The birth narrative as female counterpoint to covenant

[JSOT91 (2002) 3-18] ISSN 0309-0892

The Birth Narrative as Female Counterpart to Covenant*

R.H. Jarrell

Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, USA

Abstract

The concept of 'covenant', the dominant ideology describing Yahweh's relationship to humanity, ultimately fails to include Yahweh's association with women. However, some forms of covenantal behavior and language exist within the literary form associated with women known as the 'birth narrative'. Yahweh's relationship to Hagar in Genesis 16 is an example of this specific type of contractual relationship. In the Hebrew Bible and New Testament there are nine such narratives that follow a specific format and include six common elements. Yahweh's contractual connection with Hagar, formulated and established in Gen. 16.7-15, serves as the foundation forali future associations between Yahweh and potential child-bearing women which eventually culminates in the New Testament pericope of the impregnation of Mary.

Feminist scholars have suggested that in the narrative of Genesis procreation is a central feature of female activity. Marmesh notes that 'women were used by men to ensure the continuity of the covenant'.1 Because females are essential to the production of sons, and thus to the continuation of the covenant, it would seem crucial that Yahweh develop some association with females or establish a contractual relationship with the women in the Genesis narrative in order to guarantee the patriarchs' progeny.

* I wish to thank K.C. Hanson and James Heath for their inspiration and their editorial assistance.

1. A. Marmesh, 'Anti-Covenant', in Mieke Bai (ed.), Anti-Covenant: Counter-Reading Women's Lives in the Hebrew Bible (Bible and Literature Series, 22; Sheffield: Almond Press, 1989), pp. 43-58 (43).

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4 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 97 (2002)

However, the concept of 'covenant', the dominant ideology describing God's relationship to humanity, ultimately fails to include God's association with women. It has been noted by scholars that, especially in the Hebrew Bible, women are virtually excluded from the creation and participation in any formalized relationship with Yahweh. Females are not associated with the ritual and cultic identity normally granted to males which in the past has been exemplified by the term 'covenant'.2

I propose that the establishment of Yahweh's relationship to Hagar in Genesis 16 is integral to women in later Genesis narratives and throughout the Hebrew Bible. Yahweh does not make covenants with women; Yahweh instead makes contractual relationships that are expressed in the literary form known as the birth narrative. It is Yahweh's contractual connection with Hagar, formulated and established in Gen. 16.7-15, that serves as the foundation and prototype for all future associations between Yahweh and potential child-bearing women—which eventually culminates in the New Testament pericope of the impregnation of Mary.

Women in birth narratives become the nexus mediating between humans and Yahweh. These women may be offered a contract, given a legal relationship to Yahweh in the form of a birth-covenant, for several reasons. In ancient Canaan and later Israel, woman's role as the nexus between heaven and earth would necessarily carry a pejorative status. Within the social constructs of early Israel, as Malina and others have noted, 'the sexual purity or exclusiveness of the female is embedded with the honor of some male'.3 Thus, not only is woman's sexual condition a matter of her own personal honor, it is a matter for any (and all) males associated with that particular woman. Yahweh and/or priests are compelled to establish a covenant with women (or a particular woman) because Yahweh is either the father of the child or is acting in a role similar to that of husband to the wife, that is, having some participation in her sexual life, which is the exclusive domain of the human husband.

It seems clear that some forms of covenantal behavior and language do exist within the literary form associated with women known as the 'birth narrative '. As established in the Hagar episode, the birth narrative becomes

2. DJ. McCarthy, Old Testament Covenant: A Survey of Current Opinions (Richmond, VA: John Knox Press, 1972), p. 88. See also P. Bird, 'The Place of Women in the Israelite Cultus', in Patrick D. Miller, Jr, et al. (eds.), Ancient Israelite Religion (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), pp. 397-419.

