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Dissertations Graduate College

12-1971

The Relation of Expressed Student Interest in Behavioral The Relation of Expressed Student Interest in Behavioral

Objectives to Achievement in Civil Defense Adult Education Objectives to Achievement in Civil Defense Adult Education

Nina Louise Ruskjer Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Ruskjer, Nina Louise, "The Relation of Expressed Student Interest in Behavioral Objectives to Achievement in Civil Defense Adult Education" (1971). Dissertations. 3011. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/3011

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THE RELATION OF EXPRESSED STUDENT INTEREST IN BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES TO ACHlCVEMENT

IN CIVIL DEFENSE ADULT EDUCATION

by

Nina Louise Ruskjer

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Faculty of' the Graduate College in partial fulfillment

of the Degree of Doctor of Education

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan

December 1971


ACKNOWI£DGEMENTS

To all of the people who have waved the starter and winning flags

along the way and operated in the pits, I want to say, we made it!

Without you the wheels would have long since spun off, bearings burned

out and tires flat. M;y heart goes out to you in gratitude. To you:

Dr. Boles. Committee chairman, yes, lmt more importantly, effici

ency expert, always with one knowing eJre on the mechanics and another

on the course.

Dr. Walker, real in every realm, you helped me learn, even statis-

tics.

Dr. Chiara, guidin._,, supporting, defending, inspiring.

And to the rest of you: Mr. Doman, my supervisor, you have done

more to support me tangibly than any supervisor I have ever had; my

colleagues at Staff College--working in my place, encouraging and endur

ing; Helen Arnold, assisting at the beginning with a flourish and

tenacity that made the instruments possible; _Lola Cook, in at the end,

editing and t.yping your heart out and your fingers weary--smiling,

eager, contributing, Charles Townsend, Computer Center coordinator for

graduate student research--consultant extraordinary.

And to you, Dr. Buena Flor H. Mendoza, your sensitive ex:pressions

of faith at crucial points along the critical path were truly 11 a:p:ples

of gold in pictures of silver. 11 Thank you alit

Nina Louise Ruskj er

ii


PLBASB NOTBo

Sollie pages have indistinct print. FUmed as received.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS.


72-13,058

RUSKJER, Nina Louise, 1927-THE RELATION OF EXPRESSED STUDENT IN'rEREST IN BEHA VIDRAL OBJECTIVES TO ACHIEVEMENT IN CIVIL DEFENSE ADULT EDUCATION.

Western Michigan llniversity, Ed.D., 1971 Education, adult

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED


CHAPrER

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE PROBLEM • • • • • • • • •

Background o'f the Problem •

Need for adult education.

Need f'or research in adult education.

Need for research in interest and learning.

Pur}Jose and Objectives of the Study •

Assumptions • • • • • •

Theoretical Framework .

Definition of' Terms . •

Strengths and Importance or the Study •

Overview of the Report. • •

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.

Learning Theory . , • • • •

Principles of adult learning.

Conditions for adult learning •

Learning theory and instructional design.

Behavioral Objectives •• ,

Problems associated with behavioral objectives , •

Classification of behavioral objectives

Requirements of behavioral objectives

Research using behavioral objectives.

Summary ••••

iii

PAGE

10

10

11

13

13

15

16

18

21

22

25

25

28

29

31

35


TABLE OF CONTENTS . (Continued)

CHAPrER

II

III

(Continued)

Interest and Learning •

Motivation and interest in adult education.

The nature of' interest. • , , , • • •

The function o:f interest in learning.

The measurement of interest . • , ,

Interest and achievement research •

Conclusions from Literature Review.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE •

Overview of the Study Design,

Research sett:tng, • • • • •

General instructional setting .

Research instruction design •

Research Design •

Sample •••••

Research procedure.

Instrumentation , , ,

Behavioral objectives

Achievement test, •

Interest inventory.

Usef'ulness inventory.

Instructor image questionnaire.

Swmna.ry • • • • •

iv

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36

36 38

42

44

45

50

52

52

53

54

56

59

60

63

66

66

68

7~

74

75

76


TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER

IV

v

FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS • • • • • •

Findings on Research Questions.

Inter:pretations: Primary Research Q.uestion

Relation between :pre- and post-interest

Relation bet'l'leen interest and instructor image, .• , ••••••••

Relation between interest and achievement

Relation between achievement and

PAGE

85

91

instructor image .. , ••••• , • • , , 95

Relation between interest/usef'u.lness and achievement/usefulness •.•• , • , •. , 97

Summary of findings on :primary research question. . . . • • • • • • , • , • • . • 105

Inter:pretation: Secondary Research Question. 107

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Summary .•

Conclusions

Implications,

Implications for adult learning theory.

Implications for adult education intere.st theory . • • • • •

Implications for the use of behavioral objectives

Recommendations , •••••••

v

110

110

111

115

116

120

121

122


TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

APPENDIX

A

B

D

E

F

G

OUTLINE OF INSTRUC'riON UNIT USED IN RESEARCH • • • • • • • • • • •

SCRIPT FOR RESEARCH INSTRUCTIONS.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST. •

INTEREST INVENTORY.

USEFULNESS INVENTORY.

INSTRUCTOR IMAGE QUESTicmNAIRE.

DATA TABLES

LIST OF REFERENCES • • • • • • • • • • • •

vi

PAGE

125

131

135

158

163

167

170

202


TABLE

1

2

3

4

6

8

9

10

ll

12

13

LIST OF TABLES

Sample Demographic Che.racte.dstics • , •

Test-Retest Reliability Coeff'icienta .fo:tthe Interest Inventory • . , . • •

Relation Between Pre-Interest and Post-Achievement • • • . • • • . •

Frequency Distribution of Po::Jt-Achie".;·em~nt Total Raw Scores • • • • • • , , • . • ,

Relation Between Pre- and Post-Interest ••

Summary of' Relation Between Post-Intere"3~ and Instructor Images, , • • , •

Conr,parison of Instructor Jinages. • • • • •

Stm'll'Il.ary of' Relation Between Interest C!.l~.nge

Scores and Instructor Images • ~ •

Relation Between Pre- and ?ost-Achi~\l·tlment

Summary of Pairwise Compl:'.risot.::'l £..;:~\'ic>>:n

Interest and Achievement • • , • • A • • ,

Summary of' Relation Between Post-~.::'ui·::vement and Instructor Images. • • , • • . • • • • •

Summary of' Relation Between Achiever.·ent Change Scores and Instructor Images • • • • • •

Relation Between Post-Use:fulness M-:!l.Sll:::~ for Two Groups • • • • • , • , • • • , •

14 Relation Between Interest and Po&i, '.isef 1lness for Two Groups • , • , • • • • • • • • • • , •

15

16

Relation Between Achievement and Port·-U<lefulness for Two Groups . • , , • • • , " • , • • • • ,

Relation Between Interest Change 3cnres/PostUsefulness and Achievement Change Sco!'es/Post-Usefulness , , • , • , • , R • , , , , •

vii

PAGE

62

73

8o

82

84

86

87

89

92

95

100

102

104


LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

TABLE

17

18

19

20

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

Comparison of Achievement Change Scores Distribution with Normal Distribution •

Summary ot: Total-Test Relations of Various Pairwise Comparisons.

Pre-Interest Scores •

Post-Interest Scores.

Pre-Achievement Scores.

Post-Achievement Scores

Instructor No. 1 Image Scores

Instructor No, 2 Image Scores

Instructor No, 3 Image Scores

Post-Usefulness Scores (3 Mos. PostInstruction), • • . . , • • • •

Post-Usefulness Scores (15 min. PostInstruction). , • • • • .

Frequency Distribution of ·Pre-Interest Scores .••

Frequency Distribution of Post-Interest Scores .• ,

Frequency Distribution of Pre-Achievement Scores. • ,

Frequency Distribution of Post-Achievement Scores . ,

Rel.ation Between Post-Interest and Instructor Image. • • • • •

Relation Between rn·terest Change Scores and Instructor Jinages • • • •

Relation Between Pre-Interest and Pre-Achievement

viii

PAGE

109

H2

171

173

175

177

179

182

188

190

191

192

193

195


LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

TABLE

35

37

38

39

Relation Between Pre-Achievement and Post-Interest . • • • • • •

Relation Between Post-Interest and Post-Achievement. • • • . •

Relation Between Interest Change Scores and Achievement Change Scores .•

Relation Between Post-Achievement and Instructor Images • • • • • •

Relation Between Achievement Change Scores and Instructor Images • • • • • • • • • • •

ix

PAGE

197

199

200

201


CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Traditionally in the United States, attendance a.nd learning in

adult education have been largely optional and voluntary. This element

of free choice has usually existed even when an adult enrolled in a

class in order to advance in his vocation or to enhance his reputation.

It would seem to follow, from the standpoint of the educator, that adult

education classes, to be successful, must be tailored to meet the felt

interests of the participants. Much time, effort, and money are spent

toward this end.

Yet, do the participants in adult education classes actually

achieve more in the areas which hold high interest for them? The posi

tion of many action-oriented adult educators that pa.rtici];lants do

appears to be based more upon intuitive judgment than upon objective

data (Axford, 1969; Frandsen, 19h7; Knowles, 1962; McKeachie, 1963;

Sheats, Jayne, and Spence, 1953). Little research using adults as

subjects has attempted to identify interest as a variable affecting

learning. Addltiona1 investigations on this aspect of adult learning

are needed in sufficient quality and quantity to serve as a basis for

development of sound theory of the relationship between interest and

learning. Such theory, in turn, has important implications for the

related decisions required in program planning and design of learning

experiences,


Background of the Problem

An insight into the need for adult education, the need for research

in adult education, and especially the need for research in interest and

learning, is important to an understanding of the problem investigated

in the study. Theref'ore, in the discussion which foll.ows, necessary

background information is provided.

Historically, a basic assumption of ow: educational system has been

that an individual learned in his youth those things which were required

i'or him to assume his responsibilities as an adult in a democratic soci

ety, Today, such an approach is obsolescent, and adult education is

faced with "a new imperative (Jensen, Liveright and Hallenbeck, 1964,

p. iv) , 11 Today, for the i'irst time, a generation of adults must exist

in, and cope with, a culture which is different f'rom the one transmitted

to it in its youth. Knowledge has increased more during the lifetime of

those adults than existed when they were born. Churches, homes, schools,

governments, businesses, and voluntary organizations experience vast

te<!hnological change, and the ef'fects of' social and geographical mobil

ity, to an extent never before encountered, Not only is obsolescence a

threat to vocational skills, but to the skills employed in such enter

prises as ch:i.ld raising, food preparation, transportation, cOllDl'lunication,

health maintenance, and leisure tilne activities, Hardly any area of' lii'e

remains untouched by the dynamic i'orces which have been unleashed

(Hallenbeck, 1960; Knowles, 1970; H. Miller, 1964; P. Miller, 1970).


London (1970) listed six basic characteristics of the population

of the United states: heterogeneity, urbanizaticm, mobility, marriage,

mortality, and education. Each :plays a :part in the social problema

which perplex our society. The lives of adults are significantly

related to all of these factors and adult education is a requirement

to help solve the :problPms which they present.

Hallenbeck (1960) characterized our society as having rapid change,

dominance of technology, and intense specialization. The specializa

tion creates complex human relationships. First, it isolates individ

uals by making them unable to communicate across disciplines, and

then it forces them to communicate by also making them interdependent.

Stating that our society possesses vast opportunity for enrichment,

with development and extension of knowledge for everyone, Hallenbeck

concluded 11 ••• the.t this changing world has brought American culture

to that state where it depends upon adult education to make its

civilization operate successfully (p. 38). n

Sheats, Jayne, and Spence (1953) spoke of the paradox of a shrink

ing yet expanding universe--constantly shrinking in that we are able

to connnunicate much more quickly with increasing millions of' people,

yet forever expanding in the munber of matters which are crucial to

the survival o.f civilization. They emphasized the import.B.nce of' adult

education in dealing effectively with such awesome res:ponsibilities.

Havighurst and Orr (1956) identified three characteristics which

distinguish the situation of tvrentieth-ccntury man from that of all

who have gone before him and which require him to seek education all

of his life. The characteristics are an open horizon, trust in his


own judgment rather than supernatural authority, and constructive

worry over the realization that mankind can destroy itself in this

nuclear age.

Writing of lj felong learning as the last secret weapon against the

destruction of civilization and the only insurance against the obsoles

cence of man, Knowles (1962) stated that the obstacles to reorganization

of the American educational system to meet current needs are great.

High on this list of obstacles is the low value which adults place on

intellectual mobility and their consequent resistance to :participating

in serious learning. Only when the obsolescence becomes a threat for

them :personally will they turn to continuing learning as a way of life.

This suspicion of learning later in life was characterized by

Paul Miller (1970) as nThe deepest wnund in the character of adult

education • o o (p. 151) ," Had it not existed, perhaps the dispa:rity

between what we know and do technologically and what we know and do

socially might not have become so acute. However, forces are now on

the scene which are requj.ring adults to become involved in active

learning. Thus, adult education is leaving the shadowy wlngs of' edu-

cational endeavor and is movinc; 11 • , • closer to the center of the

stage (p. 152).'' Today, it is growine; faster than any other phase of

our American educat.ion (Ax.ford, 1969; Blakely~ 1960). The projection

is that by 1974 the nmnber of adults engaged in adult learning will

exceed the nmnber of young people enrolled in the formal system at all

levels (Sheats, 1970).


