposited silt, affecting flow pathways and potentially even diverting flow from established channels...177

COASTAL EROSION Coastal erosion is a transboundary problem facing several West African coastal nations, including Ghana. Ghana’s eastern coastline is steep with natural erosion rates exceeding 1.5 meters per annum (m/yr).178 Several factors may be exacerbating high erosion rates including damming of the Volta river which alters the sediment discharge and flow rate and unregulated sand mining from the shore zone. Storm frequency, which may be increasing due to climate change, may also affect rates of coastal erosion (climate change is discussed in Section 6.1.4). Sensitive areas, such as nesting sites for sea turtles, are threatened by widespread illegal sand mining activities. Average coastline loss ranges from 1.5m to 2m annually with parts of eastern (Keta) and central coast (Cape Coast) recording up to 4m.179 Extreme erosion of over 6 m/yr180 was recorded in eastern parts of Greater Accra region (Ada), requiring government action to stabilize the 16 km stretch of Ada’s coast. Erosion along the eastern coast has further led to the loss of large expanse of mangrove forests and salinization of freshwater lagoons due to sea water intrusion; stakeholders cited the loss of riparian farmlands due to high salinity of freshwater bodies. A site visit to Anlo beach showed signs of severe coastline erosion that resulted in submerged buildings along the shoreline, damaged or destroyed coconut trees and mangroves, and regular flooding.

6.1.2 OVEREXPLOITATION OR UNSUSTAINABLE USE OF RESOURCES

UNSUSTAINABLE WOOD HARVESTING Overexploitation of forest resources is driven by unsustainable charcoal production, wood fuel harvesting, and (both legal and illegal) logging activity.

• Unsustainable commercial charcoal production occurs throughout Ghana and is most prevalent in the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones (Brong Ahafo region [now Bono, Bono East and Ahafo Regions], followed by the Northern, Ashanti and Eastern Regions). 181 Commercial charcoal production is an essential livelihood for many but presents considerable environmental threats, primarily related to the extraction of live trees from the natural forest without replacement, which reduces habitat for wildlife and causes incremental but widespread forest loss and degradation.182 Hardwood species such as Kane (Anogeissus leiocarpus), Odum (Milicia excelsa) and Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) are becoming scarce due to overexploitation for both charcoal and logging/timber.183 A recent study on charcoal production in Volta Region

176 Ibid. 177 Ibid. 178 Republic of Ghana. Ghana: State of the Environment Report 2016. Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana, December 2017. 179 Jonah, F. E., Adjei-Boateng, D., Agbo, N. W., Mensah, E. A. and Edziyie, R. E. 2014. “Assessment of sand and stone mining along the coastline of Cape Coast, Ghana.” Annals of GIS, 21(3): 223-231, doi:10.1080/19475683.2015.1007894. 180 Bolle, A., das Neves, L., & Rooseleer, J. 2016. “Coastal protection for Ada, Ghana: A case study.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Maritime Engineering, 168(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.15.00013. 181 Nketiah K. S & Asante J. Estimating National Charcoal Production in Ghana. Tropenbos Ghana, 2018. 182 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164. 183 Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR-FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from:

https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.15.00013

https://ifro.ku.dk/english/research/projects/projects_development/ax/publications/Estimating-national-charcoal-production-in-Ghana_report-2018.pdf


revealed that charcoal producers used 35 distinct species (5 of which were non-traditional for charcoal), belonging to 31 genera, demonstrating the increasing diversity of the trees used. Over 79% of these producers exploited Anogeissus leiocarpus for their charcoal, ranking it most common among the varieties used.184 According to data collected by FC, approximately 590,000 MT of charcoal was produced in 2016, about half of which was transported without a charcoal conveyance certificate. 185 Based on consultations, it is likely this does not account for the full extent of informal charcoal production. Commercial charcoal production is dominated by rural households and therefore has some potential for serving as a major source of livelihood if sustainably handled. Charcoal production was ranked as the second major occupation in terms of income generation activity in some areas in Northern Ghana186.

• Overconsumption of fuelwood is prevalent in Ghana. Fuelwood is used as a source of domestic energy, primarily for cooking and heating in rural communities. About 2.2 million Ghanaian households burn fuelwood, 90% of which is obtained from nearby forests.187 The regions most directly impacted by unsustainable fuelwood consumption are the forest-savanna transition zone and savanna zone in Kintampo, Nkoranza, Wenchi, Afram Plains, and Damongo.188 The current forest degradation rate in Ghana is over 3% annually, and some predictions suggest that fuelwood consumption will surpass 25 million MT by 2020.189

• Illegal logging is recognized to be widespread in Ghana. A 2008 study estimates the overall illegal logging rate to be around 70%, and that most (75%) of the illegal logging is accounted for by the informal sector (chainsaw operators) who produce for the domestic market. Further, the study reveals that illegal logging is predominantly confined to the most valuable species, such as rosewood and mahogany, and to the reserved and protected forests. Consulted stakeholders consistently cited the rampant illegal extraction of rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus)—largely for export to China—from the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones; some stakeholders noted that rosewood had already been nearly extirpated in the Eastern Guinean forest zones.

OVERGRAZING Intense livestock grazing has led to significant habitat degradation and subsequent loss of local fauna and flora in Ghana.190 In a degraded forest, livestock overgrazing is a major problem for forest regeneration, while in savanna landscapes, overgrazing contributes to soil degradation, thus contributing to the cycle of land use degradation and change that ultimately affects Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. Consulted stakeholders also noted that grazing can lead to bush fires and, at times, wildfires, particularly during the dry season; dry grass is often burned to hasten regeneration of fresh grass as fodder for cattle.

https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of-emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana. 184 Kumapley, Philomena and Dumevi, Christopher. “Plant Species Selection for Charcoal Production: Dwindling Resource and Further Implications for the Environment.” Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, A 5, 2016, 484-488. 185 Nketiah K. S & Asante J. Estimating National Charcoal Production in Ghana. Tropenbos Ghana, 2018. 186 Anang, Benjamin Tetteh; Akuriba, Margaret Atosina; & Alerigesane, Aaron Adongo. “Charcoal production in Gushegu District, Northern Region, Ghana: Lessons for sustainable forest management.” 187 Ofori-Nyarko, Eric. “Woodfuels Use in Ghana: Social, Economic and Energy Dimensions.” Food and Agriculture Organization; retrieved July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/3/Y3198E/Y3198E05.htm. 188 Ghana Energy Commission, Woodfuel Use in Ghana: An Outlook for the Future? 2010. 189 Ibid. 190 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of-emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana


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However, as discussed in Section 6.1.1, such behaviors contribute to the increasing prevalence of wildfires eroding the landscape in both the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones.

ILLEGAL, UNREGULATED, AND UNREPORTED (IUU) FISHING IUU fishing activities significantly threaten marine and coastal biodiversity by affecting reproductive productivity, damaging spawning and breeding grounds, and contributing to unsustainable overfishing. IUU fishing in Ghana is perpetrated by nearly all fishing fleets, with industrial trawlers affecting the most significant adverse ecological and economic impacts. A major area of concern is fish transshipment, popularly called “saiko” fishing, which occurs when trawlers transship unwanted bycatch to artisanal canoes – often through pre-arranged transactions. Saiko fishing is particularly destructive due to the lack of restriction on the number of days trawlers can stay at sea; as such trawlers may stay at sea for over 40 days without filling the quota for their pre-determined catch. This illegal activity thus contributes significantly to the unsustainable overfishing that has brought Ghana’s small-pelagic fisheries to the brink of collapse (see Unsustainable Fishing, below). Further, the recent illegal incursion of trawlers into Ghana’s inshore waters is leading to destruction of the fragile sea floor and breeding grounds of several fish species. This destruction, coupled with the harvest of the juveniles of valuable commercial fishes (nearly 60% of saiko landings are juvenile pelagic fishes), severely harms the replenishment capacity of the populations. Additionally, the establishment of a Bycatch Collectors Association (which pays taxes to the government) by approximately 80 canoe-owners represents a shadow formalization of the saiko practice.191 192

Higher demand for marine products is likewise driving illegal fishing by artisanal fishermen at landing sites all along the coast of Ghana.193 The use of unapproved nets, either larger than stipulated or monofilament nets, and small net mesh sizes to exploit juvenile fishes, present significant risk to Ghana’s increasingly fragile marine ecosystem. The use of small nets, for example, for certain species removes juveniles before they reach sexual maturity thus drastically affecting reproductive productivity and resulting in shifts in species composition overall. Illegalities and infractions include the use of light for fishing, use of poison and dynamites during fishing expeditions and the use of wrong mesh sizes; fishermen in the western and central coast use Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), detergent, petrol, carbide, and dynamite to fish and then preserve them in formalin before landing and selling to processors, while in western Ghana, fishermen often place light in the sea to attract fish, including juveniles, in high quantities.194 195 Artisanal fishermen are highly unregulated in the marine space, thus accounting for high growth in the number of canoes and corresponding overcapacity of the artisanal fishing sector generally (see “Unsustainable Fishing,” below). Given the various infractions by industrial and artisanal fishermen and fishing vessels, catch statistics as reported by the Fisheries Commission are

191 Asare, Cephas. Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: The “Saiko” Story. Hen Mpoano and BUSAC, Issue Brief, April 2017. 192 Environmental Justice Foundation. China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa: A spotlight on illegal practices within Ghana’s industrial trawl sector. EJF, London, United Kingdom, 2018. 193 Republic of Ghana. Fisheries Management Plan of Ghana: A National Policy for the Management of the Marine Fisheries Sector 2015-2019. Fisheries Commission, Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development, October 2015. 194 Illegal fishing practices are extensively discussed under “Unsustainable Fishing” in section 6.1. 195 Afoakwah, R., Osei, M. B. D., & Effah, E. A Guide on Illegal Fishing Activities in Ghana. USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project, April 2018. Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island.

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often inaccurate or grossly under reported. For instance, main landing sites for saiko fish are Elmina and Apam as against the designated Tema and Takoradi Ports as prescribed by law.

UNSUSTAINABLE FISHING In addition to the challenges presented by IUU fishing above, overcapacity and unsustainable artisanal fishing significantly threaten Ghana’s marine fisheries—and particularly the small pelagic fisheries. Records show that annual fish production has declined from 420,000 MT (in the late 1990s) to 203,000 MT (2014 records). Of this figure, four pelagic species (round and flat sardinella, anchovies, and mackerel) constitute about 80% of total small pelagic fish landings.196 Notwithstanding, the number of artisanal canoes increased from 8,000 to over 13,000 during this time, as has the size of artisanal canoes and fishing nets. The combined effect of these trends and the IUU activities described above is driving the small pelagic fish stocks to a brink of collapse, with extrapolations showing that if the current fishing capacity and effort remains unabated with an annual catch of 20,000 MT, Ghana’s small pelagic fish stocks will be totally depleted by 2020.197

Stakeholder consultations and site visits confirmed that declining fish stocks is economically burdening for fishermen and by extension coastal communities. Interactions with fishermen and processors indicate that although they are aware of the health implications of consuming fish caught using unauthorized methods, they feel they have limited choices or opportunities given the absence of alternative or supplementary livelihood vis-à-vis the depleting fish stocks. However, if enforcement agencies can effectively stop other forms of fishing illegalities, they may resort to fishing using the appropriate methods.

BUSHMEAT HUNTING Bushmeat hunting is a key threat to a variety of wildlife species in Ghana. Hunting is traditional to Ghanaian culture with bushmeat representing a significant source of protein for many living in rural areas.198 The most commonly hunted species are medium-sized mammals, such as forest antelopes and diurnal monkeys.199 However, improved hunting mechanisms, an increase in logging efforts, and weak enforcement has caused a spike in bushmeat consumption, posing a threat to most medium-sized mammals and large birds in Ghana.200 This uncontrolled hunting has significantly diminished the faunal diversity across the country. The drastic decline in fauna in these once thriving ecosystems has been coined “empty forest syndrome,” referring to the absence of animals in an otherwise healthy Ghanaian forest.201

Despite the threat to biodiversity, there is little effective government action in place to halt the lucrative bushmeat trade system. In the late 1990s, there were approximately 300,000 hunters in rural Ghana

196 Lazar, N., Yankson K., Blay, J., Ofori-Danson, P., Markwei, P., Agbogah, K., Bannerman, P., Sotor, M., Yamoah, K. K., Bilisini, W. B. Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP): Status of Ghana’s small pelagic stocks and recommendations to achieve sustainable fishing 2017. Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. April 2018. 197 Ibid. 198 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 199 Ibid. 200 Ibid. 201 Ibid.





hunting between 220,000 and 380,000 MT of bushmeat per year.202 The FC WD has attempted to issue licenses as a regulatory measure.203 However, lack of capacity and resources have done little to curb the bushmeat hunting overall.

6.1.3 POLLUTION

Pollution poses a significant threat to biodiversity in Ghana, particularly in the coastal wetlands and marine ecosystems.

MINING ACTIVITIES A principle source of pollution is galamsey, or illegal small-scale mining operations in Ghana; these operations cause pollution of surface and groundwater through inputs of heavy metals, oils, and sediments. These polluted water sources affect the food chain, impair ecosystem services, and impact the health of thousands of people.204

SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE INFILTRATING/OVERLOADING NATURAL SYSTEMS (PARTICULARLY WETLANDS AND INSHORE MARINE WATERS) Beyond effective protection in parts of Ghana’s Ramsar sites, the condition of Ghana’s lagoons and other coastal wetlands is progressively worsening. Consultations and site visits indicate that a significant cause of this degradation is the introduction of solid and liquid waste into wetland systems. Coastal wetlands near municipalities and settlement areas are frequently used as dumping grounds for household and commercial solid waste, and in some cases for septic pump-out. Solid waste may be dumped simply for convenience, or as part of a deliberate infill strategy by abutters. Where constructed and natural drainage systems exist, waste from municipalities and settlement areas is still often offloaded to wetlands, when proximate. Drains discharge a mix of solid waste (particularly plastics/packaging and organics) and sewage, with petroleum products and chemicals also included when the drained area includes lorry parks, mechanical shops, and light industry. Ghana has limited wastewater collection and even more limited treatment; it is not uncommon to find untreated liquid waste discharged directly into wetlands or the sea in major urban centers. With only 4 out of 35 institutional treatment plants operational, serving about 200 trucks daily, only 1% of the sewage generated in Ghana is treated.205

Currently, only 2% of domestic and industrial waste generated is recycled as un-engineered landfilling is the dominant waste treatment and disposal method.206

Near-surface groundwater in coastal settlements is typically biologically and chemically contaminated, and this near-surface groundwater is hydrologically connected with adjacent wetlands. This type of pollution combines with chemical/metal pollution from mining activities (above), and agrochemicals (below) and infill to create a complex set of threats. (See Section 5.1.3 regarding Ghana’s legal framework for wetland conservation and management.)

202 Ntiamoa-Baidu, Yaa. Wildlife and Food Security in Africa: “Chapter 3.1.3: Bushmeat Trade.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1997. 203 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 204 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 205 Badoe, C (2014). “The challenges of waste management in Ghana: EPA’s perspective.” Todaygh.com, July 8, 2014. 206 Ansah, K. “Zoomlion to build waste treatment plants across Ghana.” Starrfm.com.gh, 22 June 2019, retrieved from: https://starrfm.com.gh/2019/06/zoomlion-to-build-waste-treatment-plants-across-ghana/.


https://www.todaygh.com/challenges-waste-management-ghana-epas-perspective/

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Near-shore marine waters in the vicinity of municipalities and major settlement areas are likewise significantly contaminated with sewage, organic waste, and plastics. These materials enter the sea from surface drains, lagoons, river and wetland outflows, and deliberate shore dumping, which was observed even in fishing communities where complaints and concern regarding plastic pollution is common. In one consultation a fisherman noted that it is not uncommon for seine hauls to include significant amounts of plastics—in some cases to the exclusion of fish.

The coastal wetlands and productive sea floor have important biodiversity value in their own right,but are also ecologically linked to the marine fisheries. The small pelagics (round and flat sardinella, chub mackerel, and anchovies) that are the targets of Ghana’s artistinal fisheries are migratory, with research indicating that populations seek preferred environmental conditions, particularly water temperature (e.g. ~21C for sardinella) and high primary and secondary productivity.207 Primary and secondary productivity are significantly adversely impacted by nutrient loading and other pollution, turbidity, and fouling of the productive seafloor. Thus, fouling of wetlands and inshore marine environments is a threat to this fishery, although this threat is currently poorly quantified208 and secondary to overfishing. In addition, some small pelagics (particularly sardinella) are found in lagoons,209 indicating that an unknown portion of these populations are directly impacted by conditions in these waters. The ecological linkage is even stronger for the industrial trawl fishery (grouper, snapper, cuttlefish, octopus), as the target species have a direct dependence on the productive sea floor (e.g., sea grass beds for spawning), and food chain links to the wetlands may exist as well.210

MISUSE (INCLUDING OVERUSE) OF AGROCHEMICALS In addition to challenges with domestic and industrial waste described above, agricultural and agrochemical waste are major contributors to coastal wetland pollution. Inflows of agricultural waste increases the organic loading of coastal waters and the BOD, leading to inadequate oxygen supply to support plant and animal life.211 In an assessment of ecological health of coastal aquatic ecosystems, concentrations of nitrates and phosphates were found to be significantly higher than the recommended World Health Organization (WHO) standards.212

Additionally, the widespread usage of agrochemicals—while importantly contributing to increased food supply and nutrition—is also presenting substantial harm to the environment more generally. Indiscriminate and inappropriate use of agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers may result in significant reduction in the population of flora and fauna, with water bodies, fish, vegetables, food, soil and

207 Brochier Timothéeet al. “Complex small pelagic fish population patterns arising from individual behavioral responses to their environment.” Progress in Oceanography. Vol 164, May–June 2018, 12-27. 208Entsua-Mensah, M. “The Contribution of Coastal Lagoons to the Continental Shelf Ecosystem of Ghana” in The Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem: Environmental Forcing & Sustainable Development of Marine Resources. McClade JM et al, eds. Elsevier Science B.V. 2002. 209 Okyere, Isaac; Aheto, DW; and Aggrey-fynn, J. “Comparative ecological assessment of biodiversity of fish communities in three coastal wetland systems in Ghana” European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2011, 1 (2): 178–188 210 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 211 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 212 Larbi, L., Nukpezah, D., Mensah, A., and Appeaning-Addo, K. 2018. “An Integrated Assessment of the Ecological Health Status of Coastal Aquatic Ecosystems of Ada in Ghana.” West African Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 26(1), 2018: 89 – 107.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661117303737


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sediment have been found to be pesticide contaminated.213 The excessive use of pesticides has contributed to the destruction of useful insects, including pollinators.214 Vegetables (cultivated all over the country) and cash crops like cocoa and citrus (cultivated in the Eastern Guinean forest) are the crops most commonly treated with pesticides. Studies indicate that more than half (58%) of farmers have not received agricultural extension education on safe handling and use of pesticides.215

Additionally, indiscriminate disposal of used agrochemical containers poses health and ecological risks e.g., land degradation and surface water pollution.216 A 2015 assessment of farmer pesticide use at an irrigation scheme in the Greater Accra Region indicated common use of herbicides and insecticides and minimal use of fungicides; the assessment further revealed that approximately two-thirds of applicable farmers improperly disposed of empty containers, throwing them into nearby bushes.217

6.1.4 CLIMATE CHANGE

Rising temperatures and declining and increasingly variable rainfall are key factors contributing to changes to Ghana’s ecological zones, loss of flora and fauna, and an overall reduction in ecological productivity.218 The increasing frequency of droughts directly reduces biodiversity, while low levels of rainfall combined with high temperatures and winds exacerbate bush fires—themselves a major threat to tropical forests and biodiversity as discussed in Section 6.1.1.

Rising sea surface temperatures alter migratory patterns and reproductive cycles of key species such as anchovies and sardines, contributing to the potential collapse of Ghana’s small-pelagic fisheries. Furthermore, the increased absorbance of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere has contributed to ocean acidification.219

Ghana’s vulnerability to climate change is largely defined by its exposure to various impacts of droughts, floods, and sea erosion.220 Historical data for Ghana from 1961-2000 show a progressive rise in temperature and a decrease in the mean annual rainfall in all agroecological zones.221 Climate change has exacerbated the problem of soil degradation. Increased rainfall variability increase the likelihood of droughts and other extreme climate events such as flooding and desertification, particularly in the northern regions of the country.222 Approximately 295 species of indigenous crop varieties have become endangered or near extinct as farmers increasingly resort to improved crop varieties in order to adapt to challenges from changing climatic conditions.223 Areas that are suitable for cocoa production lie

213 Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O. 2011. “Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review.” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 221-230. 214 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016, 215 Yaw Mensah Ofosu. “Pesticides Handling and Use in Four Selected Agro – Ecological Zones in Ghana.” Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology – Kumasi, November 2013. 216 Sambay Enterprise. Final ESIS - Proposed Rice Farming Project at Biu in the Kassena Nankana Municipal, UE/R, 2017. 217 Mattah, M.M., Mattah, P.A. D., and Futagbi, G., 2015. “Pesticide Application among Farmers in the Catchment of Ashaiman Irrigation Scheme of Ghana: Health Implications.” Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2015, pp 7. 218 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 219 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 220 UNEP/UNDP. CC Dare: National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. November 2012. 221 Ibid. 222 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 223 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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primarily along the coast and are contracting as temperatures rise, floods increase, and soil salinization and coastal erosion continue. As interannual rainfall variability and the length of the growing season shortens, projections suggest that yield losses may become more severe.224 Taken together, climate change thus indirectly impacts the ability of economic sectors to provide adequate income and services to the population, which translates into unsustainable harvesting of natural resources and negative impacts on biodiversity.225

6.1.5 INVASIVE SPECIES

Globally, invasive alien species threaten biological diversity and impose significant economic costs and losses e.g. in the areas of agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. They are a major driver of biodiversity loss: “Analysis of the IUCN Red List shows [invasive species] are the second most common threat to extinction of a species and, in the case of amphibians, reptiles and mammals, the most common cause.”226 These global problems are fully represented in Ghana, as evidenced by the following indicative examples:227 Aquatic Invasive Species: (i) floating invasive water weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes); and (ii) submerged weeds such as Vallisneria spiralis/gigantea and Ceratophyllum demersum have significant adverse impacts on the Oti River, the Tano-Abby Lagoon Complex, the Kpong Head pond and Lower Volta River—blocking water channels, increasing sedimentation, reducing water volume and impairing water quality. The presence of large swathe of floating invasive weeds has led to significant reduction in the population of the Volta clam (Galatea paradoxa).228

Terrestrial Invasive Species: Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifer)—deliberately introduced in Ghana in 1969 by the Forest Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG)Pra-Anum and Afram Headwaters Forest Reserves.229 Neem (Azacdiracta Indica) likewise outcompetes and threatens indigenous species.

Witch-weed (Striga hermonthica) is a parasitic plant attaching to the roots of cereals and legumes and depriving them of nutrients, with significant adverse effects on crop yields, adding to pressures for agricultural extensification; it is widespread in northern Ghana.

Invasive animal pests that pose challenges in the agricultural sector include the larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus) on grains and cereals, fall armyworm (fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) on 224 2015 USAID FCMC Project. Mangrove Reserves in Five West African Countries. Citing Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011a). “Global distribution of mangroves forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” In Supplement to: Giri et al. (2011b). Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/21. 225 UNEP/UNDP. CC Dare: National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. November 2012. 226 Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International. Invasive Species: The hidden threat to sustainable development. CABI, n.d. 227 In addition to the cited examples, invasive plant species in Ghana include: Alien trees—Cecropia peltata, Cedrelaodorata, Gmelina arborea, Leucaena leucocephala, Senna siamea and Tectona grandis; woody shrubs—Calotropis procera, Jatropha curcas, J. gossypiifolia and Ricinus communis; climbing shrubs: Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara; herbs and small shrubs—Canna indica, Catharanthus roseus, Hyptis suavolens, Senna hirsuta, S. obtusifolia, S. occidentalis and Triumfetta sp; and water plants—Minosa pigra and Pistia stratiotes. IUCN/PACO (2013). Invasive plants affecting protected areas of West Africa. Management for reduction of risk for biodiversity. Ouagadougou, BF: IUCN/PACO. https://papaco.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Invasive-plants-study.pdf 228 Republic of Ghana. Invasive Alien Species Policy (Draft). Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology & Innovation, December 2014. 229 Bosu, Paul P & Apetorgbor, Mary M. “Broussonetia papyrifera in Ghana: Its Invasiveness, Impact and Control Attempts.” Biology and Forest Health Division, Forestry Research Institute of Ghana.



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multiple crops, the cassava mealy bug (Phenacoccus manihoti) on cassava and the giant land snails (Achatina fulica). These similarly add to pressures for agricultural extensification, and to mis-use of agricultural chemicals.

6.2 INDIRECT THREATS (DRIVERS) TO BIODIVERSITY

Per the Best Practices Guide, a driver is “constraint, opportunity or other important variable that positively or negatively influences direct threats.” There are many factors driving the threats identified above, but the most significant and influential drives in the country are as follows:

• Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization; • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient of knowledge of -- sustainable management practices for

traditional livelihoods; • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Road improvements and infrastructure development; • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure and insufficient land-use planning; • Poor sanitation and waste management systems; • Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives.