3. B.J. Malina, The New Testament World (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1993), p. 50.

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JÁRRELE The Birth Narrative as Female Counterpart 5

a specific type of contractual relationship within the Hebrew Bible between a childless woman (and in some cases, a contractual surrogate who is the husband of the childless woman) and Yahweh, as I shall seek to demonstrate.

The Genre of the Birth Narrative

Genesis 16.7-15 narrates an attempt by Yahweh to initiate a relationship with Hagar for the purposes of continuing ritual action or for the reaffirmation of a covenantal relationship, at least as it has been applied to the Patriarchs of the Hebrew Bible. It has been argued that relationship is usually created by males in the Hebrew Bible with Yahweh through covenant (that is, obligation), and females are normally excluded from such obligation or 'Patron-Client' relationship.4 However, if we allow for many of the necessary components of a covenant, such as (1) how a 'binding relationship [with Yahweh].. .function[s] in various literary contexts',5 and (2) the presence of a 'promise sanctioned by an oath' or 'agreed' to the terms of the covenant, then the birth narrative can arguably be considered a kind of covenant.6

In the Hebrew Bible and also in the New Testament, there are nine instances of a 'birth narrative' which follow a specific format and include six elements particular to all nine instances, and three elements particular to three instances. The elements are as follows: (1) Description of a woman's 'mother status', that is, whether barren or virgin/maiden; (2) protest; (3) offer (of contractual terms); (4) son's future forecast; (5) 'Yahweh naming'; (6) acceptance (of contractual terms); and, in three instances, poem/song.7 With the exception of the placement of the 'mother status', the order of the elements is presented within certain clusters: offer, son's

4. H. Moxnes, 'Patron-Client Relations and the New Community in Luke-Acts', in Jerome H. Neyrey (ed.), The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), pp. 241-68 (241).

5. See B.W. Anderson, 'Covenant', in B.M. Metzger et al. (ed.), Oxford Companion to the Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 138-39 (138).

6. See the (anonymous) 'Covenant' entry available from The Encyclopaedia Britannica Online (http://www.eb.com: 180/bol/topic?eu= 117214&sctn= 1 &pm= 1 ).

7. K.C. Hanson (in a personal communication) provides other elements of the birth narrative: statement of barrenness, promise by Yahweh to woman, protest of woman to Yahweh, response to protest, report of birth, naming, circumcision, sacrifice (or banquet), summary or outcome.

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future forecast, and protest are usually found in close proximity within the text; Yahweh naming and acceptance of the contract follow. (See Table 1.)

Mother Status In most instances, when the birth narrative form is present as a literary structure in the narrative, women are categorized as able to bear children ('fertile') or either as 'childless' or 'barren'. Elaboration on the category of 'childless' or 'barren' might include describing the specific nature of the woman's childlessness. Women who are 'childless' may be either unable to reproduce as a result of human sexual means ('barren') or not yet able to reproduce due to social status ('virgin').

Of utmost importance is the explicit declaration in the genre of the birth narrative of what I have termed 'mother status'. In all nine instances of the birth narrative, the 'mother status' appears first within the narrative framework. This 'mother status' is the key to the contractual relationship with Yahweh. It is the primary component of the entire contract between Yahweh and woman: a woman is without male issue, and Yahweh is both the beneficiary of the relationship and the means by which the male issue comes into being. Yahweh needs sons for his covenant, and thus Yahweh creates a contract with women.8

Protest The protest is given by the woman (or a woman's husband who acts as her contractual surrogate) against what Yahweh has offered: the issue of a son. It is more complex than a mere negative response to the proposal of a contract. It is often reported as confusion (Gen. 25.22b), defiance (Gen. 16.8b), or incredulity (Gen. 18.12; Lk. 1.18, 34).

