Two Short-Nosed-God Maskettes Found with Burial #7 in Hacker Mound #3, Jersey County, Illinois. 2006 (with Kristen Headman and Thomas E. Emerson). In, Illinois Hopewell and Late Woodland

ILLINOIS HOPEWELL AND LATE WOODLAND MOUNDS: THE EXCAVATIONS OF GREGORY PERINO 1950–1975652

APPENDIX 18.1Two Short-Nosed-God Maskettes Found with

Burial #7 in Hacker Mound #3, Jersey County, Illinois

Kenneth B. FarnsworthKristin Hedman

Thomas E. Emerson

As described in the preceding excavation report, theHacker South mounds (11-JY-569) were excavated byGregory Perino and a Center for American Archeologyexcavation crew in 1974. But the Short-Nosed-Godmaskettes discussed here (Figure 18A1.1) were not dis-covered until nearly a decade later, during CAA labora-tory cleaning and curation of the skeletal remains in 1983.The crushed skull of the adolescent skeleton recoveredas Burial #7 in Hacker South Mound #3 (HRS˚3) was re-moved in dirt-block by the excavators for later cleaning,restoration, and analysis. On July 20, 1983, the burial waswashed and evaluated by Susan R. Frankenberg, whomade the following observations about the maskettesfound among the crushed-skull fragments:

A pair of Short-Nosed God masks were found inter-nal to the anterior squama of the temporals and be-hind the orbital plates of the frontal, during washing.The masks appear to have been placed on the lateralportions of the forehead, and subsequently to havemoved with post-interment crushing and warping ofthe cranium. It was noted during washing that thetemporals were angled internally at the superior por-tions, and angled externally at the interior portions.

CULTURAL AFFILIATION OF

THE HACKER SOUTH BURIALS

The Hacker mounds were clustered in two six-moundsubgroups (Hacker North and Hacker South) situated a

half-kilometer apart on the Illinois Valley’s eastern bluffs.Perino focused his excavations on five of the six moundsin the Hacker South group (one had been destroyed byearlier excavators). Mound #1 contained 64 burials, 121burials were recovered in and around Mound #2, andMounds #3–5 produced 9, 23, and 11 burials, respectively.Knolls A–D were also excavated, yielding one to fourburials apiece. He concluded from mortuary programs,mound structure, burial positions, and associated arti-facts that “Mound #4 on the southernmost end of thebluff was Hopewell, the others were Late Woodland ofthe early Jersey Bluff phase” (Chapter 18, this volume).

Potentially time-diagnostic mortuary structuresand associated artifacts at Hacker site may be sum-marized as follows:

Mound #1: Three bone hairpins with two burials; fourKlunk-Side-Notched (see Perino 1966) Late Woodlandarrowpoints with three burials; a “Jersey Bluff”–stylelimestone discoidal (see Perino 1971a:114) with a burial;single examples of Campeloma and Jaspedella marine-snail beads with burials; and from two to 30 specimensof Anculosa beads (more recently “Leptoxis”—see Atwelland Farnsworth 1999:106–108) associated with fourchild burials and an empty grave pit.

Mound #2: A charnal structure (Feature A); a trian-gular arrowpoint associated with Feature A, whichPerino believed “could be a Mississippian point ora Late Woodland preform for the manufacture of aside-notched point” (Chapter 18, this volume); fiveKlunk-Side-Notched Late Woodland arrowpoints(with three burials, Feature A, and on the submoundsurface); 13 Campeloma beads with three burials;

THE 1974 HACKER MOUNDS EXCAVATIONS 653

Figure 18A1.1. Shell Short-Nosed-God maskettes excavated by Gregory Perino inwest-central Illinois: (a–b) found with Burial #7 in Hacker South Mound #3, JerseyCounty; (c) recovered from charnel structure floor, Yokem Mound #1, Pike County;(d–e) found with blufftop burial overlooking the Booker T. Washington site nearCentreville, St. Clair County.

0 cm 5

0 inch 3

a b

c

d e

more than 3,500 Anculosa beads with 18 individuals;one large conch-shell disk bead (which Perino believedwas obtained through “early Mississippian contacts”—Chapter 18, this volume); three Jersey Bluff–stylediscoidals from isolated submound contexts; a pair ofbird-bone tubes; three bone hairpins; a carved hairpin

fragment with an effigy bird head (see cultural-affilia-tion discussion below); two burials with groups ofdrumfish teeth (inlaid on wooden artifacts?); and a mus-sel-shell fishhook “of the marine type,” that Perino noteswas “used for only about 100 years centering on A.D.900” (Chapter 18, this volume). Regardless of its cultural


affiliation, the term “fishhook” may be a misnomer. Thebone, shell, and copper hooks occasionally found in re-gional Archaic, Late Woodland, and Mississippian mor-tuary contexts are vanishingly rare on habitation sites. Ifhook-and-line fishing techniques were employed at allin the Illinois Valley; hooks must have been carved ofwood or other perishable materials. The hooks found inmortuary sites were more likely clasps for clothing, or-naments, or burial shrouds.

Also recovered from Mound #2 were a complete,smoothed, chert-tempered pottery vessel with perforatedlugs and a number of grit-tempered pottery sherds. Themound-fill sherds and the vessel were recently reexam-ined as part of a study of the Hacker effigy hairpin:

All of the sherds recovered from HRS-2 were reexam-ined for the present study, and all appear to be classicJersey Bluff forms except for most of those found onthe original ground surface at 25N5E. Twenty-fivesherds recovered near the east wall of this square arefrom a single cordmarked vessel that was smoothedonly for the first centimeter or so below its rim. Thisvessel likely dates to Early Bluff phase Late Woodlandtimes (ca. A.D. 750–800) and may reflect an early ini-tial use of this cemetery or an heirloomed object. Theonly complete vessel associated with Mound #2 is thecrudely made miniature bowl from the cemetery area.It is 9-10 cm diameter x 7 cm tall, smoothed, and hastwo opposing perforated lip lugs. This casually made,chert-tempered little pot is clearly of Late Woodlandmanufacture, and its perforated lugs are reminiscentof those seen on late Jersey Bluff phase vessels. [Farn-sworth and Koldehoff 2003: in press]

The bird-head-effigy hairpin itself was found ingrave fill of Burial #112, a cemetery pit containing anelderly female burial, about a meter outside the west-ern edge of Mound #2. Farnsworth and Koldehoff(2003) have identified the effigy as that of a kingfisherand have argued that the artifact-style dates to LateWoodland times.