Each of these drivers affects numerous threats.

6.2.1 POPULATION GROWTH, INTERNAL MIGRATION, EXPANSION OF EXISTING SETTLEMENTS, AND URBANIZATION

Population growth is one of the key underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana.230 Between 1960 and 2017, the population of Ghana more than tripled from 6.6 million to 28.7 million, averaging 3.3% annually.231 From 1950 to 2016, population density rose from 28.6 people per square kilometer (km2) to 103.4 people per km2. 232 Increases in population density between 1984 and 2019 have been concentrated in the Greater Accra, Central, Ashanti, and Upper East Regions; as illustrated by Figure 7, this corresponds to major growth of urban centers in these regions. The most obvious land cover changes in Ghana results from expansion of agricultural land use across the country, especially in the Northeast, East Central and Southwestern regions.233

230 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 231 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019 232 Twerefou, D.K; Chinowsky, P; Adjei-Mantey, K; Strzepek, NL. “The Economic Impact of Climate Change on Road Infrastructure in Ghana.” Sustainability, 2015, 7, 11949-11966. 233 “Land Use, Land Cover, and Trends in Ghana.” USGS. Accessed July 24, 2019 from https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land-cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana.





Figure 7. Population Density Change in Ghana from 1984-2019, by Region

Population growth coupled with high levels of economic growth have increased domestic wood consumption and domestic and export demand for agricultural commodities such as cocoa, oil palm, cashew, and food crops.234 Rapid population growth has resulted in the degradation both on- and off-reserve areas due to expanding settlements, agricultural expansion, and other developmental projects.235, 236

234 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 235 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 236 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.




Over the past 20 years, Ghana’s urban population has increased at rates significantly above total population growth, driven heavily by rural-to-urban migration spurred by economic growth, commercialization, industrialization, and globalization. 237, 238 Figure 8 illustrates this growth between 2000 and 2015. From 1,460 km2 in 1975, urban areas have expanded to 3,830 km2

in 2013, a 161% increase.239 Rapid urbanization, increase in industrial activities, and insufficient sanitation and waste management systems (Section 6.2.8) have resulted in environmental pollution (Section 6.1.3).240 Additionally, per the 2010 census, urban demand for charcoal and fuelwood remain high, as approximately 50% and 25% respectively; the majority of charcoal production is thus to meet urban—rather than rural--demand. Additionally, as of 2010 about half of Ghanaians lived in urban centers, and this figure is expected to reach 70% by 2050. The urban population is highly

concentrated in Ghana’s major cities, namely Accra, Kumasi, and Tamale.241 A whole quarter of the population lives along the coast in expanding urban areas, such as Accra, and unchecked urbanization has led to an ”urban sprawl” and increases in the size and numbers of informal settlements.242 It is estimated that about 20% of Ghana’s urban population live in slums. The population of slum-dwellers living in

237 Addae, Bright & Oppelt, Natascha. “Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Analysis and Urban Growth Modelling in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana.” Urban Science, 2019, 3, 26. 238 Ibid. 239 “Land Use, Land Cover, and Trends in Ghana.” USGS. Accessed July 24, 2019 from https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land-cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana. 240 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 241 Addae, Bright & Oppelt, Natascha. “Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Analysis and Urban Growth Modelling in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana.” Urban Science, 2019, 3, 26. 242 Ibid.

Figure 8. Cropland and Urban Growth in Ghana 2000-2015





Accra, Tema-Ashaiman, Kumasi, Tamale, and Takoradi was estimated in 2001 to be 500,000; this reached 6,418,580 by 2014.243

6.2.2 DISINCENTIVE TO APPLY—OR INSUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGE OF—SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS

Stakeholders consulted noted that despite increasing awareness about sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods such as agriculture, artisanal fishing, and livestock, application of these best practices often remains a challenge. Resource extraction is deeply rooted in traditional and cultural practices and therefore requires extensive, carefully planned and continuous behavioral change communication, education, and technical assistance to achieve sustainable progress. At the community level, many actors perceive – or have experienced – that benefits derived from sustainable management practices can often discourage adoption for those with limited livelihood options and poor food security. For some, knowledge on sustainable management practices in traditional livelihoods is simply limited.

Consequently, continued application of unsustainable land and water management practices due to the lack of adequate incentives, knowledge, or capacity helps drive decreasing agricultural and fishing yields, soil fertility loss, forest degradation and loss, and the preponderance of wildfires experienced in the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones. Poor agricultural practices such as total clearing of vegetation and burning, poor—or absence of—proper mechanization, improper and unsafe application of agrochemicals are examples of practices that directly or indirectly harm Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. For instance, farmers indicated that limited knowledge of proper techniques for management tree plantings within agricultural systems served as a barrier to the development of tree stock on farms.244 Additionally, stakeholders suggested that lack of confidence in dry season land (and wildfire) management discouraged long-term investment by farmers in their land (including application of improved agricultural management practices). The rotational bush fallow system characterized by clearing and burning of vegetative cover, is the dominant farming system throughout Ghana.245 This clearing and burning normally destroys vegetative cover and make the soil susceptible to erosion and leaching.246

6.2.3 LIMITED SUPPLEMENTAL OR ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS

Ghana’s poverty rate is closely tied to the lack of supplemental or alternative livelihoods that allow the poor to break free of economic constraints. The Northern, Savanna, North East, Upper East, and Upper West regions continue to have the country’s highest poverty rates,247 and poverty is most prevalent among households headed by food-crop farmers and those self-employed in agriculture, at

243 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 244 Oduro, K. A., Arts, B. J. M., Kyereh, B., & Mohren, G. M. J. 2018. “Farmers’ Motivations to Plant and Manage On-Farm Trees in Ghana.” Small-scale Forestry, 2018 17(3), 393–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-018-9394-5. 245 Asuming-Brempong, S., Botchie, G., and Seini, W. “Socio economic analysis and the roles of agriculture in developing countries. Country case study Ghana.” FAO roles of agriculture project, ISSER, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra. 246 Kissinger, G., Herold, M. and De Sy, V., 2012, Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: A Synthesis Report for REDD+ Policymakers. Lexeme Consulting, Vancouver Canada, January 2012. 247 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016.


https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-018-9394-5

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about 46%and 39% in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Further, those in informal employment have higher rates of absolute poverty than those employed in the public and private formal sectors.248

Falling productivity of agriculture and fisheries throughout the country have forced many Ghanaians to shift their employment and livelihood strategies, and survey data show increasing diversification into non-farm activities and migration.249 Under conditions of poverty and unemployment, most alternative work involves little pay or subsistence. However, declining land yields have induced a widespread increase in non-farm activities to generate a complementary source of earnings, such as tree cropping and the production of charcoal as well as illicit practices such as galamsey, logging, poaching, and other activities that cause serious threats to ecosystems.250 251 It is estimated that 5,000 to 6,000 people are engaged in regular hunting, with an average income from hunting of around USD 1,000 per year, increasing pressure on rare wildlife species.252 In areas with lower population pressure and relatively greater availability of fertile virgin land—such as the Jirapa district in the Upper West region--households are still inclined to migrate due to the lack of (typically more profitable) non-farm livelihoods;253 as discussed in Section 6.2.1, this also drives many of the threats to Ghana’s tropical forests and biodiversity.

Beyond agriculture, other land changes have caused disruptions in employment, especially in Ghana’s fisheries. Dam construction combined with population pressures in the Volta Basin has led riparian communities to move away from fishing due to decreasing fish catch. Similar to what is observed in northern Ghana regarding those moving away from—or supplementing—agriculture, fishermen are engaging in activities such as fuelwood harvesting, charcoal burning, palm wine tapping, local gin distilling, mat weaving, sand extraction, and stone quarrying as alternative or supplemental forms of income. These activities are extractive in nature and thus increase pressure upon increasingly scarce, locally available resources.254

6.2.4 ROAD AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Infrastructure is a necessary part of development, especially when associated with a growing human population. However, it can have significant impacts on the environment when environmental concerns are not addressed before, during, and after construction. Hydroelectric dams, such as the Akosombo and Kpong Dams on Lake Volta, have indisputably altered the biodiversity and ecology of the Volta River and adjacent areas.255 256 Prior to damming, the Volta River supported a substantial local fishery, and the Volta Basin as an ecosystem functioned primarily for food production, flood protection, water

248 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 249 Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13. 250 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 251 Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13. 252 Addae, Bright & Oppelt, Natascha. “Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Analysis and Urban Growth Modelling in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana.” Urban Science, 2019, 3, 26. 253 Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13. 254 Amevenku, F.K.Y et al. “Determinants of livelihood strategies of fishing households in the Volta Basin, Ghana.” Cogent Economics & Finance, 2019, 7: 1595291. 255 World Wildlife Fund. “Infrastructure: Overview.” Accessed 20 August 2019 from https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/infrastructure. 256 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.


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https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/infrastructure



infiltration, and groundwater recharge. The Akosombo dam resulted in habitat modifications and resource decline, which worsened with the formation of the Kpong dam. These two dams have resulted in activities such as fuelwood harvesting, palm wine tapping, local gin distilling, matt weaving, sand winning (i.e., extraction of sand from shores and river beds), and stone quarrying—all of which are extractive in nature and depend on the (diminishing) availability of the locally available resource.257

Studies have found linear infrastructure such as pipelines and powerlines, to be “ubiquitous and responsible for loss, fragmentation, and alteration of habitat across diverse ecosystems” globally;258 the full extent of this issue in Ghana is unclear. Al the same, construction of new pipelines and powerlines will be part of Ghana’s development of oil and gas resources, and efforts to increase access to electricity; this will involve clearing of vegetation, the removal or degradation of soil, and the removal or serious diminishment of biodiversity on the site. Furthermore, tall vegetation is continually removed to prevent interference with power lines.259 New logging roads provide easier access to formerly remote areas and allow hunters to move deeper into the forests, leading them to shoot significantly more game to feed growing numbers of logging crews or for sale in city markets. As a result, bushmeat hunting (Section 6.1.2) has now reached epidemic levels in Ghana’s Eastern Guinean Forest region and is a major driver behind the absence of wild animals in otherwise intact forest.260 Furthermore, new roads can open increased land for further penetration of galamsey activities (Section 6.1.1).

6.2.5 INADEQUATE IMPLEMENTATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF EXISTING LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Implementation and enforcement of existing forestry, wildlife, and fisheries laws and regulations is challenging throughout Ghana. Managers of FC’s WD often lack the vehicles or resources to effectively monitor poaching of endangered wildlife, encroachment, and illegal developments in wetlands. Consultations routinely revealed anecdotes such as enforcement officials lacking the necessary weapons and vehicles to arrest perpetrators of illegal activities (e.g., sand mining, galamsey). While the current administration is targeting anti-corruption, such efforts have had mixed results (e.g., the new anti-corruption investigator’s mandate and authorities are unclear thus limiting their effectiveness.261)

In the forestry sector, the 2016 – 2036 Forestry Development Master Plan explicitly recognizes weak enforcement of legislation and regulations as an inherent internal weakness, despite a well-established set of laws and regulations. As with wildlife, limited funding and inadequate supply of requisite field equipment undermine enforcement against forest and wildlife offenses in PAs. Consulted stakeholders cited numerous factors undermining enforcement, including insufficient commitment by government officials; political interference (including phone calls by politically influential actors to encourage inaction rather than enforcement); corruption among governmental staff and security agencies responsible for oversight; non-deterrent penalties for offenders by the judiciary; long trial periods for offenders; and

257 Amevenku, F.K.Y et al. “Determinants of livelihood strategies of fishing households in the Volta Basin, Ghana.” Cogent Economics & Finance, 2019, 7: 1595291. 258 Richardson, ML; Wilson, BA; Aiuto, D.A.S.; Crosby, JE; Alonso, A; Dallmeier, F; & Golinski G.K. “A review of the impact of pipelines and power lines on biodiversity and strategies for mitigation.” Biodiversity Conservation, April 2017, 26:1801-1815. 259 Ibid. 260 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 261 Wilhelm, Jan Philipp. “Even with a Slow Start Ghana’s President Akufo-Addo is fulfilling election promises.” Mail and Guardian, 11 December 2017, retrieved July 2019 from https://mg.co.za/article/2017-12-11-even-with-a-slow-start-ghanas-president-akufo-addo-is-fulfilling-election-promises.


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insufficient public buy-in to comply with existing laws and regulations (see Section 6.2).262 Consultations further provided numerous anecdotes of political party supporters or community groups threatening enforcement of forestry laws through physical intimidation or assault, or political influence.

Stakeholder consultations underscore that similar challenges confront the fisheries industry. Ghana’s constitution stipulates that “all natural resources should be invested in commissions,” thus placing management of all fisheries resources under the Fisheries Commission. However, the establishment of the MoFAD has created difficulties with regards to delineated roles and responsibilities, implementation of policies, and enforcement of regulation. As the Fisheries Commission is yet to achieve autonomy, this concern will be addressed in the legal review of the fisheries law, which is ongoing at the time of writing. Beyond the institutional challenges highlighted above, limited personnel, lack of necessary equipment, political interference, open access fisheries, and low political will to alter the status quo all undermine and weaken enforcement. As with forestry officials, political intimidation is also used as a tool to punish enforcement, with one consultation noting a fisheries enforcement unit officer within the marine police was transferred to direct traffic following an altercation with a politician over seizure of an illegal fishing net.

Exacerbating challenges with enforcement officials is a cross-cutting lack of understanding or application of the governing legal or regulatory requirements. Collectively, insufficient prosecution, lengthy trialing periods, and limited judicial capacity to support environmental law enforcement, undermine the effectiveness of the penal system in discouraging environmental crimes.

6.2.6 INSUFFICIENT PUBLIC BUY-IN

Successful implementation of Natural Resource Management (NRM) law and policy must rely in part on a willingness to comply, and the willingness of communities and those on the ground to report violators. This is particularly true in contexts such as Ghana, where government surveillance and monitoring capacity or implementation are limited. Such public buy-in rests in substantial part on both (1) an understanding of the importance and value of the ecosystem services provided by the resources being managed (greatly enhanced by direct derivation of benefits from NRM activities) and (2) the belief that acting with probity (to comply oneself, to report violators) will not incur adverse consequences. In Ghana, stakeholder consultations strongly indicate that such understanding is generally weak, and there is little faith that acting honestly is rewarded.

Stakeholder consultations instead routinely highlighted that resource users, government officials outside specialist departments, and the general public have limited understanding of (a) the importance of ecosystem services and (b) the impact of forest and ecosystem degradation on these services. In many cases, it was also noted that awareness of the requirements of law or policy was poor. For example, FC WD regional and site managers, district planning officers, multiple NGOs, and community representatives noted that wetlands are commonly viewed as wastelands, with very limited understanding of (1) the role and importance of mangroves and other wetlands in fisheries, flood control and water purification, and (2) the policies and regulations that govern activities in wetlands.

262 Asare, Rebecca Ashley; Osafo, Yaw; Richards, Michael; Hawkins, Slayde; Mason, John; & Olander, Jacob. Implications of the Legal and Policy Framework for Tree and Forest Carbon in Ghana: REDD Opportunities Scoping Exercise. Forest Trends/Katoomba Group, June 2010.

https://www.forest-trends.org/wp-content/uploads/imported/rose-study-legal-analysis_2010_8-31-10-pdf.pdf



Conversely, every example of successful community resource management and restoration encountered—and there were several--included a significant education and behavior change communication (BCC) component, which was cited both by community members and those providing technical or financial support as critical to the success of the effort. Stakeholders consulted noted appreciable improvements in areas where communities received targeted educational and logistical support to implement conservation initiatives. Similarly, successful interventions generally incorporated recognition of the importance of community-derived direct benefits from any proposed natural resource management efforts; it was also commonly observed that in most of the areas where dramatic improvements were recorded in resource management, key leaders and traditional authorities were vitally involved in the process.

If communities or individuals are to refrain from exploiting resources in compliance with the law, they must have a reasonable belief that the resource will not simply be exploited by another actor. Given systemic weaknesses in enforcement described in Section 6.2.5, above, another consistent theme of the stakeholder consultations was that such belief is frequently not reasonable. This was cited with respect to naturally growing trees on agricultural lands, protection of mangroves, and use of compliant gear in fishing activities, among others. Importantly, consultations revealed examples to the contrary as well—such as a Western Region paramount chief ordering the arrest of a sub-chief for attempting to log wood in an off-limits forest area; in this case, the clear derivation of benefits from resource management ensured appropriate enforcement of laws (with the matter ultimately settled out of court).

6.2.7 CHALLENGES PRESENTED BY LAND TENURE AND INSUFFICENT LAND-USE PLANNING

Traditional land tenure and land ownership systems in Ghana present unique challenges with regards to NRM. In southern Ghana, customary landowners typically have extended kinship/inheritance to the land. At times, landowners may be founders in the area, or perceived as such, and thus granted privileged land access. Customary landowners will then form productive agreements with smallholder farmers, often under abuno arrangements, where the smallholder farmer will manage the land, almost always planting cocoa, and—after approximately 5 years—the farmer will get half ownership. However, increasing land pressure and often insufficiently formal arrangements can lead to contention over matters such as how much land is granted or the duration for which such agreements should persist. In turn, incentives for smallholder farmers regarding the potential to benefit from long-term sustainable management of the land are undermined, discouraging sound agricultural or silvicultural management practices and contributing to a cycle of agricultural expansion, forest degradation, and soil fertility loss. Further, existing tree tenure legislation in Ghana grants no derivation of benefits to the farmers managing farms on behalf of the customary landowners. Consequently, farmers often fully clear land to maximize short-term silvicultural production, ultimately undermining soil fertility and likewise contributing to the above-described cycle. In northern Ghana, while customary land ownership follows inheritance, traditional authorities such as Chieftaincies remain more prominent in making determinations over land use. Consultations suggested that these practices did less to directly discourage sustainable land use management practices, though other challenges—including corrupt chiefs or landowners, poor agricultural management practices, and dry season wildfires—ultimately contributed to similar cycles of agricultural expansion, land clearing, and soil fertility loss.

Throughout the country, localized land use planning is severely limited, despite the2016 National Land Use and Spatial Planning Framework calling for district level Land Use and Spatial Plans by 2019.


Stakeholders suggested that DAs and traditional authorities typically failed to coordinate effectively on such matters, though they noted that, should such coordination be supported, effective land use planning could be accomplished. Insufficient land use planning can drive conflict between—and unsustainable resource utilization by—farmers, herdsmen, and other land users. For example, research and consultations highlight instances of disagreement over estranged tenure arrangements and resultant land use tensions between Fulani (non-Ghanaian) herdsmen263 and traditional authorities and/or landowners. Such conflicts are often further fueled by widespread perception among community members that chiefs sell lands indiscriminately and are corrupt,264 making law enforcement difficult; oftentimes the traditional authorities or politicians are the actual owners of the cattle creating conflict, further challenging enforcement.

6.2.8 POOR SANITATION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Rural sanitation and waste management in Ghana are poor, but this has a relatively low impact on biodiversity (though significant impacts on human health). Poor sanitation and waste management in cities and larger towns, particularly in coastal areas, are another matter, contributing significantly to pollution of wetlands, and near-shore marine waters.

While some recent significant upgrades to municipal solid waste (MSW) and sewerage collection and treatment have been made in Ghana,265 particularly in the largest cities, collection and treatment rates remain notably low (see 6.1.3): surface drains and rivers continue to carry significant raw sewerage and solid waste, open dumping at the coast remains prevalent, and it is not uncommon to see MSW used for deliberate fill of wetlands, in most cases apparently by abutters.

The situation results from the lack of waste management infrastructure and equipment, poor community/neighborhood sanitation practices, and under-developed and under-funded sanitation and waste management systems in larger towns and cities. The United Nations’ Children Fund notes: “There is no clear urban basic sanitation strategy and plan in Ghana. Various approaches and interventions in urban basic sanitation are not effectively coordinated and monitored”266 (emphasis added).

6.2.9 INADEQUATE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE ENERGY ALTERNATIVES

Ghana’s power generation mix is primarily comprised of hydropower (38%; predominantly from the Akosombo dam) and thermal power (61%). Solar power represents less than 1%.267 As of 2017, energy access in Ghana is estimated to be as high as 79%,268 though grid electricity remains erratic—with prolonged energy crises between 2012 and 2016 as a result of variable rainfall and high dependence on hydropower. In urban areas, energy access is estimated to be 90% of the population, however in rural

263 Kuusaana, Elias Danyi and Bukari, Kaderi Noagah. “Land conflicts between smallholders and Fulani pastoralists in Ghana: Evidence from the Asante Akim North District (AAND).” Journal of Rural Studies, 42, 2015, 52e62. 264 Ibid. 265 Ahmed, I., Ofori-Amanfo, D., Awuah, E. and Cobbold, F. 2018. “Performance Assessment of the Rehabilitated Mudor Sewage Treatment Plant at James Town Accra-Ghana.” Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 10, 725-739. 266 “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene.” Accessed 2 August 2019 from https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene. 267 African Development Bank (AfDB). Republic of Ghana: Country Strategy Paper (CSP) 2019-2023. West Africa Development and Business Delivery Office (RDGW), June 2019. 268 World Bank Group. “Access to electricity (% of population).” Accessed on August 27, 2019 from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=GH.

http://www.udsspace.uds.edu.gh/bitstream/123456789/479/1/LAND%20CONFLICTS%20BETWEEN%20SMALLHOLDERS%20AND%20FULANI%20PASTORALISTS%20IN%20GHANA%20_%20EVIDENCE%20FROM%20THE%20ASANTE%20AKIM%20NORTH%20DISTRICT%20%28AAND%29.pdf


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areas it remains notably lower, at 67%. Additionally, as of 2016 only 21.7% of the national population were believed to have access to clean fuels and cooking technologies.269

These statistics align with stakeholder consultations, which reported that lack of access to affordable alternatives to fuelwood or charcoal drive continued widespread use of those resources and, in turn, the unsustainable harvest of wood required to keep up with demand. Based on 2003 and 2010 surveys, Ghana’s Energy Commission anticipated steadily growing demand for charcoal between 2009 and 2019.270 Further, data collected by the Energy Commission indicate that use of biomass energy is nearly as prevalent as use of petroleum-based energy (largely natural gas).

269 Sustainable Energy for All. Country Data. Ghana. 2019. Accessed on August 27, 2019 from: https://www.se4all-africa.org/seforall-in-africa/country-data/ghana/ 270 Energy Commission of Ghana. National Energy Statistics 2009-2018. Strategic Planning and Policy Directorate. April 2019.

https://www.se4all-africa.org/seforall-in-africa/country-data/ghana/d


http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/ENERGY_STATISTICS--2019.pdf


7. ACTIONS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY The following table (Table 16) defines the actions necessary to effectively conserve and protect tropical forests and biodiversity in Ghana. The Analysis team believes these actions are necessary to realize sound and sustained conservation and management of Ghana’s extensive tropical forest and biodiversity. The actions are divided into two tiers: highest priority and high priority. This Analysis identifies actions necessary to strengthen conservation within Ghana for any potential actor and notes the actor or actors that may be best positioned to operationalize those actions. These actions necessary directly inform the analysis conducted in Section 8 which guides programming recommendations for USAID/Ghana developed in Section 9.

TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

TIER 1: HIGHEST PRIORITY

ACTION 1: STRENGTHEN NATURAL RESOURCE AND LAND USE GOVERNANCE (REGULATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND ACCOUNTABILITY) AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

GoG, private sector, and development partners working together to strengthen NRM enforcement with a focus on (1) surveillance capacity in forestry, mining and fisheries sectors and (2) reduction in political interference:

• Direct engagement between GoG, development partners, and (perhaps) private sector to develop strategy and implementation plans for addressing existing challenges presented by illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities;

• Strengthened enforcement—inclusive of equipment and training for enforcement officers—by FC to prevent or reduce on-reserve agriculture (particularly in forest and forest-savanna zones); and,

• Collaboration between MESTI, MLNR MC, and civil society to support Ghana’s adherence to Minamata Convention on Mercury.

● Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations

● Challenges presented by land tenure and insufficient land-use planning

● Poor sanitation and waste management systems

● Insufficient public buy-in

● Unsustainable wood harvesting

● Unsustainable fishing ● IUU fishing ● Unsustainable

agriculture and silviculture activities

● Pollution from mining activities

● Sedimentation and siltation of surface waters

GoG refining existing—or developing new--resource management and tenure legislation to incentivize sustainable management behaviors that encourage adoption of best management practices. Areas where opportunities exist for engagement include the following:

• Formalization of CREMAs in a manner that further empowers community


● Challenges presented by land tenure and insufficient land-use

● Unsustainable agriculture and silviculture activities





adoption by clarifying terms of management and ensuring community derivation of benefits from the protection of natural resources;

• Rectification of existing disincentives related to tree tenure policy (e.g., no ownership for planted or naturally growing trees on farmed areas); additionally, existing efforts to develop a tree registration system—which may prove bureaucratically difficult to execute—could be further evaluated to pursue simpler to implement solutions;

• Introduction of a rationalized wetlands management regime that clarifies responsible actors for oversight, strengthens protections and penalties for violation, and empowers enforcement of wetland areas; and,

• Adoption of a policy of no total/complete clearing of land for plantation establishment, instead requiring adherence to silviculture BMPs, including that remaining degraded forest cover is left intact and protected with establishment of new plantations.

planning ● Poor sanitation and waste

management systems ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Disincentive to apply—or

insufficient knowledge of—sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods

● Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization

Significant investment in municipal solid and liquid waste management systems by GoG and/or international donors to help reduce pressure on wetlands and near-shore marine ecosystems.