Offer The offer is made to a woman (or her contractual surrogate) by Yahweh or one of Yahweh's representatives: either an angel or a prophet .9 (See Table 2.) Often the offer is expressed as some instruction to be followed by the

8. In addition, Yahweh may also create the necessity for a contract by 'closing' a woman's womb (1 Sam. 1.5b).

9. The texts of 'birth narratives' (Gen. 16, 18,25; Judg. 13; 1 Sam. 1; 2 Kgs. 4; Mt. 1 ; Lk. 1) reveal the following pairings: angel and woman; angel and woman's surrogate (husband), prophet and woman. If we allow that angels are synonymous for the presence of Yahweh, then we may broadly state that all birth narratives contain some element of a holy messenger, either in the form of an angel or prophet.


JARRELL The Birth Narrative as Female Counterpart 7

woman or her contractual surrogate (Gen. 16.9; Judg. 13.4; Mt. 1.20). A ritual acceptance of the terms of the contract (see below) and compliance with the instructions given by Yahweh or Yahweh's representatives further indicate a woman's assent to the terms of the contract.

Son 's Future Forecast The Son's Future Forecast is a proclamation by Yahweh or his emissary for the future role of the son in the history of Israel, often accompanied by specific naming instructions. The son is the fulfillment of the contract, the promise from Yahweh to a woman.

Yahweh Naming The name of Yahweh is invoked by the woman or her contractual surrogate as a symbol of the binding nature of the contract.10 This is analogous to the 'male' counterpart of the covenantal sanctioning oath. It connects the offer with the son's future forecast, and contains within it the suggestion of Yahweh as father. In all instances of the genre, with the exception of Genesis 16 and 25, Yahweh Naming occurs adjacent to the acceptance of the contract in the texts.

Acceptance of the Contract With the exception of the Genesis birth narratives, the acceptance of the contract usually involves some expression of servant language or metaphor by the woman accepting the contract (Judg. 13.23; 1 Sam. 1.18; Lk. 1.38). It is also closely associated in the text (see above) with the ritual Yahweh Naming which serves as the ritual act for the binding of the contract.

Poem The Hebrew Bible contains one instance of a poem (1 Sam. 2.1-10). In the New Testament, Luke uses the element of the poem in both his examples of the genre (Lk. 1.46-55, 68-79).

We may sort the women in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament who are the focus of a birth narrative by the description of their 'mother status': barren females who experience theophany with a messenger of Yahweh (an angel or a prophet) and females who are not barren and who

10. In all instances of the birth-narrative genre within the Hebrew Bible, with the exception of 'Elohim' in 2 Kgs 4.16, where Yahweh is the name invoked. (See Table 1.)



also experience theophany with a messenger of Yahweh. Only two unmarried (non-barren) females experience a theophany with a messenger of Yahweh: Hagar and Mary. I shall focus especially on these two women. (See Table 3.)

The similarities of these two women, both contained within the genre of the birth narrative, serve to demonstrate the stability of this genre over generations, and also hint at the possible evolution of the genre.

The Theophany of Hagar and the Problem of the ΓΠΓΓ "jK bt2

First, the 'angel' whom Hagar encounters is in fact Yahweh. Irvin points out that the theological meaning of angels in the Genesis narratives has very different connotations from that of the 'theology of the European Middle Ages'.11 Irvin explains that the D̂ DN ̂ Q of Yahweh or of Elohim have definite roles in the context of narrative, especially in the case of the birth narrative, since 'the character in a narrative [Genesis 16] who promises a child, predicts his birth, and foretells his way of life or future acts is always, without exception, a god. (He may in addition be the father of the child.)'12

Thus, in Genesis 16, the ΓΠΓΡ "[K^Q is functioning, not as 'intermediary', but as a being with a role identical to the one

played by the deity in similar extra-biblical stories [such as the ones found

in Akkadian, Hittite and Ugaritic literature]... [T]he role of the mal'ak in

the Genesis messenger stories is that of a god... [T]here is no evidence at

all for belief in the angel during the period when the J and E authors

wrote... [Genesis 16 and 18].13

Barker also identifies many accounts in the Hebrew Bible that clearly demonstrate Yahweh and the 'angel' of Yahweh functioning not as two separate beings but as one entity.14 The relationship between Yahweh/ messenger of Yahweh and Hagar parallels the relationship between God/ Gabriel and Mary in Luke.