Our conclusion that kingfisher hairpins are Termi-nal Late Woodland status or ritual items is perhapsweakened by less-than-ideal documentation and dat-ing of the contexts of known examples. But the pinsfrom the Illinois Valley, in particular, are strongly as-sociated with human burials and Terminal LateWoodland (Jersey Bluff) ceramics. Certainly more re-search is needed, but the rarity of kingfisher hairpinslends support to our claim that they are special arti-facts of the Terminal Late Woodland period. We foundno solid evidence for a Mississippian origin of theseartifacts, nor did we find strong links between themand similar types of Mississippian carved-bone arti-facts. Like other researchers, we see evidence of acultural fluorescence late in the Late Woodland pe-

riod (McElrath et al. 2000; Fortier and Jackson 2000;Fortier and McElrath 2002). This fluorescence mayhave had little to do with the “Big Bang” that createdCahokia (Pauketat 1994).

Conner (1984:286) agrees with Perino’s conclusionthat Burial 112 was an adult female, and adds thatthis woman was elderly—more than 50 years of ageat death.… Perhaps kingfisher-effigy hairpins wereassociated with (elderly female?) healers or shamen,rather than young male warriors. Among hundredsof Late Woodland burials excavated, Titterington andPerino each found only one of these effigy hairpins.The rarity of these artifacts in the Terminal Late Wood-land archaeological record, and their close stylisticsimilarity, certainly seem to imply they were associ-ated with just a few prominent or specialized mem-bers of Late Bluff culture groups.

Taken together, the artifact associations in HackerMound #2 tend to suggest a Terminal Late Woodlandage for Hacker South Mound #2, which…seems tohave been in use after ca. A.D. 900—but before localLate Woodland groups were incorporating elementsof American Bottom-centered Mississippian ritualinto their mortuary programs. [Farnsworth andKoldehoff 2003: in press]

Mound #3: The only artifact recovered from Mound #3,other than the two Short-Nosed-God maskettes dis-cussed in this appendix, was “a tiny, smooth, shell-tempered potsherd” (see Chapter 18, this volume).

Mound #4: A Hopewellian central subfloor tomb builton a platform; sherds of a noded, zoned, cord-wrapped-stick-impressed Havana-series jar; three small shell-diskbeads, two long, narrow, polished mussel-shell orna-ments; one tubular sheet-copper bead; one chisel-likecopper tool mounted in an antler handle, one Dicksonpoint; one lamellar flake blade; points of two large bonepins; 12 galena cubes; and a single-hole stone gorget“in the Hopewell style” (see Chapter 18, this volume).

Mound #5: A limestone-slab-lined grave containingnine bodies and 126 scattered charred Anculosa beads;10 Anculosa beads with a separate burial.

Mound #6: Not excavated by Perino.

Knolls A–D: One to four burials in each knoll with noassociated artifacts, but two of the burials were instone-box graves and a third was in a limestone-slab-lined grave.

In general, patterns of mound structure, burial prac-tices, and burial artifact associations in the Hacker Southmounds indicate two principal episodes of mortuaryactivity at the site. Mound #4 is a Middle Woodland,


Hopewellian structure, probably dating to ca. 50 B.C.–A.D. 250 (uncalibrated). Mounds #1, #2, and #5 are LateWoodland, Jersey Bluff phase structures that date toterminal Late Woodland times with some evidence ofearly Mississippian contacts (ca. late 900s–early 1000sA.D., uncalibrated; see also Atwell and Farnsworth1999; Farnsworth and Emerson 1989; Farnsworth etal. 1991). Mound #3 is more of an enigma. It is more“Mississippian looking,” in that the only associatedartifacts are a small shell-tempered body sherd andthe two Short-Nosed-God maskettes that are the fo-cus of this appendix. Still, Perino believed it was es-sentially contemporary with the other Jersey Bluffstructures (Mounds #1, #2, and #5) at the site:

It is suspected that the Late Woodland mounds inthe group were of the early Mississippian period be-cause of the extended mortuary position found inMounds #1–3.… Flexed and semiflexed burials arecommon to the Late Woodland, but when accultura-tion takes place, such as was noted at the Schild andYokem sites (Perino 1971a, 1971b), we find that allthree mortuary postures were in use at the same time.The extended posture eventually became the norm,as natives turned increasingly to a Mississippian wayof life. [Perino, Chapter 18, this volume]

RADIOCARBON DATES FOR

THE HACKER SOUTH MOUNDS

In the early 1980s, six radiocarbon dates were run onhuman bone from the Hacker South mounds by the Uni-versity of California at Riverside (Conner 1984:216, 241):

HRS˚1-2 1190± 80 RCYBP (UCR-1388) 760 A.D.

HRS˚2-19 760± 60 RCYBP (UCR-1389) 1190 A.D.HRS˚2-46 530± 60 RCYBP (UCR-1390) 1420 A.D.HRS˚2-51 590± 50 RCYBP (UCR-1391) 1360 A.D.HRS˚2-104 790± 85 RCYBP (UCR-1392) 1160 A.D.

HRS˚3-2 820± 80 RCYBP (UCR-1393) 1130 A.D.