• Poor sanitation and waste management systems

• Solid and liquid waste infiltrating/ overloading natural systems

Strengthened regulation of industrial trawlers by GoG utilizing police, navy/military, with a focus on transparency to reduce political interference and achieve sustainable management of the fishery. This must address current gaps in equipment/technology to support enforcement.

• Targeted engagement with civil society actors and national media to help raise awareness about the threats facing the fisheries sector due to illegal trawling activities and the challenges in implementing and enforcing trawling activities, in turn encouraging more effective and transparent regulation of the trawling sector; and,

• More effective enforcement of existing restrictions (e.g., net sizes), and following effective regulation of the trawl sector, ending the open-access regime for the artisanal sector

• Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations

● IUU fishing ● Unsustainable fishing

Strengthened enforcement/application of ESIA requirements is required to better minimize or offset environment/social impacts of economic development (e.g., oil and

● Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and

● Oil and gas exploration




gas exploration, large and small-scale mining, road improvements and infrastructure development, forest plantations). Achieving such strengthened enforcement or application could entail the following:

• Dialogue between EPA, civil society, and GoG entities such as MLNR MC, Ministry of Planning, and Ministry of Energy to facilitate common objectives for enhanced application of ESIA requirements.

• Capacity building of NGOs and national media around environmental advocacy and journalism to strengthen in-country accountability mechanisms as additional support to EPA oversight of ESIA requirements.

• Enhanced application of land use planning and creation of stronger forms of support—via GoG, civil society, and/or development partners—to local/regional governance bodies in localized land use planning.

• Incorporation of silviculture BMPs in ESIA guidance and review standards.

regulations ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Road and infrastructure

development ● Challenges presented by land

tenure and insufficient land-use planning

● Population growth, internal migration, expansion of settlements, and urbanization

● Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities



● Solid and liquid waste infiltrating/ overloading natural systems


ACTION 2: PROVIDE TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ON SUSTAINABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS

Expansion of existing efforts—by GoG, civil society, and development partners—to strengthen the enabling environment and value chains for, and productivity of, agriculture and incorporate sustainable best management practices to help reduce existing pressures on soil fertility, land degradation, and loss of tree cover and forest density. Such efforts could include the following:

● Training on agricultural best practices that incorporate sustainable land use management practices such as climate smart agriculture, silviculture BMPs, agro-forestry initiatives, respect for riparian buffers, low-burn practices.

● Education and BCC focused on the benefits and opportunities provided by increased adoption of agro-forestry techniques, emphasizing multiple uses of forest products and benefits such as soil fertility, reduced erosion.

● Greatly enhanced education and behavior change intervention targeting traditional authorities, farmers, women and youth around pesticide safety/health hazard and safer use; this would need to incorporate demonstration on proper use as well as BCC programming designed to monitor shift in attitudes around handling, storage, use, and disposal of agrochemicals.

● Disincentive to apply—or insufficient knowledge of—sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods

● Insufficient public buy-in ● Inadequate implementation and

enforcement of existing laws and regulations



● Climate change ● Misuse (including

overuse) of agrochemicals




Continued training and capacity building delivered via academia, development partners, civil society, and GoG around sustainable fisheries management practices for marine fisheries. This could include the following:

● Expanding the reach of interventions demonstrating success in adoption of more sustainable practices.

● Working with communities living alongside coastal wetlands essential for fish reproduction / fish stock replenishment to: a) deliver education and BCC that underscores the ecosystem services delivered by those wetland areas; b) identifies livelihood generating activities that could supplement—or perhaps serve as alternative to—existing fishing practices; and c) work in coordination with traditional authorities and local government to establish CREMAs with formalized bylaws for community derivation of benefits from improved resource management.

● Providing civic advocacy support to communities affected by private sector oil + gas developers, particularly where oil + gas infrastructure is developed in ecologically sensitive wetland areas. Link to capacity building delivery for NGOs on civic advocacy and media outlets on environmental journalism.





● Road and infrastructure development


● IUU fishing ● Unsustainable fishing ● Sedimentation and

siltation of surface waters





Intensified delivery of technical assistance by GoG, development partners, and civil society on livestock best management practices to improve productivity of, reduce land use conflict around, and encourage quality-over-quantity approach to livestock handling and grazeland management. Such technical assistance could include the following:

• Training for cattle owners and herdsmen on best management practices in grazing area management.

• Supporting development and formalization of cattle owners and herdsmen associations. Capacity building targeting development implementation of effective, locally tailored by-laws with appropriate consensus across traditional authorities, DAs, and community leadership councils.

• Assistance in the development of localized land use and spatial plans that incorporate the establishment and demarcation of dedicated grazing corridors, as well as provision of water points for cattle grazing and watering.







● Overgrazing ● Climate change




ACTION 3: PROMOTE DISTRICT AND COMMUNITY LEVEL ENGAGEMENT IN FAMILY PLANNING, LAND USE PLANNING, AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Participatory engagement between development partners, civil society, and traditional and local governance authorities to map and enforce sustainable land use at the community/district level—operationalizing the framework currently in place—to reduce unsustainable resource utilization. Such support could focus on the following:

● Participatory engagement with communities in establishment or strengthening of CREMAs.

● Reforming lease arrangements to increase benefits derived by tenant farmers from cultivation.

● BCC on the benefits of natural resource management, land use planning, and family planning targeting all stakeholders engaged at the local governance and community levels.

● Community & DA sensitization, mobilization for drinking water source protection (surface and groundwater).

● Establishment and support of grazing committees. ● Establishment and demarcation of grazing corridors and establishment of

water points for cattle grazing and watering. ● At community/district levels, establishment of landscape \governing boards

who will discuss, plan and resolve landscape challenges including fire in an integrated manner.










● Overgrazing ● Wildfires ● Illegal and/or poorly

implemented mining activities

Collaboration between national governmental authorities (e.g., NAMDA, National Fire Service), traditional authorities, and DAs, with support from civil society, private sector, and development partners, to emphasize and support development of robust wildfire management systems that operate in participatory manner at the community level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and incorporate consensus on approach can help reduce prevalence of wildfires—particularly in savanna and forest-savanna transition zones. Focuses of wildfire management systems could include the following:

● Coordinated engagement with traditional authorities, local governance (e.g., DAs), NAMDA, National Fire Service (local branches) on (wild)fire management





● Wildfires ● Unsustainable

agriculture and silviculture activities

● Climate change




● Reduced attention on pure “no burn” practices, instead creating systems designed to allow for and effectively manage controlled, legal burning in permitted instances, with proper oversight entities engaged

● Understanding of existing community frustrations resulting from losses incurred in the face uncontrolled wildfires to encourage or increase buy-in (particularly in the face of cultural practices that will challenge adoption)

● Identification of high-value permanent crops that could be viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cashew, mango) and linking community level, de minimis incentives (e.g., seedlings for these high-value crops) upon realization of no-/low-fire dry seasons

● Community engagement to establish fire management plans, ultimately coordinated at district level (engagement at both community and district level must be participatory and coordinated)

● Development of fire danger index that can be readily transmitted to farmers (on regular basis; e.g., every 2 hours during high risk periods)

Focused, community/district-level family planning efforts in impoverished communities pursuing traditional but unsustainable livelihoods in vulnerable ecologies.

● Population growth, expansion of existing settlements




● Overgrazing ● Unsustainable fishing

ACTION 4: NURTURE NON-TRADITIONAL VALUE CHAINS WITH POTENTIAL FOR “GREEN” GROWTH AND INCOME GENERATION

Delivery of technical assistance by development partners and relevant GoG entities on sustainable/best management practices in non-traditional value chains such as shea, cashew, mango with unrealized economic potential in threatened areas and/or ecologically important areas (e.g., wildlife corridors) to discourage unsustainable resource extraction and reduce poor land use management practices. Such technical assistance could include the following:

● Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods

● Insufficient public buy-in ● Disincentive to apply—or insufficient

knowledge of—sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods

● Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws




● Overgrazing




● Be provided in coordination with land use planning and resource management regimes (e.g., CREMAs) that codify protection of key ecological areas

● Incorporate BCC elements that underscore the value of ecosystem conservation, and monitor shifts in behavior

and regulations ● Challenges presented by land tenure

and insufficient land-use planning

● Wildfires ● Illegal and/or poorly


Collaboration between GoG, civil society, and development partners in the identification, promotion, and training on best management practices for sustainable value chains of comparable economic value to unsustainable activities (e.g., charcoal production; artisanal fishing alternatives). Assistance could include the following: ● Promotion of-and training in best management practices for-cultivation of

permanent crops of high value (e.g., mango, cashew) that could be planted if there were less fire risk to increase motivation for increased protection/improved fire management; such support must be integrated with cross-sectional training on fire management and fire danger indices/warning systems.

● Identification and development of alternative building materials that reduce pressure on sand extraction at the coast

● Introduction of sustainable charcoal/wood fuel production models, such as community managed woodlots with fast-growing species (e.g., Acacia) cultivated on a rotation basis

● Identification and support of sustainable alternative/supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities with potential to yield near-term economic benefit.

● Creation of value chain linkages—e.g., through development partners or public-private partnerships—to private markets that pay premiums for sustainable production that rewards retention of natural growth forest areas


● Insufficient public buy-in ● Disincentive to apply—or insufficient

knowledge of—sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods






● Overgrazing ● Wildfires ● Illegal and/or poorly


● Coastal erosion

TIER 2: HIGH PRIORITY

ACTION 5: INCREASE INVESTMENT IN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, DETAILED ANALYSES, AND GIS/TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED SURVEILLANCE

Further investment by GoG, civil society, donors, and/or academic institutions into the extent of mining impacts and activities to help GoG decisionmakers and their development partners refine design and prioritize geographies for interventions targeting galamsey or poorly implemented mining operations. Needed investments

● Challenges presented by land tenure and insufficient land use planning



● Pollution from mining




include the following: • Research on the impacts of mining activities on ecosystems (e.g., mapping

of legal and illegal mining activities, water and soil quality as well as fish tissue in areas likely affected by chemicals used during mining) Further research into the extent of mining impacts on ecosystems.

• Increased availability and application of technology for surveillance/monitoring (e.g., enhanced satellite imagery, drone video capture) of illegal mining activities.



activities

Improved collection, maintenance, and sharing of fisheries data and knowledge of fisheries by GoG, academia, and development partners, including information sharing and awareness raising around the linkages between coastal wetlands and marine ecosystems, to facilitate marine fisheries management planning and enforcement.

● Insufficient knowledge of or disincentive to apply sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods


● Lack of public buy-in

● Unsustainable fishing ● IUU fishing

Increased utilization of enhanced technologies—e.g., simulation models that allow better prediction of unintended intensification of erosion on other parts of the coast—to enhance coastal protection efforts.



● Coastal erosion

Increased investment in training for terrestrial biologists and taxonomists to enhance ability for academia and/or civil society to conduct inventories of wildlife resources, in turn enhancing ability to design spatial plans that properly account for biodiversity protection and management.



● Bushmeat hunting ● Unsustainable wood

harvesting

Promotion of environmental stewardship and responsibility in the context of maintaining ecosystem services that sustain communities and the nation as key elements of civic behavior education, from early childhood onward.



● Cross-cutting




ACTION 6: INCREASE ACCESSIBILITY TO AND AFFORDABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY OPTIONS TO CHARCOAL AND WOODFUEL

GoG and private sector natural gas exploration and development that 1) apply internationally recognized best practices for environmental and social safeguards and 2) are conducted in a manner consistent with national, regional, and local landscape level land use and resource management planning that accounts for conservation of ecologically sensitive habitats (e.g., coastal wetlands) to minimize impacts to habitats essential for biodiversity.

● Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives



Continued emphasis by GoG, private sector, and development partners to increase development of renewable energy solutions—particularly solar—in combination with natural gas development (above) to increase access to electricity and, with time, assist in creating more affordable energy alternatives in both urban and rural settings.

• Support to increase grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables Power Purchase Agreements (PPA).

• Design and adoption of policies to encourage renewable energy, such as renewable energy feed-in-tariffs or targeted subsidy programs designed to attract foreign investment.



GoG, civil society, private sector, and development partner action at the national level to enhance regulation of commercial charcoal production and associated value chains—including fees and charges for different stakeholders—to reduce unmanaged wood harvesting for charcoal use.





ACTION 7: UNDERTAKE DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION OR RESTORATION

Development partners, civil society, and private sector working in direct support of afforestation, including riparian buffers and areas affected by mining, with focus on the following:

• Forest restoration activities where tree cropping is not profitable and/or where land may become available.








• Forest enrichment or afforestation initiatives with species that have been overharvested/ overexploited within an ecoregion to help restore biodiversity and ecosystem health.

• Research into which native species will be appropriate for restoration efforts in areas affected by mining and explore application of biochar to enrich affected soils.

● Invasive species ● Climate change

Wetland restoration/remediation/clean-up including, but not limited to mangrove areas.


● Population growth, internal migration, expansion of settlements, and urbanization


● Coastal erosion ● Sedimentation and

siltation of surface waters


● Misuse (including overuse) of agrochemicals


● Climate change


8. EXTENT TO WHICH THE ACTIONS PROPOSED FOR SUPPORT BY THE AGENCY MEET THE ACTIONS NECESSARY This section characterizes the Analysis team’s findings regarding the “extent to which” the actions proposed or implemented by USAID/Ghana support the “actions necessary” as defined in Section 7. Each sub-section describing the manner in which current and planned programming contribute to one of the seven defined actions necessary, providing examples within current programming of that contribution or describing opportunities for the Mission to improve upon that contribution through the new CDCS.

8.1 ACTION 1: STRENGTHEN NATURAL RESOURCE AND LAND USE GOVERNANCE (REGULATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND ACCOUNTABILITY) AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

TABLE 17. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 1

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 1 USAID CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 1

Coordinated strengthening of NRM enforcement with focus on (1) surveillance capacity in forestry, mining and fisheries sectors and (2) reduction in political interference:

• Develop strategy and implementation plan for confronting and managing illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities.

• Support strengthened enforcement by FC to prevent or reduce on-reserve agriculture.

• Support of Ghana’s adherence to Minamata Convention on Mercury.

The Mission emphasizes increased government accountability and responsiveness as a cross-cutting IR across all DOs.

Within DO 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance: IR 1.2’s specifically targets such accountability, including CSO capacity-building in support of citizen advocacy (1.2.1), enhancing financial oversight via CSO and National Audit Authority strengthening (1.2.2), and targeted anti-corruption efforts (1.2.3). Sub-IR 1.2.2 specifically notes that “Specific attention will be paid to the management of revenues from natural resources, including oil & gas, mining and forestry.” Meanwhile Sub IR 1.2.3 is intended to target issues including ‘judicial impartiality, adherence to environmental regulations.”

Under DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth: IRs 2.2 and 2.4 both provide potential pathways for Mission support to national level reforms that could markedly strengthen natural resource management or enforcement. IR 2.2 focuses on strengthening the enabling environment for private sector engagement, addressing constraints to participation including quality and execution of policies, organizational effectiveness, and access to credit. The strategy further notes that the focus of IR 2.2 was elevated to an IR (rather than sub-IR) level, specifically to “broaden the scope beyond agricultural activities under FTF.” Under IR 2.4 (and, specifically, sub-IR 2.4.1 “Improved governance in the energy sector,” USAID’s provision of technical

GoG refining existing—or developing new--resource management and tenure legislation to incentivize sustainable management behaviors would encourage adoption of best management practices. Areas where opportunities exist for engagement include the following:

• Formalize CREMAs in a manner that further empowers community adoption.

• Address existing disincentives related to tree tenure policy.



COMPONENTS OF ACTION 1 USAID CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 1

• Introduce a rationalized wetlands management regime. • Adopt a policy of no total/complete clearing of land for

plantation establishment, instead requiring adherence to silviculture BMPs.

assistance and advisory services in the energy sector affords opportunity to enhance application of ESIA best practices and target problematic development of infrastructure within Ghana’s increasingly degraded coastal wetlands.

Opportunities:

• Support policy reform with the potential to encourage improved resource management (e.g., formalization of CREMA’s, improved tree tenure, adoption of silvicultural BMPs).

• Seek to facilitate private sector investment and foster public-private partnerships, to connect private sector actors to communities benefiting from improved tree tenure or stronger CREMAs; additional benefits could be derived from voluntary REDD+ contributions or sustainable silvicultural production targeting high-value markets.

• Engage with CSOs and NGOs to build capacity in civic advocacy around issues of environment justice and NRM.

• Work with national media outlets to strengthen environmental reporting and to develop and disseminate communication campaigns that raise awareness on the importance of conservation of undervalued habitats (e.g., wetlands).

Significant investment in municipal solid and liquid waste management systems by GoG and/or international donors to help reduce pressure on wetlands and near-shore marine ecosystems.

Strengthened regulation of industrial trawlers. This must address current gaps in equipment/technology to support enforcement. Supplement such efforts with the following to

• Targeted engagement with civil society actors and national media in support of civil advocacy and environmental justice; and,

• More effective enforcement of existing restrictions, and following effective regulation of the trawl sector, ending the open-access regime for the artisanal sector.

Strengthened enforcement/application of ESIA requirements. Achieving such strengthened enforcement or application could entail:

• Facilitation of common objectives across key GoG actors for enhanced application of ESIA requirements.

• Capacity building to NGOs and national media around environmental advocacy and journalism.

• Enhanced application of land use planning and creating stronger forms of support to local/regional governance bodies in localized land use planning.

• Incorporation of silviculture BMPs in ESIA guidance and review standards.


8.2 ACTION 2: PROVIDE TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ON SUSTAINABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS


COMPONENTS OF ACTION 2 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 2

Expansion of existing efforts to strengthen the enabling environment and value chains for, and productivity of, agriculture, and incorporate sustainable best management practices. Such efforts could include:

● Training on agricultural best practices, e.g., climate smart agriculture, silviculture BMPs, agro-forestry, respect for riparian buffers, low-burn practices.

● Education and BCC on the benefits and opportunities provided by increased adoption of agro-forestry techniques.

● Greatly enhanced education and behavior change intervention around pesticide safety/health hazard and safer use.

DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth and in particular IR 2.1 Increased competitiveness of major food chains and sub-IR 2.4.2: Improved Community Management of Natural Resources requires significant focus on sound land management/agricultural and fisheries management practices. As indicated by the examples below, this focus has indeed been applied to the level of smallholder farmer, traditional fishermen, and their communities—i.e. in support of this action. (This has generally not extended, however, to good practices for livestock and pesticides, which have not been foci of Mission programming, though the Mission did adhere to safe pesticide use and practice within its core programming.)

Examples:

• AgNRM – CREMAs. • ADVANCE worked with lead farmers on demonstration of agricultural best

practices and improved technologies (lead farmers would work with/support their outgrowers to demonstrate new technologies and provide extension services). ADVANCE supported extension services targeted agricultural intensification, including through improved use of agrochemicals and higher quality agricultural inputs.

• SFMP (Sustainable Fisheries Management Program) focused both on the enabling legal/policy environment and on sound practices.

• CSLP (Coastal Sustainable Landscapes Project) had a primary focus on alternative livelihoods, but also supported sound practices for traditional coastal livelihoods, particularly in the context of community co-management of resources.

Opportunities

• Re-initiating programming in the same “space” as AgNRM, incorporating lessons learned and with a higher funding priority. This may be a vehicle for an increased focus on livestock, which has been a relative gap in Mission

Build upon current training and capacity building on sustainable fisheries management practices for marine fisheries. This could include:

● Expanding the reach of interventions demonstrating success in adoption of more sustainable practices.

● Working with communities living alongside coastal wetlands essential for fish reproduction / fish stock replenishment to: a) deliver education and BCC that underscores the ecosystem services delivered by those wetland areas; b) identifies livelihood generating activities that could supplement existing fishing practices; and c) work in coordination with traditional authorities and local government to establish CREMAs with formalized bylaws for community derivation of benefits from improved resource management.

● Providing civic advocacy support to communities affected by private sector oil + gas developers, particularly where oil and gas infrastructure is developed in ecologically sensitive wetland areas. Link to capacity building delivery for NGOs on civic advocacy and media outlets on environmental journalism.

Intensified delivery of technical assistance by GoG, development




partners, and civil society on livestock best management practices to improve productivity of, reduce land use conflict around, and encourage quality-over-quantity approach to livestock handling and grazeland management. Such technical assistance could include:

• Training for cattle owners and herdsmen on best management practices in grazing / grazeland management.

• Supporting development and formalization of cattle owners and herdsmen associations, with capacity building targeting on development and codifying their constitution and design and implementation of effective, locally-tailored by-laws with appropriate consensus across traditional authorities, DAs, and community leadership councils.

• Assisting in the development of localized land use and spatial plans that incorporate the establishment and demarcation of dedicated grazing corridors, as well as provision of water points for cattle grazing and watering.

programming with respect to this Action. • Closer integration of access-to-finance with implementation of sustainable land

use practices. • Address pesticide safer use more explicitly as a cross-cutting concern in

agricultural programming.

8.3 ACTION 3: PROMOTE DISTRICT AND COMMUNITY LEVEL ENGAGEMENT IN FAMILY PLANNING, LAND USE PLANNING, AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT



Participatory engagement between development partners, civil society, and traditional and local governance authorities to map and enforce sustainable land use at the community/district level—operationalizing the framework currently in place—to reduce unsustainable resource utilization. Such support could focus on:

● Participatory engagement with communities in establishment or strengthening of CREMAs.

Under the current CDCS, the Mission emphasizes increased government accountability and responsiveness as a cross-cutting IR across all DOs. This Mission emphasis thus establishes multiple pathways through which USAID would be able to provide technical assistance related to district or community-level land use planning and natural resource governance.

Under DO 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance, IR 1.1.




● Reforming lease arrangements to increase benefits derived by tenant farmers from cultivation.

● BCC on the benefits of natural resource management, land use planning, and family planning targeting all stakeholders engaged at the local governance and community levels.

● Community & DA sensitization, mobilization for drinking water source protection (surface and groundwater).

● Establishment and support of grazing committees, review and formalized roadmap on grazeland management planning.

● Establishment and demarcation of grazing corridors and water points for cattle grazing and watering.

At community/district levels, support the establishment of landscape \governing boards who will discuss, plan and find solutions to resolving the landscape challenges including fire in an integrated manner.

notes that “all levels of government, including districts and municipalities… will be considered for technical support,” underscoring that “decentralization is essential to Ghana’s governance structure.” IR 1.2 incorporates both CSO capacity-building in support of citizen advocacy as well as targeted anti-corruption efforts, with the CDCS going so far as to specify the need to address corruption in environmental regulations (among other areas).

Under DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth: IR 2.4 – particularly sub-IR 2.4.2 – Mission support specifically targeted community-level governance of natural resources, squarely in line with Action 5. Importantly, the CDCS intention to “support the GoG to sustainably manage coastal, marine, and dry-land biologically significant ecosystems” directly underscores the purpose of Action 3.

DO3, IR 3.1’s focus to increase access to integrated health services, including support to Community Health Planning and Services (CHPS) zones, provides a window to support (among other things) family planning interventions. Similarly, IR 3.2’s intent to increase access to community-based resources—particularly through health volunteers that demonstrate good health behaviors and utilization of social marketing resources that encourage healthy behaviors—affords opportunity to promote family planning at the community level.

The Mission’s stated priority for BCC and integrated programming at the community level – specifically reducing the number of districts in which programming will be delivered to increase potential for such integration – directly aligns with Action 3 and affords the Mission numerous opportunities to contribute toward this Action under the new CDCS.

Examples:

• AgNRM o Technical assistance to communities (e.g., CREMA support and

strengthening) along Western and Eastern wildlife corridors in Northern Ghana.

o • ADVANCE

o Worked with lead farmers on demonstration of ag best practices

Collaboration between national governmental authorities (e.g., NAMDA, National Fire Service), traditional authorities, and DAs, with support from civil society, private sector, and development partners, to emphasize and support development of robust wildfire management systems that operate in participatory manner at the community level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and incorporate consensus on approach can help reduce prevalence of wildfires—particularly in savannah and forest-savannah transition zones. Focuses of wildfire management systems could include:

● Coordinated engagement with traditional authorities, local governance (e.g., DAs), NAMDA, National Fire Service (local branches) on (wild)fire management.

● Reduced focus on pure “no burn” practices, instead creating systems designed to allow for and effectively manage controlled, legal burning, with proper oversight.

● Understanding of existing community frustrations resulting from losses incurred from uncontrolled wildfires to encourage or increase buy-in (particularly in light of cultural




practices that will challenge adoption). ● Identification of high-value permanent crops that could be

viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cashew, mango) and linking community level, de minimis incentives (e.g., seedlings for these high-value crops) upon realization of dry seasons without wildfires in the communities receiving support.

● Community engagement to establish fire management plans, ultimately coordinated at district level (engagement at both community and district level must be participatory and coordinated).