11. D. Irvin, Mytharion: The Comparison of Tales from the Old Testament and the

Ancient Near East (sa. Κ. Bergerhof étal.; AOAT, 32; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirch-ener Verlag; Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1978), p. 91.

12. Irvin, Mytharion, pp. 100-101. 13. Irvin, Mytharion, pp. 103. 14. M. Barker, The Great Angel: A Study of Israel 's Second God (London: SPCK,

1992), p. 33.



The Birth Announcement and the ΠΠ3Ε? (Maiden/Virgin)

Traditionally, the birth narrative is described as a literary 'form' which, according to Westermann, contains the following elements: introduction, usually by a messenger of God; announcement of pregnancy and birth of a son; naming of the son and reason for the name; announcement of the fate of the son.15 Although Westermann cites Gen. 16.8-22 and Lk. 1.28-32 as 'a rare and astonishing example of the perseverance of a form over a period of more than a thousand years', he discounts any idea that elements in birth narrative may be ritualized terms of a contract when he suggests that the three occurrences of the formulaic phrase ΓΠΓΡ "]S^Q Π1!? "IDtTI in Gen. 16.9,10 and 11 are 'not possible in any ancient narrative' but that the first two phrases are appendages to the original text.16 According to Alter, the fact that 'the formula for introducing speech is repeated' is highly significant.17 It is possible that these three occurrences are intended to create a more suitable literary structure in which to convey a symbolic formula.

Mary's status as παρθέvos ('virgin') presents the reader with a meaning that may have its antecedents in the designation of Hagar in Gen. 16.2 as nnSE?. Teubal notes that, in addition to the usual meaning of 'maidservant', the biblical Yahwist author 'uses shifhah in relation to women who conceive and become pregnant'.18 In the LXX, the term for Hagar is μαιδίσκη, a term which can mean a young girl or maiden. The status of Mary in Lk. 1.27 is noted in the text as παρθένον (το όνομα TT\S παρθένου Μαριάμ). The term for servant is also used of Mary in Lk. 1.38 (η δούλη κυρίου).

As Westermann and other scholars have noted, the form of the birth narrative is comparatively fixed.19 However, the evolution of this form has progressed from Genesis 16, where Hagar, in her acceptance of the contract, acts powerfully in 'naming' Yahweh, to the reaction of Mary who, in her acceptance of the contract, 'names' herself as the servant of the

15. C. Westermann, Genesis 12-36: A Commentary (trans. J.J. Scullion; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1985), p. 244.

16. Westermann, Genesis 12-36, p. 245. 17. R. Alter, Genesis: Translation and Commentary (New York: W.W. Norton,

1996), p. 70. 18. S. Teubal, Hagar the Egyptian (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990). 19. Westermann, Genesis 12-36, p. 244.



Lord (ή δούλη κυρίου). These acts of 'naming' by Hagar and Mary are related to the formal acceptance of the terms of the birth contract.

It can be demonstrated that the encounters between Hagar and Mary (two non-barren or virgin women) and their respective messengers contain many similarities.20 (See Table 3.) In Luke 1 as well as in Genesis 16, the theme of Yahweh/God as father/betrothed to Hagar/Mary becomes apparent. If we compare passages from Gen. 16.7-14 and Lk. 1.26-38, we find that both texts also follow the pattern for the genre: statement of Mother Status (either παρθένος or ΠΠ3ϋ ['virgin']), Promise and Offer of Contract, Son's Future Forecast and Acceptance of Terms.