Conner’s dissertation does not discuss any particu-lars of how the bone material was prepared for dating,or of the details of the dating technique used. Howeverin a recent communication between Dr. R. E. Taylor,University of California Riverside Radiocarbon Labo-ratory, and Thomas Emerson, Taylor noted that “All ofour dates at that time [when UCR 1388–1393 samples were

analyzed] were run on the total acid insoluble fractionwhich, if the preservation of the collagen is above 5%,typically yields accurate results for Holocene age bonesince most of the insoluble fraction is usually collagenor collagen-derived organics.” (R. Taylor, personnalcommunication, June 6, 2006). But the Mound #1 date(A.D. 760) is surprisingly early—while the five datesfrom Mounds #2 and #3 are surprisingly recent, par-ticularly those from Mound #2. Farnsworth andKoldehoff (2003) recently noted that:

All of the traditional C-14 determinations (run onwood and nut charcoal) from 15 contemporary habi-tation (13) and mortuary-site (2) contexts reported byFarnsworth et al. (1991:88–90), and all five subsequentJersey Bluff habitation-site dates reported byStudenmund (2000:311), cluster in the A.D. 790–1110± 70 age range. Studenmund’s calibration of 13 ofthese 20 dates pushes the intercepts of 10 of them onlyto A.D. 888–1028, while moving the intercepts of theyoungest three to A.D. 1176–1222. In retrospect,Conner’s suite of very late UCR Hacker bone dates(run in the early 1980s along with other alarminglyyoung UCR bone dates from the Helton and KosterLate Woodland mounds) clearly do not represent theactual age of the Hacker Mound 2 mortuary. [Farn-sworth and Koldehoff 2003: in press]

A RECENT RADIOCARBON

DATE FOR HRS˚3 BURIAL #7

Because of the potential cultural importance of theassociated shell maskettes and their interregional cul-tural contact implications, a detailed physical analy-sis of the skeletal remains of Burial #7 was performedby Kristin Hedman. As part of this research, the Illi-nois Transportation Archaeological Research Programfunded an isotopic and radiometric analysis as well.

A date on bone collagen extracted by Hedman wasrun by the Illinois State Geological Survey radiocar-bon laboratory. The ISGS uncorrected date was 970 ±45B.P. (#AO-588). The Calib 5 calibration for this date atthe one-sigma range suggests an 82 percent probabil-ity that the burial occurred in a roughly century-longperiod between A.D. 1019 and 1127 (Table 18A1.1). Thisdate correlates favorably with the earlier 820 ± 80 B.P.date obtained by Conner on Burial #2, which at the93 percent level projects a date between the mid-twelfth to mid-thirteenth century. While we mightwant to privilege the ISGS date because it was run on


a purified sample, we note in Table 18A1.1 that thedates from Burials #2 and #7 are statistically the sameat the 95 percent level (T = 2.670623; χ2 (.05) = 3.84).

Given this agreement, we can calculate a pooledsample date of 934 B.P. with a square root variance of39.2209. Calibrating this sample suggests an 80 per-cent probability at one sigma that the Hacker Mound#3 burials were interred between A.D. 1075 and 1154;at two sigma there is a 99 percent probability that theevents occurred between A.D. 1022 and 1185.

Very few examples of these exotic shell and coppermaskettes have been found in controlled excavationsand their associations are difficult to confirm. But thedates obtained from Hacker Mound #3 suggest themortuary activities took place on a timeline that wouldcorrelate with the Terminal Late Woodland Jersey Bluffphase in the lower Illinois Valley and Lohmann or earlyStirling-phase Mississippian developments in the ad-jacent American Bottom. Therefore, the Long-Nosed-God maskettes from Hacker Mound #3 fit comfortablywith the chronological associations of similarmaskettes found throughout the Eastern Woodlands(see the “Conclusions” discussion).

HEDMAN SKELETAL ANALYSIS

OF HRS˚3 BURIAL #7

Analysis of HRS˚3 Burial #7 human skeletal remainsincludes an inventory of the skeletal elements (Table18A1.2), a dental inventory (Table 18A1.3), estimationof age at death, assessment of sex, metric and non-metric observations, pathological examination, andtaphonomic observations (Tables 18A1.4–6). The in-ventory and analysis methods employed follow theguidelines presented by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994).

The burial is represented by cranial and postcra-nial elements attributable to a single juvenile indi-vidual of undetermined sex. The cranium includesarticulated portions of the frontal, left and right pa-rietals, and the occipital. The left and righttemporals, nasal bones, maxillae and zygomatics,and fragments of the sphenoid and other small cra-nial bones are also present. The mandible is nearlycomplete. Maxillary and mandibular dentitions arewell represented. Postcranial elements include frag-mentary ribs and vertebrae, portions of the left andright clavicles, scapulae, humeri, ulnae, right radius,right first and second metacarpal, right femur, leftilium, an unsided fibula fragment, and unidentifiedsmall bone fragments.

Age and Sex Determination. An age estimate of 7–11years is based on an absence of cranial suture closure(Meindl and Lovejoy 1985), occipital development(Redfield 1970), the pattern of epiphyseal union(Ubelaker 1989), dental development and eruption(Moorrees et al. 1963a, 1963b; Ubelaker 1978), and es-timated longbone lengths (Ubelaker 1978). The squa-mous, lateral, and basilar portions of the occipital arefused, but a residual suture scar remains visible on theleft occipital condyle indicating an age between 6 and12 years (Redfield 1970). Arch and centrum portionsof the vertebrae have fused indicating an age greaterthan 7 years. Most other epiphyses remain unfusedindicating a preadolescent age for this individual. Sexdetermination was not possible because of the juve-nile age of this individual.

Skeletal Pathology. Bones and bone fragments wereexamined for gross morphological evidence of pa-thologies. Skeletal elements were examined macro-scopically for evidence of infection (periostitis/osteitis), nutritional or metabolic deficiencies (e.g.,porotic hyperostosis, cribra orbitalia, and loss of bonedensity), and trauma (i.e., fractures).

Table 18A1.1. Calibrated radiocarbon dates from Hacker South Mound #3.

Calibrated one Relative Calibrated two RelativeMd. # Burial Lab. # RCYBP sigma range A.D. area sigma range A.D. area

3 2 UCR-1393 820 ± 80 1155–1277 0.94 1030–1291 11058–1073 0.6

3 7 ISGS 970 ± 45 1135–1152 0.17 988–1167 1AO588 1081–1127 0.47

1019–1051 0.36

Pooled Mean 934 ± 39 1075–1154 0.8 1022–1185 0.991038–1057 0.2

*Note: Two radiocarbon samples are statistically identical at 95% level (Test Statistic T = 2.670623; χ2(.05) = 3.84).