● Development of fire danger index that can be readily transmitted to farmers (on regular basis; e.g., every 2 hours during high risk periods).

and improved technologies as dissemination model (lead farmers would work with/support.

o Provided ag extension services / mechanized services under ADVANCE which improved ag intensification.

o Media campaigns focused on reducing bush-burning practices. • NGGA - The Mission has leveraged these strategic areas of focus into

supporting local governance in/around agricultural areas in Northern Ghana—with focus on women—and anti-corruption programming.

Opportunities:

• Strengthen and increase efficacy of decentralized governance institutions to continue alignment with GoG’s recognized interests; the Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policies 2017-2024271 states that “to bring governance to the doorsteps of the people, the interventions to be pursued by Government will include deepening political and administrative decentralization, strengthening decentralized planning, and improving popular participation in local governance.”

• Increase explicit emphasis on technical assistance to district/community-level governance of natural resources beyond support along key food security value chains (e.g., sustainable wood lots, mango or cashew production).

• Increase dimensions of economic growth / food security programming targeting wildfire management understanding the role that wildfire plays in undermining sustainable land use and agricultural best management practices.

• Provide targeted technical assistance in support of district level land use and spatial plans, in line with the National Land Use and Spatial Planning Framework.

• Work with CSOs specifically to build capacity in localized / community engaged environmental advocacy and justice.

• Align community-level NRM, land use planning, and family planning interventions in the same communities and with overlapping recipients of

Focused, community/district-level family planning efforts in impoverished communities pursuing traditional but unsustainable livelihoods in vulnerable ecologies.

271 Republic of Ghana. The Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policies. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All, Presentation to the 7th Parliament of the 4th Republic, 20 October 2017.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/new-ndpc-static1/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2018/04/11/Coordinate+Programme-Final+(November+11,+2017)+cover.pdf




Mission support. o Target ecologically sensitive areas / areas of biodiversity

significance.

8.4 ACTION 4: NURTURE NON-TRADITIONAL VALUE CHAINS WITH POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE OR “GREEN” GROWTH AND INCOME GENERATION



Delivery of technical assistance by development partners and relevant GoG entities on sustainable/best management practices in non-traditional value chains with unrealized economic potential in threatened areas and/or ecologically important areas (e.g., wildlife corridors) such as shea, cashew, mango can discourage unsustainable resource extraction and reduce poor land use management practices. Such technical assistance could: ● Be provided in coordination with land use planning and

resource management regimes (e.g., CREMAs) that codify protection of key ecological areas.

• Incorporate BCC elements that underscore the value of ecosystem conservation, and monitor shifts in behavior.

Within the current CDCS, there is little direct strategic emphasis on support to non-traditional value chains that could offer environmentally sustainable or ‘green growth” pathways.

DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth: IRs 2.2 and 2.4 best provide strategic avenues for such support in future; IR 2.2’s focus on improving the enabling environment for private sector investment – by addressing issues such as access to credit, land tenure, marine fisheries governance, ease of doing business, and institutional performance. The strategy further notes that the focus of IR 2.2 was elevated to an IR (rather than sub-IR) level, specifically to “broaden the scope beyond agricultural activities under FTF” affording the Mission room to support technical assistance to value chains beyond the major food crops such as maize, rice, and soya. Further, under IR 2.4, as discussed under Action 3 above, the strategic emphasis on strengthening community-level natural resource governance provides the necessary coordinated strategic dimension to assure that initiatives seeking to strengthen the private sector enabling environment can stimulate growth in areas with the localized governance systems to manage both that growth and the natural resource base, in tandem.

Collaboration between GoG, civil society, and development partners in the identification, promotion, and training on best management practices for sustainable value chains of comparable economic value to unsustainable activities (e.g., charcoal production; artisanal fishing alternatives). Assistance could include:




● Promotion of - and training in best management practices for-cultivation of permanent crops of high value (e.g., mango, cashew) that could be planted if there were less fire risk to create incentives for increased protection/improved fire management; such support must be integrated with cross-sectional training on fire management and fire danger indices/warning systems.

● Identification and development of alternative building materials that reduce pressure on sand extraction at the coast.

● Introduction of sustainable charcoal/wood fuel production models, such as community managed woodlots with fast-growing species (e.g., Acacia) cultivated on a rotation basis.

● Identification and support of sustainable alternative/supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities with potential to yield near-term economic benefit.

● Creation of value chain linkages—e.g., through development partners or public-private partnerships—to private markets that pay premiums for sustainable production that rewards retention of natural growth forest areas.

Examples:

• AgNRM – CREMAs.

Opportunities:

• Expand technical assistance around private sector enabling environment beyond food security / major food crops to increase investment in and support to non-traditional and sustainable or “green growth” livelihoods.

• Incorporate technical programming / strategic dimensions designed to identify, promote, and deliver training on best management practices for sustainable value chains of comparable economic value to unsustainable activities (e.g., sustainable charcoal production/woodlots; cashew, mango, shea production).

• Increase bilateral support to sustainable cocoa production – a target substantial, but still insufficient World Bank and GoG investment and attention – to fortify, broaden, and enhance existing initiatives.

• Design strategic pathways that explicitly encourage and result in programs delivered in ecologically sensitive areas and areas of biodiversity importance (e.g., marine/coastal wetlands) that simultaneously integrate:

o Economic growth (specifically, green growth)-focused technical assistance;

o Community-level NRM + governance;, o Community-level governance and enhanced decentralization more

broadly; and o Family planning interventions.


8.5 ACTION 5: INCREASE INVESTMENT IN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, DETAILED ANALYSES, AND GIS/TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED SURVEILLANCE

TABLE 21. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT OR PLANNED STRATEGY AND PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ACTION 5


Further investment by GoG, civil society, donors, and/or academic institutions into the extent of mining impacts and activities to help GoG decisionmakers and their development partners refine design and prioritize geographies for interventions targeting galamsey or poorly implemented mining operations. Needed investments include the following:

• Research on the impacts of mining activities on ecosystems (e.g., mapping of legal and illegal mining activities, water and soil quality as well as fish tissue in areas likely affected by chemicals used during mining) Further research into the extent of mining impacts on ecosystems.

Increased availability and application of technology for surveillance/monitoring (e.g., enhanced satellite imagery, drone video capture) of illegal mining activities.

Under USAID/Ghana’s current CDCS and portfolio: DO 3: Equitable Improvements in Health Status in principle provides an umbrella under which issues of environmental health and environmental justice could be addressed, including research on water quality impacts of mining and agriculture, and some sub-IRs could support programming for this purpose—e.g. 3.3.5-Strengthened Health Research Capacity; 3.4.6 Increased Government Responsiveness to vulnerable and marginalized populations). However, data-gathering, research and surveillance regarding mining activities and water quality and other ecosystem impacts has not been a focus of USAID/Ghana programming. DO1: Strengthened, Responsive Democratic Governance similarly provides an umbrella in principle under which such research and analysis in support of environmental health and environmental justice issues could be carried out, under both its IRs. However, the focus of Mission programming has rather been on financial accountability and performance.

DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth highlights the necessary role of environmental services in its core development hypothesis. DO2 and corollary elements of the Feed the Future strategy for Ghana highlight the requirement for improved fisheries management for productivity and sustainability of the fisheries. This has provided a platform for significant Mission programming in support of Action with respect to fisheries. The DO provides a window under which research into alternative energy options could be supported: sub-IR 2.4.2 Improved Community Management of Natural Resources. However, the Mission’s energy programming has not been oriented towards alternative energy options for rural households, but rather towards energy sector governance.

Examples include:

• The Mission has significantly supported the development of improved fisheries data and science via the Fisheries and Coastal Management Capacity-Building Support Project, which focused on 1) strengthening UCC’s Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences; 2) strengthening UCC’s Centre for

Improved collection, maintenance, and sharing of fisheries data and knowledge of fisheries by GoG, academia, and development partners, including information sharing and awareness raising around the linkages between coastal wetlands and marine ecosystems, to facilitate marine fisheries management planning and enforcement.

Increased utilization of enhanced technologies—e.g., simulation models that allow better prediction of unintended intensification of erosion on other parts of the coast—to enhance coastal protection efforts.

Increased investment in training for terrestrial biologists and taxonomists to enhance ability for academia and/or civil society to conduct inventories of wildlife resources, in turn enhancing ability to design spatial plans that properly account for biodiversity protection and management.


TABLE 21. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT OR PLANNED STRATEGY AND PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ACTION 5


Promotion of environmental stewardship and responsibility in the context of maintaining ecosystem services that sustain communities and the nation as key elements of civic behavior education, from early childhood onward.

Coastal Management; and 3) better management of fisheries data.

Opportunities:

• If mining is within or is thought to have impacts within USAID’s consolidated zones of intervention under the new CDCS, data-gathering, research and surveillance regarding mining activities and water quality and other ecosystem impacts of mining would be cross-cutting in support of WASH (source water quality), food security/FTF (food safety), and MCH.

• Support for specific research areas such as coastal protection modelling under any successor the Costal Management Capacity-Building Support Project.

• While USAID/Ghana has invested (as above) in development of fisheries and coastal management experts, it has not supported human capacity development in terrestrial biology in like fashion, though there are some overlaps between terrestrial biology expertise and investments USAID/Ghana has made in human capacity in biotechnology, crop and soil science, e.g. via support to the University of Ghana. These overlaps could be recognized and reinforced in future programming so that biotechnology, crop and soil science professionals bring a stronger biodiversity sensibility to their work.

8.6 ACTION 6: INCREASE ACCESSIBILITY TO AND AFFORDABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY OPTIONS TO CHARCOAL AND WOODFUEL



GoG and private sector natural gas exploration and development that 1) apply internationally recognized best practices for environmental and social safeguards and 2) are conducted in a manner consistent with national, regional, and local landscape level land use and resource management planning that accounts for conservation of ecologically sensitive habitats (e.g., coastal wetlands) to minimize impacts to habitats essential for biodiversity.

As noted in the discussions for preceding Actions, DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth – and particularly, sub-IR 2.4.1 – focuses specifically on improved governance in the energy sector. In practice, technical assistance focused largely on financial health of the sector and the Mission was looking less at energy generation, but rather productive use of energy via improved transmission and distribution. This presents numerous opportunities for Mission engagement in




Continued emphasis by GoG, private sector, and development partners to increase development of renewable energy solutions—particularly solar—in combination with natural gas development (above) to increase access to electricity and, with time, assist in creating more affordable energy alternatives in both urban and rural settings.

• Support to increase grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPAs.

• Design and adoption of policies to encourage renewable energy, such as renewable energy feed-in-tariffs or targeted subsidy programs designed to attract foreign investment.

support of Action 6. As noted in the discussion for Action 5, to-date the Mission’s Energy Sector programming has not been focused on alternative energy, though the sub-IR does create the strategic space to do so.

Relatedly, Sub-IR 2.4.2 Improved Community Management of Natural Resources allows the Mission, particularly in combination with Sub-IR 2.4.1, to strengthen management of energy resources beyond oil and gas, including charcoal. While consultations with the Mission suggest that directly addressing regulation of charcoal production will fall outside of practical engagement for the Mission, the existing CDCS does give room to support such action.

Examples:

• Under the Power Africa umbrella, supporting transmission and distribution of energy, focused predominantly on oil and gas sector.

• Evaluating mini-grids for water pumping for irrigation.

Opportunities

• Support increased grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPA.

• Support research on targeted incentive schemes (e.g., to accelerate uptake of household LPG infrastructure).

• Support and facilitate national action on the regulation of commercial charcoal production and value chain including fees and charges for different stakeholders.

GoG, civil society, private sector, and development partner action at the national level to enhance regulation of commercial charcoal production and associated value chains—including fees and charges for different stakeholders—to reduce unmanaged wood harvesting for charcoal use.

8.7 ACTION 7: DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION OR RESTORATION



Development partners, civil society, and private sector working in direct support of Afforestation, including focus on riparian buffers and areas affected by mining, with focus on:

Strategic Areas of Alignment/Opportunity in Current (2013-2019) CDCS




• Forest restoration activities in areas where tree cropping activities are not profitable/land may become available.

• Forest enrichment or afforestation initiative with species within ecoregion that have been overharvested/ overexploited to help restore biodiversity and ecosystem health.

• In areas affected by mining, conduct research into which native species will be appropriate and application of biochar to enrich affected soils.

DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth, particularly sub-IR 2.4.2: Improved community management of natural resources, combined with IR1.1: improved local government performance under DO1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance provides a clear window in the CDCS for Mission programming in support of afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland restoration. In recognizing the key role of ecosystem services, the DO2 development hypothesis reinforces the basis for such programming. In practice, such programming has been limited to some work with mangrove areas in the coastal zone.

Examples: Successful examples of CREMA-based sustainable mangrove management and restoration in the coastal zone under CSLP.

Opportunities:With linkage to Actions 2, 3, and 5, support communities and local government in afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland restoration/remediation where critical ecosystem services are at risk.

Wetland restoration/remediation/clean-up including, but not limited to mangrove areas.


9. PROGRAMMING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA UNDER THE NEW CDCS By comparing the Extent to Which analysis (Section 8) against the Actions Necessary (Section 7), with cognizance of the Mission’s current programming and with input received from Mission staff on preliminary recommendations, the Analysis team developed the following recommendations (Table 24) for Mission programs and interventions.

These recommendations are organized by Mission technical area, including a series of cross-sectoral or integrated recommendations. USAID programming is subject to Congressional earmarks, which necessarily inform and at times constrain the opportunities to integrate tropical forestry and biodiversity conservation into all technical programming. Recommendations in Table 24 are made based upon the Analysis team’s understanding of any such constraints and framed in a manner practicable for the Mission, understanding that factors beyond the conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity will likewise inform final programming decisions.

This said, this Analysis also identified key threats and drivers that the team believes merit USAID attention but are not targets of current USAID/Ghana programming and which may require funding streams beyond those currently utilized by the Mission. Specifically, these include forest degradation and loss in the Eastern Guinean forest and transition zones; galamsey as well as poorly managed legal artisanal mining; wetland protection and restoration in the context of urbanization; and, relatedly, municipal solid and liquid waste management.272

To further support the Mission’s decision-making process for future programming, Table 24 identifies selected interventions as “High Priority” (HP). An HP designation reflects the Analysis team’s conclusions that the recommendation 1) will address at least one of the primary drivers to significant threats to biodiversity and conservation; 2) will align with stated Mission objectives or priorities regarding sustainable, broad-based economic growth; 3) is based upon extensive stakeholder consultation; and 4) includes a perceived cost-effective intervention.

Finally, in accordance with the Best Practices Guide, Table 24 organizes recommendations into the following three categories:

• Opportunistic: Working within the boundaries of programs to improve the extent to which USAID is meeting the actions necessary to reduce threats

• Proactive: Adapting programs to improve the extent to which USAID is meeting the actions necessary to reduce threats

• Direct Threat Reduction: Designing with an explicit objective of reducing priority drivers of threats or otherwise contributing to biodiversity conservation.

272 The team’s understanding is that biodiversity and/or sustainable landscape funds could likeliy be used for all but municipal solid waste management. USAID/Washington review noted that (1) there is a small new earmark for ocean plastics management, currently applied to Asia though with possible expansion to Africa in future budget years; and (2) municipal solid waste management often has significant potential for private sector engagement, if small pools on non-earmarked funding are available and can be leveraged.


TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

OPPORTUNISTIC PROACTIVE DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION

ECONOMIC GROWTH – AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY/NORTHERN ZONE

• Align and coordinate initiatives with WB/AfDB SLWMP to achieve multiplier effects.

• HP: Provide training on best management practices for sustainable/climate smart agriculture.*

• HP: Promote intensification of agricultural production (rather than expansion).*

• Emphasize investment in/introduction of improved rainwater harvesting and water storage technologies.

• HP: Address pesticide safety via increased education at the farmer level on pesticide safety/health hazard and safer use.

• Provide technical support including shea processing machines to CREMAs to support value addition and generate additional revenue along the value chain.†

• HP: Increase emphasis on landscape restoration and development of sustainable livelihoods assistance outside of traditional agricultural value chains.*

o Cashew and mango production.* o Shea production (see below).* o Strengthened environmental governance (e.g.,

establishment of landscape governing board at the local and district levels working in coordination with traditional authorities).

o Wildfire management (see at right). o Afforestation (see at right).

• HP: Address pesticide safety by improving effectiveness of existing policies, particularly import enforcement and retail labelling regimes.

• HP: Identify and support higher-value agriculture/silvicultural products with potential for sustainable management.

o Deliver technical assistance that emphasizes best management practices and creates linkages across the value chain.

o Where trade potential exists (e.g., cashew, shea) provide support to sustainable certification systems and linkages to certifiers and international markets that will pay premiums.

o Engage with and support new governance structures (e.g., Shea-focused entity being developed under Cocobod by end of 2019) to encourage competitive and sustainable market design/interaction.

• HP: Leverage overlaps between investments USAID/Ghana has made in human capacity in biotechnology, crop and soil science, e.g. via support to the University of Ghana and

• HP: Emphasize developing robust wildfire management systems, operating in participatory manner at the community level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and developing consensus on approach across traditional authorities and district governance. o Deliver assistance that reduces

attention on complete “no burn” practices but instead allows for controlled, legal burning in permitted instances, while ensuring proper controls are applied and oversight entities are engaged.

o Leverage community frustration at losses incurred from uncontrolled wildfires.

o Identify high-value permanent crops that could be viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cocoa, cashew in forest-savanna zone).

• Support communities and local government in afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland restoration/remediation where critical ecosystem services are at risk.†




terrestrial biodiversity expertise to reinforce future programming so that biotechnology, crop and soil science professionals bring a stronger biodiversity sensibility to their work.

* indicates alignment with or matching element in Global Food Security Strategy Ghana Plan †see CREMA cross-cutting recommendation, below

ECONOMIC GROWTH – COASTAL ZONE

• Continue delivery of training and capacity building around best management practices for sustainable fisheries.*

• HP: Identify--and provide support towards the realization of-- sustainable alternative or supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities with potential to yield near-term economic benefit.*

*would continue/build on SFMP and FCMCBSP under the current CDCS.

• Support research for data on marine biodiversity/ecosystem function via research institutions and academia.

• Support implementation of co-management approaches for wetlands.

o Incorporate a heavy BCC and sensitization component focused on understanding the value of the resource.

•

• Support effective regulation of trawl sector via MoFAD, NGOs, media (see also “proactive” recommendations for DRG).

• Training and capacity building for security agencies specifically Customs, Immigration, Navy and Police on fisheries issues.

• HP: Support rationalized management regime for wetlands. ○ Must incorporate incentive structure

that encourages adoption of effective co-management systems (see below).

○ Address existing inadequacy/fragmentation of existing planning and oversight bodies responsible for wetlands management.

ECONOMIC GROWTH – POWER AFRICA/ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

• HP: Support increased grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPA.

• Support research on targeted incentive schemes (e.g., to accelerate uptake of household LPG infrastructure).

• Support and facilitate national action on the regulation of commercial charcoal production and value chain including




fees and charges for different stakeholders.

DEMOCRACY, RIGHTS, AND GOVERNANCE

• For Elections programming, Incorporate questions on environmental health, landscape degradation, illegal mining and logging activities, environmental management and oversight, illegal fishing/trawlers, and similar questions into public polling and surveying to inform key electoral topics.

• In delivery of anti-corruption programming, target political influence/interference in enforcement of illegal activities impacting tropical forests and biodiversity (e.g., illegal mining activities, illegal logging).

• HP: Under the umbrella of accountable governance, deliver support focused on environmental justice, in the form of accountable management of natural resources

○ Strengthen environmental reporting (see Media, below), engage and strengthen environmental NGOs, create systems to reward/celebrate environmentally friendly political actors.

○ Enhance systems to express grievances by community members related to environmental challenges/issues.

• HP: Provide support to existing media outlets on environmental journalism, exploring linkages between inadequate enforcement of key natural resources, precipitous resource degradation, and impacts on individuals at the community level.

GLOBAL HEALTH

• Ensure dissemination of bed nets includes sensitization on proper use / discourages unsafe and environmentally harmful uses (e.g., fishing). (Note: this is a requirement of USAID’s Malaria Vector Control Programmatic

• HP: Focus family planning efforts along coast and forests and degraded landscapes; this can potentially be linked with Economic Growth Food Security initiatives both in northern Ghana and in coastal zones.

• Raise awareness regarding the risks to water quality/health introduced by illegal mining activities to motivate public support for enforcement and control efforts by traditional

• HP: Support community & DA sensitization and mobilization for drinking water source protection (surface and groundwater). o Enusre that sensitization and education

efforts explicitly link to galamsey activities and agrochemical use in applicable areas.




Environmental Assessment.) o Address improper use

of old bed nets are observed in use for protection of household gardens, or in cassava processing.

• Consider incorporation of programs focused on recollection of old/non-viable bed nets, potentially integrated with broader recycling or collection system.

• Incorporate BCC regarding pesticide risks in food and water.

authorities. See also cross cutting recommendation regarding environmental BCC.

EDUCATION

• Explore whether scope exists to support “soft skills” for citizenship (per NaCCA director’s call) in the form of practical environmental stewardship and responsibility as civic behavior.

• Incorporate reading materials/books that raise awareness on ecosystem services and the importance of environmental stewardship.

• Incorporate math problems that touch on scarcity of environmental resources/depletion.

CROSS-SECTORAL (DRG, ECONOMIC GROWTH, HEALTH)

• HP: (DRG, EGO). Strengthen participatory land use and spatial planning* in combination with: targeted support to land tenure*

• HP: Engage in a broad BCC activity for environmental sensibility and understanding (DRG and EGO, with HEALTH as noted). o Must emphasize value derived by communities from




that addresses clear land demarcation, fair, secure, enforceable, and transparent land lease arrangements; and targeted technical assistance on best management practices in sustainable agriculture/silviculture or other sustainable value chains (e.g., sustainable wood lots via acacia).

environmentally sustainable management practices. o Measures should be participatory, working across

governmental and traditional authorities. o Integrate elements of family planning, environmental

health, natural resource management, and food security to maximize resonance of messaging (HEALTH).

o Tie BCC efforts to strengthening effective land use management and governance, motivating community-level enforcement, and increased accountability at the DA level.

• HP: (DRG and EGO) o Support and facilitate the process to gazette CREMA

bye-law to give legal backing and enhance effective law enforcement at the CREMA levels.

o Support policy and implementation of defined co-benefit approaches under CREMAs.

o Explore the potentials of ecosystem services as a sustainability tools for community engagement including CREMAs in natural resources management.

o Support capacity building and assessment of the ground-water volume of targeted landscapes and areas.

o Support research on the cost and benefit analysis for watersheds and major water towers in targeted areas.

o Support CREMA communities and members with tools and equipment to enhance effective monitoring in the landscape.

* indicates alignment with or matching element in Global Food Security Strategy Ghana Plan

USAID/TANZANIA | TROPICAL FORESTRY AND BIODIVERSITY (FAA 118/119) ASSESSMENT 88

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http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/climate_change/

https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0707




ANNEXES

Annex A: Scope of Work

Annex B: Biographical Information on Report Authors

Annex C: Species Information

Annex D: Ratified International Agreements Relevant to Conservation of Biodiversity and Improved Natural Resource Management

Annex E: Key Conservation and Management Initiatives in Support of Tropical Forests and Biodiversity in Ghana

Annex F: Protected Areas of Ghana

Annex G: Key Government of Ghana Policies and Institutions

Annex H: Climate Zones of Ghana

Annex I: Threats, Linked Drivers and Associated Effects on the Status of Biodiversity


ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK 12 June 2019 | Based on E3 FAB Standard Template April 2019 Version

1. Background

As part of the documentation for the 2020 Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS), USAID/Ghana is required by Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act, as amended, to prepare an analysis of tropical forests and biodiversity in Ghana.

By mandating FAA 118/119 analyses (hereafter referred to as “the analysis”), the U.S. Congress recognizes the fundamental role that tropical forest and biodiversity play in supporting countries as they progress along the journey to self-reliance. The analysis will examine the country-level forest and biodiversity conservation needs and the extent to which the mission is currently addressing the identified needs for forest and biodiversity conservation. The report recommendations will help the mission identify ways to strengthen host country commitment and capacity to biodiversity conservation.

1.1 Summary of relevant parts of FAA Sections 118 and 119

FAA Sections 118 and 119, as amended, require that USAID missions address the following:

1) FAA Sec 118 Tropical Forests

COUNTRY ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS. Each country development strategy, statement, or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1) The actions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests, and

2) The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

2) FAA Sec 119 Endangered Species

COUNTRY ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS. Each country development strategy, statement, or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1) The actions necessary in that country to conserve biological diversity, and 2) The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the

needs thus identified. The FAA 118/119 analysis for Ghana must adequately respond to the two questions for country strategies, also known as “actions necessary” and “extent to which.”

1.2 Purpose

The primary purpose of this task is to conduct an analysis of tropical forest and biodiversity in compliance with Sections 118 and 119 of the FAA of 1961, as amended, and ADS guidelines. The analysis

https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf


will inform USAID/Ghana in the development and implementation of its CDCS. USAID’s approach to development requires that the Agency examine cross-sector linkages and opportunities to ensure a robust development hypothesis. Biodiversity conservation is a critical component in achieving self-reliance and should be considered in mission strategic approaches to improve development outcomes. The analysis therefore can define opportunities to integrate tropical forest and biodiversity conservation into priority development sectors to support the journey to self-reliance.