Naming Yahweh/God Hagar's 'calling the name of Yahweh' is the only act of naming by a human (woman) to a deity in the Hebrew Bible. The verb \Xlp is used to connote the act of naming (without an intervening preposition [such as 'of, 'to', and so on]) approximately 110 times in Genesis alone.21 Teubal explains Hagar's 'naming of Yahweh' as a literary device used by redactors to clear up the confusion of different names of gods found in the narrative. She asserts that Genesis 16 has been redacted by Yahwist editors over an original Elohist story (which continues as an Elohist story in Gen. 21.15-20).22 Trible notices that this action by Hagar is a 'power attributed to no one else in all the Bible', but she is unable to discover a parallel for Hagar's act.23 Hagar's giving Yahweh a name or 'calling' Yahweh may be explained as a consequence of formal acceptance by Hagar of the terms of the birth contract. Hagar's remarkable act of naming Yahweh is often obscured by the untranslatable portion of text that follows. Brueggemann comments that since there is no way to determine the meaning of the phrasing in the text, it 'was not greatly valued in the tradition' and is best ignored.24 Conversely, however, Janzen notes that Hagar's 'exegeting the

20. In the Islamic tradition, it is Hagar's son Ishmael who is nearly sacrificed by Abram. Mary's son, Jesus, is also 'sacrificed'.

21. The Eerdmans Analytical Concordance to the Revised Standard Version of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), p. 144 s.v. 4ΚΊρ\

22. Teubal, Hagar, p. 57. 23. P. Trible, Texts of Terror (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), p. 18. 24. W. Brueggemann, Genesis (Interpretation; Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982), p.

153.



divine name' has parallels with Moses' revelation of the divine name in Exod.33.19.25

Although the text is confusing, the theme of 'sight' and 'seeing' seems to be present in vv. 13 and 14 when Hagar names Yahweh 'you are the God who sees me', and further adds, 'truly I have seen God after he has seen me'.26 The location of the well, Hagar's eyes and Yahweh of'seeing' are connected by the theme of yu. Additionally, this 'seeing' motif may be connected to the role of the ΓΠΓΠ f Ä bù as an angel who is a 'watcher' (yV).27 The theme of 'seeing' is also associated with one of the literary

conventions contained in the making of a covenant which is 'accompanied by an appeal to a deity.. .to "see" or "watch over" the behaviour of the one who has sworn'.28

Hagar's naming of Yahweh at the water source may also be connected to Yahweh's procreative power. The act of naming performed by Hagar clearly possesses theophanic significance, even if it did not occur within the birth-narrative setting. A characteristic of theophany is often described as having 'its occurrence at locations in the natural environment which were considered particularly sacred... God appears at springs'.29 Alter, in his discussions of'betrothal type-scenes' in the Hebrew Bible, notes that wells and springs often serve as meeting grounds for women and their betrothed.30

Although Abram is the father of Hagar's offspring according to Gen. 16.4, v. 11 places the messenger of Yahweh in the role of intercessor/progenitor. This device is also found in the Lukan narrative in the New Testament since Gabriel functions as the messenger (άγγελος) and announces the roles of the Πνεύμα αγιον ('Holy Spirit') and δύναμη υψίστου (the power of the Most High) in the birth of Jesus.

25. G.J. Janzen, 'Hagar in Paul's Eyes and in the Eyes of Yahweh (Genesis 16): A

Study in Horizons', HBT13 (1991), pp. 1-23 (14).

26. Westermann, Genesis, p. 234.

27. Notice also that Mary's 'song' in Luke includes the relationship between God's

'vision' and the virgin woman: 'for he has looked with favor...on his servant'. The

relationship between the angels who watch, that is, the 'watchers', and women deserves

additional research.