TH

E 1974 HA

CK

ER M

OU

ND

S EX

CA

VA

TIO

NS

657

Table 18A1.2 Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, element inventory.

Element % Present Portion Nonmetric Pathology Taphonomy Age

Frontal 100% articulated with parietals and small portion of right sphenoid

supraorbital notch and foramin present above left orbit

none Postinterment damage to frontal, crack extends from right orbit above glabella.

coronal suture unfused

Parietal L/R 100% articulated with frontal, parietal, and occipital

parietal foramin none erosion and post-depositional crushing to inferior aspect of R parietal

coronal, sagittal, lambdoid sutures unfused

Occipital 100% squamous portion articulated with L/R parietals, basilar and left condyle also present but not articulated, portion of right condyle missing

wormian bones present within the L (n = 1) and R (n = 2) lambdoid suture

none some flattening at lambda—likely postdepositional.

lambdoid, basilar sutures unfused, union of squamous and lateral portions, scar of union still visible on left condyle (6–12 y ref)

Temporal L/R >75% L is nearly complete, R 75% complete with eroded mastoid and squamous portion

elliptical external auditory meatus, foramin on mastoid (L)

none no temporal dihiscence

Zygomatic L/R 100% nearly complete, articulated with maxilla

2 zygomatic-facial foramina L, 1 R; zygomatic posterior tubercle present L/R; slight malar tubercle present L/R

none

Maxillae 100% articulated with L/R zygomatics

multiple infraorbital foramina (4L, 2R)

small area of porous bone on right maxilla, superior to larger of the two infraorbital foramina; porous bone present on posterior aspect of L/R maxillae— perhaps related to erupting M2s

dental development and eruption indicate 7–11 yrs

Palatine L/R 100% articulated with maxillae

none

ILLINO

IS HO

PE

WE

LL AN

D LA

TE W

OO

DLA

ND M

OU

ND

S: TH

E EX

CA

VA

TIO

NS O

F GR

EG

OR

Y PE

RIN

O 1950–1975658Table 18A1.2 (continued). Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, element inventory.


Nasal L/R 100% none

Sphenoid and Misc. Cranial

small fragments present

Mandible >75% damage to L/R ramus, L condyle missing

none dental development and eruption indicate 7–11 yrs

Hyoid <50% unsided wing of hyoid

Clavicle L/R >75% both L/R missing proximal end and damage to distal end

porosity at point of muscle attachment inferior-medial aspect—may be growth related

rodent gnawing, 7–8 grooves within 5 mm section of L clavicle at midshaft

distal epiphysis unfused (L)

Scapulae L/R 75% glenoid, small portion of spine and body, and coracoid present for both

none glenoid cavity and coracoid process unfused

Sternum <50% one body segment present

none

Ribs L/R 75% 20 proximal rib fragments (includes 9L, 7R), 13 distal rib ends, and 93 unsided body fragments

none proximal aricular surfaces largely unfused

Vertebrae 50% 10 vert body frags representing at least 10 individual vertebrae (1C, 8T, 1L); 14 vert arch frags representing a minimum of 11 vertebrae including 3C (atlas, axis and unid), 6T, and 1L; and 14 misc vert frags (processes and facets)

none arches fused to bodies, body surfaces billowy

TH

E 1974 HA

CK

ER M

OU

ND

S EX

CA

VA

TIO

NS

659

Table 18A1.2 (continued). Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, element inventory.


Humeri L/R >75% both nearly complete, L is missing distal aricular end

no septal aperature none proximal epiphysis unfused, medial aspect of distal epiphysis unfused (<15y)

Ulnae L/R <75% L represented by fragment of proximal end, R represented by much of shaft, missing superior aspect and sital and proximal ends

healed porosity at midshaft and along interosseous crest of R ulna, distal shaft appears somewhat thickened

erosion and incomplete

Radius R >75% missing small portion of distal end

healed porosity at midshaft—corresponds to that observed on R ulna

proximal epiphysis unfused (<13y)

Metacarpals <75% MC#1 complete, MC#2 proximal half, MC #3? mid-shaft only

proximal epiphysis unfused MC31, MC#2

Phalanges >75% 1 proximal, 1 medial proximal epiphysis of proximal phalanx unfused

Unid. hand/foot

<50% 4 misc. fragments of carpals/tarsals and unid.

Innominate L <75% portion of illium including anterior and superior crests, eroded auricular surface, and misc. fragments

fragmentary and surface erosion

superior crest unfused

Femur R <75% head and shaft only porous bone present on distal aspect

surface erosion head unfused (<13y)

Fibula, unsided

<25% small fragment of distal shaft

epiphysis unfused


Table 18A1.3. Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, dental inventory.

Too

th

Pre

sen

ce††

Dev

elop

men

t**

Att

riti

on**

*

Ab

sces

s

Car

ies

(#)

Car

ies

loca

tion

Deciduousdeciduous

teeth

r max m2 2 res 1/4-1/2 0 0

r max c 2 res 1/2 0 1 small, CEJ

l max c 2 res 1/2 0 0

l max m1 2 0 0

l max m2 2 0 1 small, occlusal groove

l mand m2 2 0 (4 small noncarious pits) (1 buccal, 3 occlusal)

l mand m1 2 res 1/2 0 1medium, poterior interproximal facet

l mand c 2 res 3/4 0 1small, medial-interproximal midcrown

r mand m1 2 res 1/4-3/4 0 1medium, medial-interproximal midfacet

r mand m2 2 res 1/4 0 (3 small noncarious pits) (1 buccal, 2 occlusal)

Permanent

R Max M3 absent 0

R Max M2 1 R 1/4 0 (2 small noncarious pits) (occlusal grooves)

R Max M1 2 6 0 (3 small noncarious pits) (occlusal grooves)

R Max PM2 1 0

R Max PM1 1 R 1/2 0 0

R Max C 1 0 0

R Max I2 2 R c 1 0 0

R Max I1 2 2 0 0

L Max I1 2 2 0 0

L Max I2 2 1 0 0

L Max C 1 0

L Max PM1 1 0

L Max PM2 1 0

L Max M1 2 A 1/2-c 5 0 1 and (3 noncarious pits)small, lingual (occlusal groove)

L Max M2 1 Cl I—R 1/4 0 (2 small noncarious pits) (occlusal grooves)

L Max M3 absent 0

L Mand M3 1 C oc 0 0

L Mand M2 1 0 0

L Mand M1 2 6 0 (8 small noncarious pits) (5 occlusal, 3 buccal)


Table 18A1.3 (continued). Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, dental inventory.