The very social forces which create the critical need for adult

education help to identify the functions it must perform (Verner, 1964).

Ha.vighurst and Orr (1956) saw our changed and changing society as requir

ing that adult education provide for personal competence, for civic

competence, and for joy in living. Most adult educators do not argue

with these general categories though they may alter, or enlarge u:pon,

the labels. For example, Verner (1964) wrote of an additional "integra

tional (p. 10)'' factor, and Schroeder (1970) noted the functions as

educating for 11 ••• occupational, vocational and/or professional

competence; personal and family living competence; social and civic

responsibility; and self-fulfillment (p. 33) . 11

Considering the rather chaotic and episodic developmental history

of adult education in the United States (Axford, 1969; Knowles, 1962;

Schroeder, 1970), the amount of agreement which does exist among adult

educators as to its broad general goals is encouraging. on the other

band, a fact not so encouraging is the discussion in the literature

regarding the status of adult education as a discipline as it relates to

those goals and its 11 new imperative.''

Axford (1969) expressed the view that the time has come for adult

education to take its place among the professions, stating that for too

long it 11 ••• has been peripheral., marginal, expendable ... (p. 57)."

As Li veright (1964a) has noted, other writers in the field have also

cha.racterized adul.t education as " ... ;peripheral to the older aspects

of education • • . , 11 as " . • • an emerging f'iel.d . . . , 11 as


6

Krei tlow stated that adult education had at last become a leading field

of study,

'l'he generally accepted concept of an academic discipline relates

to a body of systematic knowledge fm.mded in theory and research, know-

ledge which can be used at t:he operational level to design and present

learning materials for optimal results. 'I'hus, one of the requirements

which adult education must meet in order to be a discipline is to

develop a body of knowledge derived from research pertaining to adult

education alone (Liveright, 1964b). 'ro a large extent, adult education

has not met this qualification. Verner, Dickinson, J,eirman, and Niskala

(1970) expressed the point well. After reviewing North American adult

education literature, they wrote:

Adult education is not yet a full-fledged discipline in its own right because there are still aspects of adult learning and instruction that have yet been investigated sui'ficientl:r to warrant that designation (p. 8).

Kreitlow ha.:> long recognized the need for research in adult edu-

cation. In the 1960 Handbook .9! Adult Education 2.£ the United States,

he raised the question of whether or not adult education would or could

build a cohesive body of research, or whether it would simply continue

to borrow from other disciplines. Kreitlow (196!1) estimated that over

50 million adults in the United States were striving to meet educational

needs in 1964. The sil:.uation had created pressing problems, and only

limited research wlth adults as subjects had been attempted to provide

the necessary immediate solutions, At that i~ime, adult education

was placed in the sensitive position of having to meet this challenge

by borrowing knowledge from other disciplines while at the srune time


struggling to identify its place in the field. Because of the need,

Kreitlow (1964) made a systematic examination of research literature

in related disciplines to assess what potential contributions existed

there. He concluded that:

Some problems that arise in a rapidly expanding field can be resolved by interpolating findings of studies from related areas, Other problems, though unsolved, can best be resolved by researchers in a related discipline or applied field, Yet other problems, such as those in an applied field like adult education, can only be resolved by those who ha\"e the concept of and feeling for 'adult education' in their system (p. 5).

One of the difficulties in adapting the knowledge gained by

research from other disciplines to adult education is that, tY]?ically,

such research has used young people or animals as subjects, and though

this research may have relevance for adult education, gross generali-

zation of the findings to adults may be misleading or dangerous (Gibb,

1960; Radcliffe and Swene;:{, 1963). Animal eJqJeriments cannot take into

account the fact that human learning is a process involving the total

:personality of the learner in a hmnan social setting ( Gibb, 1960;

McClusky, 196!-1-; Miles and Miles, 1943). And it seems almost a truism

to note, also, that adults as learners differ from children as learners

in rather fundamental and dramatic ways.

Adults have had more experiences than have children, they have had

different kj nds of experiences, and those experiences are organized

differently (l<:idd, 1959; Stern, 1960). Therefore, changing the behavior

of an adult presents Q.Uite another problem than that involved in chang-

ing the behavior of a child (Kreitlmv, 1964). There are differences, too,

in the degree of autonomy of the two groups (Kreitlovr, 1964; Neugarten,


1963; Schmidt and Svenson, 1960), as well as in the developmental tasks

which they face (Havighurst end Orr, 1956) and in the degree of urgency

which they attach to the relevancy of the material to be learned (Axford,

1969). Additionally, the difference in the time perception of the adult

holds significant implications for his learning as opposed to that of the

child (McClusky, 1964) .

Kreitlow (1964) noted a multiplicity of gaps between what is known

and what must be known in order to teach adults effectively. He empha-

sized the conspicuous lack of studies on motivation relevant to adult

education as one of the gaps. To summarize his work on relating adult

education to other disciplines, he placed the research needs into three

categories of application: (1) the adult as an individual and learner,

(2) the adult 1 s response to social-cultural phenomena, and (3) the adult

education enterprise. Of these three, the category of the adult as a

learner was of primary ccncern to the research described in ChA..pter III.

Kreitlmv also identifierl priority research areas in this category and

included the area of Hinterest 11 among them. He reported:

The literature on 8.dt1lt interests is more confusing and contradictory than l'',csearch on the interests of' youth. There are few firm bases upon wi1ich to build practice. In adult education, i-.'tere the interest of an individual may be the factor leading to a tentative decision to seek a new behavior or ne;.; knowledge and thus participate in a program, the concern for more lmowledge about interests is urgent (p. 57).

Among other questions relating to interest, Krei tlow asked:

To what extent is participation in a program of learning a function of measurable interest? ... To what extent are


interests bui~t u,pou random success experiences? . • • Is greater participation in adult education activities associated with more or less stable adult interest patterns (p. 57)?

However, Kreitlow•s main question with relation to interest was:

In what ways can knowledge o:f adult interests be used to improve the quantity and quality of participation in adult education programs (p. 58)?

This concern is in accord with the conclusion of Brunner and his associ-

ates (1959) regarding adult interest and learning. They wrote:

It is genera.lly accepted that interests are positively correlated with learning--that as a result of an interest one will learn well or more efficiently and that by learning more about a subject, one will become interested. These statements invite investigation (p. 85).

In 1965 and again in 1970, Krei tlow repeated his challenge for

research in adult education, especially in the area of adult interests.

Axford (1969) supported the challenge. Further, Axford assumed the

position that:

The true adult educator will be research conscious, avail himsel:f of research facilities, learn to read the findings of adult education research, and ferret out research needs in his agency, community, and society (p. 220).

Purpose and Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this study was to "engineer" a learning experience

:for participants in civil defense adult education, :following as closely

as the situational setting would permit the requirements laid down by

the discipline of adult education for most effectively realizing the

proposed behavior; the process of the learning experience would then be

used for a research study (Liveright, 1964b).


The study had two objectives. The prima.ry objective was to inves-

tigate the relation of expressed student interest in precise instruc-

tional objectives to achievement of' those objectives in civil defense

adult education. The secondary, and related, objective was to determine

whether or not students :Perform satisfactorily according to a stated

criterion when behavioral objectives have been used to guide instruction

as reconnnended by leading advocates of' behavioral. objectives.

SpecificalJ.y, the research questions were:

J.. What is the reJ.ation between an adult student's expressed interest in behaviorally-stated instructional objectives and his achievement of' those objectives?

2. Do adult students who have received instruction designed and presented according to the requirements of' behavioral objectives, if they are made aware of those objectives prior to instruction, perform satisfactorily upon a criterion measure at the close of the instruction?

Assumptions

The assumptions WlderJ.ying the study were that:

1. an adult can and will learn given the right motivation for him;

2. interest is an inherent characteristic o:f a human being;

3. a given individual possesses interest in dif:ferent learning

opportunities in varying degrees under varying circumstances; and

4. an individual's degree of interest is related to his motiva-

tion and success in learning.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual framework for the research study drew heavil.y f'rom

a model developed by Brad:ford (1965). It consisted of three parts:


11

(l) adult learning theory which leads to (2) specific curriculum design

and (3) teaching-learning transactions. All three pal'ts either affect,

or are affected by, motivational f'orces which inf'luence the learning

process. This theoretical framework is expanded in Chapter II.

The position held was that an effective teaching-learning experi

ence for adults would take into consideration the f'ollowing areas:

1. What the Jearner brings to the transaction (ignorance, abil.i

ties, experience, motivational f'orces, and other factors).

2. What the teacher (helper) brings to the transaction (subject

knowledge, abilities, skills, personal needs, and other factors).

3. The setting in which learning and change take place (physical,

psychological, social).

4. The specific objectives of the teaching-learning transaction

(what they are; how they relate to the transaction).

5. The interaction process (teacher-learner, teacher-group,

J.earner-learner, learner-group, in a variety of activities).

6. The principles of learning and conditions necessary for learn

ing and change.

7. The maintenance of change (how and by whom?) and utilization

of learning in the life of the learner.

B. The establishment for the learner of the processes of continued

learning.

Definition of Terms

For the purpose of the study, the following definitions were

stipulated. One factor innuencing their seJ.ection was that they


seemed to make a more practical contribution to the study than did

those which were highly complex and theoretical.

The operational definitions are given in Chapter III. The terms

11 behavioral objectives, 11 11 interest, 11 and "learning, 11 also receive

further elaboration in Cha}:lter II.

l. Achievement: The attainment of a desired end or aim; "a

result brought about by resolve, persistence, or endeavor (Webster's

Dictionary, 1964)."

2. Adult: One who occupies most oi' his time in other than educa

tional pursuits, that is, when asked his occupation, he would not say

that he was a student (Za.hn, 1969).

3. Adult ~: All educational activities in which adults

participate that are part-time or leisure-time activities, usually of

a noncredit (academic) nature (Brrmner et al., 1959),

4. Behavioral objective: 11 A statement which describes what a

student should be able to do after completing some unit of instruction

(Miles and Robinson, 19'71, p. 39) , 11

::.;. ~: A factor within an individual which attracts him

to or repels him from various objects, Jtel'Sons, and activities within

his environment (Berdie, 1946).

6. Learning: " .• , acquisition of new skills, personal mean

ings and orientations, including avoidances, .•• lE:Sl'i1ing something

is usually followed by a change in behaving, thinking, or feeling

(Hamachek, 1968, p. 3)."

12


13

Strengths and Importance of the Study

The strengths of' the study were that it :

1. used adu.J..ts as subjects;

2. specifically designed a learning experience which was relevant

to their needs;

3. designed. the learning activities to meet as nearly as possib1e

the requirements of' the adult education discipline;

4. maintained a natural classroom setting to the ultimate degree

possible;

5, derived the resulting correlations on the basis of scores of'

individuals, thus avoiding the possible masking influence which may

exist in group correlations (Frandsen and Sessions, 1953; Wesley, Corey,

and Stewart, 1950); and

6. studied the relationships of' possibl.e intervening variables,

using the resul.ting data to interpret, and further reduce uncertainty

about, the basic relationship investigated.

The study is important for the following reasons:

1. Findings of the study may be use:f'ul for future research in the

identification of' variables affecting learning in adult education.

2. Results of the study may have theoretical. and practical impli

cations f'or the design and presentation of adult learning experiences.

Overview of the Report

In Chapter I, a discussion has been given of the research problem

and why the problem exists, along with the purpose, objectives,


assumptions, theoretical framework, definitions of terms, strengths,

and importance of' the study.

In Chapter II, there is presented a review of (1.) th~ learning

theory literature relevant to the conceptual framework of adult learn

ing upon which the study was based; (2) the literature bearing upon an

understanding of the need for, and the development of, specific instruc

tional objectives; and (3) the literature and research pertinent to a

specific study of the importance of interest to learning.

Chapter III contains a description of the overall design of the

research project, including the research agency, sample, instructional

unit, instruments, and procedures used for data collection. In Chapter

IV, the results are reported and analyzed. Finally, in Chapter V,

implications and conclusions are discussed.

With Cha:pter I as background, then, a consideration of the :perti ..

nent thinking and research f'indings contained in related literature,

and summarized in Chapter II, is in order.


CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF' RELATED LITERA'l'URE

In the first two sections of this chapter, there is a considera

tion of literature concerned with secondary, but basic, aspects of the

study: (1) learning theory literature as it relates to the curriculum

design used and (2) literature covering behavioral objectives and their

significance for the learning of adults, The last section of the chap

ter contains a review of literature having to do with the primary

thrust of the research project, the nature of interest and its relation

to adult learning.

The rationale for the above approach to the literature is that it

follows the developmental sequence of the research design. To study

the relationship between interest and learning in adult enucation, an

educator must make some assumptions about how and why adults learn.

Making those assmnptions requires that he possess a theory which is

applicable to the educational problems he faces, a theory based on the

best empirical evidence available and responsive to new evidence as it

is developed. Furthermore, for the collection of research data, he

must use learning experiences which are desie;ned and jmplemented in

accordance with his theory. 'rhen, and only then, is he in a position

to investigate the relationships between specif'ic variables and learn

ing which he may hypothesize (Jensen, 1965).