28. Anonymous, 'Covenant', from The Encyclopaedia Britannica Online (see n. 6).

29. H.T. Hiebert, 'Theophany', ABD, IV, pp. 505-11 (505).

30. R. Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative (New York: Basic Books, 1981), p. 53.



Conclusion

I have explored the genre of the birth narratives in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament and its similarities to 'covenant' structures while also demonstrating that it is not an example of the type of 'covenant' created between males and Yahweh. Women in the Hebrew Bible obviously do not have access to such formal and ritualized relationships with Yahweh. A typical cultic location for the meeting place between Yahweh and Yahweh's emissaries is not always apparent in birth-narrative texts after those found in Genesis. However, if the ancient oral narratives upon which Genesis 16 is based originally included examples of relationships between some Yahweh and powerful women, patriarchal redactors might have restructured the older narrative to fit their particular cultural terminology and theological patriarchal biases. The inclusion of a contractual surrogate—a husband—seems to indicate some kind of patriarchal shaping of the narrative. Clearly, so many 'male' cultic themes appear in Judg. 13.2-24 (burnt offering, sacrifice upon a rock altar, and so on) that the narrator is forced to add a male voice to legitimate the interactions between Manoah's unnamed wife and the angel.

Yahweh does not make covenants with women. Yahweh makes contractual relationships symbolized within the literary form known as the birth narrative, presumably because females in ancient Israel were assumed to possess a lower theological status than males. There is much evidence in the text, however, to support the conclusion that Yahweh (and his priests) must reconcile the rules of male covenant-making with the fact that it is precisely the women, such as Hagar, who possess the procreative power needed to fulfill and perpetuate his own covenant previously ratified with Abram in Gen. 15.18.

Hagar is the only woman who receives a promise from Yahweh in Gen. 16.10 concerning her IHT ('seed'), a fact noted by Jay. Jay remarks that when the Lord says to Hagar in the wilderness, Ί will so greatly multiply your offspring that they cannot be counted for multitude' in the 'J' version of the story, it is 'too much for E (the Elohist redactor). His version cleans things up patrilineally: God said to Abraham, "I will make a nation of the son of the slave woman also, because he is your seed" (Gen. 21.13).'31

31. N. Jay, Throughout Your Generations Forever: Sacrifice, Religion and Pater

nity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 102. A.F. Campbell and M.A.

O'Brien, Sources of the Pentateuch: Texts, Introductions, Annotations (Minneapolis:



Hagar's meeting with Yahweh at the wellspring in the wilderness suggests parallels with Yahweh's ability to 'bind' an oath in the same way Yahweh binds the primordial chaos/sea to its boundaries at creation. In the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh opens and closes wombs. There is some evidence to suggest that the Levitical texts understood the female reproductive cycle in this way.32 Thus, the power of Yahweh to 'bind' and 'open' is perhaps a reflection of the primeval covenant ('binding') originally made to a female principle, chaos/sea, now made to a woman, Hagar.

On a more speculative note, there is another argument that might explain the similarities between the wording found in the covenantal arrangement of Yahweh with both Abram and Hagar. The literary form known as a 'birth announcement' could be a type of fictionalized 'pseudo-covenant' specifically invented by patriarchal redactors for the purposes of temporarily 'raising' the theological status of Hagar (and hence all future childless women) in order to make it possible for Hagar to transcend her female limitations of non-covenant maker and to interact with Yahweh on a basis equal with that of Abram. Further, this artificially raised status of Hagar would necessarily obligate and entice her (and all future childless women) to enter into a covenant-like arrangement in order to produce male offspring for Yahweh. This resulting birth announcement form would necessarily be interpreted, not as an actual relationship to Yahweh, but as a type of lesser covenant, a 'woman's covenant', or a simply a theological 'promise'.

Fortress Press, 1993), p. 166, cite the passage in Gen. 16.10 as a 'non-source' text, but a comparable passage in Gen. 15.5-6 as 'Elohist' material. See also D.L. Jeffrey, 'Genesis: Warts and All', Christianity Today 43.5 (1999), pp. 76-81 (78): 'Admittedly, other questions are eschewed...in rabbinic commentary: for example, why is the first and only covenant God makes directly with a woman (in Genesis) made with Hagar, the "rejected"?' See also N. Rulon-Miller, 'Hagar: A Woman with an Attitude', in P.R. Davies and DJ.A. Clines (eds.), The World of Genesis: Persons, Places and Perspectives (JSOTSup, 257; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), pp. 60-89 (77-78).