Cal

culu

s

Loc

atio

n

LE

HS

(#)

LE

H lo

cati

on

(mea

sure

d i

n c

m

from

CE

J)

Max

. len

gth

(cm

)

Max

. wid

th (c

m)

Max

ht.

(cm

)

Ch

ipp

ing

0 0 0.93 1.03 0.59

0 0 0.67* 0.62 0.46

0 0 0.65* 0.63 0.45

0 0 0.69 0.87 0.47

0 0 0.91 1.00 0.58

slight-moderate lingual 0 0.98 0.97 0.42 posterior-interproximal edge

very slight lingual 0 0.81 0.75 0.50

0 0 0.59* 0.54* 0.42

0 0 0.82 0.77 0.44

0 0 1.01 0.96 0.53

slight occlusal 1 0.26 1.11 1.20 0.81

0 0.76 1.03 0.96

slight lingual 0.85* 1.38*

0 2 0.17, 0.32 0.69 0.72 1.09

0 2 0.19, 0.32 0.80 0.81 1.26

0 2+ 0.29, 0.39 0.83 0.81 1.18*

0 1 0.23 0.66 0.71 1.11

slight lingual 0 1.14 1.20 0.77

slight lingual 0 1.08* 1.29* 0.81

0

very slight occlusal

slight lingual, anterior 1 0.34 1.15 1.12 0.74

Permanent

Deciduous


Three elements show evidence of localized infec-tion indicated by periosteal bone formation on theouter cortex (Ortner and Putschar 1981). These in-clude the midshaft region the right radius, themesio-distal shaft of the right ulna, and the distalportion of the right femur shaft. Periosteal bone for-mation is also evident on the posterior aspect of theright and left maxillary sinus in proximity to theerupting second molars. This may be more reflec-tive of rapid growth than of disease. There was noskeletal evidence for nutritional or metabolic defi-ciency (e.g., iron deficiency anemia) or injury. Un-fortunately, weathering of most bone surfaces andthe incomplete nature of the remains limits our abil-ity to discern additional skeletal pathologies andprevents an accurate assessment of the skeletal in-dications of health for this individual.

Dental Observations. Dental remains often preservebetter than bone and can provide valuable information

on the age and health of an individual or population.Dental remains were well preserved and include 11 de-ciduous and 29 permanent teeth. Only 12 permanentteeth were in occlusion; the remaining permanent teethhad not yet erupted. The deciduous teeth show moder-ate to significant attrition, while attrition of the eruptedpermanent teeth was slight to moderate in degree. Thetooth development and eruption patterns indicate anage at death of 7–11 years.

Teeth were examined for evidence of carious lesionsand linear enamel hypoplasias (LEHs), as well as den-tal calculus and antemortem chipping (Table 18A1.3).Alveolar bone was observed for evidence of periodon-tal disease, abscess formation, and ante- or post-mortem tooth loss. Carious lesions are present on sixof 11 deciduous teeth and one of the 12 erupted per-manent teeth. Noncarious pits, which can predisposeteeth to caries later in life, were present on the decidu-ous mandibular second molars, and on seven of 19observable permanent teeth.


Too

th

Pre

sen

ce††

Dev

elop

men

t**

Att

riti

on**

*

Ab

sces

s

Car

ies

(#)

Car

ies

loca

tion

L Mand PM2 in crypt 0

L Mand PM1 1 0

L Mand C 1 0 0

L Mand I2 2 A 1/2 2 0 0

L Mand I1 2 A c 2+ 0 0

R Mand I1 2 A 1/2 2 0 0

R Mand I2 2 A 1/2 2 0 0

R Mand C 1 0 0

R Mand PM1 1 0

R Mand PM2 1 0

R Mand M1 2 A 1/2 6 0 (7 small noncarious pits) (5 occlusal, 2 buccal)

R Mand M2 1 R 1/4 0 (2 small noncarious pits) (occlusal)

R Mand M3 absent 0

†See methods described in Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994.††Not erupted (1), in occlusion (2).**Moorrees et al. 1963a, 1963b.***Anterior tooth (incisors, canines, premolars) wear scored using Smith 1984; posterior tooth (molars) wear scored using Scott 1979.*Estimate.

Permanent


Linear enamel hypoplasias, which are attributed toperiods of arrested growth or enamel formation due toperiods of disease or nutritional stress, are present on12 of 17 observable permanent teeth, including 100 per-cent of the anterior teeth observed. Multiple LEHs arepresent on several teeth indicating that this child hadsurvived multiple periods of disease or nutritional stressduring infancy and early childhood when these teethwere forming. The maximum number of LEHs on agiven tooth was four on the right and left mandibularcanines. No LEHs are present on the decidous teeth.

The alveolar bone was fairly complete and wellpreserved. Abscess formation was not found nor wasthere evidence for periodontal disease. Dental calcu-lus was present on the mandibular first and seconddeciduous molars and on 11 of 19 permanent teethobserved. Caluclus formation was found primarily onthe posterior teeth and the lingual aspect of the ante-rior teeth and tended to be slight to moderate in de-gree. Dental chipping was observed only on the

posterior-interproximal rim of the occlusal surface ofthe left deciduous mandibular second molar.