15


16

Learning Theory

An individual's concept of learning theory depends upon the picture

he has in his mind of how learning is realized (Wiles, 1967). One need

take only a limited journey into the literature to become acutely aware

of the variety of learning theory pictures which are held in a number

of minds. Furthermore, and unf'ortunately, those pictures of'ten have

little practical usefulness in the pragmatic, real world environment

faced by the adult educator (Hilgard, 1956; Siegle, 1960). For adult

learning emphasizes the applied as:pect of subject matter rather than the

theoretical, skills rather than knowledge for its own sake {Axf'ord,

1969; Johnstone and Rivera, 1.965; Tough, 1968).

The discussion here of' learning theory is not intended to be an

exhaustive review of' the many aspects of' relevant literature which, to

borrow words f'rom Korchin (1964), " . , , even of' recent years, is too

vast and cumbersome to review intelligently, much less integrate (p.

60). 11 Rather, attention is called to Hilgard 1 s (1956) hopeful note

that the internal quarrels at: the theorists need not overly concern the

practitioner. Since there are a number of what might be called "prin-

ciples11 of learning upon which there is substantj al, though not perfect,

agreement among theorists, practice need not walt for theoretical argu-

ments to be settled, Following is a shortened version of the genera.li-

zations given by Hilgard on which he believed there was essential agree-

ment,

1. In deciding who should learn what, the capacities of' the learner are very important , , , the decline of ability with age, in the adult years, dependb upon what it is that is being learned,


2. A motivated learner acquires what he learns more readily than one who is not motivated ••• ,

3. Motivation that is too intense (es:pecially :pain, fear, anxiety) may be accom:panie'l 1.Y 0.istracting emotional states, so that excessive motivation may be less effective than moderate motivation for learning some kinds of tasks . , , ,

4, Learning under the control of reward is usually preferable to learning under the control of punishment. Correspondingly, learning motivated by success is preferable to learning motivated by failure . . , .

5. Learning lmder intrinsic motivation is preferable to learning under extrinsic motivation.

6. Tolerance for failure is best taught through providing a backlog of success that compensates for experienced f'ailure.

7. Individuals need practice in setting realistic goals :for themselves, goals neither so low as to elicit little efi'ort nor so high as to foreordain to failure

8. The personal history of the individual, for example, his reaction to authority, may hamper or enhance his ability to learn from a given teacher.

9. Active participation by a learner is preferable to passive reception when learning, for example, from a lecture or a moti.on picture.

10. Meaningful materials and meaningful tasks are learned more readily than nonsense materials and more readily than tasks not understood l.Jy the learner.

11. There is no substitute for repetitive practice in the over-learning of skills . . . , or in the memorization of unrelated facts that have to be automatized.

12. Infonnation about the nature of a good performance, knc.wledge of his own mistakes, and knowledge of successM ful results, aid learning.

13. Transfer to new tasks will be better if, in learning, the learner can discover relationships for himself', and if he has experience during learning of applying the principles within a variety of tasks.

17


14. Spaced or distributed recalls are advantageous in fixing material that is to be long retained (pp. 486-7).

The generalizations, or principles, derived by Hilgard from

learning theory are applicable to all levels of education. Pine and

Horne (1969) .t'ormulated a number of principles specifically for learn-

ing in adult education. 'l'hey did this, not by analysis of learning

theory, but from the opposite a:p:proach, by deriving principles from

training experience with adults. They abstracted from data gathered

in an evaluation of a counseling education project called Operation

~· The project was Uesigned to teach helping relationship

18

and problem solving skills to the rurally poor of Northern New England,

The following discussion is paraphrased from the report of their

research effort, .Also, a few of the many sources from adult education

li teratu.re which support the different as:pects of their findings

innnediately follovr each of the separate principles.

1. Learning 2:E, experienced inside ~ learner, !§. activated ~

the learner. Teaching is a facilitating :process; nothing is ever

directly 11 taught 11 to anyone. People learn, see, and hear what they

want to learn, see and hear. Learning cannot be imposed, Learners

shut out from their perception that which does not have meaning for

them, and forget that which they do not use in their work or which has

no relevance for them :personally (Bradford, 1965; Jensen, 1964; Knowles,

1970; McClusky, 1964; Rogers, 1960; Tough, 1968).

2. Learning ~ the discovery E.t the ~ ..£!: the personal

meaning and relevar.ce ..££ ideas ~ him, He decides what is :t'<.!.Levant


19

and meaningful (Jenkins, 1960; Schueler, 1960).

3. Learning (~ change) .!! ! consequence of experience.

People do not change their behavior merely because they are told to

oha.nge or are tol.d how to change. lPor example, people become respon

sible and independent not because they are told they should be, but

because, and when, they engage in an activity which aJ.l.ows them to

actually experience authentic responsibility and independence (McClusky,

1964; Miller, 1964).

4. Learning_!!! cooperative~ collaborative process; such

&PJ;Iroaches are enabling. In interactive processes people learn to

define goals, to :pl.an, to interact, and to try group arrangements in

pt"oblem solving. As they do this, they develop self-identity; they

begin to believe that they have something to give and to learn and,

thus, that they matter. Problems attacked through cooperative inter

action appear to challenge people to stretch to produce creative

so~utions (Bradford, ~965; Jenkins, 1960; Jensen, 1965b; Miller, 1964;

Schueler, 1960) .

5. Learning ~!!! evolutionary ;process, not a revolutionary one

imposed from without. Behavioral change requires time and patience.

The ~earning situation should have free and open communication, accept

ance, respect, confrontation, the right to make mistakes, aelf

reve~ation, cooperation, collaboration, ambiguity, shared evaluation,

active and personal involvement, freedom from threat, and trust in self

(Apps, 1970; Jenkins, 1960; London, 1964; McClusky, 1964; Siegle, 1960).

6. Learning ~ ~ ! ;painfu.l ;process. It sometimes means

giving up the old and comfortable in favor of sharing one 1 s self openly


and having one' a ideas examined by the group as though they were td:t'ler·

a microscope (Jenkins, 1960; Miller, 1964).

20

7. One £f the richest resources for learning ~ the ~ hin~

self. The individual's experiences, ideas, feelings, and attitudes are

resouxces for problem solving and learning, Situations de::Jigned so

that the learner can become open to himself, can draw upon and share

his own resources in cooperative interaction with others, maximize

learning (Jenkins, 1960; Schueler, 1960; Siegle, 1960; Stern, 1960).

8. The proceas 2f learning J.E. emotional ~ well ~ intellectual.

When a person's thoughts and feelings are in harmony, his learning is

maximized. People must come before the task if the optimal conditionEJ

for learning are to be created in a grou:p. 'l'he :people problems in a

group have to be handled first before the group can accoli'{Plish its ta.13k

(Apps, 1970; .;enkins, 1960; Knowles, 1970; Siegle, 1960; Zahn, 1969).

This point cannot be made too strongly; the def'ense mechanisms of' the

adult may be the key to what and how he learns (Jensen, l965a; Miller,

1964).

9· The processes ~ problem solving and learning ~ highly

unique and individual. Learners need to be hellJed to identify and

analyze approaches to problems which they use in order that they can

modif'y them to more effective styles (Bradford, 1965; McClusky, 1964;

Miller, 1964; Schueler, 19GO; Stern, 1960).

Inherent in the above principles, yet not explicitly stated, is

the concept that the material .!£ ~ learned must ~ based EE: the aduJ.:~

~ needs as those needs relate to the reality of his social

environment and the social systems of which he is a part (Jensen, 1965b).


'·"''·"'

21

Needs, then, in the conceptualization of the adult learning process, are

looked upon as motivational factors. Although, as was noted in Chapter

I, no precise statement can be made about the extent to which motivation

affects learning in adults, yet surely it must be asswned that one of

11 the most important of the factors which direct and influence learning

is the complex relationship between the learner and the goal (Proctor,

1967, p. 85)."

Pine and Horne (1969) also identi.fied a nwnber of conditions which

.facilitate adult learning. The conditions appear to be obvious, .follow

ing the principles as they do. However, since the identification o.f the

most appropriate conditions for learning by adults has been judged to be

a priority research need (Kreitlow, 1964), they are included here for the

added insight they give into the Pine and Horne approach to an under

standing of such learning.

Learning is facilitated in an atmosphere which (1) encourages people

to be active; (2) promotes and .facilitates the individual's discovery of

the personal meaning of ideas; (3) emphasizes the uniquely personal and

subjccti ve nature of learning; ( 4) emphasizes that dif'.ference is good and

desirable; {5) consistently recognizes people's right to make mistakes;

(6) tolerates BJllbiguity; (7) uses evaluation as a cooperative process

with emphasiB on self-evaluation; (8) encourages openness of self rather

than concealment of self; (9) encourages people to trust in themselves

as well as external sources; (10) helps people to feel they are respected

and accepted; and (11) permits confrontation.


22

Again, inherent in these conditions, though not delineated, ia

the idea that the~~~~ sensitive.!£~ assets and

liabilities .£.! the interaction process, He must be lmowledgeable about

the interaction forces involved in problem solving, task accomplishment,

decision making, social influence, souial acceptance, and personal

evaluation, as well as in informal, private interactions. The instruc

tor uses this knowledge to effectively manage all aspects of planning

for and conducting a learning experience (Jensen, l965b).

These principles and conditions of learning, developed and so ably

stated by Pine and Horne, bring adult learning theory another level of

abstraction closer to a:pplication. They 'VTere i'ound to be in essential

philosophical agreement with a munber of other such lists from adult

education literature which were examined (Apps, 1970; Bradford, 1965;

Gibb, 1960; Jensen, 1964; Knowles, 1970: Leypoldt, 1967; Miller, 1964;

Verner, 1964). They are also abundantly supported in the literature

from fields other than adult education, such as :psychology, sociology,

counseling, management, leadership, small group process, educational

psychology and education, Together with Hilgard 1 s slUllnlary of generali

zations from learning theory, they served to elaborate the theoretical

framework for the research study given in Chapter I.

Learning theory and instructional design

Theoretical principles derived from learning theory and conditions

for learning based upon those principles are two steys in the right

direction in educational program develo:pment, but they are only two

steps. They are guides, not detailed procedures, Learning eXIJeriences


23

based upon the principles must be designed and adapted to specific groups

of students. Then the learning ex:periences have to be tried out under

actual J.if'e conditions, with a provision for feedback loops and necessary

revisions at all levels (Hilgard, 1956; This and Lippitt, 1966).

Figure 1 is an adaptation of a model develO].Jed by This and Lip:pitt

(1966) which helps to visualize the interrelationships between learning

theory, learning theory corollaries, learning experience design, learn-

ing goBJ.s, and the major factors within each which impinge upon the rela

tionships. Following the logic of the model, certain principles emerge.

For example, it becomes clear that different learning techniques and

conditions are applicable to different kinds of learning. Ideally, each

learning experience should be designed specifically to achieve each desired

behavioral outcome. Though the ideal is seldom fully realized, never

theless, the example makes the point that the model does not exist in a

vacuum and the choice of its component parts needs to be directed by

principle, not caprice.

The model graphically describes the cyclic systems approach used

in the development and presentation of the instructional unit from which

the data for this study were gleaned. Additionally, it can be stated

that this model, incorporated with the principles of learning immediate

ly preceding it, serves to complete the description of the conceptual

f'ramework which guided the design of' the research, insof'ar as the

unavoidable constraints of' the real world situation allowed.

Bef'ore leaving the model, attention is called to the central empha

sis it places upon the needs of' the learners as motivational f'actors

(see 11 Learning Goals"). The last section of this chapter deals with


LEARNING GOALS Present state of

educating agency and learners. Expectations and needs

Resources of educating agency

educators, and learners. Learning environment, methods, techniques,

materials, Time f'or learning process,

Provision :for feedback and revision,

of educating agency,

learners, and educators.

KNOWLEDGE OF LEARNING THEORY Present state of educating unit.

Acceptance of' education by agency, by learner.

LEARNING EXPERIENCE DESIGN

LEARNING THEORY: DERIVED APPLICATION

Knowledge of' applied research and theory.

Freedom to experiment, Clear understanding of' appropriate learning theory, concepts, corollaries.

Acceptance of' corollaries by education profession, management and educators.

Figure l


25

interests as one ex:pression of neE!ds and, therefore, as a motivational

factor worthy of consideration. Meanwhile, the next section j s con-

cerned with behavioral objectives and their contribution to l.earning,

Behavioral Objectives

Since learning involves behaviro change, it follows that effective

instructional design requires the identification of' desired behavior

changes as a first step. The statements oi' behavior changes which

result from such an ane.lysis constitute the educational objectives.

If the statements are to adequately describe the desired behavior, they

must be precise (Kidd, 1959). How the objectives are expressed deter-

mines to a great extent how the learning situations will be constructed

and evaluated (Miller, 1964).

Educators appear to agree on the need for some t'orm of instruc-

tiona.l objectives. Controversy does exist on the subject, but it more

correctly might be portrayed as a. function of the acceptable degree of

specificity with which the objectives should be stated (Baker, 1969;

Dalia, 1970; Lindvall, 1.964). Indeed, the specificity which they are

perceived to require, and the need to convey a single intent from the

writer to many people, makes the writing of behavioral objectives a

difficil.t process to conceptualize and implement. Teacher-written

behavioral objectives typically are characterized by ambiguity and

dominance by the unique teaching style· of the individual author (Yost,

1971). The validity of' such objectives f'or use by another teacher is

questioned.