32. R. Whitekettle, ' Levitical Thought and the Female Reproductive Cycle : Wombs, Wellsprings, and the Primeval World', VT46 (1996), pp. 376-91.


Table 1. Text Elements of the Birth Narrative (NIV Translation)

Mother Status Gen. 16.8a

Gen. 18.11

Gen. 25.21a

Judg. 13.3

1 Sam. 1.5b

2Kgs4.14

Mt. 1.18

Lk. 1.7

Lk. 1.27

And he said, 'Hagar, servant (ΠΠ3ϋ) of Sarai... '

Sarah was past the age of childbearing.

Isaac prayed to the LORD on behalf of his wife, because she was barren.

The angel of the LORD appeared to her and said, 'You are sterile and childless... '

the LORD had closed her womb.

she has no son and her husband is old.

His mother Mary was pledged to be married to Joseph...

Elizabeth was barren...

The virgin's (παρθένον) name was Mary.

Protest Gen. 16.8b

Gen. 18.12

Gen. 25.22b

Judg. 13.6

1 Sam. 1.15

2Kgs4.16a

Mt. 1.19

Lk. 1.18

Lk. 1.34

'I'm running away from my mistress Sarai', she answered.

After I am worn out and my master is old, will I now have this pleasure?

and she said, 'Why is this happening to me?'

I didn't ask him where he came from, and he didn't tell me his name.

I am a woman who is deeply troubled. I have not been drinking wine or beer...

No, my lord...

.. .he had in mind to divorce her quietly.

Zechariah asked the angel, 'How can I be sure of this? I am an old man and my wife is well along in

years...'

'How will this be,' Mary asked the angel, 'since I am a virgin?'

Offer

(of contract)

Gen. 16.10

Gen. 18.14b

Gen. 25.23a

Judg. 13.4

1 Sam. 1.17

2Kgs4.15

Mt. 1.20

Lk. 1.13

Lk. 1.30

The angel added, Ί will so increase your descendants that they will be too numerous to count.'

I will return to you at the appointed time next year and Sarah will have a son.

The LORD said to her, 'Two nations are in your womb.

Now see to it that you drink no wine or other fermented drink.. .because you will conceive and give birth to a son...

Go in peace, and may the God of Israel grant you what you have asked of him.

Then Elisha said, 'Call her'. So he called her, and she stood in the doorway.

Joseph son of David, do not be afraid to take Mary home as your wife, because what is conceived in her is from the

Holy Spirit.

Your prayer has been heard. Your wife Elizabeth will bear you a son...

Do not be afraid, Mary, you have found favor with God.

Son's Future

Forecast

Gen. 16.12

Gen. 18.15b

Gen. 25.23b

Judg. 13.5b

1 Sam. 1.11

2Kgs4.16

Mt. 1.21

Lk. 1.14-18

Lk. 1.32

and you will have a son. You shall name him Ishmael, for the LORD has heard of your misery. He will be a wild

donkey of a man...

But he said, 'Yes, you did laugh'.

and two peoples from within you will be separated; one people will be stronger than the other, and the older will

serve the younger.

because the boy is to be a Nazirite, set apart to God from birth, and he will begin the deliverance of Israel from the

hands of the Philistines.

I will give him to the LORD for all the days of his life, and no razor will ever be used on his head.

'About this time next year,' Elisha said, 'you will hold a son in your arms... '

because he will save his people from their sins.

He will be a joy and delight to you, and many will rejoice because of his birth.. .to make ready a people prepared for

the Lord.

He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High.. .and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever; his

kingdom will never end.

Yahweh/God

Naming

Gen. 16.13

Gen. 18.14a

Gen. 25.22

Judg. 13.17

1 Sam. 1.20

2Kgs4.16

Mt. 1.23b

Lk. 1.19

Lk. 1.35

She gave this name to the LORD (ΓΠΓΡ) who spoke to her. You are the God who sees me...

Is anything too hard for the LORD ÇT\ÏV)? So she went to inquire of the LORD (ΠΊΠ* ).