Metric Observations. Because of the young age andincomplete nature of this individual, metric observa-tions are limited. Measurements of the most completelongbone shafts were taken and a “maximum length ifcomplete” was estimated based on comparisons to com-plete elements from reference material (Table 18A1.4).These resulting values were used to determine a mini-mum and maximum age estimate for each element(Ubelaker 1989). All age estimates fell within 8.5 and12.5 years, which is consistent with the age estimatesbased on dental development and epiphyseal union.

Nonmetric Traits. Morphological traits of Burial #7 arecharacteristic of Native American racial affiliation (Gilland Rhine 1990; Hinkes 1990). These include shoveledincisors, zygomatic posterior tubercles, malar tubercles,enamel extensions and buccal pits, elliptical dental


Cal

culu

s

Loc

atio

n

LE

HS

(#)

LE

H lo

cati

on

(mea

sure

d i

n c

m

from

CE

J)

Max

. len

gth

(cm

)

Max

. wid

th (c

m)

Max

ht.

(cm

)

Ch

ipp

ing

0 4 0.16, 0.39, 0.63, 0.78

0 1 0.28 0.62 0.67 0.98

slight lingual 2 0.23, 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.97

slight lingual 2 0.22, 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.95

0 2 0.27, 0.45 0.58 0.66 1.00

slight lingual 4 0.23, 0.41, 0.53, 0.70 0.75* 1.34*

slight buccal, posterior 0 1.16 1.12 0.77

slight-moderate buccal, posterior 0 1.24 1.09 0.87

†See methods described in Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994.††Not erupted (1), in occlusion (2).**Moorrees et al. 1963a, 1963b.***Anterior tooth (incisors, canines, premolars) wear scored using Smith 1984; posterior tooth (molars) wear scored using Scott 1979.*Estimate.

Permanent


arcade, straight palatine suture and angled zygomaticsutures (Tables 18A1.5 and 18A1.6). Other nonmetric skel-etal traits were recorded but should be viewed with cau-tion given the immature age of this individual.Morphological characteristics of the permanent dentitionof Burial #7 are less subject to subsequent growth-relatedchange than are the observed skeletal traits (Table 18A1.6).

Cranial Deformation. The skull of Burial #7 showsslight flattening of the posterior parietal/superior oc-cipital region at lambda. This deformation is likelypostdepositional rather than cultural or intentional.

The deformity is slight and there is no correspondingflattening of the frontal or bossing of the parietals.

Taphonomy. The preservation of bone is good, althoughthe outer surfaces of most elements show some weath-ering (e.g., erosion, root damage, and flaking of cortex)and the ends of most longbones are missing or showpostmortem damage. Several ribs had been treated withPVA previous to this analysis and have been kept sepa-rate from other elements. Rodent gnawing is evidenton the midshaft portion of the left clavicle. It is not clearhow recent this rodent damage is.

Table 18A1.4. Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, nonmetric skeletal traits.

Trait Left Right

Metopic Suture absentVenous Markings absent absentSupraorbtial Notch presentSupraorbital Foramin presentInfraorbital Suture absent absentMultiple Infraorbital Foramina multiple multipleZygomatic-Facial Formina 1 large 1 large, 1 smallerZygomatic Posterior Tubercle present presentMalar Tubercle slight slightZygomatic Suture angled angledPalatine Suture straightParietal Foramen present, on parietal present, on parietalExternal Auditory Meatus elliptic ellipticSutural Bones wormian bones only 1 left 2 rightInca Bone absentCondylar Canal absentCouble Condylar Facet absent absentFlexure of Superior Sagittal Sulcus rightTympanic Dihiscence absent absentAuditory Exostosis absent absentMastoid Foramen 1, temporalMental Foramen 1 1Mandibular Torus absent absentMylohyoid Bridging absentSeptal Aperature absent

Table 18A1.5. Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, dental nonmetric observations.

Element Length of Portion Remaining Estimated Maximum Length Age*

L Humerus 23.5 cm ~25.0 cm 9.5–12.5 yrsR Ulna 19.5 cmR Radius 19.5 cm ~20.5 cm 11.5–12.5 yrsR Femur 28.5 cm <32.0 cm 8.5–11.5 yrs

*Ubelaker 1978.


Summary. HRS˚3 Burial #7 is represented by the in-complete remains of a child aged 7–11 years. No de-termination of sex is made since morphologicalindications of sex are not reliable prior to late adoles-cence. Infection that was healed or healing at the timeof death is evidenced by localized areas of periosteal

bone formation on elements of the right lower arm andthe distal femur. Multiple LEHs present on the per-manent dentition provide evidence for multiple epi-sodes of arrested growth attributable to disease ornutritional stress during infancy and early childhood.Carious lesions are present on several deciduous and

Table 18A1.6. Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7, postcranial measurements and associated ageestimates.

Trait Left Right

MaxillaryWinging of Central Incisors 0 0Shoveling of Central Incisors semishoveled (4) semishoveled (4)Shoveling of Lateral Incisors semisheveled (3) semisheveled (3)Double Shoveling of Central Incisors faint faintDouble Shoveling of Lateral Incisors faint faintPegged Lateral Incisors 0 0Hypocone M3Hypocone M2 moderate-cusp faint cuspuleHypocone M1 large cusp large cuspMetaconule M3Metaconule M2 0 0Metaconule M1 0 0Carabelli's Trait M3Carabelli's Trait M2 0Carabelli's Trait M1 small cusp groove presentEnamel Extensions M3Enamel Extensions M2 medium sizedEnamel Extensions M1 faint 0

MandibularGroove Pattern M3Groove Pattern M2 + YGroove Pattern M1 + +Cusp Number M3Cusp Number M2 5 6Cusp Number M1 6 5Protostylid M3Protostylid M2 0Protostylid M1 pit in buccal groove pit in buccal grooveHypoconulid M3Hypoconulid M2 small smallHypoconulid M1 small medium sizedEntoconulid M3Entoconulid M2 0 smaller than cusp 5Entoconulid M1 much smaller than cusp 5 0Metaconulid M3Metaconulid M2 0 0Metaconulid M1 0 0

*See Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994.


one erupted permanent tooth. A high frequency ofdental caries is often associated with diets high incarbohydrates (e.g., maize dependence); however, theyoung age of this individual prevents attributingmuch significance to the apparent lack of caries af-fecting the permanent dentition. Measurements of thelongbones support a preadult age estimate. Skeletaland dental morphology suggest a Native Americanbiological affiliation.