26

Programmed instruction is constructed by a systems approach to

learning which utilizes behavioral objectives as its very solid base,

Ebel(l970) believes it is when this type of design is carried over into

the teacher-classroom situation that the problem with behavioral objec

tives begins. He poses a number of pertinent questions. Are precise

behavioral consequences the real objectives of instruction? Or rather,

are those objecUves knowledge, understanding, attitudes, and values?

Stressing the behavior only as the objective can be misleading. On the

other hand, with regard to the more covert qualities, how does one

assess whether or not ·oehavioral change has occurred? Proponents of

behavioral objectives would respond that such changes are inferred by

the behavior which is observable, and thus, the overt behavior becomes

not the real objective, but only a useful indicator.

Another problem associated 1rith behavioral objectives has to do

with knowing precisely what the concept encompasses. Is it the behavior

of the students while they are learning, or their behavior on some

classroom task uhich sho'l'rs they have learned, or is it the carryover to

their jobs of what they have learned in class? Ebel (1970) responds

that behavior exhibited while a student is learning is only a means to

an end and not the real objective. Nor does he see test behavior as the

real objective. Regarding transfer of learning, Ebel agrees that for

skills training behavioral objectives are often quite effective in pro

ducing carryover to the job. However, he does not agree that they are

suitable for educational development which is interested in the stu-

dent 1 s understanding and use of resources to aid him on the road to

self-sufficiency. He states:


Behavioral objectives seem quite inappropriate to instructional efforts whose aim is to enable the student to respond adaptive.ly and effectively to unique future problem situations; to equip him to make, independently but responsibly, the kind of individual choices and decisions which are the essence of human freedom (p. 172),

Another obstacle to a general adoption of behavioral objectives

by educators is the difficulty associated with defining all of the

e.lements of the behavioral act. In some cases, such explicit defini-

tion appears almost impossible, but if it is not achieved, what a

student should be able to do at the close of the learning experience

cannot be clearly stated. Along with this difficulty go two more.

It is hard to assess when a behavior is present and when it is not, or

if' it is present, to evaluate how well it is perf'ormed (Ebel, 1970).

Perhaps the greatest roadblock to the general acceptance of

behavioral objectives is the f'ear of rigid inflexibility and lack of

adaptability in teaching. If a teacher states the objectives for a

given period of instruction, in great detail, and then faces a class-

27

room situation which calls for an unplanned behavior, how does he adapt

to the new requirement? Ebel (1970) believes that general objectives

· are important but that teachers should not be expected to spend their

limited time in writing detailed statements of them; the over-all

liabilities may outweigh the assets.

Miles and Robinson (1971), connnenting on Ebel's position, agree

that the cognitive processes go on inside the student where they are

not observable. They do not believe, however, that the teacher can

have no information on those processes, since the thinking or feeling

is inferred f'rom behavior. Both extremes of' the dichotomy are naive;


28

either cognitive process~ behavior is not a valid assumption; the two

elements cannot be separated, It is precisely the fact that behavioral

objectives do permit inf'erences to be made regarding cognitive processes

which constitutes one of their major values, The cognitive processes

are prerequisite to the terminal behav-ior (Drtunheller, 1971).

Mager (1962) reasoned that an instructor would function in a fog

of his own n)aldng until he knew what he wanted his students to be able

to do at the end of the instruction. In Etter 1 s (1970) succinct words,

"The fact that knowing where you want to go helps you get there is self'

evident (p. 4o)." These statements pinpoint another major contribution

of behavioral objectives; thc:l force a teacher to analyze his instruc~

tionaJ. goals. When he has done this, the instructional objectives which

follow reveal the terminal behaviors and how the;{ can be t('ught, rein

forced, a.nd measured (Gac;ne, 1965).

Classification .£!.behavioral objectives

Behavioral objectives are classified into three domains--cognitive,

affective, and psychomotor (Bloom, 1956). The study upon which this

report is based "1-ras concerned with objectives in the cognitive domair...

Bloom and his associates (1956) developed a taxonomy which classi~

fies cognitive behavioral objectives into six hierarchical classes:

knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evalua

tion, with knowledge at the bottom of the hierarchy, '['hough such may

not always be the case, objectives in one class often make use of:. or

are built on, behavlors found in preceding classes.


29

The definitions of the six classes given in Bloom's (1956) taxonomy

are:

1. KNOWI'....EDGE . , . the recall of specifics and the universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structm:e, or setting, For measurement :puryoses the recall situation involves little more than bringing to mind the a:pprol_)riate material (p. 201),

2. COMPREHENSION . . . a tn1e 0f' u::J.derstanding or apprehension such that the individual knot1S what is being communicated and can make use of' the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications (:p. 204).

3. APPI,ICNL'ION , . . The use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations (p. 205).

4. ANALYSIS . , . The breakdmm of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between the ideas expressed are made explicit (p. 205).

5. SYNTHESIS . . . The putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole (p. 206),

6. EVALUATION . . . Judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes (p. 207).

This research study did not seek to speak to the relative value of,

or the differential response of students to, the various classes of

objectives.

Requirements ~ ~ objectives

Behavioral objectives are generally expected to possess three qual-

ities: (1) identification of the observable terminal behavior by name;

(2) the conditions under which the behavior will be expected to occur;

and (3) the criteria of acceptable performance (Drumheller, 1971;

Jenkins and Dena, 1968; Mager, 1962; Miles and Robinson, 1971). Jenkins

and Dena (1968) point out that their description of the components is


30

neither prescriptive nor evaluative. This leads to what is probably

another obstacle to the more general acceptance of behavioral objectives,

the strict conformance to a set pattern which has been demanded in order

t'or statements of objectives to qualify under the term. For cxam:ple,

frequently the choice of specified behavior seems arbitrary. If the

form of behavior is not crucial to the successflLl performance of the

new learning, then a number of action verbs should be equally acceptable

to specify the behavior. 11 To understand11 or 11 to know11 are not observ

able behavior and would not qual if;'{ as defining verbs, whereas nto iden

tifyl1 or 11to define 11 are and Ghould. It does not seem logical to argue

in most cases that -t.he defining verb must be even more specific, such

as 11 to writen or "to point 11 (Jenkins and Dena, 1968; Miles and Robinson,

1971).

Jenkins and Dena (1968) attempted to gather normative data on verbs

frequently used in instructional objectives. They employed a scale

which placed the clear cases as polar extremes and sought to judge whether

or not the commonly employed verbs were clearly observable or clearly

unobservable. Most verbs fel.l at an intermediate position with respect

to observabili ty.

Another important element which should not be overlooked in speci

fying behavior is the context within which the behavior i·lill be measured

(Jenkins and Dena, 1968). FOJ.' example, a behavioral objective with a

general context would be one lJthich might give a student any of a class

of problems to solve, while t:~le more specific context would include the

actual test question itself. Much of the problem with stating behavioral

objectives, according to this view, stems from the confusion of placing

a specific behavior in a general context and vice versa.


Another unacceptable position, it seems, if a paper and pencil

objective test is the evaluation measure and serves as the condition

under which the behavior will be expected to occur, is the notion that

31

the condition must be restated in each objective (lt.ager, 1962). Nor in

such a case, when a specified number of correct answers out of the total

test is the acceptable performance and a suitable criterion (Jenkins and

Dena, 1968), is it either desirable or operationally feasible to repeat

the criterion for each objective (Mager, 1962). The point seems to be

that not only may arbitrary conditions result in an instructional device

which has great merH becoming contrived and artificial (Jenkins and Dena,

1968), but those rigid conditions may in many instances cause the device

to go unused.

Proponents of behavioral objectives tenaciously believe that the

more clearly one can define how students are expected to be changed by

the learning experience, the more possibility there is that the quality

of educational efforts can be improved. Logical as thj s position may

appear, fe-w objective data exist to support it, especially not .for the

adult learner in a classroom situation. Probably the lack of data is

J;Ja.rtly due to the difficulty of designing an adequatP. em:rri ri cal study

using control and experimental groups. Since the criterion measure is

usually based on the behavioral objectives, the data lfDUld be biased in

favor of the treatment group -which received those objectives (Miles and

Robinson, 1971). In light of this situation, Miles and Robinson (1971)


32

do not find it worthwhile to argue whether or not it is best to use

behavior objectives. They believe a more fruitful approach would be to

simply ask whether or not students perform ,satisfactorily in a situation

where behavioral objectives have been used to guide instruction.

At least one study (Baker, 1969) sought to eliminate the :problem

of design bias by dealing i·dth the varying interpretations of non

behavioral objectives by teachers. Baker produced five nonbehavioral

objectives on five topics in social science research methods. Twenty

three behavioral objectives were then developed from these five general

objectives. Each of three treatment grou:ps received five objectives.

One group 1 s objectives were nonbehavioral; another group had behavioral

objectives selected at random from the twenty-three; and the last group

had behavioral objectives which vrere selected from the twenty-three by

instruction experts.

Eighteen experienced teachers of social studies in Nevada secondary

schools were randomly assigned to treatment groups. They were told to

teach the five objectives wlthin two class periods. Students 1 tests

were scored and weighted so that each of the twenty-three objectives was

contributing equally. The several separate one-way analyses of variance

conducted yielded no significant differences.

The investigt~.tor believed the results were due to the fact that

teachers in the behavioral groups did not attend to the precise nature

of their objectives. Teacher responses to a questionnaire seemed to

indicate that this was the case, since behavioral group teachers in

many instances were unable to identify those test i terns which measured

a particular objective. It was suggested that further studies of this


type should use teachers who are committed both to the use of

behavioral objectives and to producing student achievement.

A few other studies have been addressed to the problem oi' whether

or not students perform more satisfactorily when 'behavioral objectives

form the base for the instructional design and presentation than when

they do not. Dalis (1970) conducted an investigation of the effect

that connnunication of precise instructional objectives to students

before instruction had on their achievement.

The subjects of the Dalis study were 11f3 tenth grade students.

33

They were randomly assigned to three treatment groups in five different

health and safety classes of one teacher. Of the three experimental

groUJ?s, one received precise objectives; the second, vague objectives;

and the third, a placebo, 'l'he instruction offered a variety of learn

ing opportunities keyed to each objective over a period of three ·weeks,

The objectives Here written out and handed to the students according to

their treatment assigrunent. This was done at appropriate times during

the instruction and ·without anyone, other than the student investi

gator, knowing what information the pa:pcr C011taineU.. Furthermore,

students were instructed not to conununicate the information to others.

On the final evaluation measure, the grou:p receiving the :precise

objectives performed significantly higher ( .01 level oi' confidence)

than the other two grou:ps.

Blaney and McKie (1969) sought to determine whether a knowledge

of behavioral objectives in an informal adult education program would

assist the participants to attain the objectives. They arranged sixty

volunteer attendees at a two-day conference into three grou:ps; one


group received the behavioral objectives, the second had a general

orientation to the program, and the third was given a pre-test over

34

the objectives, All three groups were administered a post-test

covering the objectives. The 'ilypothesis that the behavioral group

would do significantly better than the no-objective group was supported

at the .05 level of confidence.

Studying the effects of behavioral objectives and/or rules on the

learning process, Merrill (1971) presented a learning task by computer

assisted instruction to 130 college students, It was expected that the

objectives would positively affect performance but that their effect

would be tempered by the insertion of' orienting rules. The results of

the study significantly supported the hypotheses, It was concluded that

behavioral objectives do serve to orient students and hel:p them to

organize relevant information, which in turn facilitates theil· :perform

ance on criterion test items, However, these effects are not as strong

when the learning task also includes other orienting stimuli, such as

rules. Also, in some instances in this study, the rules :produced more

significant results upon performance than did the behavioral objectives.

One :Pl.li'IJOSe of an investigation by Etter (1970) was to ex:plore the

effect of instructional objectives, presented prior to instruction, as

organizers upon a cri l;e:don measure consisting of questions which tested

memory and application. The study used programmed instruction and had

adults .as subjects. THo ty:pes of treatment conditions, one with spe-

cific and one with general objectives, were opposed to a controlled

condition of no objectives. The results revealed that neither specific

nor general instructional objectives benefitted subjects more than a

no-objective situation.


35

Cook's (1969} research, which also used college students and self

instructional materials, found that providing students with behavioral

objectives prior to instruct:ion made no statistically significant differ

ence on their overall perfonnance. However, the results did seem to

suggest tho.t it resulted in resistance to forgetting.

Sjogren and Knox (1965) called attention to a number of studies

which 11 have consistently demonstrated that exposure of learners to cer

tain materials before eut ering a learning task has an effect on learning

perf'ormance (p. 3)." The exposure gained the learner's attention, or

induced a psychological set or expectancy ,.;hich appeared to benefit

learning. Accordingly, Sjogren and Knox examined, among other variables,

the relation of set to adult learning. Their results, using programmed

materials, ·Here at variance with the findings of the earlier research.

Directing the attention of the subjects tll specific aspects of the learn~

ing materials did ~ot affect overall performance significantly. It was

noted that the organizing cues did benefit the older adults more than

younger adults.

As has been shown, the literature on behavioral objectives presents

arguments both for and against their use. Further, the results of the

studies which have been done in the area are inconclusive or contradic-

tory. They point up the need for further research, especially investi

gations using adults in conventional classroom situations as subjects.