While the analysis should not be used as a climate-risk assessment, climate change is a global concern, and as such, the analysis will evaluate the threat to the country’s tropical forest and biodiversity from climate change. The Analysis team should review mission reports on climate change and other sources of climate information available such as the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal and the United Nations Climate Change website.273

1.3 Mission Program

The USAID/Ghana 2013-2019 CDCS focused on Ghana’s transition towards established middle income status accelerated. The CDCS was aligned with the Government of Ghana’s development priorities, as outlined in their Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (2014-2017). This goal is underscored by the four development objectives, which include:

• Development Objective 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance • Development Objective 2: Sustainable and broadly shared economic growth • Development Objective 3: Equitable improvements in health status • Development Objective 4: Improved reading performance in primary school

Applying a behavioral lens, USAID/Ghana’s forthcoming strategy intends to develop an integrated Mission-wide Results Framework that focuses on priority behavioral outcomes, highlighting areas for collaborating, learning and adapting within the Mission environment. The Mission will focus on supporting under-served citizens, including women and youth and vulnerable populations; strengthening host government systems; and strengthening private sector engagement.

See Annex 2 for overview of current mission portfolio.

See Annex 3 for draft Results Framework for upcoming CDCS (2020-2025).

2. Statement of Work

To achieve the above-stated purpose, the Analysis team, under the direction of the Team Leader, will proceed as described in this section to undertake an analysis generally consistent with USAID’s FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide. As described herein, the analysis is based on synthesis and analysis of existing information, coupled with key stakeholder consultations and site visits to ground-truth information. Per the Guide, the assessment will analyze direct environmental threats and drivers of the threats to identify actions necessary to “achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests” and to “conserve biological diversity,” characterize the extent to which these “actions

273 Mission had marked for this paragraph for deletion; however, CC must be considered in the context of its impact on tropical forests and biodiversity, consequently, text was therefore reinstated.

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necessary” are addressed by USAID’s current program, and develop recommendations for USAID/Ghana’s new CDCS based on the “extent to which” and “actions necessary analysis,” Beyond strategic recommendations, specific opportunities should also be recommended as possible.274 The analysis will not generate original primary data.

The analysis will build upon the relevant elements of the USAID/Ghana Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment (ETOA) completed in 2011.

The analysis will bas based on desk research, DC consultations, USAID meetings, and field interviews. As such, the report will be a synthesis of the collective feedback of multiple participants, which cannot be identified due to PPI restrictions. The level of attribution in the document will be commensurate with privacy requirements and with a synthesis of multiple perspectives, rather than a journal article or research thesis. Additional research and sourcing will be limited by schedule constraints and budget (note that new primary research is not contemplated under the Best Practices Guidelines for a 118/119 analysis and is not scoped as part of this effort). Assertions in the final report that are based on widely accepted facts or the collective feedback of multiple participants will not be sourced to published literature unless additional LOE is allocated to such an effort.

2.1 Pre-Field Work Actions

2.1.1 Desk-based Data Collection and Analysis

Gather and begin to analyze existing information to identify tropical forest and biodiversity status, key biodiversity issues, stakeholders, policy and institutional frameworks and gaps in the available information. Reports and other documentation to be reviewed include previous 118/119 analyses, current CDCS and mission project documents, information available online (websites of government ministries) on biodiversity conservation (and tropical forest conservation), project reports and evaluations, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, and the National State of the Environment Report.

The analysis will focus on a review of Mission documents and other relevant tropical forest and biodiversity reports provided by the Mission and/or the Africa Bureau. Any additional background documents USAID wishes to specifically incorporate into the analysis must be provided to the Analysis team. Any specific spatial data the Mission and/or the Africa Bureau wishes to use must be specified and publicly available or provided by USAID.

Note: Per Section 5, “Role of USAID Mission,” USAID/Ghana will share all relevant documents readily available as soon as able; ECOS will set-up or utilize a shared Google Drive or similar cloud-based file transfer system accessible to the mission. However, documents reviewed should not be limited to solely those shared by the Mission.

2.1.2 Planning and Logistical Preparations

274 Mission had inserted text characterizing the nature of the required analysis. ECOS has restated using language from the FAA 118/119 Best Practice Guide.


Note: The activities described in this Section may occur prior to, or in parallel with, activities described in Section 2.1.1.

1. Organize weekly planning meetings with the mission. The team will plan weekly calls with the activity manager ahead of in-country arrival to support planning and logistic preparations such as site visits, lodging and in-country travel, key informants, work plan development, key informant interview protocols, and political or other sensitivities. See section 2.2 for further details and topics for the pre-field work meetings.

2. Plan site visits. In coordination with the mission, the team will begin planning site visits based on the mission’s recommendations/guidance and the team’s preliminary review of key topics and information gaps. Site visits allow information gathering from key informants, and direct observation, and supplement information gathered from consultations, literature review and other second-hand sources. As much as possible, site visit locations should be finalized at least two (2) weeks prior to in-country fieldwork to allow the consultant to complete necessary logistical preparations.

Site visits will include both important terrestrial biodiversity areas and coastal and marine ecosystems as well as key agricultural areas. Possible regions for the site visits include the former three (3) northern Regions, Western Region, Ashanti Region and/or the former Brong Ahafo Region.

The number and location of site visits will be limited by budget and time constraints and will be determined in consultation with the Mission.

3. Develop and submit draft work plan. Within 11275 days after the start of the period of performance, ECOS will submit a draft work plan (Deliverable 1). The draft work plan will include a schedule of tasks and milestones, assessment methods, and a brief discussion of information gaps. The draft work plan will also include a preliminary:

a. List of the type of information to be obtained through further desk research and through consultations;

b. Mapping of key people to engage throughout the analysis process. This may include US-based (predominantly Washington D.C.) stakeholders; mission staff, including the program office, all sector technical staff, and the deputy and mission director; implementing partners; and other key in-country stakeholders (e.g., organizations, government bodies, the private sector and individuals knowledgeable about and/or implementing projects on environment, biodiversity and tropical forest conservation and other sectors relevant to tropical forest and biodiversity conservation, such as agriculture, economic growth, health, climate change and governance). Note: ECOS will require timely feedback (within three (3) business days) on the draft workplan to ensure time to meet with agreed upon set of Washington-based stakeholders.

c. Itinerary for in-country consultations and site visits, based upon information made available by the mission regarding geographies of existing programming, areas of known concern and areas being considered for future programming.

d. Key informant interview guides to be used for stakeholder consultations.

275 ECOS suggests 11 days rather than 10 days.


e. Report outline based on the outline provided in Annex B: Analysis Report Annotated Outline in the FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide, with differences noted and explained.

f. Schedule for written progress reports to, or calls with, the activity manager starting at latest on the 10th day and weekly thereafter during the pre-field and field segments. If calls are chosen, they will be documented with written call notes provided to the USAID Activity Manager.

4. Revise work plan. Following receipt of mission comments and suggestions on the draft work plan, the team will revise the work plan and submit a revised version 2-5 days before the start of the field work.

Note: Logistical details and planning for site visits can only be finalized once sites are agreed upon; if insufficient time is afforded the consultant to research and collaborate with the mission, the work plan will include only general information on site visits.

2.2 Mission and Field Consultations and Site Visits

Note: see section 5 “Role of USAID Mission” for role of the USAID activity manager in supporting the in-country program described in this section.

After arrival in-country, in coordination with the activity manager, the Analysis team will:

1. Conduct in-brief meetings with the Mission Director, Deputy Mission Director, Program Office, Technical Team Office Directors and relevant Technical Team staff to:

• Orient the attendees to the overarching objective of the 118/119 analysis, the methodology to be used (i.e., approach the Analysis team will take to conduct the analysis and recommendations for potential biodiversity linkages with other sectors), and the agreed upon itinerary per the approved work plan. Ideally this will have already been circulated within the mission prior to the team’s arrival in country.

• Review with the mission the approach to the assignment and learn specific mission areas of interest or concerns regarding the planned itinerary and consultations.

• Learn of any sensitivities related to the exercise (e.g., political constraints, mission challenges in working with the host country government or other generalized in-country implementation challenges) that could refine the Analysis team’s consultations and strategic or programming recommendations (i.e., the potential for raising expectations and the need to be clear about the purpose of the analysis).

• Identify any additional organizations to be contacted and site visits to be planned, including advice and protocol on approaching USAID partners and host country organizations with respect to the assignment.

2. Meet with the Program Office at USAID to:

• Understand the mission’s planned timeline for new CDCS development. • Gain an understanding of the status of the new CDCS development/results framework and

anticipated changes to overarching strategic goals and/or development objectives, to the extent they are known at the time of fieldwork.


3. Meet (separately) with all mission technical teams including, whenever possible team leads, to:

• Understand current programming (geographic areas of focus, earmarks and related mandates or constraints) and the ways in which it may have supported or contributed to actions necessary to conserve forests and biodiversity.

• Learn about planned or potential future programming or strategic orientation.

4. Meet with stakeholders and undertake site visits identified in the work plan.

5. Conduct exit briefing: Prior to departure, conduct an exit briefing with the mission, including mission management, program office and all technical teams, to provide them with an overview of the analysis and preliminary report findings (Deliverable 2). The exit briefing should be conducted with all technical teams to explore interactively the feasibility of preliminary recommendations and to help identify areas of future collaboration across programs.

2.3 Preparation of the FAA 118/119 Analysis

1. Prepare and submit draft report (Deliverable 3). The Analysis team will analyze the information gathered and will prepare a draft analysis report in accordance with the outline agreed via the workplan (i.e. based on Annex B: Analysis Report Annotated Outline in the FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide, with differences noted and explained in the workplan) and responsive to the legislative requirements listed in Section 1.1 above. The report will:

a. Be between 50-75 pages (excluding annexes) and submitted for review by USAID. b. Be copy edited, formatted and comply with USAID branding requirements

Any specific formatting, citing, or other editorial preferences by the Mission must be specified before report writing. Otherwise, the ECOS team will default to established internal editorial guidelines consistent with USAID templates. 2. Submit revised report (Deliverable 4). The mission review period for the draft report will be 10 working days. The mission should send the analysis report to the relevant regional bureau and pillar bureau staff in Washington for their review and concurrence.

Following receipt of USAID comments on the draft report, the Analysis team will prepare and submit a final analysis within 10 working days that incorporates USAID comments.

The Analysis team assumes one combined response document containing all reviewer feedback. Multiple review documents submitted at different times will require additional LOE. If ECOS is not able to address the comments within the available budget, the Mission will prioritize the comments and in collaboration with ECOS, develop a set of comments that ECOS can address within the available budget.

3. Schedule and Logistics

The assignment is expected to last approximately 3.5 months from the date of contract signing to submission of the final deliverable. This includes 4 weeks of preparations, approximately 2 weeks of in-


country field work, 4 weeks to produce the draft report following in-country work, 2 weeks for USAID review of the draft report, and 2 weeks to produce a revised report.

Table 1: Indicative Weekly Activities and Milestones Based on 17 June 2019 Start Date

To be finalized per approved workplan. Note: delays in USAID review cycles will extend all subsequent milestones equivalently.

Week of Process/Milestone Notes 1 June 17 Desk research/planning (thru week of July 8) 2 June 24 DC Consultations 3 July 1 Draft workplan submitted July 1; DC consultations Final workplan w/in 2 days of

receipt of comments 4 July 8 Thursday: July 4 Holiday 5 July 25 In-country work 6 July 22 In-country work 7 July 29 Draft report prep; some follow-up consultations

possible in DC or via telecon/skype

8 Aug 5 As above Monday, 5 Aug - Local Ghana Holiday: Founders Day Observed

9 Aug 12 As above Monday, 12 Aug - Local Ghana Holiday: Eid al-Adha

10 Aug 19 As above 11 Aug 26 Draft report delivered for Ghana 00B 26 Aug;

USAID review; USAID review starts

12 Sept 2 USAID review Monday, 2 Sept - Labor Day holiday

13 Sept 9 ECOS receives USAID comments OOB WDC time Sept 9; ECOS revision starts

14 Sept 16 ECOS report revision 15 Sept 23 Revised report delivered for Ghana OOB 23 Sept;

USAID review. Monday, 23 Sept - Local Ghana Holiday: Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Day Observed

16 Sept 30 ECOS receives USAID comments OOB WDC time Sept 23; ECOS revision starts

17 Oct 7 ECOS transmits final report COB Oct 7. 4. Deliverables

The following are the deliverables for this task:

Deliverable 1. Draft work plan and schedule submitted within 11 working days of the start of the period of performance. The work plan will address all elements specified in 2.1.2.


Deliverable 2. Exit briefing, and associated media such as PowerPoint, hand-outs, etc., prior to the Analysis team’s departure from the country or at a time requested by the mission if the team is locally based.

Deliverable 3. Draft FAA 118/119 analysis report, conforming to all requirements specified in section 2.3 submitted 20 working days after the conclusion of in-country work.

Deliverable 4. Revised report incorporating all comments, conforming to all requirements specified in section 2.3 submitted within 10 working days of the receipt of all USAID review comments on the draft analysis.

5. Role of the USAID Mission

USAID acknowledges that substantial mission engagement is required in support of the Analysis team. To this end, the mission is responsible for arranging the following prior to the Analysis team’s arrival in-country:

• In-briefing meetings with technical offices, including notifying relevant mission offices (as elaborated Section in 2.1.2, above) and ensuring their direct participation. When key offices are not able to participate, the mission will look to include appropriate alternatives that may participate on their behalf.

• Time for the exit-brief presentation. • Separate, scheduled meetings with the front and program office.

Such support includes providing the Analysis team with the following:

• A list of key USAID documents (mission wide activity descriptions, reports and evaluations) to review with links or copies of the documents;

• A list of USAID programs for each technical team with brief descriptions of technical remit, A/COR (and contact info), implementing partner (and key point of contact) and maps, ideally a country map showing the geographic location of all programs – when available;

• A list of key and/or recommended stakeholders (with contact information); • Assistance to the team in making initial contact to arrange interviews, particularly to host

country government stakeholders for whom USAID mission outreach is often required; • Preparation of letters of introduction, as needed; • Candidate site visits or key criteria to support Analysis team identification of potential site visits; • A list of relevant donor projects as available; • Logistics support for site visits in the form of suggestions for lodging, in-country air travel, rental

car agencies and logistics specialists or similar advice. (The mission will not manage or provide in-country logistics support); and

• Review and feedback on the draft analysis report.

To ensure continued coordination with the mission over the course of the in-country work, the Analysis team will provide weekly progress reports to the activity manager, which discuss progress, challenges, issues and key findings to-date. These may be submitted as written memos or conducted by phone with summary notes subsequently provided, as determined by mission and Analysis team.


6. Staffing and Estimated Effort

The Analysis team shall include a Team Leader, with the following qualifications:

• Post-graduate qualifications (master’s level degree or higher) in biology, ecology, zoology, forestry, ecosystem conservation, political economy, political ecology, environmental policy, environmental planning, or a closely related field;

• Knowledge of USAID’s strategic planning process both broadly and as related to tropical forests and biodiversity;

• Expertise in assessing environmental threats; • Experience in the geographical region and the specific country; • Experience coordinating analyses and leading teams; • Exceptional organizational, analytical, writing and presentation skills; and • Fluent in English and preferably the language spoken in the analysis country.

Including the Team Leader, the exact team composition shall be proposed by the consultant for approval by the mission and should ensure appropriate coverage across the below technical areas, tailored to the types of programming and environmental conditions prevalent in the specific country or region of focus.

• Post-graduate qualifications (master’s level degree or higher) in biology, ecology, zoology, forestry, ecosystem conservation

• Agricultural, governance, health or other non-environment sector specialist who will focus on linkages between tropical forests, biodiversity and other key technical sectors; and

• Aquatic resources specialist and, if in a marine environment, one with marine expertise. • Environmental political economist, or political ecologist, that understands the human dimensions

of conservation and natural resources management and diverse conservation and management problems including, but not limited to, water, governance, fisheries management, wildlife management, agriculture, economic growth, extractive industries, protected areas, and the scale of the issue, from local, to regional to global.

• GIS expertise or access to GIS expertise to help identify, use and analyze geospatial data and maps.

Note: Where the consultant is a firm, cost-effective utilization of home office staff, including junior staff, for logistics, research/analysis/writing and report production support are expected.

The estimated level of technical effort (LOE) requirements for this task are:

• Approximately 45 days for Team Lead • Up to 28 days each for other members of the field team, with composition and allocation to be

proposed by the consultant per guidance above. • Up to 30 days for home office support staff (e.g., logistical planning; GIS support;

research/writing support) • Up to 10 days for technical quality assurance/quality control and 8copy-editing, formatting and

branding (i.e., document production)


ANNEX 1: Key Documents

• 2011 Ghana Threats and Opportunities Assessment. • Mission to provide ECOS with list of key documents as soon as possible. Per standard SOW

directions “A list of key documents to be reviewed by the Analysis team with links if possible, should also be included as an annex.”

ANNEX 2: Overview of Mission Portfolio.

• The mission should provide a list or table, as an annex to the SOW, with the names of mission wide activities, the implementing partner and geographic location, in addition to any material describing mission projects or activities. These materials will help the team examine potential cross/multi-sector linkages and prepare questions for the mission-wide in-brief meetings.


ANNEX B: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON REPORT AUTHORS MR. MICHAEL MINKOFF (TEAM LEADER, INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY + ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST). Mr. Minkoff is a Senior Associate at Cadmus. An international environmental management specialist, Mr. Minkoff is expert on USAID environmental compliance requirements, including FAA Sections 118 and 119, with 10+ years of field- and desk-based environmental, natural resource management, and international development experience. With background in international environmental policy and political economy, Mr. Minkoff led the field-based Tanzania FAA 118/119 Tropical Forestry + Biodiversity Analysis and Kenya FAA 118/119 Tropical Forestry + Biodiversity Analysis, and the desk-based East Africa 118/119 Analysis and has supported environmental impact assessments for development projects in sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe, for sectors including natural resource management, agriculture, and rural road rehabilitation. Mr. Minkoff has led and supported trainings on USAID’s environmental compliance and resource management requirements across multiple locations in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East, reaching more than 250 USAID staff and partners. Mr. Minkoff has a B.A. in Political Philosophy from the University of Wisconsin and an M.A. in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, at Tufts University.

MR. JOSHUA ADOTEY (COASTAL ECOLOGIST). Mr. Adotey is an Assistant Research Fellow at the World Bank funded Africa Centre of Excellence in Coastal Resilience (ACECoR), University of Cape Coast, specifically responsible for Monitoring and Evaluation. Mr. Adotey holds a Master’s degree in Integrated Coastal Zone Management and a Bachelor’s degree in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, both from the University of Cape Coast. Among other responsibilities, he works as a Monitoring and Evaluation Officer on the USAID funded Fisheries and Coastal Support Project funded through the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences of the University of Cape Coast. His area of expertise is coastal zone management with focus on climate change impacts on coastal livelihoods. As a result, Mr. Adotey has led and supported the training of over 200 practitioners, over the last five years, in short courses in Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change, Fisheries Management and Integrated Coastal Management in Ghana.

MR. YAW ATUAHENE NYAKO (FORESTRY + NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST). Mr. Nyako is a Forester with strong focus in forest management, inventories and climate change. With his over 20 years of experience in tropical forestry, he has held several management positions in the Forestry Commission across the different vegetation zones in Ghana contributing to the conduct of various forest inventory, wildfire management, forest protection and participatory forest management programs. In addition to his role at the Forestry Commission, he has been involved in several consultancies including an assessment on Ghana Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation; an assessment/study on lessons learned from forest sector projects in Ghana over the past 25 years; flora and fauna surveys; and the USAID/Ghana Tropical Forests and Biodiversity Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment, 2011. He is currently involved in various works in carbon assessment, environmental governance and wood tracking.

MR. MACLEAN ASAMANI OYEH (SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPES AND FOREST MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST). Mr. Oyeh is a sustainable development practitioner with focus on environment, natural resource and climate change. Mr. Oyeh is an expert in sustainable forest


management, international environment, climate policy and finance. Mr. Oyeh has over six (6) years in technical and analytical works, programs design and implementation. He has been working with the Environment Natural Resource and Blue Economy and the Climate Change Global Practice of the World Bank in projects and program design and implementation. In Ghana, Mr. Oyeh supports the World Bank in design and implementation of Global Environmental Facility (GEF) projects (i.e., Sustainable Land and Water Management Project), Climate Investment Fund projects (i.e., Forest Investment Program and Dedicated Grant Mechanism), and the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility initiatives (i.e. REDD+ Readiness and Emission Reduction Program) in Ghana. Maclean also provides technical and analytical support to REDD+ participant countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia-Pacific including Cameroon, Fiji, Guyana, Laos, Colombia, Nepal and Belize in the design and implementation of Forest Carbon Partnership Facility and BioCarbon Fund projects (i.e. REDD+ and Result-Based Emission Reduction Program). Maclean has a BSc. in Natural Resources Management from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) – Ghana, an MSc. in Climate Change and Sustainable Development, and an MSc. in Development Finance both from the University of Ghana.

DR. MARK STOUGHTON (DEPUTY TEAM LEADER, INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNER). Dr. Stoughton is a Principal at Cadmus. As Chief-of-Party for the ECOS-predecessor Global Environmental Management Support (GEMS I and GEMS II) mechanisms, Dr. Stoughton designed and oversaw over 20 FAA 118/119 analyses. He has 20 years’ experience providing environmental support to USAID programs in Africa, with short-term technical assistance field work in 13 sub-Saharan African countries. He brings a strong knowledge of USAID’s programming cycle; extensive experience in governmental, community, and civil society stakeholder consultations; and in-depth expertise in the interaction of economic sectors and subsistence activities with the environment. Beginning with Peace Corps service in Central Region (1990-92), he has maintained professional and personal ties to Ghana for over 25 years and has a strong knowledge of Ghana’s environmental, social, and economic context. Dr. Stoughton holds a doctorate in economic development and environmental policy, and a master’s degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering, both from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.


ANNEX C: SPECIES INFORMATION TABLE 25. KNOWN NUMBER OF FLORA SPECIES IN GHANA

GROUP FAMILIES GENERA NUMBER OF SPECIES IN GHANA

Indigenous Pteridophytes 15 43 124 Gymnosperms 1 1 1 Monocotyledons 30 227 780 Dicotyledons 127 806 2069 Introduced (Naturalized) Monocotyledons 15 42 53 Dicotledons 63 149 200

Source: Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

TABLE 26. ENDEMIC , THREATENED, AND ENDANGERED SPECIES IN GHANA ENDEMIC THREATENED ENDEMIC ENDANGERED Mammals 1 0 23 Birds 0 0 23 Amphibians 5 2 8 Reptiles 0 0 7 Chameleons 0 0 * Fish 0 0 59 Sharks & Rays 0 0 * Mollusks (Invert) 0 0 2 Other Invert 1 1 3 Plants 0 0 119 Fungi & Protists 0

Source: IUCN 2019. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-1 <www.iucnredlist.org>.

TABLE 27.IUCN RED LIST CATEGORY SUMMARY TOTALS FOR GHANA'S PLANTS AND ANIMALS

EX EW CR EN VU NT LR/cd DD LC Total Animals 0 0 17 23 85 78 0 139 2097 2439 Plants 0 0 3 24 94 19 1 12 648 801 EX – Extinct; EW – Extinct in the Wild; NT – Near Threatened; LR/cd - Lower Risk; Conservation Dependent; DD – Data Deficient; LC – Least Concern Source: IUCN 2019. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-1 <www.iucnredlist.org>.



TABLE 28. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FAUNA OF GHANA AND ASSOCIATED KEY THREATS

Taxomic Group

Species (name, scientific name, year last assessed by IUCN Red List)

Key Threats

Birds

White-Backed vulture (Gyps africanus; 2018), White-Headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis; 2017), Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus; 2017)

• Bushmeat hunting • Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions • Overgrazing • Road and Infrastructure Development • Pollution from agriculture

Reptile

Slender-snouted Crocodile (Crocodylus caaphractus; 2014), Nubian Flapshell Turtle (Cyclanorbis elegans; 2016)

• Settlement and urban expansion • Unsustainable fishing • Road and infrastructure development (e.g., dams) • Oil and gas development* • Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* • Bushmeat hunting* • Pollution from agriculture, urban and domestic waste

water* • Climate change* *only applies to slender-snouted crocodile

Amphibians

Togo Slippery Frog (Conraua derooi; 2004), Krokosua Squeaking Frog (Arthroleptis krokosua; 2019), Phrynobatrachus intermedius; 2011 (no common name provided)

• Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions • Unsustainable wood harvesting • Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* • Wildfires* • Pollution from agriculture** • Settlement and urban expansion** *only applies to Krokosua squeaking frog **only applies to Togo slippery frog

Mammals

Rolowa Monkey (Cercopithecus roloway; 2019), Miss Waldron’s Red Colobus (Piliocolobus waldroni; 2019), Atlantic Humpback Dolphin (Sousa teuszii; 2017)

• Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions • Unsustainable wood harvesting • Bushmeat hunting • Settlement and urban expansion* • Unsustainable fishing* • Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing *only applies to Atlantic Humpback Dolphin

Fish

Largetooth Sawfish (Pristis pristis; 2013), Smalltooth Sawfish (Pristis pectinate; 2013), Blackchin Guitarfish (Claucostegus cemiculus; 2019), Smoothback Angelshark (Squatina oculate), African Wedgefish (Rhnchobatus luebberti)

• Settlement, industrial, and urban expansion • Unsustainable fishing • Road and infrastructure development (e.g., dams)* • Oil and gas development • Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* • Pollution from agriculture, urban and domestic waste

water • Climate change

Source: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T104050689A104057239. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T104050689A104057239.en. Downloaded on 27 August 2019.