STABLE-ISOTOPE ANALYSIS

OF HRS˚3 BURIAL #7

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of archaeo-logical human skeletal remains is a well establishedanalytical technique for the reconstruction of prehis-toric subsistence practices. Because the isotopic com-position of food resources is incorporated into bodytissues, the presence and relative proportions of cer-tain food types (e.g., maize) in the diet can be deter-mined through the analysis of bone collagen and boneapatite carbonate. In the Midwest, this method has thepotential to identify the degree to which an individualor population relied on agricultural maize, which isisotopically distinct from most other plant and animalfood sources in this region.

Stable carbon (13C/12C) and nitrogen (15N/14N) iso-topic ratios in organic and carbonate fractions of hu-man bone were used to identify the level of maizeconsumption for HRS˚3 Burial #7. The results are re-ported here as delta (δ) values in parts per mil (‰),relative to known standards.

Nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen provide an in-dication of protein consumption. Because meat tendsto be high in protein and plants tend to be low, a highnitrogen value can be interpreted as indicating a dietgenerally high in meat or fish. Carbon isotopes inbone collagen can be used to distinguish betweenbroad categories of food resources (e.g., C3 nonmaizeversus C4 maize), and in the Midwest have tradition-ally been used to address the question of maize con-sumption. Carbon isotopes in bone collagen arederived primarily from dietary protein sources,whereas the carbon isotopes in bone apatite carbon-ate are derived proportionately from carbon sourcesin the whole diet, both proteins and carbohydrates,in the proportions in which they are consumed(Ambrose and Norr 1993; Norr 2002). The differencebetween the carbon isotope values of bone apatite

carbonate and bone collagen (Δ13Cca-co) of an indi-vidual indicates the relative isotopic relationship ofdietary protein (both plant and animal) compared toother dietary components (Ambrose and Norr 1993;Norr 2002). When the overall isotopic values of pro-tein and carbohydrates in the diet are similar, as inan all-C3 or all-C4, or a mixture of C3 and C4 proteinsand carbohydrates, the Δ13Cca-co is about 4.5‰(Hedman et al. 2002; Norr 2002). If the difference isgreater than 4.5‰. the dietary protein is more nega-tive than that of the whole diet, as in a diet of C3-consuming animals (e.g., deer) and maize. If thedifference is less than 4.5‰, the dietary protein is lessnegative than that of the whole diet. In the Midwest,this might be characterized by a diet of native C3-plants and C4-fed dogs (Hedman et al. 2002).

A sample of approximately 9 g of a fragmentaryfemoral shaft was selected from HRS˚3 Burial #7 (achild aged 7–11 years). The methodology utilized inpreparing this sample are presented elsewhere andwill not be discussed in detail here (Ambrose 1987,1990; Ambrose et al. 1997; Balasse et al. 2002; Hedmanet al. 2002). Isotopic analysis was conducted at theEnvironmental Isotope Paleobiogeochemistry Labo-ratory at the University of Illinois under the direc-tion of Dr. Stanley Ambrose. Detailed information onthe methodological protocol and equipment are de-scribed elsewhere (Ambrose 1990; DeNiro 1985;Hedman et al. 2002). The percent collagen yield frombone (9.1%), weight percent carbon (39.8%), weightpercent nitrogen (14.5%), and C/N ratio (3.2) wereused to evaluate the sample quality and found ac-ceptable (see Ambrose 1990; Norr 2002).

The results of stable isotopic analysis of bone col-lagen and apatite carbonate are presented in Table18A1.7. These results indicate a significant maize con-sumption for this individual. An estimated 65 percentof this individual’s whole diet, and 50 percent of thedietary protein, were derived from C4 resources. TheΔ13Cca-co (6.6‰) indicates that dietary protein wasslightly more negative than the whole diet and likelyincluded a mix of C3 and C4 resources. The relativelyhigh 15N value suggests that fish and/or C3-nut pro-tein were also significant dietary components. Theseresults are comparable to isotopic values from otherTerminal Late Woodland and Mississippian popula-tions in the American Bottom and Illinois River valley(Table 18A1.7) (Emerson et al. 2005; Hedman et al. 2002;Schober 1998) and support archaeological and ethno-botanical evidence for a Terminal Late Woodland andMississippian subsistence pattern that included theconsumption of maize, cultivated and native wildplants, fruits, nuts, and a variety of locally availableterrestrial and aquatic fauna.

TH

E 1974 HA

CK

ER M

OU

ND

S EX

CA

VA

TIO

NS

667

Table 18A1.7. Stable carbon and nitrogen results from collagen and stable carbon isotope results from apatite carbonatefrom Hacker South Mound #3, Burial #7.

Cultural/Temporal

Provenience Association Age/Sex δ13C coll‰ δ15N‰ C:N δ13C ap‰ Δ13Cca-co %C4 whole diet %C4 protein Reference

Hacker South Terminal Late 7–11 y –12.4 10.2 3.2 –5.8 6.6 65% 50% new dataMound #3, Woodland/ undeterminedBurial #7 Mississippian sex

Crimson Circle† Terminal Late mid-older –14.1 10.2 3.3 –8.0 6.2 36% 38% new data 11Jy36, F.26, Sk. 1 Woodland adult

Crimson Circle† Terminal Late mid-adult 13.2 9.4 3.3 –5.8 7.4 51% 55% new data 11Jy36, F.26, Sk. 2 Woodland female

Schild, Knoll A Mississippian –13.8 8.9 –6.8 6.4 59% 41% Schober 1998, (n = 7) Emerson et al. 2005:99

American Bottom* Mississippian –11.4 9.3 –4.9 6.4 71% 51% Emerson et al. 2005:99 (n = 55)

†See also Atwell and Farnsworth 1999).