'rhe discussion which follows in this chapter is concerned with

literature on the nature of interest and its significance to learning,


It serves to unite the concepts of learning theory, behavioral. objec

tives, and interest, as they relate to adul.t classroom achievement.

Interest and Learning

Composite thinking on learning theory was the first examination

of literature made in this chapter. The theory then was brought

successive levels of abstraction closer to application in adult educa

tion by reviewing the literature on (1) the principles and condi tiona

for the learning of adults and (2) the application of those principles

in currj.culum design, including the use of behavioral objectives to

facilitate learning. Throughout all levels of' the discussion the con

cept of' motivation was basic as a requirement for adult learning, and

the notion of interest as an aspect of motivation was implied.

Since the primary concern of the study was the relation of' interest

to learning, it is now appropriate to examine motivation-interest

literature, focusing lJ!lOn that having to do specif'ica.ll.y with interest

as a motivational factor.

Adult education suffers from philosophical schizophrenia on the

subject of motivation. Historically, the pragmatic approach of adult

education progra:mmers has been that, since enrollment in its courses

was voluntary, adult education must spealc to the felt needs, or inter

ests, of the participants. Otherwise, few people would ever attend the

courses, to say nothing of learning if they did attend. On the other

hand, adult education 1 s 11 new imperative" holds that its mission is


lifelong learning and upgrading for all persons and in all areas of

concern to our society (Brunner et al., 1959).

37

Perhaps this unresolved, and sometimes unrecognized, conf'lict in

the emerging discipline is responsible for the lack of adequate research

on motivation in adult education. Perhaps it is also responsible f'or

the general acceptance, without sufficient objective verification, that

interest operates as a significant motivational force in the learning

of adults, At any rate, and Whether or not they are understood, motiva-

tion and learning are considered to be 11 ••• concomitant psychological.

phenomena ••• (Brunner et al.,, 1959, p. 30) 11 in adult education.

Adult education views motives as goal-directed behaviors. They

are of' two types--the unlearned which originate from organic needs and

the J.earned which are the product of interpersonal experience. Motives

are a part of personality. Interests, as paychol.ogicaJ. entities, are

aJ.so a :Part of personality, and thus, are related to motivation (Brunner

et aJ.., 1959).

In some measure, personality is bel.ieved to be learned as a result

of' social. inf'luence. On the other hand, ~ ~ are considered

to be expressions of' personality needs, and personality needs are

thought to be basic for motivation (Brunner et al., 1959). It would

seem, then, that the social. environment influences the development of

interests which then influence the environment, a concept of' circularity

which will be discussed .further at a J.ater point in this chapter.

Just how personality needs and social interests are distinguished

from each other in their relation to the theoretical f'ramework of'


learned and unlearned motives as bases for motivation is unclear. Nor

is it clear how the distinction bet11een them relates to the research

distinction between interests and motivation (Brunner et al., 1959),

38

Even as they are related to, but are distinct from, motivation on

the one hand, interests are also reJ.ated to but are distinct from atti

tudes on the other (Brunner et al,, 1959), and attitudes are related to

motivation (Cofer and A:ppley, 1964). Brunner and his associates (1959)

believed that interest might be viewed as one dimension, the affective

base, of attitudes. A lack in adult interest research, they held, was

that it had not soue;ht to understand the complex nature of adult inter

ests, their formation and modifiability. Their review of the research

undertaken up to 1959 supported this position; the investigations re

viewed were la>:gely concerned with participation by adults in vocations,

leisure, reading, programs, and educational activities.

'rho ugh educators consider interest at length, it appears to lie

within the domain of psychologists to define the nature of interest and

distinguish it from, or relate it to, motivation, needs, and attitudes

(Brunner et al., 1959). As will be shown in the next section, };lsycholo

gists have been trying to develop a theory of the origin and develo:pment

of interests, but as yet, -what they have achieved falls somewhat short

of enjoying universal acceptance (Darley, 1960).

John Dewey (1903), assessing the problems associated with a discus

sion of interest, noted that so many elements were so interdependent

that any one of them could be chosen for consideration only at the risk


of ignoring others which were equally worthy. He stated:

Interest is in the closest relation to the emotional life, on one side; and, through its close relation, if not identity, with attention, to the intellectual life, on the other side. adequate explanation of it, therefore, would require development of the complete psychology both of feeling and of knowledge, and of their relations to each o-ther, and the discussion of their connection or lack of connection with volition (:p. J),

The passage of years has not changed the basic truth of Dewey's

early position, Allport (1958) concluded that '' , •• we have not yet

solved the problem of the units of man's nature, though the problem was

39

posed twenty-three centuries ago (p, 240). n Almost echoing the thought,

Strong (1960) noted that n .•• interest researchers glibly talk about

the relationship of interests to the basic personality structure. But

we don't know what the basic personality structure is, what its campo-

nents are, how they are interrelated (p. 13)." Commenting upon the

different human characteristics emphasized by psychologists within

several specialities, Super (1949) asserted that 11 ••• when these

differing approaches to the psychology of individual differences have

briefly met, the result has more often than not been confusion (p. 376). n

Interest has been variously related to, or identified v.r::.th, such

factors as attention (Berdie, 1946; James, 1890); abilities (Strong,

1960; Thorndike, 1944); motivation (Brunner et al., 1959; Cofc:_r and

Appley, 1964; Fryer, 1931); attitudes (Brunner et al., 1959; Cattell,

Radcliffe, and Sweney, 1963; Thorndike, 1935b) and needs (Beals and

Brody, 1941; Bergevin, Morris, and Smith, 1963; Kidd, 1959; Su:per, 1949;

Thorndike, Weiss and Dawis, 1968).


4o

At the same time, interest has been characterized, among other

things, as being learned (Brunner et al., 1959; Frandsen, 1947; Murphy,

1947; Strong, 1960); emotional (Brunner et al., 1959; Miller, 1964);

intrinsic and extrinsic (Thorndike, 1935b); innate and social (Berdie,

1946; Cattell and Horn, 1963; Strong, 1960; Super, 1949); and stable

yet changing over time (Kidd, 1959; Mallinson and Van Dragt, 1952;

Strong, 1960; Super, 1949; Thorndike, 1935a, 1935b) •

The criteria. employed in defining interests as identified by Berdie

(1946), include attention, choice between alternatives, persistence in

an activity, success, differential remembering, learning, set or predis

position, and emotions or fee1ings. However, there are other factors

operating to af'fect all of' these criteria; therefore, though the cri

teria contribute to, they do not provide for, a precise def'ini tion of'

interest.

Interests can also be viewed in terms of dimensions--of' duration,

extensity, and intensity. Interests endure. Even though they do change,

they are more stable than unstable (Mallinson and Van Dragt, 1952;

Strong, 1960; Super, 1949). Interests range extensively, both between

and within individuals (Berdie, 1946). Likewise, interests vary in

intensity, which has been demonstrated by observing an individual's

choice of activities or his persistence in activities (Beals and Brody,

1941; Cattell, Radcliffe, and Sweney, 1963), and by having the indi

vidual himself' make an estimated rating of' his degree of interest

(Thorndike, 1949).

Many factors influence interests. Genetic limitations certainly

determine to some extent which interests will develop, but more primary


in the determination are ·early social conditions involving the national

culture, the family, education, and recreation, '.rhus, Berdie (1946)

suggests that interests are integrally based in personality, a product

of' physiological, maturational, and social factors. As such, the

predominant interest pattern is not considered to be vulnerable to

influence by su:perficial experiences, though specific interests within

that pattern may be,

41

Berdie' s conceptualization is in essential agreement with .Murphy's

(1947) description of interest development through fulfillment of needs,

known as 11 canalization, 11 As needs are satisfied in specific ways

throughout childhood and youth, the needs, and their satisfiers, tend

to become more specific. For example, any type of' bread may originally

satisfy an appetite, but continued experience 1-lith bread may result in

whole wheat rolls becoming the 0nly real satisfier.

In all areas-~whether it be, for example, in specific attitudes,

cognitive proces:::es, muscular activity, or taste--specific needs, and

thus their specific satisfiers, are defined within a general need; then

more specifics are defined vlithin those specifics, and so on, until

satiety occurs. This is a relative convergence, not a rigid inflexi

bility. The canalization process results in acquired tastes which are

subject to modification; it goes from exploration, through absorption,

satiation, to exploration of something new, to recurring absorption, in

a cyclic fashion. The strength of the canalization, as need or interest,

is influenced by initial preference of the organism, ;plus the opportun

ities for specific response,


42

Canalizations are thought to be a central, controlling part of

personality. As they achieve more and more adeCJ.uacy as satisfiers,

they become not only what a person wants but what he 1:!; they are a

part of his self-image, He sees himself as a lover of Bach, not jazz,

and being ego-involved in this way, he actively seeks the preferred

satisfier. Thus, "The world could be objectively mapped out in terms

of interests or directed activities (Murphy, 1947, p. 175)." The

person will pick those activities which will preserve his view of him-

self (Brunner et al., 1959; Super, 1949).

The role of interest in the learning of adults was ranked high by

Miles and Miles (1943), Psychological ex:periments showed, they held,

that an individual can learn at any age, that his learning as an adult

is usually defined in terms of interest, and that, as an adult, any

decrement he would experience in the learning of complex tasks would

increase if the tasks were not of his own choosing, In this connection,

Miles and Miles also noted:

Tflanting to learn is the greatest aid to learning, interest in t~e subject to be learned aids the mental organization necessary for attention and retention. Motivation or zeal to learn increases the effectiveness of effort and practice in every learning test. Attitude, interest and motivation are better sustained as age advances than is the spceU of activity and they tend to channelize the conserve effort in the direction of organized patterns of experience. In adult learning groups, whether formal classes or informal social assemblies, these selective factors are at work and, generally speaking, the older learners arc those whose attitudes, interests and motivations are most effectively focused on the specific learning which they have undertaken (pp. 109-llO).

Attention has been thought by some to be a function of interest

(Cattell, 1935). As a result of their work on attention and learning,


43

Schwartz and Schiller (1970) concluded that the motives and past learn

ings of an individual determine how much time and effort (attention) he

will give to diff'erent contemporaneous tasks. There are limits on atten

tional energy. Those limits control perception by forcing an organism to

choose from a diverse selection the elements which it will perceive.

Fast learnings have a function in the process, serving to organize and

direct selectivity. (See also Karchin, 1964, p. 70). This is in accord

ance with Thorndike's (1935a) early theory that an individual's interest

determines in part what he learns, which in turn alters his interest,

which in its new form again determines in part any additional learning.

This circularity of effect is also noted elsewhere in the literature

(Brunner et al., 1959; Frandsen and Sorenson, 1968; Scheerer, 1954;

Super, 1949).

Discussing interest as it relates to motivation and learning,

Allport (1946) agreed that, if the canalizations an individual experi

ences confirm his. self-image, his style of life, and his system of'

interests, they then contribute to his learning. He agreed also that

past satisf'action is evidenced in the retention of interests or dispo

sitions, which are essentially products o:f learning and are used in

effectively dealing with current dissatis:factions. But he saw the core

of' motivation as being the dissatisfaction with something in the present,

not the satisfaction from the past. He believed the concept of satis

:fiers contributed to a picture of' learning only if the concept included

the 11 • special and selective part played in learning "ly ego-processes

(p. 341), 11 for learning theory could not do without them. The satis

fier is a learning vehicle to the extent that it supports the ego system.


In Allport's (1946) view, ego-involved participation SJ?eeds up

learning. Given that the interest structure of' an individual re:pre

sents his ego-structure, then psychogenic interests are a motivating

factor, for ''Above all, learning seems to follo•,.,r the channels of

acquired interests (p. 345)." He equated interest-relevance to ego-

relevance, concluding that 11 ••• an interest causes learning which

somewhere fits into the interest-structure .•• (p. 346) ; 11 of the

conditions for human learning, " ... the interests that comprise the

ego-structure of the individual are clearly dominant (p. 347)."

To say that interests, as reflected in the ego structure, are

clearly dominant forces in learning, Scheerer (1954) held, does not

44

say that all learning is in subjective relationship to ego values. The

self is embedded in a social and behavioral sl.U'rounding, and it shapes

to meet the demands of that surrounding, by means of processes, and

with results which are, appropriate to the self-image it carries. This

is true even as the surroundings, or interest objects, are also being

shaped to fit the needs of self. Interests may be said, then, to con

sist of two components: a cognitive relationship to the environment

and a subjective relationship to ego values, with the ego values domin

ant. Indeed, -it would seem that what is finally sought in the

measurement of interests is some estimate of 11 , , • the strength of

the ties between the individual and his world (Cattell, 1935, p. 167)."

The measurement Ef interest

Super (1949) classified the major inter:pretations of interest into

four categories, according to different methods of gathering data on


45

them: ex:pressions, manifestations, tests, and inventories. Expres~

sions of interest are gathered by direct interrogation and self-ratings

(Cofer and Appley, 196!~; Thorndike, 1935a). Data on manifest interests

are obtained by observation of participat::.on in activities (Tyler, 1960).

Objective tests of interests, such as the Michigan Vocabulary Profile

~ which uses specialized vocabularies, yield data on relevant infor

mation accumulated by an individual (Cattell, Radcliffe, and Sweney,

1963; McLain, 1970). Inventoried interests supposedly are 11measured11

by psychological instruments such as the Strong Vocational Interest

Blank and the ~ Preference Record.