TABLE 29. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FLORA OF GHANA

Name (Date last assessed by Redlist) Key Threats

Anadelphia pumila Asclepias (2019); kamerunensis (2014); Aubregrinia taiensis (1998); Talbotiella gentii (1998)

• Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* • Settlement and urban expansion** • Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions • Overgrazing • Unsustainable wood harvesting • Wildfires*** *only Anadelphia pumila **only Anadelphia pumila and Talbotiella gentii ***Applies to Anadelphia pumila, Aubreginia taiensis, and Talbotiella gentii

Source: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T104050689A104057239. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T104050689A104057239.en. Downloaded on 27 August 2019.


ANNEX D: RATIFIED INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS RELEVANT TO CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AND IMPROVED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

TABLE 30. CONVENTION, TREATY OR AGREEMENT BY YEAR ADOPTED AND RATIFIED

CONVENTION, TREATY, OR AGREEMENT YEAR

ADOPTED/ SIGNED

YEAR RATIFIED/ ACCEDED

BIODIVERSITY Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 1973 1975 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972 1975

Protocol to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1956 2009

Convention on the African Migratory Locust 1962 1963

International Plant Protection Convention 1951 1991

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitats (Ramsar Convention) 1971 1988 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979 1988

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living resources of the High seas 1958 *

African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1968 1969 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity 2000 2003 Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 1994

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds 1995 2005 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 2002 2002

African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 2003 2007

Convention on the status of the Volta River and the Establishment of Volta Basin Authority 2007 2008

Convention for the Establishment of the Fishery Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea 2007 2007

Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal Unreported and Unregulated Fishing 2009 2016

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985 1989

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1987 1989




ADOPTED/ SIGNED


United Nationals Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC); Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 1992 1995

Gaborone Declaration on Sustainability in Africa 2012 2012

African Union Agenda 2063 (2013-2063) 2013 2013

Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2015 2016

Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development (2015-2030) 2015 2015

INTERNATIONAL WATERS The 1958 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas—Geneva 1958 *

International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties 1969 *

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living resources of the High Seas 1958 1958

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954 1962

1972 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1973 1977

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973/1978 1978 1991

International Convention for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage 1978 1978

Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region 1981 1989

United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982 1983 International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas 1968 1969

Convention for the Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central Africa Region 1981 1989

International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Cooperation 1990 1990 Convention on Fisheries Cooperation Among African States Bordering the Atlantic Ocean 1991 2014

Agreement for the Establishment of the Intergovernmental Organization for Marketing Information and Cooperation Services for Fishery Products in Africa 1991 1995




ADOPTED/ SIGNED


International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation of Oil Pollution Damage 1978 1978

Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas 1993 2003

Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters 1996 2010

International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ ballast water and Sediments 2004 2015

Convention on the Pooling and Sharing of Information and data on Fisheries in the Zone of the Fisheries Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea 2014 2014

LAND DEGRADATION International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1978 1978

Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques 1977 1978

Agreement Establishing the International Tropical Timber Bureau 1977 1977

Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency 1981 1989

Convention on early Notification of a Nuclear Accident 1986 2016

Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency 1986 2016

Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal 1989 2003

Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous wastes Within Africa 2004 *

Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa 1994 1994

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade 1998 2003

Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2001 2003

Minamata Convention on Mercury 2013 2017


ANNEX E: KEY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA

TABLE 31. CONSEVATION INITIATIVES IN FOREST AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES

PROGRAMME /PROJECT OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION

IMPLEMENTING AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER

Ghana Forest Investment Program (FIP)

FIP 1: Enhancing Natural Forest and Agroforest Landscapes Project

FIP 2: The Engaging Local Communities in Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+)/ Enhancement of Carbon Stocks

A targeted program designed to address the underlying drivers of deforestation and catalyze transformational change by providing upfront investment to support the implementation of the REDD+ strategy and generate information and experience for policy and regulatory changes.

Ultimate objectives include achieving reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry sector in Ghana. This includes by addressing major threats, such as illegal mining activities, and providing targeted private sector engagement and technical assistance to enhance sustainable management in plantation activities, among other interventions.

Being implemented by the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources through the Forestry Commission.

FIP 1 – World Bank

FIP 2 – Africa Development Bank (AfDB)

Sustainable Land and Water Management Project (SLWMP)

The project aims to improve land management of selected micro-watersheds in northern Ghana to reverse land degradation and enhance agricultural productivity; and spatial planning through integration of watershed management and development plans.

The project is being implemented by the Ministry of Environment Science Technology and Innovation (MESTI).

World Bank

Forest 2020 Project To provide critical resource management decision support through the application of earth observation tools through advanced uses of satellite data for improved forest monitoring. The project will develop, test and integrate improved methods of forest change detection, for faster and more accurate identification of deforestation and degradation and develop methods for mapping forest at risk of fire or deforestation and for identifying areas suitable for forest restoration.

The project is being implemented by the RMSC of the Forestry Commission in collaboration with the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology.

United Kingdom (UK) Space Agency

Ghana’s Cocoa Forest REDD+ Program (GCFRP)

Using a climate-smart cocoa production strategy, the GCFRP aims to significantly reduce emissions driven by deforestation and forest degradation, while improving smallholder farmers' livelihoods through substantial yield increases and other benefit-sharing arrangements. The program will also make Ghana's cocoa and forestry sectors more resilient, while establishing a new asset class

It is being co-led by the National REDD+ Secretariat of the Forestry Commission and Ghana's Cocoa Board.

Forest Carbon Partnership Facility

Carbon Fund/World Bank





and revenue stream from climate-smart cocoa beans, validated against a landscape standard.

Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT)/ Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA).276

Ghana is in a VPA with the European Union (EU); a legally binding trade agreement that seeks to ensure legal production and export of timber products and strengthen forest governance and enforcement. Despite the typically international focus, stakeholders within Ghana are hopeful the VPA will strengthen production and sale of legal timber on the domestic market as well.

Under the VPA, Ghana is committed to strengthening its supply chain and verification systems to assure legality of timber production and sale. The system will be subject to independent monitoring and eligible for FLEGT licensing, should these systems become sufficiently robust.

EU

Increased Resilience to Climate Change in Northern Ghana through the Management Water Resources and Diversification of Livelihoods

The objective of the program is to enhance the resilience and adaptive capacity of rural livelihoods to climate impacts and risks on water resources in the northern region of Ghana. The objective will be achieved through key results centered on the improvement of water access and increase institutional capacity and coordination for integrated water management to support other uses of water resources especially for the diversification of livelihoods by rural communities.

The program targets the three regions in the northern part of Ghana: The Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions. Compared to other regions of the country, these three northern regions have high degree of exposure to climate variability and change characterized by increasing temperatures and decreasing and erratic rainfall. These factors make the northern regions highly vulnerable to climate change and high priority regions for climate change adaptation.

UNDP

276 EUFLEGT Facility. “The Ghana-EU Voluntary Partnership Agreement.” Retrieved July 2019 from http://www.euflegt.efi.int/background-ghana.

http://www.euflegt.efi.int/background-ghana





Restoration of Degraded Forest Reserve through Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Certified Plantations

As a private entity, Form Ghana actively restores degraded Forest Reserves with sustainably planted and managed forest plantations and natural forest restoration. Form Ghana exclusively plants teak plantations, coupled with planting of indigenous species in areas with degraded forest cover not suitable for plantation planting. The company uses FSC™ certification and VCS to maximize value of their sustainable management practices.

Form Ghana (Private Sector)

Ghana Land Administration Project (LAP 1 and LAP 2)

The LAP 1 project sought to improve land tenure, simplify the process for accessing land, and improving the transparency, fairness, and efficiency through which land could be marketed and transferred. LAP 2 aimed to build on that through consolidation and strengthening of land administration and management systems.

Currently, additional financing has been authorized for LAP 2 focused on scaling LAP 2 project activities and addressing a funding gap to support completion of LAP 2 objectives.

Funder: World Bank

National Forest Plantation Development Programme (NFPDP)277

Originally launched in 2001, with a new program started in 2010, the NFPDP aims to expand forest cover by 200km2 through the establishment of forest plantations; plantation species include: Teak (Tectona grandis), Cedrela (Cedrela odorata) Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), Ofram (Terminalia superba), Emire (Terminalia ivorensis) Mahogany (Khaya spp.), Wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon), and Cassia (Senna siamea). As of 2014, this program had established 1,800 km2 of forest plantations.

Ghana Forestry Commission

TABLE 32. MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

PROGRAMME /PROJECT

OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION IMPLEMENTING AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER

The Environmental Justice Foundation project:

EJF seeks to promote greater environmental sustainability and social equity through reduction of illegal fishing and strengthening capacity to support legal, sustainable and co-managed fisheries. The project together with other

EU and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development

277Forestry Commission of Ghana. “National Forest Plantation Development Programme.” Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.fcghana.org/page.php?page=291&section=28&typ=1.

https://www.fcghana.org/page.php?page=291&section=28&typ=1


TABLE 32. MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

PROGRAMME /PROJECT

OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION IMPLEMENTING AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER

local NGOs (Hen Mpoano and FoN) has campaigned extensively to end destructive IUU fishing practice known as “saiko” fishing.

West Africa Fisheries Governance Improvement Project

Implemented across 30 districts in the Western, Central, and Greater Accra Regions to address the challenges of overfishing and unsustainable fishing, including IUU fishing, low compliance and weak capacity for law enforcement within the sector.

CARE International, FoN, and OXFAM

Funder: European Development Fund

Greater Accra Resilient and Integrated Development Project

The project seeks to improve solid waste management is key river basins and catchment areas. The project entails three components:

• Component 1: Climate Resilient Drainage and Flood Mitigation Measures;

• Component 2: Solid Waste Management Capacity Improvements; and

• Component 3: Participatory Upgrading of Targeted Flood Prone Low-Income Communities and Local Government Support

This will have important implications for coastal and marine biodiversity because, if successfully implemented, perennial flooding of Accra will reduce or be eliminated, and solid waste management systems will be strengthened; thereby reducing the influx of pollutants into wetlands and adjoining marine ecosystem.

Component 1: Ministry of Works and Housing

Component 2: Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources

Component 3: Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development and Ministry of Inner-Cities and Zongo Development

Funder: World Bank

Community Conservation Resilience Initiative

CCRI is being implemented around inland water and forest ecosystems, notably along the Weto Range of the Upper Guinean Forest as well as near the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar Site, an important site for migratory birds and the only Ghanaian site for the threatened Sitatunga, an antelope species that resides in heavily vegetated swamps and marshes.

Development Institute

Funder(s): IUCN and Wetlands International

West Africa Coastal Areas Resilience Investment Project

In its second phase of implementation, the West Africa Coastal Areas Resilience Investment project is partnering with the Centre of Coastal Management of the University of Cape coast to Strengthening regional integration by mapping existing institutions and technical capacity in Ghana to address coastal issues.

Funder: World Bank


ANNEX F: PROTECTED AREAS OF GHANA TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS

NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM

STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY

FOREST RESERVE Abasumba 1927 0.33 Designated National Forestry Commission Abisu 1939 9.55 Designated National Forestry Commission Aboben Hill 1962 6.23 Designated National Forestry Commission Aboma 1932 35.74 Designated National Forestry Commission Aboniyere Shelterbelt 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Abrimasu 1940 25.77 Designated National Forestry Commission Abutia Hills 1939 10.95 Designated National Forestry Commission Achimota Plantation 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Afao Hills 1940 39.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Afia Shelterbelt 1940 19.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Afram Headwaters 1928 213.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Afrensu Bohuma 1934 59.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Ahirasu (Blocks I & II) 1927 0.83 Designated National Forestry Commission Aiyaola 1929 35.80 Designated National Forestry Commission Ajenjua Bepo 1930 3.63 Designated National Forestry Commission Ajuesu 1943 16.02 Designated National Forestry Commission Akrobong 1930 3.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Amama Shelterbelt 1940 44.65 Designated National Forestry Commission Ambalalai 0 125.21 Designated National Forestry Commission Ambalara 0 Proposed National Forestry Commission Angoben Shelterbelt 1948 34.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Anhwiaso East 1926 337.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Anhwiaso North 1926 7.00 Designated National Forestry Commission Anhwiaso South 1926 Designated National Forestry Commission Ankaful Fuelwood 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Ankasa River 1934 328.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Ankwai East 0 250.30 Designated National Forestry Commission


TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS

NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Anumso North 1928 36.04 Designated National Forestry Commission Anumso South 1950 3.76 Designated National Forestry Commission Apamprama 1952 28.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Aparabi Shelterbelt 1939 17.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Apedua 1926 5.05 Designated National Forestry Commission Apepesu River 1954 59.95 Designated National Forestry Commission Asenanyo River 1938 Designated National Forestry Commission Asonari 1928 0.96 Designated National Forestry Commission Assin Apimanim 1927 12.50 Designated National Forestry Commission Assin Attandaso 1937 143.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Asubima 1945 74.43 Designated National Forestry Commission Asufu Shelterbelt East 1950 6.60 Designated National Forestry Commission Asufu Shelterbelt West 1951 19.86 Designated National Forestry Commission Asukese 1934 264.06 Designated National Forestry Commission Asuokoko River 1939 85.19 Designated National Forestry Commission Atewa Range 1926 212.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Atewa Range Extension 1957 Designated National Forestry Commission Auro River 1948 5.69 Designated National Forestry Commission Awura 1940 147.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Ayum 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Baku 1929 5.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Banda Hills North 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Bandai Hills 1928 175.74 Designated National Forestry Commission Bazua Bridge 1958 Designated National Forestry Commission Bediako 1928 7.91 Designated National Forestry Commission Bemu 1950 33.46 Designated National Forestry Commission Ben East 1954 22.81 Designated National Forestry Commission Ben West 1954 44.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Shelterbelt 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Tano 1937 212.73 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Tano Blk 1 0 121.56 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Bia Tawya 1965 546.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Trans 0 119.05 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Tributaries North 1940 360.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Trributaries South 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Bilisu 0 51.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Bimpong 1937 99.99 Designated National Forestry Commission Birim 1929 44.64 Designated National Forestry Commission Birim Extension 1940 24.79 Designated National Forestry Commission Bobiri 1939 50.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Bodi 1967 186.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Boin River 1932 307.32 Designated National Forestry Commission Boin Tano 1968 122.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Bombi 1963 1.03 Designated National Forestry Commission Bomfoum 1928 218.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonkoni 1934 76.55 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonsa Ben 1939 146.03 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonsa River 1932 123.06 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonsam Bepo 1934 119.08 Designated National Forestry Commission Bopong 0 42.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Bosomkese 1937 153.15 Designated National Forestry Commission Bosomoa 1930 141.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Bosumtwi Range 1931 75.96 Designated National Forestry Commission Boti Falls 1969 Designated National Forestry Commission Bowiye Range 1930 143.11 Designated National Forestry Commission Brimso 1951 5.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Bukanaw Shelterbelt 0 5.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Buligu 1955 Designated National Forestry Commission Bura River 1932 100.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Buru 0 222.21 Designated National Forestry Commission Cape Three Points 1950 45.75 Designated National Forestry Commission Chai River 1962 175.68 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Chasi River 1940 49.89 Designated National Forestry Commission Chiana Hills 1945 51.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Chipa Tributaries 0 29.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Chira Headwaters 0 Proposed National Forestry Commission Chiremoasi 1931 4.36 Designated National Forestry Commission Chirimfa 1932 92.53 Designated National Forestry Commission Dadieso 1977 151.30 Designated National Forestry Commission Daka Headwaters 1952 134.21 Designated National Forestry Commission Damango Scarp 1963 28.53 Designated National Forestry Commission Dampia Range 1937 76.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Dechidan Stream 0 7.32 Designated National Forestry Commission Dechidaw 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Dede 1955 47.92 Designated National Forestry Commission Denyau Shelterbelt 1939 8.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Desiri 1954 127.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Disue River 1943 22.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Dome River 1929 75.42 Designated National Forestry Commission Draw River 1937 195.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Dunwli 0 86.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Ebi Shelterbelt River 1937 17.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Esen Epam 1936 45.18 Designated National Forestry Commission Esuboni For 1927 30.39 Designated National Forestry Commission Esukawkaw 1929 124.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Fiankonya Stream 0 7.30 Designated National Forestry Commission Fum Headwaters 1931 228.22 Designated National Forestry Commission Fumbesi 0 10.76 Designated National Forestry Commission Fure River 1939 141.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Gambaga East 1948 337.44 Designated National Forestry Commission Gambaga West I 1954 158.81 Designated National Forestry Commission Ghira 0 41.66 Designated National Forestry Commission Giah 1948 19.25 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Gianima 1939 16.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Goa 1940 23.56 Designated National Forestry Commission Greenbelt 0 Proposed National Forestry Commission Ho Hill Station 1946 Designated National Forestry Commission Inchaban 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Jade Bepo 1932 Designated National Forestry Commission Jade Bepo Extension 1932 Designated National Forestry Commission Jema Asemkrom 1977 68.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Jeni River 1937 20.70 Designated National Forestry Commission Jimira 1932 28.18 Designated National Forestry Commission Jimira Extension 0 13.02 Designated National Forestry Commission Kabakaba Hills 1947 18.03 Designated National Forestry Commission Kabo River 1931 86.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Kade Bepo 1930 13.94 Designated National Forestry Commission Kadembeli 1948 Designated National Forestry Commission Kajeasi 1952 23.98 Designated National Forestry Commission Kakum 1931 Designated National Forestry Commission Kandenbelli 0 18.28 Designated National Forestry Commission Kani 0 609.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Kanjarga Fumbisi 1948 Designated National Forestry Commission Karaga 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Karaka Plantation 0 1.80 Designated National Forestry Commission Karanja 0 22.37 Designated National Forestry Commission Kenikeni 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Klemu Headwaters 1947 12.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Kokotintin Shelterbelt 1940 8.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Komenda Fuelwood 1946 Designated National Forestry Commission Kpandu Plantation 1947 Designated National Forestry Commission Kpandu Range (Dayi Block) 1951 20.50 Designated National Forestry Commission Kpandu Range West 1947 32.89 Designated National Forestry Commission Krochua 1932 24.69 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Krokosua Hills 1935 Designated National Forestry Commission Krokosua Hills FoR* 1935 485.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Krowam 1928 4.29 Designated National Forestry Commission Kulpawn Headwaters 0 45.72 Proposed National Forestry Commission Kulpawn Tributaries 0 83.43 Proposed National Forestry Commission Kumawu Waters 1945 1.35 Designated National Forestry Commission Kumbo 1956 169.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Kunda 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Kunsimua Bepo 1937 Designated National Forestry Commission Kwamisa 1928 53.89 Designated National Forestry Commission Kwekaru 1929 7.25 Designated National Forestry Commission Kwesi Anyinama 1930 Designated National Forestry Commission Laboni 0 259.36 Designated National Forestry Commission Lambo 1956 129.15 Designated National Forestry Commission Lawra 1953 Designated National Forestry Commission Mamang River 1938 49.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Mamiri 1949 48.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Mankrang 1933 97.26 Designated National Forestry Commission Manzan 1972 278.82 Designated National Forestry Commission Marago River 1954 116.00 Designated National Forestry Commission Mawbia 0 124.99 Proposed National Forestry Commission Minta 1938 22.91 Designated National Forestry Commission Mirasa Hills 1937 55.23 Designated National Forestry Commission Morago 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Morago West 1951 Designated National Forestry Commission Mpameso 1937 375.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Muro 1951 542.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Nandom/Lambussie 1956 52.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Nasia Tributaries 1956 285.19 Designated National Forestry Commission Navrongo North 0 9.09 Designated National Forestry Commission Ndumfri 1937 63.28 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Neung South 1954 120.54 Designated National Forestry Commission Neung North 0 25.44 Designated National Forestry Commission Nkawanda 1939 7.14 Designated National Forestry Commission Nkonto Ben 1950 16.81 Designated National Forestry Commission Nkrabia 1940 100.22 Designated National Forestry Commission North Bandai Hills 1928 69.99 Designated National Forestry Commission North Fomangsu 1925 49.99 Designated National Forestry Commission Northern Scarp (East) 1935 36.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Northern Scarp (West) 1935 58.96 Designated National Forestry Commission Nsemere 1939 24.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Nsuensa 1938 63.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Nuale 1954 32.95 Designated National Forestry Commission Numia 1938 50.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Nyamibe Bepo 1933 26.31 Designated National Forestry Commission Nyembong 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Obotumfo Hills 1930 1.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Oboyow 1927 56.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Obrachere 0 0.34 Designated National Forestry Commission Obrachere 1 0 0.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Ochi Headwaters Blk I 1940 1.50 Designated National Forestry Commission Ochi Headwaters Blk II 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Oda River 1939 153.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Odomi River 1931 10.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Ofin Shelterbelt 1951 Designated National Forestry Commission Ofin Shelterbelt Headwaters 1927 10.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Ongwam 1951 17.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Ongwam Blk I, II and III 1957 12.54 Designated National Forestry Commission Onuem Bepo 1930 32.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Onuem Nyamibe Shelterbelt 1936 27.80 Designated National Forestry Commission Onyimsu 1940 9.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Opimbo 1927 1.52 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Opon mansi 1930 90.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Opro River 1929 129.83 Designated National Forestry Commission Padu 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Pamu Berekum 1932 176.66 Designated National Forestry Commission Pogi 1951 21.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Polli 0 28.27 Proposed National Forestry Commission Pompo Headwaters 1930 8.52 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Anum 1908 106.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Birim 1937 7.75 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Suhyien Blk I 1928 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Suhyien Blk II 1933 141.56 Designated National Forestry Commission Prakaw 1942 9.85 Designated National Forestry Commission Prampram Fuelwood 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Pru Shelterbelt 0 52.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Pudu Hills 0 40.55 Proposed National Forestry Commission Red Volta East 1953 230.65 Designated National Forestry Commission Red Volta West 1962 331.91 Designated National Forestry Commission Saboro 1934 Designated National Forestry Commission Santomang 1944 Designated National Forestry Commission Sapawsu 1957 9.28 Designated National Forestry Commission Sawsaw 1976 57.78 Designated National Forestry Commission Sekondi Waterworks (Blocks II and III) 1938 4.92 Designated National Forestry Commission Sephe 0 375.37 Designated National Forestry Commission Sinsaa bogiwini 1956 Designated National Forestry Commission Sinsableswani 0 68.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Sissili Central 1947 160.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Sissili North 1940 56.06 Designated National Forestry Commission South Fomangsu 1925 31.00 Designated National Forestry Commission Southern Scarp 1935 250.46 Designated National Forestry Commission Subin 1956 209.27 Designated National Forestry Commission Subin River 1949 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Subin Shelterbelt 1940 27.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Subri River 0 562.99 Designated National Forestry Commission Subuma 1935 361.78 Designated National Forestry Commission Sui River 1930 267.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Sukusuki 1972 145.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Sumtwitwi 1939 Designated National Forestry Commission Supong 1954 33.34 Designated National Forestry Commission Supuma Shelterbelt 1938 15.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Tain Tributaries 1932 20.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Tain Tributaries II 1934 454.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Tamale Fuelwood Blks I and II 1953 Designated National Forestry Commission Tamale Waterworks 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Tanja 0 101.05 Designated National Forestry Commission Tankara 1951 Designated National Forestry Commission Tankwiddi West 1941 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Anwia 1935 141.98 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Ehuro 1967 209.24 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Nimri or Tano Nimiri 1935 191.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Ofin 1929 378.82 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Ofin Extension 0 54.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Suhyien 1967 74.35 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Suraw 1939 20.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Suraw Extension 1935 72.63 Designated National Forestry Commission Tapania 0 94.38 Proposed National Forestry Commission Tinte Bepo 1928 114.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Togo Plateau 1929 123.54 Designated National Forestry Commission Tonton 1936 149.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Totua Shelterbelt 1941 65.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Tumu 0 39.56 Proposed National Forestry Commission Uppe Bli 0 1.11 Designated National Forestry Commission Upper Tamne Blocks I-V 1958 Designated National Forestry Commission



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Upper Wassaw 1925 110.90 Designated National Forestry Commission Volta River 1940 34.66 Designated National Forestry Commission Wawahi 1929 41.29 Designated National Forestry Commission Wiaga 1950 9.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Wiaga Kandema 1941 127.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Winneba Fuelwood 1949 Designated National Forestry Commission Worobong (North) 1927 34.82 Designated National Forestry Commission Worobong (South) 1929 47.76 Designated National Forestry Commission Worobong Kwahu 1930 115.15 Designated National Forestry Commission Yakombo 1974 1083.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Yaya 1930 45.23 Designated National Forestry Commission Yendi Town Plantation 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Yenku 1937 Designated National Forestry Commission Yerada 1972 654.16 Designated National Forestry Commission Yogaga 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Yongwa 1957 Designated National Forestry Commission Yoyo River 1932 212.79 Designated National Forestry Commission Zawli Hills 0 8.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Zawse Hill Blocks I and II 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission GAME PRODUCTION RESERVE Assin-Attandanso 1991 94.32 Designated National MLNR-WD Bunkunaw 0 3.84 Designated National MLNR-WD Gbele 1975 543.76 Designated National MLNR-WD Kalakpa 1975 78.33 Designated National MLNR-WD Shai Hills 1971 3.45 Designated National MLNR-WD NATIONAL PARK Bia 0 310.83 Designated National MLNR-WD Bui 1971 1897.32 Designated National MLNR-WD Digya 1971 2789.47 Designated National MLNR-WD Kakum 1991 176.15 Designated National MLNR-WD Kyabobo 0 220.22 Designated National MLNR-WD



NAME YEAR EST.