*Includes East St. Louis Stone Quarry, Florence Street, Range, and Corbin Mounds sites.

**Percent C4 was calculated as follows (Hedman et al. 2002:266):

%C4 whole diet = (–25–d13Cap–9.4)/15 x 100

%C4 protein = (–25–d13Ccoll–5.1)/15 x 100


CONCLUSIONS

Gregory Perino discovered five Short-Nosed-God shellmaskettes from 1940 to 1974 in the northern AmericanBottom and lower Illinois Valley regions (see Figure18A1.1). Two were with Burial #7 in Hacker SouthMound #3; two were with a blufftop burial overlook-ing the Booker T. Washington site, 8 miles south of theCahokia site in St. Clair County (Perino 1966; 1971b:184);and the fifth was found on the floor of a charnel struc-ture in Yokem Mound #1 (Perino 1971b:163, 174, 182).Prior to Perino’s Yokem excavations, private diggersapparently located three Long-Nosed-God shellmaskettes in a Yokem Mound #3 charnel structure(Bareis and Gardner 1968; Perino 1971b:182).

Whatever their cultural and symbolic significance(see Hall 1989; Kelly 1991:78–79; Williams and Goggin1956), the widespread occurrence of these highly styl-ized and closely similar maskettes (made both in“short-nosed” and “long-nosed” varieties, of copper,marine shell, and bone, and found from the lower toupper Mississippi Valley drainage in Mississippiancontexts) has long fascinated scholars. A famous Mis-sissippian human-effigy pipe excavated from the Craigmound at the Spiro site in Oklahoma (e.g., Emerson etal. 2003:297; Hall 1989:240) has a pair of the short-nosedmaskettes, probably made of shell, depicted as ear or-naments. The carved figure seems to be that of an adultelite male or shaman in full official regalia.

As documented above, the significance of theHacker site Short-Nosed-God maskettes would seemto be threefold:

(1) The two maskettes appear to have been worn atthe temples, perhaps as part of a headband or cap, ratherthan as ear ornaments. This is in contrast to both the Spirohuman-effigy figure and the two maskettes with theBooker T. Washington burial excavated by Perino in 1940,which he says “were at the ears of an acculturated burialof the period between 1100 and 1200 A.D.”; Perino 1966:8);

(2) The maskettes were found with a 7–11-year-oldchild who was a maize-eater and who had experiencedepisodes of arrested growth attributable to disease ornutritional stress during infancy and early childhood—not with a powerful adult male authority figure;

(3) Culturally and chronologically, the context of theHacker maskettes is earlier than was envisioned byPerino for his Booker T. Washington and Yokem site finds(A.D. 1100–1300; Perino 1966:8, 1971b:182). Generally,regional studies have tended to concur that these smallmaskettes date to relatively early Mississippian times

(Kelly 1991:75–79; Muller 1989:14; Williams and Goggin1956:58–59) and that they were manufactured in and dis-persed from the Cahokia area—perhaps by traders (Hall1991; Kelly 1991:75), intermarriage, or capture that re-sulted from intergroup conflict (e.g., Perino 1967:11).

In addition to the ITARP Hacker date reported above,two other recent studies have directly dated archaeologi-cal materials associated with Long-Nosed-God maskettes(Diaz-Granados et al. 2001; Emerson and Girard 2004).Diaz-Granados and her colleagues directly radiocarbondated charcoal pigments used to make pictographs onthe walls of Picture Cave in east-central Missouri. One ofthe cave drawings was a clear representation of a Long-Nosed-God maskette and was believed to date “possi-bly as early as the Developmental Mississippian”(Diaz-Granados et al. 2001:482, 487, Figure 1a). Four 14Cdates were run on three of the pictographs (not includ-ing the maskette drawing itself) and the calibratedweighted average of the dates was 994 ± 42 B.P. (A.D.956). In the second study, Emerson and Girard datedsamples from three leather- and copper-covered woodenobjects from Burial Pit #2 in Gahagan Mound A, an earlyCaddoan burial mound on the Red River in northwest-ern Louisiana. Their immediate study goal was to datetwo associated Mississippian flint-clay figure pipes (madeat and distributed from the Cahokia area) that were foundin two of the Mound A burial pits; but two copper Long-Nosed-God maskettes were also present in Pit #2.

The weighted mean of these dates yielded a two-sigma range of cal A.D. 1021 to 1160. This is the firstevidence demonstrating that Cahokia-style flint clayeffigies were moving into the Caddo area duringCahokia’s early Stirling phase (A.D. 1100–1150).[Emerson and Girard 2004:57]

This would imply that Cahokia’s spiritual and ritualinfluence throughout the Trans-Mississippi South wasimmediate and widespread during the site’s ascen-dancy in the Lohmann and Stirling phases (i.e., A.D.1050–1200). [Emerson and Girard 2004:61]

In light of these two 14C age determinations and thenew ITARP date on Burial #7 (and its associated Short-Nosed-God maskettes) in Hacker South Mound #3,there is good reason to think that the Hacker maskettesare associated with the Cahokian emergence, and thatsuch maskettes reached their widest distribution dur-ing the Stirling phase.

The predominant Late Woodland, Jersey Bluffphase burial program at Hacker and the absence ofother diagnostic Cahokian Mississippian artifacts withthe burials there may indicate that the Mound #3maskettes were acquired by a terminal Late Woodlandgroup in the lower Illinois Valley at a time of develop-ing interaction with early Mississippians from theCahokia area 60 km to the south.


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IllInoIs Hopewell and late woodland Mounds

tHe excavatIons of GreGory perIno 1950–1975

Gregory Perino

assembled and edited byKenneth B. Farnsworth

Michael D. Wiant

with an introduction by Kenneth B. Farnsworth

Studies in Archaeology No. 4Illinois Transportation Archaeological Research Program

University of IllinoisUrbana, Illinois

TARPI

Documents

Two Short-Nosed-God Maskettes Found with Burial #7 in Hacker Mound #3, Jersey County, Illinois. 2006 (with Kristen Headman and Thomas E. Emerson). In, Illinois Hopewell and Late Woodland