In the measurement of expressed interests, the individual simply

indicates his degree of liking or disliking for an object or activity,

Super (1949) was optimistic about such measures with adults, Dasing

his judgment partly u:pon the results of work by Strong, he concluded

that 11 The importance which may be attached to expressions of specific

interests clearly varies with the maturity of the client (p. 377). n

The realism of expressions of interest will also vary with the type of

questions aslced. Since subjective estimates can be biased by covert

and overt cognitive and affective qualities within the respondent

(Beals and Brody, 1941; Cattell, 1935), :perhaps this direct measure-

ment is more valid for the identification of specific, or more super-

ficial, interests than for the basic personality interest patterns.

~ and achievement research

Despite the fact that the subject of interest has continued to

intrigue theorists and practitioners alike, only limited investigations


have been concerned with the function of interest as a primary

variabl.e in achievement in the classroom. However, a :few studies have

been attempted.

46

Frandsen (1945) reviewed the research of' seven dif'f'erent investi

gators who studied the relationship between interest inventory scores

and achie·V"ement in corresponding subject matter areas. The results

showed that interest inventories had very low correlations with achieve

ment. Frandsen beJ.ieved that school marks were not sensitive enough to

detect the ef'f'ects of the interest motive on achievement when other

motives, such as mastery in general or social approval, were operating

at the same time.

Accordingly, Frandsen (1947) later designed a study which attempted

to minimize the masking ef'fect o.f extrinsic motives over intrinsic

interests. He investigated the relationship between interest, as evi

denced by election of a number of courses in college, and achievement

on standardized tests of general educational development in the areas

covered by the courses. Some significant correlations between interest

and long-range achievement were observed; yet, other correlations were

not signif'icant. In spite of this apparent inconsistency, Frandsen

compared the results o.f his work w1. th data .from .four other studies and

still concluded that interests n ••• may f'or many students become

abiding motives which serve to integrate learning experiences over long

periods of' time into effective patterns of knowledge (p. 65). 11

Using the ~ ~ Record, Hake and Ruedisili (1949)

found low correlations between college achievement in specific subject

al"eas of' nonelective courses, as evidenced by grade point averages and


Scores on the inventory. Their results were consistent with data from

studies by other investigators which they reviewed. However, they

recommended that further research should be done before interest tests

were rejected as :predictors of college achievement.

Wesley, Corey, and Stewart (1950) employed an intra-individual

method of correlation in a study which resulted in a mean rank differ-

ence correlation of , 42 between Kuder inte!'est patterns and patterns of

aptitudes for college students.

Frandsen and Sessions (l953) aJ.so studied high school seniors,

47

using three measures: nine parts of the Kuder Preference ~' ~

£, students' self-rating for preference, and grade point ratios computed

on all of each student's courses taken during seven semesters which

could readily be classified into the nine Kuder interest categories,

Correlating on an individual basis 11 ••• to avoid the masking inf'lu-

ence to which the group correlations are susceptible ••• (p. 95), 11

and using more objective interest appraisals and achievement measures,

Frandsen and Sessions sought to demonstrate a relation between interest

and achievement. The results yielded intra-individual correlations of

.48 between self-rated interests and Kuder interests, .27 between

patterns of Kuder interests and achievement, and • 51 between self ..

ratings of' interests and achievement patterns. They concluded once

more that interests serve as motivation for achievement.

The results of Shinn, s (1956) study on the relation of interest

and intelligence to achievement in the tenth grade showed that intelli ..

gence has a higher relationship to achievement than does interest.

The ~ ~ ~ did not show a high enough relationship to

serve as a predictor of scholastic achievement.


Edwards and Wilson (1959) tested the association between relative

interest in natural science over the humanities and achievement in high

school chemistry, controlling i'or several extraneous variables relevant

to achievement. The subjects were administered a 4-point scale of

interest in the natural sciences as opposed to the humanities. They

then attended two semesters of chemistry and were given a standardized

achievement test. The main source of variation between the groups was

in the systematic superior! ty of those students who demonstrated an

interest in science over those interested in the hu:mani ties. The

direct effect of interest was significant at the .0.2 level. None of

the other comparisons was significant.

Several a.nal.yses to assess high school achievement as related to

interest and IQ were perf'ormed by Barrilleaux (1961) on information

f'rom the cumulative records of high school graduates. With an IQ, of 86

or above, the relationshj.p was signif'icant; below 86, the relationship

was positive but low.

Largely following Barrilleaux's design, Frandsen and Sorenson

(1968) tested whether tenth grade students whose highest interest on

the Kuder :profile was in science would accumulate more science know

ledge than students who had equivalent concept-learning abilities but

who ranked science at the middle of their interest hierarchy, or lower.

The data only partially supported the hypothesis. Frandsen and

Sorenson suggested once more that competing motives greatly influence

the interest-achievement relationship.

48

Holding ability constant through statistical techniques, Thomas,

Morrill, and Miller (1970) designed a study to investigate whether college


students with high inventory interest scores in education would have

higher grade point averages in specific related courses than those with

low interest scores. Out of seven subject areas compared, four resulted

in relationships which were significant at the .01 level of confidence,

and threo were not significant. Since the study was based on group

averages, it did not speak to whether or not an individual will receive

his highest grades in courses holding the most interest for him.

A number of other studies which investigated the relation between

interest inventory scores and grade point averages of high school and

college students produced equally contradictory results. Brown (1966),

Collins (1955), and Gussett (1967) found significant relationships,

whereas those revealed by Bone (1957), Lande (1958), Ricbmond (1966),

Robb (1953), and Smith (1967) were either insignificant or inconsistent

and, thus, inconclusive. In no cases did the investigators abandon the

notion of interest us a motivational force in learning. Rather they

pointed to factors which might have influenced their results and sug

gested new insights they had gnined into different approaches to assess

ing true relationships obtaining,

Nearly all of the studies cited in this review of' interest litera

ture used interest inventories and grade point averages or standardized

tests "With high school or college students. No studies have been found

which related specific 1nterest to the specific achievement of adults,

according to the definition of adults sti:PUlated in this report and in

an adult education setting with all of the attendant characteristics

which such a situation implies.


50

Conclusions from Literature Review

In spite of the fact that the literature continues to hold that

interest is a function of learning, and especially for adults, its

relative role is not yet fully understood. Nor is the role of' behavioral

objectives con:q:~letely clear, or h01v they fit into the interest-learning

pattern. What does seem clear. is that adults do learn, there are prin

ciples which operate as they learn, and interest is a logical component

of the process which has been demonstrated upon occasion to ·oe present.

It also seems clear that certain organizations of subject matter make

the learning easier, and that an example of this organization may be

that required to properly su;p:port behavioral objectives.

From the time of the early worll:s of Thorndike, the literature has

consistently revealed thinking 11hich suggests that interests can be modi

fied. Therefore, underlying the study described in the next chapter

were some related, practical considerations. The time which an instruc

tor has to work lrith a participant in an adult education program of'ten

is so limited by unalterable real 11orld factors, and the problems for

which the participant Tieeds answers often are so acute, that every pos

sible means must be explored to make the best use of each learning

opportunity. If it could be ascertained that participants in adult

education actually do learn more in the areas in vrhlch they have high

interest, and if it could be lrnown that learning is made easier £'or them

when behavioral objectives are used, then steps could be taken to

acquaint participants wlth behavioral objectives, and to stimulate thei:r

interest in other ways, before they present themselves for instruction.


51

More than that, there are obvious critical impl.ications which such know

ledge would hol.d for program development and design of learning

experiences,

Therefore, based upon these practical considerations, the study

described in Chapter III sought to produce data which would help with

answers to the problems they pose and thereby help to bridge the gap

between what is thought and what is known in adult education.


CHAPl'ER III

RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

This chapter is opened with an overview of the study design,

followed by a description of the research environment, the general

instructional setting, and the specific instruction directly involved

in the investigation. The second section of the chapter contains a

more detailed presentation of the research design, sample, procedure,

and instrumentation. The concluding section is a summary of the

research design and procedure.

Overview of the Study Design

The objectives of the research described in this chapter were (1)

to stud;y the relation of expressed student interest in ].)recise instruc

tional objectives to achievement of those objectives in civil defense

adult education, and (2) to determine whether or not students perform

satisfactorily according to a stated criterion when behavioral objec

tives have been used to guide instruction. Given these two research

objectives, the study sought to bring a s];Jecific residential adult edu

cation environment and specific behavioral objectives together todth

specific participant interest and to determine the achievement which

followed.

The study did not seek to establish causal relationships but only

to ascertain l'lhether or not certain relationships were present, and

if so, their relative strength.

52


53

~setting

The study was conducted at the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) Staff

Col1ege. A brief description of the research agency will provide a

base for nnderstanding why it was uniquely sui table for, and interested

in, supporting the study.

OCD Staff College is a national adult education institution opera~

ted by the Federal government. It offers short-term, residential

courses in civil defense and related subjects and develops instructional

materials which are used throughout the nation.

Staff College is located in the Battle Creek Federal Center. Its

faculty members come from positions of administration and instruction in

public schools, universities, and e;overnment, Its students come fr·om

various parts of the United States and foreign countries, They are

persons who have responsibility in civil defense-~representati ves of

government, industry, the professions, educational institutions, and

many other areas. At Staff College they receive a specialized leader

ship training which is unique to civil defense, for the aim of Staff

College is to provide a curriculum and standard of achievement equal to

the im:portance of its mission, with facilities and equipment to support

this aim.

The individual student is important at Staff College. He is seen

as an essential part of a vital national effort. By whatever degree his

knowledge and capability are enriched and his skills developed as a

result of his attendance at Staf:f College, by that much the goals of the

National Civil Defense Program are more nearly realized and the protec

tion of the nation 1 s citizens improved, Courses are constructed to meet


this chall.enge. They S-3ek to develop the student's understanding of the

scope of civil defense and its place in national security. Building

54

upon this understanding, they train the student in the complex techniques

involved in emergency management and operations and seek to stimulate him

to professional civil defense planning and action.

Certificates are issued by Staff College for successful completion

of' its courses. This is one of the factors which tends to make the

institutton uniquely acceptable as an adult education research agency,

Since the student is actively seeking to attain an institutional and a

societal objective, a situation is created which lends itself to evalua-

tion (Thiede, 1964).

GeneraJ. instructional setting

The instruction which was used as a vehicle for the research data

collection was the Social Action Unit of Phase II of the Career Develop

ment Program for Local Civil Defense Directors/Coordinators. It is

believed that the development and design of instruction at Staff College,

not only of the Social Action Unit but of the entire Career Program (as

it is called), reflects the theory and principles of learning discussed

in Chapter II. In order to promote insight into how this is so, a short

description and developmental history of the Career Program is presented

here.

The Career Program is a sequential curriculum. It consists of two

prerequisite home study courses and f'our residential courses, called

phases, of two weeks each, followed by an annual advanced seminar for

graduates. Each successive phase builds upon the content and experiences


55

of the :phase, or :Phases, which precede it; thus, Phase I is a :prerequi

site for Phase II, and so on.

The Career Program was not the result of the work of Staff College

alone. Believing that adult education should meet the needs of prospec

tive participants, Staff College formed a referent group of local civil

defense coordinators, State and Federal civil defense :Personnel, resource

people from management development contractors, and Staff College staff.

Working together in a number of meetings, this group produced the frame

work upon which Staff College, in consultation with the management

development representatives, built the Program,

Though others may enroll, the Program content is aimed exclusively

at the role of' the local coordinator. Phase titles are: Phase I--The

Job of' the Coordinator; Phase II--The Work Environment of the Coordi

nator; Phase III--The Personal Effectiveness of the Coordinator; Phase

IV--Civil Defense in National Security. Each graduate seminar deals

with a different subject, depending upon the need at the time the semi

nar is held.

The phases were developed one at a time. Each was divided into

units o£' instruction, from one to three days in length, to be handled by

varying teams of instructors. .li:ach :phase was dry run twice before ini

tial exposure to students; they 11ere then pilot tested with students and

revised. J~ach course of all phases uses a steering committee elected

by participants from among themselves. The steering committee, Hhich

meets daily, and written daily comments from each participant constitute

the f'eedback used for evaluation and revision, which is a continuing

process. Enrollments in the courses are purposely held at approximately


25 to 30 participants in order that maximum student involvement may be

achieved,

Throughout any course, flexibility of instruction is stressed, so

that enrollees may have input, within stated objectives, into what will

occur on any given day, More than this, local coordinators throughout

the United States know of their representative input into the original

curriculwu project. Their response to the Program has been enthusiastic.

Research instruction design

The Social Action Unit of Phase II occupies the last two and one

half days of instruction in the course. Only the first two days of the

unit were used for data collection, because the last one-half day was

handled by a resource person whose material could not be controlled

sufficiently for research purposes. Indeed, the degree of control

required by the research, both in the developmental stage and in the

presentation of instruction, was the factor which limited the research

to the Social Action Unit. The investigator served as team leader for

the unit and, as such, was able to control events.

To have exercised the same degree of control over the many instruc

tors involved in the entire Phase II would not have been possible, due

to inhibiting factors such as the extensive developmental time required

with conscientious use of behavioral objectives, the lack of total

connni tment to research on the part of some instructors, and the use of

numerous outside resource people. Since the two days of the Social

Action Unit represent well the limitations lU1der ,.,hich much adult edu

cation functions, the restricted time 1-ras in some ways considered to be


57

an asset rather than a liability. Often a great deal of relatively diffi

cult material must be compressed into a small time frame, and the amount

of behavioral change which can reasonably be ex:pected to result is always

a question. Therefore, use of only the Social Action Unit allowed oppor

tunity for an in-depth examination of a microcosm from which conclusions

about the macrocosm, composed of many such microcosms, could be extrapo

lated.