AREA IN SQ. KM


Mole 1971 4522.28 Designated National MLNR-WD Nini-Suhien 0 515.52 Designated National MLNR-WD Ramsar SITE, WETLAND OF INTERNATIONAL IMPORTANCE Anlo-Keta lagoon complex 1992 698.62 Designated International Not Reported Densu delta 1992 Designated International Not Reported Muni Lagoon 1992 Designated International Not Reported Owabi 1988 17.64 Designated International Not Reported Sakumo Lagoon 1992 Designated International Not Reported Songor Lagoon 1992 Designated International Not Reported Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net


ANNEX G: KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONS

TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND REGULATIONS

WILDLIFE ANIMALS PRESERVATION ACT, 1961 (ACT 43)

An act to consolidate and amend the law relating to wild animals, birds and fish and to continue the observance of the Convention signed at London on the nineteenth day of May 1900.

WILDLIFE RESERVES REGULATION, 1971 (LI 710)

Provided for the establishment of six (6) new wildlife reserves. It also outlined entry specifications for persons entering a wildlife reserve with the requirement that such entry must be with the consent of the Chief Game and Wildlife Officer. The Regulations further provided for the protection of fauna and flora by prohibiting hunting, capturing or destroying animals, plant life and amenities and by including wildlife related offenses.

FORESTRY MANAGEMENT & RELATED STRATEGIES/ REGULATIONS

THE GHANA ECONOMIC RECOVERY PROGRAMME (1989-1992)

The Ghana Economic Recovery Programme: 1989-1992 was designed to improve management of industrial forestry production and promote conservation and tree planting. Agriculture was identified as the economic sector that could rescue Ghana from financial ruin. The government invested significant funds in the rehabilitation of agriculture. Primarily using loans and grants, the government directed capital toward repairing and improving the transportation and distribution infrastructure serving export crops. In addition, specific projects aimed at increasing cocoa yields and at developing the timber industry were implemented. The government allowed the free market to promote higher producer prices and to increase efficiency.

GHANA FOREST AND WILDLIFE POLICY, 1948-1980:

Provided for the creation and management of permanent forest estates, research in all branches of scientific forestry, maximum utilization of areas not dedicated to permanent forestry, provision of technical advice and cooperation in schemes for the prevention of soil erosion and in land use plans.

GHANA FOREST AND WILDLIFE POLICY 1994: 1995-2011

Aims at conservation and sustainable development of the nation’s forest and wildlife resources for maintenance of environmental quality and perpetual flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society.

GHANA FOREST AND WILDLIFE POLICY, 2012: 2012 TO DATE

Aims at the conservation and sustainable development of forest and wildlife resources for the maintenance of environmental stability and continuous flow of optimum benefits from the socio-cultural and economic goods and services that the forest environment provides to the present and future generations whilst fulfilling Ghana’s commitments under international agreements and conventions.

FOREST RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Undertook a systematic evaluation of Forest and Wildlife resources and assessed the capacity of the sector departments to face the challenges of the time and those perceived for the future. The FRMP culminated in the formulation of the



PROGRAMME (FRMP); 1990-1994:

Forest and Wildlife Policy of 1994 that clearly recognized more strongly the role of local communities and indigenous knowledge in the conservation of Forest and Wildlife resources.

NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE (NREG) PROGRAM, 2008- TO DATE

This program focuses on a set of policies and reforms in the inter-related sectors of forestry and wildlife, mining and environmental protection.

NON-LEGALLY BINDING INSTRUMENT (NLBI), 2007 – TO DATE

To boost the implementation of sustainable forest management (SFM) and thus to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests for the benefit of present and future generations.

VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT (VPA) 2009 – TO DATE

Provides a legal framework aimed at ensuring that all imports into the EU from Ghana of timber products have been legally produced and in doing so to promote trade in timber products.

PROTECTED AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, 1997-2010

Its main aim was to develop and implement resource reserve management plans that will enhance biological diversity conservation in two nationally and internationally important representative protected areas. The Nini-Suhien National Park and Ankasa Resource Reserve and Bia National Park (also an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve) and Resource Reserve are all located in the Eastern Guinean forest areas within the Western Region.

NATIONAL FORESTRY PROGRAMME; 2004 – TO DATE

The Forestry Commission has entered into a Partnership Agreement with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United nations under the National Forest Programme Facility (NFP) which established the National Forestry Forum and for implementing series of activities aimed at safeguarding the benefits due to farmers participating in the Modified Taungya Plantation Scheme.

REDUCED EMISSIONS FROM DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION (REDD+)

As part of the Forestry Commission’s commitment to ensuring the sustainable management of Ghana’s forests we are leading efforts to prepare Ghana to engage with international mechanisms on REDD.

FOREST INVESTMENT PROGRAMME (FIP), 2013 – TO DATE

The medium to long term expectation of Ghana’s FIP strategy is to strengthen institutional capacity in forest resources management, improve governance, strengthen the regulatory mechanisms, streamline tenure and tree rights, improve local livelihoods and enhance resilience to climate change.

NATIONAL PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, 2002-2012:

It aims at rehabilitating degraded forest reserves in suitable off-reserve areas, mangroves, watersheds, planting of amenity trees in urban areas and creating employment for the youth in the rural and urban communities.

GHANA FOREST PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY, 2015-2040

The purpose of the strategy is to optimize the productivity of planted forests by identifying suitable tree species and improving their propagation, management, utilization and marketing. The strategy has the following strategic objectives: to establish and manage 500,000 ha of forest plantations and undertake enrichment planting of 100,000 ha through the application of best practice principles, by year 2040 as well as maintain best practice principles; to promote large scale and



small holder forest plantation investments; to create employment opportunities and sustainable livelihoods in rural communities through forest plantation development; to increase investments in research and development, extension, training and capacity building for forest plantation development and timber utilization; and to improve governance in the regulation and management of forest plantations.

GHANA TREE CROP POLICY 2011 – TO DATE

Competitive and sustainable tree crop sub-sector with focus on value chain development and improved technologies to create job opportunities, ensure food security, enhance the environment and improve livelihoods.

GHANA COCOA SECTOR PROGRAMME, 2007 – TO DATE

The overall objective is to contribute to an improved livelihood of smallholder cocoa farmers and improved sustainability of cocoa production in Ghana.

FORESTS ORDINANCE (CAP 157) This Act provided guidelines for constitution of forest reserves and the protection of forests and other related matters.

FOREST PROTECTION DECREE, 1974 (N.R.C.D 234) This Act defined forest offenses and prescribed sanctions and or penalties for such offenses.

TREES AND TIMBER DECREE 1974 (N.R.C.D. 273)

This law prescribed guidelines for participation in the logging/timber industry and provided for the payment of fees as well as sanctions for non-compliance with the guidelines for participation and also export of unprocessed timber.

FOREST PROTECTION (AMENDMENT) LAW, 1986 (P.N.D.C.L. 142)

This law reviewed upwards the penalties/fines for forest offenses.

TREES AND TIMBER (AMENDMENT) ACT 1994 (ACT 493)

This Act reviewed the fees and fines upwards and introduced export levy for air-dried lumber and logs.

TIMBER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ACT 1997 (ACT 547)

This repealed the Concessions Act, 1962 (Act 124) and provided for the grant of timber rights in a manner that secures the sustainable management and utilization of timber resources.

FORESTRY COMMISSION ACT, 1999 (ACT 571)

This Act repealed Act 453 and re-established the Forestry Commission as a semi-autonomous corporate body and brought under the Commission, the forestry sector agencies implementing the functions of protection, development, management, and regulation of forest and wildlife resources.

FOREST PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT FUND ACT, 2000 (ACT 583)

This Act consolidated to it the Forest Improvement Fund and provide for the establishment of a Fund to provide financial assistance and the management of such funds for the development of private commercial forest plantations in the country.

THE FOREST PROTECTION (AMENDMENT) ACT 2002 (ACT 624)

This Act repealed the Forest Protection (Amendment) Law, 1986 (PNDCL 142), reviewed forest offenses fines upwards and introduced joint liability in the commitment and prosecution of forest offenses.



THE FOREST PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT FUND (AMENDMENT) ACT 2002 (ACT 617)

This Act amended Act 547 to exclude from its application, land with private forest plantation, to provide for maximum duration, and maximum limit area for timber rights and to provide for incentives and benefits for investors in the forestry and wildlife sector.

TIMBER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (AMENDMENT) ACT 2002 (ACT 617)

This Act amended Act 547 to exclude from its application, land with private forest plantation, to provide for maximum duration, and maximum limit area for timber rights and to provide for incentives and benefits for investors in the forestry and wildlife sector.

ECONOMIC PLANTS PROTECTION DECREE, 1979 (AFRCD 47)

This decree prohibits the grant of timber felling rights in cocoa farms.

LI 1649 TIMBER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT REGULATIONS, 1988

This regulation provided guidelines for the allocation and management of timber resources.

LI 1721—TIMBER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (AMENDMENT) REGULATIONS, 2003

This regulation established the basis for competitive bidding in timber resource allocation.

LI 2184 TIMBER RESOURCES (LEGALTIY LICENSING) REGULATIONS, 2012:

This established the Timber Validation Division, Timber Validation Committee and Timber Legality Licensing scheme.

COCOA INDUSTRY REGULATION, 1968 This law provides the regulations for buying and selling of cocoa in Ghana.

FRESHWATER AND MARINE WATER MANAGEMENT

MINISTRY OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT (MOFAD)

MoFAD leads policy formulation and oversees the development and utilization of fisheries in Ghana. The Ministry coordinates policies pertaining to the sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources through the Fisheries Commission and manages, develops and regulates fishery and aquaculture activities through regulation and licensing.

WETLANDS MANAGEMENT (RAMSAR) REGULATIONS, 1999 – TO DATE

Provides for the definition of sustainable utilization of wetlands.

FISHERIES ACT, 2002 Establishes the fisheries commission and its structures as well as and its responsibilities.



WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION ACT, 1996 (ACT 522)

Established the Water resources Commission (WRC) with the mandate to regulate and manage Ghana’s Water resources and coordinate government policies in relation to them.

WATER POLICY (2007)

Developed by the Ministry of Local Government in 2007 with key policy objectives of achieving sustainable management of water resources; and ensuring equitable sustainable exploitation, utilization and management of water resources, while maintaining biodiversity and the quality of the environment for future generations.

MARINE POLLUTION ACT, 2016 (ACT 932)

Provides for the prevention, regulation, and control of pollution within Ghana’s territorial waters and incorporates most of the marine pollution conventions ratified by Ghana.

LAND TENURE, LAND USE MANAGEMENT, AND OTHER POLICIES INFORMING NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

MINISTRY OF LANDS AND NATURAL RESOURCES (MLNR)

The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR) through the Wildlife and Forest Services Division of the Forestry Commission coordinates the implementation of activities and programs that promote biodiversity conservation through the formulation of Forest Reserves and Protected Area Integrated Management Plans as well as forest investment programs. They regulate trading and export of forest products and threatened plant and animal species through the issuance of Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) licenses by the WD) to ensure sustainability of threatened plant and animal species. The MLNR through the Minerals Commission also formulates national policies on the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources with due regard to the conservation of biodiversity.

MINISTRY OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE (MOFA)

MoFA is responsible for policy formulation, programming and coordination within the agricultural sector and ensures that the exploitation of natural resources, including genetic biodiversity found in terrestrial and aquatic habitats, is within sustainable limits. MoFA has the responsibility to provide improved seed varieties and modified animal breeds for farming communities as well as plant protection and regulatory services at entry points to the country.

MINITRY OF CHIEFTAINCY AND RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS (MOCRA)

MoCRA promotes the development of an effective interface between government and civil society on matters relating to chieftaincy, culture and religious affairs for promoting peace, governance, national values and international partnership. The Ministry supports, collaborates and mobilizes local actors for sustainable management of biodiversity in the country. They also document traditional practices such as taboo species and sacred groves that maintain and/or protect biodiversity.

NATIONAL LAND POLICY (1994)

Seeks to promote the judicious use of the nation’s land and all its natural resources by all sectors of the Ghanaian society. This is in support of various socioeconomic activities undertaken in accordance with sustainable resources use and maintenance of viable ecosystems.

GHANA POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY: 2003-2009

Reform land acquisition to ensure easier access and more efficient land ownership and title processes; Serve as a catalyst to assist the private sector to increase the production of grains such as rice, maize and tubers so that Ghana can achieve food security. This included extension and research services, irrigation facilities, and affordable credit to support the farmer. Encourage the production of cash crops such as cashew; Support the private sector to add value to traditional



crops such as cocoa. The incidence of poverty among food crop farmers was targeted to decrease from 59% to 46% by 2005.

THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE SECTOR DEVELOPMENT POLICY (FASDEP), 2002- TO DATE

This is the main agriculture sector policy of Ghana built on the GPRS priorities for Ghana. Several other policies, programs, and projects have been developed in response to the provisions of this policy. The policy targets agricultural growth of 6-8% per annum, crops and livestock leading the growth at an average annual growth rate of 6%. Forestry and logging, and fisheries, each growing at 5% per annum, and cocoa remaining robust in support of other sectors.

GHANA IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT POLICY, 2010 – TO DATE

Ghana’s irrigation policy (and the strategy for its implementation) is designed to open up the investment space for intensified and diversified irrigated crop production in Ghana where there is clear comparative advantage. The policy is designed to accomplish this by addressing four key ‘problem’ areas concerning the formal, informal and commercial irrigated sub-sectors that have been identified during an extensive consultative review. These problems are (a) Low agricultural productivity and slow rates of growth (b) Constrained socio-economic engagement with land and water resources (c) Environmental degradation associated with irrigated production (d) Lack of irrigation support services.

BUFFER ZONE POLICY (2011)

Intends to protect, regenerate and maintain the active and established vegetation in riparian buffer zones to improve water quality by instituting proper procedures for managing and controlling activities along surface water bodies.

THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR REHABILITATION PROGRAM (ASRP), 1987-1990

This was the first integrated intervention in the agricultural sector. The objectives were to strengthen the institutional capacity and services of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and to support policy reforms involving the privatization of certain services (including fertilizer marketing, tractor services, and veterinary drugs).

GHANA AGRICULTURAL SECTOR PROGRAMME, 2013-2018

Nationwide scaling up of a successful value chain investment approach; promoting and mainstreaming climate change resilience approaches in Ghana, in particular in the northern regions, financed through the Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP); and knowledge management, harmonization of intervention approaches and policy support.

MEDIUM TERM AGRICULTURAL INVESTMENT PLAN, 2011-2015

The METASIP is the investment plan to implement the medium term (2011-2015) programs of the policy. It has been developed to achieve a target agricultural GDP growth of at least 6% annually, halving poverty by 2015 in consonance with MDG 1 and based on government expenditure allocation in the national budget of at least 10% within the Plan’s period (2011-2015).

MEDIUM TERM AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (1991-2000)

The Medium-Term Agricultural Development Program 1991-2000 was to attain food self-sufficiency and security by the year 2000. To this end, the government sought to improve extension services for farmers and to improve crop-disease research.

NORTHERN RURAL GROWTH PROGRAMME, 2009- TO DATE

This program aims at developing agricultural value chains and increasing agricultural production. It will help vulnerable groups including women and the youth, create profitable commodity and food chains, while improving market linkages for these agricultural products with the domestic and export markets.



YOUTH IN AGRICULTURE PROGRAMME, 2012 – TO DATE

The Youth in Agriculture Program (YIAP) is a Government of Ghana (GoG) agricultural sector initiative with an objective of motivating the youth to accept and appreciate farming/food production as a commercial venture, thereby taking up farming as a life time vocation.

PROGRAMME FOR PROMOTION OF PERENNIAL CROPS, 2006-2013

The Programme for the Promotion of Perennial Crops in Ghana is implementing the strategies outlined by the FASDEP through the following actions: Linking of farmers to market, Creating and strengthening of farmer associations, Building of 77 km of feeder roads and 210 km of farm roads, and designing to out grower projects under the program.

ROOT AND TUBERS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMME, 2007-2014

This program seeks to build a competitive market-based Root and Tuber Commodity Chain (RTCC) supported by relevant, effective and sustainable services that are available to the rural poor.

WEST AFRICA AGRICULTURE PRODUCTIVITY PROGRAMME, 2006 – TO DATE

WAAPP is a two-phase, 10-year Adoptable Program, each of 5-year duration. The first of WAAPP involves three countries (Ghana, Mali, and Senegal). The priority commodities for the WAAP which have International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and West and Central Africa Council for Agricultural Research and Development (WECARD / CORAF) in 2006, identified roots and tubers, livestock, rice, cereals among others as the commodities that make the greatest contribution to the region’s agricultural growth and productions’ benefit, from research and development. The specific country commodities are as follows: root and tubers for Ghana; rice Mali and drought—tolerant cereals for Senegal. The development objective of the program is to contribute to agricultural productivity increases in the participating countries’ top commodity sub-sectors that are aligned with regional priorities.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON LAND IN THE 1992 GHANAIAN CONSTITUTION

Article 258 establishes a Lands Commission and prescribes the functions of the Commission. Article 266 imposes restrictions on the rights and interest in land that could be granted to a non-citizen of Ghana. Article 267(1) vests stool lands in the appropriate stools in trust for their subjects in accordance with customary law and usage. Article 267(2) establishes the Office of Administrator of Stool Lands and prescribes its functions. Article 267(6) provides for the disbursement formula for stool land revenue. Article 268 establishes the requirement of Parliamentary Ratification of agreements in relation to the grant of a right or concession for the exploitation of any natural resources. Article 269 establishes natural resources commissions [Forestry Commission] which “shall be responsible for the regulation and management of the utilization of the natural resources concerned and the coordination of policies in relation to them” Article 295 provides for the definition of Stool Lands.

STATE LAND ACTS AND ITS REGULATIONS, 1962 Provides for acquisition of land for national interest and related matters.

LAND TITLE REGISTRATION ACT AND REGULATIONS, 1986

Provides for the establishment of land title registry and the procedures for land title registration.



PUBLIC CONVEYANCING ACT AND REGULATIONS, 1965

Provide for the declaration of a selected area, the granting of land in such area, and matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

LAND PLANNING AND SOIL CONSERVATION ACT, 1963

Provide for the better utilization of land in designated areas by land planning and soil conservation and for the establishment of committees for purposes incidental to this.

LAND DEVELOPMENT (PROTECTION OF PURCHASERS) ACT, 1960

Protect purchasers of land, and their successors, whose titles are found to be defective after a building has been erected on the land.

FARMLANDS PROTECTION ACT, 196 Protect farmers whose titles to land are found to be defective and to provide for related matters.

ADMINISTRATION OF LANDS ACT AND REGULATIONS, 1962

Consolidate with amendments the enactments relating to the administration of Stool and other lands.

CONVEYANCING ACT, 1973 Amends, simplifies and consolidates the law relating to conveyancing and to provide for related matters. This law provides the procedures and requirement for transfer of interest on land.

OFFICE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR OF STOOL LANDS ACT, 1994

Establish the Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands and provides for the administration of Stool Lands generally.

LANDS COMMISSION ACT, 2008

Establishes the Lands Commission to integrate, subject to the Constitution, the operations of public service land institutions under the Commission in order to secure effective and efficient land administration and to provide for related matters.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

DRAFT GHANA NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY POLICY (2019)

The Ghana National Biodiversity Policy (Draft 2019) is set within the framework of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, the International Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the African Union Agenda 2063, the ECOWAS Environmental Protocols, the Long-Term National Development Plan of Ghana (2018-2057), Ghana National Climate Change Policy, the Forest and Wildlife Policy, and other biodiversity-related agreements that Ghana has signed. Within the agenda of these policies, agreements, and strategies, Ghana is obliged to take effective and urgent actions to minimize the loss of biodiversity and enhance its sustainable use. This will ensure that ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services to secure the country’s variety of life and contribute to human well-being.

NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY (2014)

Aims to provide strategic direction and coordinate issues of climate change in Ghana. It also promotes a climate-resilient and climate-compatible economy while achieving sustainable development through equitable low-carbon economic growth for Ghana. A key focus area of the policy is to minimize greenhouse gas emissions.



GHANA VISION 2020: 1995-2020:

The Ghana Vision 2020 (1995-2020) was designed to improve the quality of life of all Ghanaians by reducing poverty, raising living standards through a sustained increase in national wealth and a more equitable distribution of the benefits therefrom.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT POLICY (2014)

Identifies the following objectives related to biodiversity: • Conserve the diversity of landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, biological communities, populations, species and genes

throughout the country by expanding human capacity. • Use biological resources sustainably and minimize adverse impacts on biological diversity. • Ensure that benefits derived from the use and development of the country’s genetic resources serve individual

communities and national interests. • Create and implement conditions and incentives that support the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity

at the national and international levels. • Encourage involvement of local communities inside and outside protected areas in the planning and management

of such areas. • Ensure that the conservation of biological diversity outside protected areas is integrated with strategic national

land use plans, district and local level plans and strategies. • Include in protected areas, a wide range of ecosystems/habitats, and where appropriate, to link them by

corridors or suitable habitats to neighboring countries for purposes of wildlife migration. • Ensure that economic instruments and pricing policies support biodiversity conservation.

GHANA SHARED GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENDA: 2010-2017

The main focus of agricultural development policy, over the medium-term as stated in the GSGDA, is to accelerate the modernization of agriculture and ensure its linkage with industry through the application of science, technology, and innovation. The modernized agriculture sector is expected to underpin the transformation of the economy through job creation, increased export earnings, food security, and supply of raw materials for value addition and rural development as well as significant reduction in the incidence of poverty.

GHANA CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY, 2010-2020

To enhance Ghana’s current and future development to climate change impacts by strengthening its adaptive capacity and building resilience of the society and ecosystems.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ACT, 1994

This act establishes the EPA and spell out its power and responsibilities.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REGULATIONS, 1952

Outlines the regulations guiding various undertaken that require environmental screening, environmental impact assessment, and environmental permit.

Sources: Kuudaar, Elvis. 2015. Ghana Case Study. FAO, October 2015, 1-39.

http://www.fao.org/3/a-C0183e.pdf#page19


Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. Republic of Ghana. Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019.

TABLE 35. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT OF GHANA INSTITUTIONS FOR ASPECTS RELATED TO THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION (MESTI)

MESTI is statutorily responsible for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity and collaborates and coordinates as the lead Ministry in the implementation of the Policy. MESTI in performing this function collaborates with the Ministries of Lands and Natural Resources, Food and Agriculture (MOFA), Local Government and Rural Development (DAs), the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and other relevant Agencies to enact legislation to support biodiversity conservation and management in the country. The key considerations in the implementation of the policy are efficient allocation of resources, strengthened linkages between different stakeholders and sectors, as well as coordinated activities.

MINISTRY OF LANDS AND NATURAL RESOURCES (MNLR)

The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR) through the Wildlife and Forest Services Divisions of the Forestry Commission coordinates the implementation of activities and programs that promote biodiversity conservation through the formulation of Forest Reserves and Protected Area Integrated Management Plans as well as forest investment programs. They regulate trading and export of forest products and threatened plant and animal species through the issuance of Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) licenses by the Wildlife Division (WD) to ensure sustainability of threatened plant and animal species. The MLNR through the Minerals Commission also formulates national policies on the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources with due regard to the conservation of biodiversity.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING COMMISSION (NDPC)

The National Development Planning Commission Act, 1994 (Act 479) and the National Development Planning (System) Act, 1994 (Act 480) provide the core legal framework for the establishment of the Commission and performance of its function. The Commission operates through a number of committees whose composition changes with the focus of a medium-term development plan. The Commission, according to the Constitution, “shall also perform such other functions relating to development planning as the President may direct.”

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates environmental matters and implements environmental policy objectives. They ensure compliance with the environmental impact assessment procedures, promote relevant research, surveys and analyses, develop databases and publications as well as coordinate biodiversity education for public awareness.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION (MOE)

The Ministry of Education, with backing from MESTI, supports universities and other research institutions to conduct research, advocacy, and monitoring of the state of biodiversity in the country.