Then Manoah inquired of the angel of the LORD (ΠΙΠ*1), 'What is your name...?' He replied, 'Why do you ask my

name? It is beyond understanding. '

She named him Samuel, saying, 'Because I asked the LORD (ΓΠΓΓ) for him'.

Oman of God (D'i l 1 *)! 1

they will call him Immanuel—which means, God with us. |

I am Gabriel. I stand in the presence of God. |

So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God.

Acceptance

(of the contract)

Gen. 16.13

Gen. 18.15a

Gen. 25.24a

Judg. 13.23

1 Sam. 1.18

2Kgs4.16b

Mt. 1.24

Lk. 1.67

Lk. 1.38

I have now seen the One who sees me. \

Sarah was afraid, so she lied and said, Ί did not laugh'. j

When the time came for her to give birth...

Manoah and his wife fell with their faces to the ground... But his wife answered, 'If the LORD had meant to kill us,

he would not have accepted a burnt offering... '

She said, 'May your servant find favor in your eyes

Don't mislead your servant...

he did what the angel of the Lord had commanded him and took Mary home as his wife.

Zechariah was filled with the Holy Spirit and prophesied... 'He has raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house

of his servant David... '

Ί am the Lord's servant (δούλη)', Mary answered.

Poem I 1 Sam. 2.1-10

Lk. 1.68-79

Lk. 1.46-55

Table 2. Birth Narrative Elements

Genesis 16 Genesis 18 Genesis 25 Judges 13 1 Samuel 1 2 Kings 4 Matthew 1 Luke 1 Luke 1.26

1 Woman +

Angel

Woman +

Angel

Woman/

Surrogate +

Angel

Woman/

Surrogate +

Angel

Woman +

Prophet

Woman +

Prophet

Surrogate +

Angel

Surrogate +

Angel

Woman +

Angel

j •δ

s: < ^

1

!

Mother Status

Protest

Offer

Son's Future

Yahweh

Naming

Acceptance of

the Contract

Mother Status

Protest

Offer

Acceptance

of the Contract

Son's Future

Yahweh

Naming

Mother Status

Yahweh

Naming

Protest

Offer

Son's Future

Acceptance of

the Contract

Mother Status

Offer

Son's Future

Protest

Yahweh

Naming

Acceptance of

the Contract

Mother Status

Son's Future

Protest

Offer

Acceptance of

the Contract

Yahweh

Naming

Poem

Mother Status

Offer

Son's Future

Protest

Acceptance of

the Contract

Yahweh

Naming

Mother Status

Protest

Offer

Son's Future

Yahweh

Naming

Acceptance of

the Contract

Mother Status

Offer

Son's Future

Protest

God Naming

Acceptance of

the Contract

Poem

Mother Status

Offer

Son's Future

Protest

God Naming

Acceptance of

the Contract

Poem

Table 3. Women and the Biblical Birth Contract

Genesis 16 Genesis 18 Genesis 25 Genesis 30 Judges 13 1 Samuel 1 2 Kings 4 Luke 1 Luke 1.26

Woman Hagar Sarah Rebekah Rachel Samson's Mother

Hannah Shunammite woman

Elizabeth Mary

Messenger

Mother Status

Angel

Not Barren

Angel

Barren

No Angel

Barren

No Angel

Barren

Angel

Barren

No Angel

Barren

No Angel

Barren

Angel

Barren

Angel

Not Barren

Exchange with Yahweh/God

Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No No Yes

Angel + Barren No Angel + Barren Angel + Not Barren Exchange with Yahweh/God

Sarah Samson's Mother Elizabeth (NT)

Rebekah Hannah Rachel Shunammite woman

Hagar Mary (NT)

Sarah Samson's Mother Rebekah Hagar Mary (NT)

Angel + Not Barren + Exchange with Yahweh/God

Hagar Mary (NT)

^ s

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The birth narrative as female counterpoint to covenant