The Social Action Unit presents information based upon social system

theory and several years of research by Iowa State University on the

local civil def'ense coordinator's role as a change agent within his com

munity. It is, therefore, directly related to the work in which local

coordinators are involved, though more often than not they are unaware of

any theory underlying their role. For this reason, the referent group

identified the subject matter as vital for Phase II.

One of the main difficulties experienced in the instructional design

was the reduction of the wealth of resource materiU available down to

what was considered to be its most essential parts which still could be

presented in two days. Exercising judgment based upon knowledge of the

coordinator 1 s work world and social system tlieory, the team of three

Staff College staff members decided upon six major blocks, or sessions,

of instruction. Allotment of time to sessions was based upon the rela

tive importance of a particular subject matter to the overall unit in

terms of achieving desirable balance of instruction.

The instructors chose the sessions which they preferred to handle,

The Associate Professor of Sociology who had directed the Iowa State

University research on role performance was secured to handle that session.


The team leader met with him to discuss his approach to the session,

the behavioral objectives, test questions, and the methodology to be

used.

A detailed description of all sessions of the unit, including

scopes, time frames, methodologies, handout materials, and program

adjustments for the collection of data, is presented in this re:port as

Appendix A.

58

The logic underlying design of the Social Action Unit is to present

the social system theory first, making a concerted effort to relate the

theory to the work experience of the students in every way possible.

The sessions which follow build u:pon the social system theory and tie

in with it at every opportunity, The final session on Community Action

for Emergency Operations presents an operational model which a:p:plies

the theory studied during the two days. The instructors try to insure

throughout that the existing relationships are made clear to the students.

After identifying the individual sessions o.f the unit, the next

developmental step was to prelJare behavioral objectives for each of them.

This was done in depth for a reason. Up to this time Staff College had

never precisely evaluated student gain in areas with which students were

unfamiliar, such as social system theory. It was important to ascertain

whether too much or too little was Ueing offereU.; whether lao much or

too little was being expected. Therefore, the investigator, working

with the session instructor in each case, developed a total of 20 behav

ioral objectives for the unit and four multiple-choice questions to

examine t'or attainment of each objective. Both the objectives and the

achievement test are discussed in greater detail later in this chapter,


59

As the instruction was designed, attention was concentrated upon

variety of methodology and student involvement, with determination of

choice resting with the method which wou.ld most nearly assure achieve

ment of objectives and yet prove interesting. Data collection was not

a.ttenu,rted until. the unit had been presented in several courses. During

this time continuing effort was exerted to refine and improve the

instruction, based u:pon the feedback received.

Referring back to the model for instructional design presented in

Chapter II, it can be seen that, as the Social Action Unit war. developed,

consideration was given to the conrponents of the model.. Some instances

are noted as examples. Expectations and needs of learners guided the

choice or learning goal.s. All instructors were connnitted to their best

application of learning theory for adul.ts, e.s they demonstrated in de

sign and presentation of the learning experiences for which they were

responsible. Learner acceptance of the sessions was expedited in each

case by starting with ideas which were familiar to the students and

rel.ating thos~ ideas to others which were thought to be new to them.

Following the guidance available in adult education literature, the

physicaJ. and psychological learning enviromnents were made as conducive

to learning as was possible. Provision for feedback was extensive.

Research Design

The research was primaril.y concerned with the relation o:f adu.lt

student interest to achievement. An additional concern was whether or

not adult students perform satisfactorily in learning experiences which

are organized and presented with behavioral objectives as a. base. Thus,


though the investigation did not seek to speak to causal relationships,

it did attempt to reduce nncertainty by reporting on associational

relationships as they existed,

6o

The major statistical procedure was based on correlation analysis,

using the Pearson product-moment method. Other than the major analysis,

several additional correlational analyses were made which it was be

lieved would help to increase understanding of the nature of the primary

relationship studied by controlline; for confounding variables,

Satisfactory performance on behavioral objectives was determined

by comparison of individual student achievement with the achievement

criterion.

Data were secured for making the analyses and comparisons by

measuring the subjects on the behavioral objectives in the areas of:

pre- and post-interest (one instrwnent); pre- and post-achievement (one

instrument); and post-usefulness, Also, the subjects were measured on

the post-instructor image which they held for each instructor.

In the investigab on of the primary research question, interest

was the independent variable and achievement was the dependent variable,

For the secondary research question, the behavioral objectives were the

independent variable and achievement was again the dependent variable.

The sample for the study consisted of 44 participants in two

Phase II courses. The Phase II courses are scheduled only three or

four times a year, and the number in the sample was reduced considerably

when the widespread threat of floods and other disasters at the time


.. ,, r

61

of the second research course caused last minute cancel.lation of enroll·

ments.

Important variables in the two courses used for the collection of

data were held constant, such as instructors, content, methodologies,

time periods, training aids, support personnel, and residential and

classroom facilities. However, since the investigation was concerned

with the individual, and not with the group, nor even the individual as

a member of a group, it was not believed that these variables presented

a serious obstacle to a sample which consisted of subjects from two

courses.

The sample was not considered to be representative of the adult

population. Participants were self-selected from that population

because of needs which they had that they believed could be satisfied

by the course. This is much the way that many participants in voluntary

adult education courses are selected (McKeachie, 1963). As has been

noted earlier, content for the Career Program is oriented to the posi

tion of the local civil defense coordinator. Therefore, those peopl.e

who enroll either are, hope to be, or work closely with local civil

defense coordinators. In this sense, the sample was believed to be as

near a random selection as that -::>f other vocationally oriented voluntary

adult education courses.

The demographic characteristics of the participants are displayed

in Table 1. Due to the sensitive nature of such information in adult

education, data on age were not available. It is esti:ma.ted that the age

range was from 25 to 65, with the modal age in the range of 45 to 55.


TABLE 1

Sanwle Demographic Characteristics

Characteristic

Sample Size

Education Range (Yrs,) Mean (Yrs.)

Time in Position Range (Mas. ) Mean (Mos.)

Geographic Location NloJ States SW States NE States SE States

Previous CD Training Range (Days) Mean (Days)

Sex Male Female

Government Level Local State Federal

Value

44

12 - 18 13.3

0 - 180 55.3

12 7

18 7

0 - 41 16.0

38 6

29 12

3


Other than for the category of' mean time in :present :position, the

demographic characteristics of' the sample for this study compare favor

ably with those for four other staff College Career Development COlJrses

for which statistics have been computed (McLoughlin, 1971). The mean

time in present position i-Ias 55.3 months for the sample, whereas for

the other courses it was 38.0, l15.0, 40.5, and 47.1, respectively. The

sample mean was inflb.ted by the inclusion of two Federal government

employees with nearly twenty years of service each.

The regular time schedule of the Social Action Unit had to be ad

justed to accommodate for data gathering, Since the unit regularly

begins on I'Tednesday morning of the second week of Phase II, the inves

tigator, also the team leader, met with the class at 3:30p.m., Tuesday,

to ex:plain the 11 evaluation11 project, the interest inventory, and adjust

ments in the schedule, as well as to have the class complete the interest

inventory.

The introduction to the research and the explanation of the inven

tory were carefully thought out and written in advance. Though it was

not delivered verbatim, the written script, included as Appendix B of

this report, was closely foJlo~o1ed. In order to decrease resistance to

evaluation, subjects l'lere reqyested to use an identifying symbol other

than their names on all measures. They had already been using a symbol

on daily feedback sheets, so they were well-acquainted with the practice.

On Wednesday the class began at 8:00 a.m. Beginning 45 minutes

early was somewhat off' set for the subjects by having no homework


64

assigrunent the night before and by eliminating the daily feedback re:port

usually given at 8:45 a.m. From 8:00 - 9:15 a.m., the pre-achievement

test was administered, Organizational and other aspects of the test

were explained in detail. Subjects were told also that, because their

backgrounds varied extensively, the test had to be difficult in order to

adequately measure those with more experience (Bloom, 1963).

When they had completed the pre-achievement test, not before, sub

jects were informed they would be given a multiple choice final exami

nation at the close of the Ul1it which would also cover the objectives.

They were not told it would be the same examination. Acceptable post

);lerformance on the part of subjects was not emphasized because of its

irn:plications for defensive behavior to w·hich adult students are particu

larly susceptible (JI.liller, 1964). The instructors, it was stressed,

would consider that they, the instructors, had performed adequately if

the students achieved 60 correct responses out of a possible 80.

Following the completion of the pl:e-achievement test, there was a

short coffee break. The regular unit instruction then began, Session

objectives were enunciated by the individual instructor at the begin

ning of' each of' his sessions and sUllllJlarized at the close, Instructor

image scales were administered inunediately at the close of an instruc

tor's sessions, each instructor being measw:·ed only once, One excep

tion to this procedure existed. One instructor taught one session each

day. That image measurement was made at the close of the instructor's

longest session. Subjects were told these measures replaced the regu

lar daily feedback and that the instructors had agreed to the procedure.

Again, subjects were encouraged to be frank and honest in their ratings.


An attempt was made to disrupt the natural classroom setting as

little as possible. Especially were intrusions upon the personal time

of class members held at a minimum. Accordingly, Thursday followed the

regular schedule for most of the day. At 3:20 p.m., a quartette com

posed of Staff College faculty and class members sang a par.oOy on the

Social Action Unit. It was believed the song would serve to lighten the

mood after a full day and help with sustaining a spirit of' cooperation

for the research project. ~fuat the subjects were being asked to do was

difficult for them and maintenance of a posi-tive group spirit was essen

tial, both from the standpoint of reaction to Staff College in the field

and for the purposes of the research itself.

At the close of the song, the post-interest measure was adminis

tered. Then followed the only deviation f'rom the principle or holding

the variables constant for both classes: the usefulness measure "'as

mailed to subjects of the first class three months after they had re

turned home, but the second class received it irmnediately before the

close of Thursday's sessions, Th:i.s was done in order to ascertain

whether or not estimations of the usefulness of the objectives changed

significantly after individuals had returned home and, hopefully, were

able to make operational applications to their jobs.

Career Program courses close at noon on the last day, During the

research courses, class began at 8:00 a.m. on that day, so that the

post-achievement test, the final session, and graduation could be accom

plished before noon plane schedules must be met, Subjects knew that

Phase II had a final examination; they did not know until Friday morning

that it would be the same achievement test they had had previously.


66

In summa.ry, the sequence of data gathering was, from .first to

last: pre-interest; pre-achievement; instructor image after each

instructor had completed his sessions, except in the one case noted;

post-interest; post-usefulness, except as noted; and post-achievement.

The instruments used to provide the various da.ta are described ne:rl.

Instrumentation

In this section the behavioral objectives are discussed first,

since they were developed for the purposes of the research and were the

basis for three of' the other measures. The three instruments developed

specifica.l.J..y for the study are then described: the achievement test,

the interest inventory, and the usefulness inventory. Finally, a dis

cussion of the instructor image questionnaire, which was adapted from

an existing instrument, closes the section.

The study defined behavioraJ. objectives as the statements of spe

cific behaviors which the subjects would be able to perform at the close

of the Social Action Unit of instruction (Miles and Robinson, 1971).

The behavioral objectives developed for the study are included in Appen

dix D within the interest inventory.

After the blocks, or sessions, of instruction were detemined, the

development of the behavioral objectives for each of them was a pains

taking, often frustrating, procedure. As has been noted in Chapter II,

it is not an easy nor a quick process (Ebel, 1970). For this reason,

the team leader assumed primary res:ponsibility for the work, consulting

with the respective instructors as required.


67

An arbitrary nmnber of' objectives was not decided upon in advance.

Nor was it arbitrarily decided that a certain number would represent

each of the classifications of knovTledge, comprehension, ap:plication,

analysis, synt~esis, and evaluation (Bloom, 1956), since the study did

not seek to speak to the relative value of, or subjects 1 response to,

these various categories. The stipulations employed were three: (1)

the behaviors identified should be the ones most vital to the work of

the coordinator; (2) the objectives should be specific or detailed

enough to clearly convey the instructor's intent and provide for deter

mination of degree of attainment of all subjects, regardless of their

past education and experience (Mager, 1962; Thiede, 196l.~); and (3) the

objectives needed to possess some degree of intra-objective equivalency

in scope. The last stipulation was based upon the arbitrary decision

to facilitate evaluation Oy constructing the same number of examination

questions to test for each objective. Following the above guide lines,

20 objectives were written.

Precisely because o.f the varied background of the subjects, it was

difficult to state a criterion. The practical fact known to instructors

was that the criterion must be achieved -J"ith little assistance from study

outside the classroom on the part of the subjects. Also, it could be

expected that those individuals with college degrees in sociology, for

example, might relate more quickly and easily to the theoretical portion

of the subject matter and, therefore, gain more than those with only a

partial high school education. For this reason, setting the criterion

too low would never reveal the data sought for the purposes of program

development and instruction; yet, setting it too high also posed problems.