MINISTRY OF TOURISM, CULTURE, AND ART

MoTCA promotes sustainable and responsible eco-tourism to preserve historical, cultural and natural heritage. The Ministry also has the responsibility to license and monitor the production, preservation and exportation of artifacts, as well as develop new high-value options in the leisure, culture, heritage and ecotourism markets. They collaborate with MESTI and MLNR to support the development of national parks and other tourist attractions.



TABLE 35. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT OF GHANA INSTITUTIONS FOR ASPECTS RELATED TO THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF WATER AND SANITATION (MOWS)

The Ministry of Water and Sanitation through its implementing agencies (the Water Resources Commission, Department of Hydrology, and the Community Water and Sanitation Agency) seeks to ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization and management of water resources while maintaining biodiversity and the quality of the environment for future generations.

MINISTRY OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT (MOFAD)

MOFAD focuses on interventions geared to move the fihseries sector and industry to contribute to overall economic development. MOFAD directs the Ministry, the private sector, and other agencies in fisheries sector development.

CSIR-FORIG (COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTIRAL RESEARCH-FORESTRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF GHANA)

CSIR-FORIG works to conduct high quality user-focused forestry research that generates scientific knowledge and appropriate technologies; disseminate forestry related information for the improvement of the social, economic, and environmental well-being of Ghanaians; enhance the sustainable development, conservation and efficient utilization of Ghana’s forest resources; and foster stronger linkages through collaborative research across disciplines.

WATER RESEARCH INSTITUTE (WRI)

WRI generates and provides scientific information, strategies, and services toward the rational development, utilization, and management of the water resources of Ghana in support of the socio-economic advancement of the country, especially in the agriculture, health, industry, energy, transportation, education and tourism sectors.

MINISTRY OF FINANCE (MOF)

The Ministry of Finance exists to ensure macro-economic growth stability for promotion of sustainable economic growth and development of Ghana and her people through the formulation and implementation of sound financial, fiscal and monetary policies; Creating an enabling environment for investment; Establishing and disseminating performance-oriented guidelines and accurate user-friendly financial management information systems; and efficient mobilization, allocation and management of financial resources. Key objectives of the ministry are: to allocate and manage financial resources efficiently, effectively, and rationally; to formulate and implement sound macro-economic policies; to reduce and restructure the domestic debt, to improve public expenditure management; to pursue prices and Exchange rate stability; to account for all Public Finances properly; to improve the human resources and Institutional Management Capacity; to improve Fiscal Resource Mobilization; to strengthen private sector.

WILDLIFE AND FOREST SERVICES DIVISIONS OF THE GHANA FORESTRY COMMISSION

The Wildlife Division began as a branch of the Department of the Ministry of Agriculture responsible for wildlife issues. In 1965, it became a full-fledged line agency of the Ministry of Forestry known as the Department of Game and Wildlife, which later changed to Wildlife Department after the adoption of the Forestry and Wildlife Policy of 1994. It is responsible for all wildlife in the country and administers 16 Wildlife-Protected Areas (PAs), 5 coastal Ramsar Sites and the Accra and Kumasi Zoos. It also assists with the running of 2 community-owned Wildlife Sanctuaries.


ANNEX H: CLIMATE ZONES OF GHANA

Figure 9 - Climate Zones of Ghana (2015 Data)


ANNEX I: THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY

TABLE 36. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST

THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY


• Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization;

• Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods;

• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Roads and infrastructure development; • Inadequate implementation and / or

enforcement of existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure

arrangement and (limited) land use planning.

The Eastern Guinean Forest Zone is one of the principle areas of both legal and illegal mining (galamsey) activities in Ghana, even in unauthorized areas such as Forest Reserves, river bodies, and buffer zones.278 Given the Eastern Guinean Forest’s considerable wealth of natural resources, mining poses a significant threat to biodiversity in this ecoregion through the destruction of flora and fauna, significant land and water pollution, soil erosion, and surface water sedimentation. Galamsey groups often destroy forest resources without regard for environmental protection laws and regulations, even going so far as to divert the natural course of rivers to mine gold in the river bed.279, 280 Galamsey significantly impacts natural habitat, pocking landscapes with uncovered mining pits, and creating pools of heavily polluted water, large tracts of land devoid of vegetative cover, and contaminating soils surface water bodies with chemicals and heavy metals such as mercury.281,282

Unsustainable Agriculture and Silviculture Activities



• Limited supplemental of alternative livelihoods; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure


Silviculture Ghana’s forest plantations have significantly disrupted Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. In many cases, the species involved in plantations are not properly matched to the site or originate from unknown locales, indicating insufficient knowledge of, will to apply, or incentive to apply more sustainable practices.283 Plantation agriculture for oil palm, rubber, bananas, and cocoa represent significant contributors to forest degradation and loss by displacing large tracts of natural forests—which are by far the most biologically diverse terrestrial areas in

278 Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018. 279 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016. 280 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 281 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021-Volume 1: Policy Framework. 2018 282 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 283 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016.






Ghana—and reducing local species diversity.284 In some areas within Ghana’s Eastern Guinean Forest ecosystem, these plantations (particularly cocoa, one of Ghana’s principal sources of foreign exchange), serve as the only viable livelihood activities available. Agriculture Slash-and-burn is a dominant agricultural technique employed in Ghana, and along with shifting cultivation and mechanization, results in declining soil quality and land degradation. The clearance and reduction of forest cover exposes fields to soil erosion and reduces plant nutrients and habitats.285 Land conversion, driven in part by increasing demand for food and raw materials as a result of population growth and limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods, places considerable and increasing pressure on remaining forests and Protected Areas in Ghana.286

Unsustainable Wood Harvesting

• Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlement, and urbanization;


• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Road and infrastructure development; • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of

existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure

arrangement and (limited) land use planning;

Unsustainable commercial charcoal production, overconsumption of fuelwood, and legal and illicit logging activities significantly harm tropical forests and biodiversity. Specifically, these activities result in the loss of live trees from natural forests without replacement, in turn furthering reduction in wildlife habitat, and contributing to the country’s widespread trends in forest loss and degradation.287 As a result of the listed drivers (at left), efforts to combat deforestation caused by over-extraction have seen limited success. The over-extraction of wood resources has resulted in hardwood species like Kane, Odum, Rosewood, and Mahogany becoming increasingly scarce.288

284 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 285 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 286 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 287 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164. 288 Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR-FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from: https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of-emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana.








• Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives.

Pollution (e.g., from Mining Activities, Misuse [including overuse] of Agrochemicals)



arrangement and (limited land use planning); • Poor sanitation and waste management systems; • Population growth, internal migration, expansion

of existing settlements, and urbanization; • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge

of – sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods.

Indiscriminate and inappropriate use of agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers may significantly reduce flora and fauna populations and diversity. Within Ghana, water bodies, fish, vegetables, food, soil and sediment have been contaminated by pesticides used in agricultural activities,289 the excessive use of which have contributed to the destruction of important insects such as pollinators.290 In addition to direct impacts on the landscape, galamsey is one of the principal sources of pollution of surface and groundwater through inputs of heavy metals, oils, and sediments. This pollution negatively affects the food chain, impairs ecosystem services, and impacts the health of communities dependent on these resources.291

Bushmeat Hunting

• Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization

• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods. • Road and infrastructure development • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of

existing laws and regulations • Insufficient public buy-in

Bushmeat represents a significant source of protein for rural Ghanaians, who consume and an estimated 380,000 tons of bushmeat annually. Medium-sized mammals (forest antelopes, diurnal monkeys) are the most commonly hunted species, but large birds are also threatened from the spike in bushmeat consumption in recent years. Uncontrolled bushmeat hunting has greatly reduced Ghana’s faunal diversity, yielding “empty forest syndrome” (the absence of animals) to occur in Ghana’s forest ecosystems.292

TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE


Illegal and/or Poorly


Legal and illegal mining activities are common in the Forest-Savanna Transition Zone, sometimes undertaken in unauthorized areas such as Forest Reserves, river

289 Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O. 2011. “Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review.” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 221-230. 290 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016, 291 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 292 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.






THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Implemented Mining Activities



existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement

and (limited) land use planning.

bodies, and buffer zones.293 Mining poses a significant threat to biodiversity in this ecoregion by destroying or degrading habitat for flora and fauna. This in turn drives population decline as a result of the significant pollution to land and water bodies and increasing soil erosion and surface water sedimentation. By definition operating outside of the law, galamsey groups do not typically adhere to environmental protection requirements or best practices, instead substantively contributing to the destruction of forest resources, at times even diverting the natural course of rivers to mine gold in the river bed.294, 295 Landscapes characteristic of galamsey mining contain uncovered pits, pools of heavily contaminated water, large tracts of land devoid of vegetative cover, and land and rivers contaminated with dangerous chemicals such as mercury.296, 297 As a result of these changes, galamsey is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat loss.

Unsustainable Agriculture and Silviculture Practices



• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement


Silviculture Plantation agriculture for products such as oil palm, rubber, bananas, and cocoa has displaced large tracts of forest.298 Given its economic importance as a dominant source of foreign exchange and farmer income, Ghana long encouraged farmers to grow cocoa, exacerbating rates of forest degradation and loss.299 Increasing global demand for chocolate combined with the decreasing productivity of aging trees and poor tree/soil management has further driven the conversion of forest land for cocoa plantations.300 Species habitat and forest ecosystem health both decline alongside reductions in species diversity in forest plantations relative to natural growth forest.

293 Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018. 294 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016. 295 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 296 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021-Volume 1: Policy Framework. 2018 297 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 298 Ibid. 299 Quacou, Ikpe Emmanuel. “Unsustainable Management of Forests in Ghana from 1900-2010.” International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 4(6), 2016, 160-166. 300 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019.




THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Agriculture Slash-and-burn is the primary agricultural practice in Ghana, and, along with shifting cultivation and mechanization, results in declining soil quality and land degradation.301 Land conversion for agriculture reduces quality and extent of forest cover, exposes fields to soil erosion, and drives losses of plant nutrients and habitats. 302 Declining soil fertility, population growth and human settlement expansion, along with limited supplemenal or alternative livelihoods are primary drivers of agricultural expansion and land converstion, which place considerable pressure on remaining forests and Pas in Ghana.303





existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement

and (limited) land use planning; • Inadequate access to affordable energy

alternatives.

Unsustainable commercial charcoal production, overconsumption of fuelwood, and legal and illegal logging activities are among the most significant contributors to deforestation and habitat loss in Ghana. Over-extraction of forest resources is most prevalent in the forest-savanna transition zones and the Eastern Guinean Forest. Charcoal production results in the extraction of live trees from the natural forest without replacement, reductions in total habitat for wildlife, and incremental contributions to widespread forest loss and degradation.304 The over-extraction of wood resources has led to hardwood species like Kane, Odum, Rosewood, and Mahogany becoming increasingly scarce.305

301 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 302 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 303 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 304 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164. 305 Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR-FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from: https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of-emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana.









Wildfires


• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement


Wildfires are common throughout the central Forest-Savanna Transition Zone, where they are largely a man-made problem. Wildfires cause significant damage to landscapes, contribute to cropland destruction, degrade forest resources, and drive or exacerbate soil fertility losses. 306 The increased prevalence of wildfires discourages the adoption of improved land use management practices and longer-term agricultural investment. 307 Further, the prevalence of wildfires and belief among stakeholders of their inevitability can undermine buy-in to adopt improved natural resource management practices, perpetuating a negative cycle of increasingly degraded landscapes with reduced ability to foster species diversity.

Bushmeat Hunting


• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods. • Road and infrastructure development • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of

existing laws and regulations • Insufficient public buy-in

Bushmeat represents a significant source of protein for rural Ghanaians, who consume and an estimated 380,000 tons of bushmeat annually. Medium-sized mammals (forest antelopes, diurnal monkeys) are the most commonly hunted species, but large birds are also threatened from the spike in bushmeat consumption in recent years. Uncontrolled bushmeat hunting has greatly reduced Ghana’s faunal diversity, yielding “empty forest syndrome” (the absence of animals) to occur in Ghana’s forest and forest-savanna ecosystems.308

TABLE 38. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SAVANNA

THREATS DRIVERS EFFECT ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY

Wildfires


• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure


Wildfires are particularly prevalent in the northern savanna where. as in the Forest-Savanna Transition Zone, they are largely a man-made problem. Wildfires cause significant damage throughout the landscape, including cropland destruction, forest degradation, on ongoing losses to soil fertility.309 The increased prevalence of wildfires discourages the adoption of improved land use management practices and

306 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 307 Agyemang, Sandra Opoku, Müller, Michael, and Barnes, Victor Re. “Fire in Ghana’s Dry Forest: Causes, Frequency, Effects, and Management Interventions.” USDA Forest Service Proceedings, RMRS-P-73. 2015. 308 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 309 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016.








longer-term agricultural investment. 310 Further, the prevalence of wildfires and the belief among stakeholders of their inevitability can undermine buy-in to adopt improved natural resource management practices, perpetuating a negative cycle of increasingly degraded landscapes with reduced ability to foster species diversity.

Unsustainable Agriculture and Silviculture Practices





Slash-and-burn is the primary agricultural practice in Ghana, and, along with shifting cultivation and mechanization, results in declining soil quality and land degradation.311 Unsustainable agriculture practices denude Ghana’s landscapes of their increasingly limited forest resources, expose fields to increased soil erosion, and reduce plant nutrients and habitats. This perpetuates the cycle of land degradation and agricultural expansion that is further challenged by drivers such as population growth and limited alternative livelihoods.312 As noted above, these practices work in combination with increasingly prevalent and damaging wildfires in Ghana’s savanna landscape, exacerbating the destructive outcomes of both threats.

Climate Change


• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods.

Rising temperatures as well as declining and increasingly variable rainfall are key contributors to changes to Ghana’s ecological zones, loss of flora and fauna, and reductions in ecological productivity. 313 Higher frequency of droughts leads to reductions in biodiversity by decreasing available natural resources and driving landscape conversion. In combination with high temperatures and winds, low rainfall levels exacerbate wildfires, which themselves threaten savanna biodiversity, principally through cropland destruction, declining soil fertility, and increased soil erosion.314 Approximately 295 species of indigenous crop varieties have become endangered or close to extinction as farmers increasingly resort to improved crop varieties in order to adapt to changing climatic conditions.315

310 Agyemang, Sandra Opoku, Müller, Michael, and Barnes, Victor Re. “Fire in Ghana’s Dry Forest: Causes, Frequency, Effects, and Management Interventions.” USDA Forest Service Proceedings, RMRS-P-73. 2015. 311 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 312 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 313 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 314 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 315 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.









Overgrazing





Intensive livestock grazing in Ghana has contributed significantly to habitat degradation and the loss of local flora and fauna.316 In the savanna, overgrazing contributes to soil degradation and therefore the cycle of land degradation and change discussed above. Overgrazing can create favorable conditions for bush fires to evolve into wildfires—with herdsmen at times setting the fires themselves to accelerate regeneration of fresh grass for their cattle. This is especially true during the dry season, increasing the erosion of the landscape in savanna ecosystems and further driving habitat loss.


• Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlement, and urbanization;


• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Road and infrastructure development. • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of


arrangement and (limited) land use planning; • Inadequate access to affordable energy

alternatives.

The unsustainable commercial charcoal production, overconsumption of fuelwood, and legal and illegal logging activities are significant drivers of forest degradation and loss, and the subsequent loss of biodiversity. The extraction of live trees from the natural forest without replacement reduces total habitat for wildlife and contributes incrementally to widespread forest loss and degradation. 317 In the savanna, stakeholders routinely cited the near extirpation of Rosewood from northern Ghana, a particular target of foreign (predominantly Chinese) loggers.

316 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 317 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164.


TABLE 39. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FRESHWATER RESOURCES


Pollution (e.g., Mining Activities, Misuse (including overuse) of Agrochemicals)

• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Road and infrastructure development; • Inadequate implementation of and enforcement

of existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure

arrangement and (limited) land use planning; • Poor sanitation and waste management

systems. • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient

knowledge of – sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods;

Mining Activities Galamsey is one of the principal sources of freshwater pollution in Ghana. Galamsey pollutes surface and groundwater through inputs of heavy metals, oils, and sediments, adversely impacting the food chain (in part through biomagnification of mercury) and impairing ecosystem functioning and services.318 Misuse (including overuse) of Agrochemicals An uptick in agricultural waste inflows such as nitrogen-based fertilizers increase the organic loading of aquatic habitats and often lead to inadequate oxygen supply to support plant and animal life.319 The indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and fertilizers—both common practices among smallholder farmers in Ghana—could therefore significantly harm aquatic flora and fauna. Furthermore, water bodies found to have been pesticide contaminated,320 directly reducing aquatic biodiversity, including the destruction of important insects such as pollinators.321

Sedimentation and Siltation of Surface Waters



• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Poor sanitation and waste management

systems.

The effects of sedimentation and siltation of surface waters for freshwater biodiversity include effects to channel morphology, impacting species that spawn in riverbed substrate. In Ghana, these problems are largely caused by the depletion of forest and vegetative cover.322 Increases in suspended matter yield reduced light penetration into the water, which is likely to impact productivity.323 The deposition of fine particles of silt on substrates can reduce oxygen availability to organsims along the bottom of water bodies and degrade spawning habitat for aquatic fauna. 324 Finally, increased siltation can provide new locations for the establishment of vegetation, potentially affecting flow pathways or diverting flows from established channels.325

318 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 319 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 320 Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O. 2011. “Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review.” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 221-230. 321 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016, 322 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 323 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 324 Ibid. 325 Ibid.







TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS)


Coastal wetland, fragmentation, and loss (from oil and gas exploration and other infill)



• Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure

arrangement and (limited) land use planning;

• Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods;

• Inadequate implementation of existing laws and regulations;

• Poor sanitation and waste management systems;

• Road and infrastructure development.

Despite the essential ecosystem services they provide, Ghana’s wetlands are often locally considered wastelands and are therefore often repurposed as sites for oil and gas exploration and extraction infrastructure. In addition, wetlands are subject to settlement pressure: solid waste or fill may be dumped as part of a deliberate infill strategy by abutters. Combined with pollution (below), coastal wetland ecosystems face a complex set of threats, with fragmentation, degradation and loss reducing the availability of habitat for flora and fauna that depend on these unique habitats. Furthermore, the destruction of wetlands reduces the natural filtration systems common in mangrove forests, thereby contributing to increased salinization and pollution of coastal ecosystems.

Pollution from multiple sources (Solid and liquid waste infiltrating/overloading natural systems; mining activities; misuse (including oversuse) of agricultural chemicals



• Road and infrastructure development; • Inadequate implementation and

enforcement of existing laws and regulations;

• Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure

arrangement and (limited land use planning);

Coastal wetlands near municipalities and settlement areas are often used as dumping grounds for household and commercial solid waste, and in some cases, even septic pump-out. 326 As a result, near-surface groundwater in coastal settlements tends to be biologically and chemically contaminated. Combined with pollution from chemical/metal pollution from mining activities and agrochemicals, this pollution and infill can dramatically impact ecosystem function, contributing to habitat degradation and reducing levels of biodiversity. In an assessment of the ecological health of Ghana’s coastal aquatic ecosystems, concentrations of nitrates and phosphates were found to be significantly higher than the recommended WHO standards for healthy aquatic ecosystems.327 Near-shore marine waters and the seafloor in the vicinity of settlement areas are significantly contaminated with sewage, organic waste, and plastics, adversely affecting ecosystem health.

326 Badoe, C (2014). “The challenges of waste management in Ghana: EPA’s perspective.” Todaygh.com, July 8, 2014. 327 Larbi, L., Nukpezah, D., Mensah, A., and Appeaning-Addo, K. 2018. “An Integrated Assessment of the Ecological Health Status of Coastal Aquatic Ecosystems of Ada in Ghana.” West African Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 26(1), 2018: 89 – 107.







• Poor sanitation and waste management systems;


• Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods.

The coastal wetlands and productive sea floor have important biodiversity value in their own right, but are also ecologically linked to the marine fisheries. The small pelagics (round and flat sardinella, chub mackerel, and anchovies) that are the targets of Ghana’s artistinal fisheries are migratory, with research indicating that populations seek preferred environmental conditions, particularly water temperature (~21C fpr sardinella) and high primary and secondary productivity.328 Primary and secondary productivity are significantly adversely impacted by nutrient loading and other pollution, turbidity, and fouling of the productive seafloor. Thus, fouling of wetlands and inshore marine environments is a threat to this fishery, albeit one that is currently poorly quantified329 and secondary to overfishing.(In addition, some small pelagics (particularly sardinella) are found in lagoons,330 indicating that an unknown portion of these populations are directly impacted by conditions in these waters. The ecological linkage is even stronger for the industrial trawl fishery (grouper, snapper, cuttlefish, octopus), as the target species have a direct dependence on the productive sea floor (e.g. sea grass beds for spawning), and food chain links to the wetlands may exist as well.331

IUU Fishing and Unsustainable Fishing


• Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of - sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods;

IUU and unsustainable fishing activities threaten marine and coastal biodiversity by harming reproduction, damaging spawning and breeding grounds, and further reducing fragile fish populations. Trawlers used in Ghana’s inshore waters have contributed to the destruction of the fragile sea floor and breeding grounds for several species of fish. Furthermore, practices such as saiko result both in overfishing of targeted stocks and in the harvest of many juveniles of

328 Brochier Timothéeet al. “Complex small pelagic fish population patterns arising from individual behavioral responses to their environment.” Progress in Oceanography. Vol 164, May–June 2018, 12-27. 329 Entsua-Mensah, M. “The Contribution of Coastal Lagoons to the Continental Shelf Ecosystem of Ghana” in The Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem: Environmental Forcing & Sustainable Development of Marine Resources. McClade JM et al, eds. Elsevier Science B.V. 2002. 330Okyere, Isaac; Aheto, DW; and Aggrey-fynn, J. “Comparative ecological assessment of biodiversity of fish communities in three coastal wetland systems in Ghana” European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2011, 1 (2): 178–188 331 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017.










• Insufficient public buy-in.

commercially valuable fishes.332, 333 Similarly, the use of unapproved (larger than stipulated or monofilament) and small net mesh sizes further exploit juvenile fish.334 These practices, along with an open-access regime and high overcapacity in the artisanal sector, have brought small pelagic fisheries of Ghana to the brink of collapse .335

Coastal erosion • Insufficient public buy-in; • Road and infrastructure development.

Illegal sand mining is a significant contributor to coastal erosion, with accompanying impacts on sensitive areas, such as nesting sites for sea turtles.336 Furthermore, erosion along the eastern coast has contributed to the loss of large stretches of mangrove forests and seawater intrusion leading to the salinization of freshwater lagoons and reducing ecosystem services. High salinity in freshwater bodies can also lead to the loss of riparian farmlands.

Oil and Gas Exploration



• Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement and (limited) land use planning;

• Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives.

Oil and gas activities and the establishment of associated infrastructure threaten coastal and marine biodiversity through habitat destruction and fragmentation, displacement of marine organisms, and degradation of wetlands. Wetlands, often considered wastelands, are frequently repurposed as sites for oil and gas exploration and extraction infrastructure. Accidental oil spills have negative implications for marine and coastal ecosystems, and the lack of a clear strategy for pollution prevention increases these impacts.337 Fisherman have reported the regular stranding of cetaceans as a possible result of seismic surveying during exploration activities. Oil rigs often serve as shelter for fish and marine organisms, though they too can be harmed by nearby seismic activities.

332 Asare, Cephas. Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: The “Saiko” Story. Hen Mpoano and BUSAC, Issue Brief, April 2017. 333 Environmental Justice Foundation. China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa: A spotlight on illegal practices within Ghana’s industrial trawl sector. EJF, London, United Kingdom, 2018. 334 Afoakwah, R., Osei, M. B. D., & Effah, E. A Guide on Illegal Fishing Activities in Ghana. USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project, April 2018. Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. 335 Ibid. 336 Jonah, F. E., Adjei-Boateng, D., Agbo, N. W., Mensah, E. A. and Edziyie, R. E. 2014. “Assessment of sand and stone mining along the coastline of Cape Coast, Ghana.” Annals of GIS, 21(3): 223-231, doi:10.1080/19475683.2015.1007894. 337 Monney, I., & Ocloo, K. “Towards sustainable utilisation of water resources: A comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s National Water Policy.” Water Policy, 19(3), February 2017: 377–389. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2017.








Climate Change



Over-fishing has already brought Ghana’s small-pelagic fisheries to the brink of collapse and, along with coastal ecosystem degradation (above) impacts from climate change are likely to exacerbate the problem and create further barriers to recovery. Ffor example rising sea temperatures alter migratory patterns and reproductive cycles of key species such as anchovies and sardines.338 Rising temperatures could alter the distribution of other aquatic species as well, or lead to changes in their metabolism, life cycle, or behavior.339 For example, the gender of newborn sea turtles, of which three species reside in Ghana’s waters, is determined by temperature. Therefore, increased ocean temperatures can skew sea turtle sex ratios and threaten the population.340 Finally, the increased absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere has contributed to ocean acidification, with possibly significant consequences for sensitive species and ecosystems. 341

338 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 339 World Wildlife Fund. “Oceans: Climate Change.” Retrieved 5 November 2019 from: http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/climate_change/ 340 Ibid. 341 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.


http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/climate_change/