68

Considering these factors, together with the limitations of session

time, a criterion of 60 correct res:ponses out of a :possible total of 80

on a multiple choice examination to be given at the close of instruction

was chosen. This statement of the criterion also included the condi

tions under which the criterion would be met (Mager, 1962).

When the behavioral objectives were completed, they were submitted

to two Staff College staff members, plus the three other members of the

Social Action team, for judgment of adequacy. The judges were know

ledgeable in the areas of the resource materials, the reasons for their

inclusion in the Career Program, the work of the coordi11ator, and the

statement of behavioral objectives. Agreement by the judges that the

objectives adequately reflected the desired behaviors established con~

tent validity for the objectives.

Achievement test

Ideal evaluation of student achievement in vocationally-oriented

a.duJ.t education would necessitate on-the-job measurement. It is acknow

ledged at once that even at its best a multiple choice paper and pencil

test falls short of this true measurement. However, such a test repre

sents a method which is readily available while actual on-the-jo"o

measurement is not. More than that, the data the test yields can be

quantified and analyzed easily for research purposes. Therefore, the

goal in achievement test construction for the study was to develop ques

tions which would effectively substitute for ideal measurement in

detennining behavioral performance of students at the close of' instruc

tion (Kropp and Hankin, 1962).


A statement of the behaviors required of a student upon ColllJ?letion

of instruction carries implications for evaluation of his achievement

(Miller, 1964; Thiede, 196Lt), Thus, anticipation of the evaluation mea

sure to be used had prompted the choice of the type of action verbs

picked for stating the behavioral objectives.

As has been noted, it was arbitrarily decided to facilitate data

analysis by constructing four questions to test for achievement of each

objective, making a total of 80 questions. Up to the time of the study,

in-depth examinations in the Social Action Unit had not been given. How

ever, a test item pool for the unit had been developed, and item analysis

data were available for the questions it contained,

The questions in the test item pool were examined. Those consid

ered to be rrorthwhile for research purposes numbered about one-third of

the total needed. Considering the subjects to be tested, it would have

been desirable to have had only situation-oriented questions which tested

for apiJlication of principles learned (Kro:PP and Hankin, 1962). '!'his

ideal, which would have more nearly approached the effectiveness of on

the-job measurement, was not attained in all cases.

The investigator received rough drafts of' questions from the in

structors of the various sessions. They were refined, tY]Jed, and submit

ted to team members for judging. Harking separateJy, all f'our team

members considered each item to determine i-rhether or not it ei'f'ecti vely

measured the objective it was intended to measure.

All team members judged the questions to have content validity and

to sa.tisf'actorily meet other requirements. The questions were then


70

retyped, printed, and mailed to 96 graduates of previous Phase II

courses. Thirty returns came back in time to be analyzed for difficulty

and discrimination indexes. Baaed upon resuJ.ts o:f the analysis, the

test was revised and retyped,

To establish reliability for the achievement test in its final form

(see Appendix C), it was administered to one Phase II course under con

trolled condi tiona prior to the beginning of the research project. This

test-retest administration was accomplished on the second day of the

unit, Thursday, at the close of instruction and again at 8:00 a.m. the

next day, Friday. The reliability coefficient obtained was .89.

Three factors were believed to have operated to considerably reduce

the possibility that memory of answers marked on the first test adminis

tration influenced answers marked on the second. The factors operating

were the length of the test, the time lapse between testings during

which participants were actively occupied with other unrelated matters,

and the fact that they did not know in advance tha't the test would be

taken a second time.

Achievement of' objectives was def'ined as the subject's demonstrated

ability to perform the behavioral objectives of the unit. Operationally,

achievement was de:£:ined as the subject's score on the multiple choice

achievement test used to measure ma.stery of' the stated objectives. The

achievement test was scored by a.llowing one point for each correct an

swer. With .four questions over each objective, a subject could have an

achievement score within a range of' 0 to 4 .for any one objective, as

well as a score for the total test.


71

Theoretically, the study defined interest as those factors within an

individual which attract him to, or repel him from, various objects,

persons, and activities within the environment (Berdie, 1946). Speaking

more to the research problem, the study defined interest 8:S being a sub-

ject 1 s attraction or lack of attraction to behavioral objectives for the

Social Action Unit of instruction. Operationally, interest was defined

as the score which a subject obtained from the 11ay he marked a rating

scale covering his interest in the objectives.

Since measuring specific interest in specific behavioral objectives

was proposed, the interest measure had to be constructed, Berdie (1950),

Cofer and Appley (196lt), Frandsen (19L~5), Thorndike (1949), and others

have indicated that self-re:port is valid for measuring interests. Accord-

ingly, an interest inventory 1·ras develo:pcd, with a 7 -:point scale ranging

from 11 strongly uninterested" to 11 strongly interested" for each of the 20

behavioral objectives. 'rhe subjects marked the scales to reflect their

degree of jnterest. Points on the scale were assigned a munerical value

which ranged from 1 for "strongly uninterested 11 to 7 for "strongly inter-

ested. 11 A 7-:point scale was used in order to :rermit freedom of l'ange for

the subjects (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, 1964). Thus, an interest score

for each objective and a total interest score for all objectives were

obtained for every subject.

The provision for anonymity of subjects by using identification

symbols rather than names on the inventory served to reduce any subject-

:perceived threat that might have resulted in defensive reactions and

distortion of responses (Etter, 1970; Miller, 1964). Also, terms and


meanings were eXJ!lained to the subjects before they began work on the

inventory and as they worked, when necessary. The ex:plane.tions i1ere

made understandable by reference to the subject's work environment.

This is in accord with the position of Brunner and others (1959) that

validity for ~:JLated interest is lol'rered "rhen an individual is asked to

estimate his interest in something about ~o.rhich he knows nothing.

72

Reliability for the interest inventory was established through the

test-retest IDf:!."~hod. The inventory was first adJninistered to a Phase III

class. Since the;<{ vrere graduates of Phase II, this constituted a post

interest measure. Hoitrever, the achievement test '1as in the process of

development at the time. Work on it ultimately required some changes

in the wording used in the objectives; therefore, the first reliability

coefficients are not reported here.

The revised interest inventory was administered to participants in

the same Phase II course used to establish reliablli ty for the achieve

ment test. The interest inventory was given as a :pre-interest measure-

at the clcse of instruction on the day before the unit began and again

the next morning before the start of unit instruction. 'l'he reliability

coefficients obtained in this test-retest admin:i stration, both for

interest in each behavioral objective and for the instrument as a whole,

are presented in Table 2, The int ercst inventory is A.ppendix D.

The intricate nature of judging one's interest to a rather fine

degree does not lend itself easily to remembering exact answers from

one rating to another, i.e., if subjects have not just randomly marked

the scales in a patterned way, Therefore, the reported coefficients of

correlation are not believed to be unduly influenced by memory.


Objective

6

8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

TABLE 2

Test-Retest Reliability Coefficients for the Interest Inventory

Pre-Interest Coefficient

.91

.91

.74

.66

.86

.96

.94

.65

.92

.69

.47

.72

.Bo

.51

.66

.71

Total Inventory

73


74

According to generally accepted learning theory, an individual will

persist in his ef'f'orts to learn in spite of difficulties, obstacles, and

unpleasant situations if he believes the objectives to be worthwhile

(Burton, 1958). It is believed that adult students will invest energy

and involvement in proportion to how benef'icial they see a learning task

to be, both for the innnediate present and for the future (Jensen, 1965b).

For these reasons, the decision was made to post-test the subjects' per

ception of' how useful attainment of the objectives would be in their

work.

A usefulness inventory was constructed for the twenty behavioral.

objectives (See Appendix E). A 5-point scale ranging from 11poor 11 to

"excellent" was quantified by assigning a value of l f'or 11poor" up to a

value of 5 for "excel1ent, 11 In this way, scores were obtained for each

objective and for the totaJ. inventory for each subject. Thus, usefu1-

ness was operationally defined a.s the scores which a subject received

f'rom the way he marked the usefulness inventory.

As was noted in the description of the research procedure, the use

:fulness inventory was mailed to participants in the first class three

months after they had returned to their jobs. Participants of the

second class were administered the inventory immediately a.t the close

of the unit instruction. The decision to differentiate in the treat

ment of the two classes was based upon past experience with adult

students which seemed to indicate that their perception of' the value of'

instruction many times changed in a positive way af'ter they had had an

opportunity to ref'lect UJ:lOn and apply what they had learned.


75

~ image questionnaire

Berdi~ (19!+6 ), Kitchin (1970), Lauren (1969), McKeachie (1963), and

others have indicated that the classroom instructor may exert a positive

or negative influence upon student interest and achievement, Student

perception plays an important part in this process. Hilgard (1956), as

noted in Chapter II, recognized that the student 1 s personal history may

operate to either enhance or inhibit his learning from a given teacher.

Therefore, to determine the relationship of student perception of in

structors to achievement, the decision was made to measure the instruc

tor image which the students held.

The instructor image questionnaire used in the study was adapted

from the Teacher-Image Questionnaire developed at Western Michigan

University for feedback purposes. During its thirty years of use, the

Teacher-Image Questionnaire has been modified and improved on a continu

ing basis, with frequent checks being made on its reliability. The

adaptation made for purposes of the study was simply the elimination of

certain items which either did not have validity for short-term adult

education or were not considered pertinent to the purposes of the re

search. 1'he following items were retained:

1. Knowledge of subject

2. Clarjty of presentation

3. Fairness

4. Attitude toward students

5. Success in stimulating interest

6. Enthusiasm


7. Attitude toward student ideas

B. Sense of humor

9. Encouragement of student participation

10. Openness

11. Self- control

12. Consideration of others

13. Evaluation of overall effectiveness

The reliability coefficients for these thirteen items ranged from

.77 to .95.

The scale of the instructor image questionnaire (Appendix F) held a

value of 1 for "poor" up to a value of 5 for "excellent 11 on each o:f the

thirteen items. Instructor image was operationally defined as the total

score a subject awarded to a given instructor by the way he marked the

questionnaire for that instructor.

s-..ry

The research was primarily concerned with the relationship between

interest in behavioral objectives and achievement. A secondary concern

was whether or not adult students perform satisfactorily according to a

given criterion when instruction is based upon behavioral objectives.

The study was conducted at the Office of Civil Defense Staff' College,

an adult education institution offering short-term residential courses.

Data were collected f'rom forty-four participants in the Social Action

Unit of two Phase II courses in the Career Development Program for Local

Civil Defense Directors/Coordinators.


77

Subjects were pre- and 1Jost-tested ror interest in object! ves and

for achievement. Subject perception of the usefUlness which attainment

of the objectives had wa.s also measured, as was the post-instruction

image which subjects held of individual instructors.

The report turns now to the detailed results of these measures,

which are presented in Chapter IV, along with an analysis of the data.


CHAP.rER IV

FINDINGS AND ANALYBIS

The research procedures described in Chapter III were conducted

to answer two questions:

l. What is the relation between an adult student's expressed interest in behaviorally-stated instructional objectives and his achievement of those objectives?

2. Do adult students who have received instruction designed and presented according to the requirements of behavioral objectives, if they are made aware of those objectives prior to instruction, perform satisfactorily UJ;IOn a criterion measure at the close of the instruction?

Forty-four participants in a civil defense adult education course

were administered the :following measures over 20 instructional objec-

tives: pre- and post-interest, pre:- and post-achievement, and post-

usefulness. They were also measured for post-instructor image.

The instructional objectives were divided into clusters for

separate instructors as given below:

Objectives Subject matter Instructor

1 - 6 Social system theory No. 1

7 - ll Role performance No. 2

12 - 17 Community influentials/ adoption-diffusion process No. 3•

18 - 20 COJIDilunity action technique No. l

The data collected were analyzed by electronic data processing

equipment. The primary statistical technique used was the Pearson

78


79

product-moment correlation formula. Where appropriate, _!-ratio analysis

was also employed. Raw score data, upon which the analyses were based,

are included in Tables 1.9 through 27, Appendix G.

In 21 pairwise combinations of the interest, achievement, useful

ness, and instructor image data, each subject was compared with himself

on each of the 20 instructional objectives. The comparisons were done

intra-individually to avoid correlation coefficients which were unduly

influenced by a group mean approach. Frandsen and Sessions (1953) have

made the point that an individual with high interest in a given area

may earn only an average grade in it because of aptitude limitations,

whereas another individual with low interest but high aptitude may earn

a high grade, Thus, the true correlations obtaining are masked when

group means are used,

In this chapter, the findings with respect to the two research

questions are reported first. Next, the pairwise comparisons and other

analyses which were made to assist with the inter:pretation of the

findings on the primary question are examined in this order: (1) pre

and post-interest; (2) interest and instructor images; (3) interest and

achievement; (4) achievement and instructor images; and (5) interest,

achievement, and usefulness. Finally, additional data concerned with

the secondary question are presented and discussed. The chapter is

closed with a summary of' the f'indings and inteiJlretations.

Findings on Research Questions

The primary research question asked what the relation was between

pre-interest in and post-achievement of' the instructional objectives


80

of the Social Action Unit. In Table 3, the findings which pertain to

the question are displayed.

TABLE 3

Relation Between Pre-Interest and Post-Achievement (N = 44)

Objec-!

Objec-tive tive

- ,1~l·X··X

-.08

-.30-J(·

.10

-.07 10

Total test !: "' -.23

':P <.05 **P < .01

!

.11

.04

-.01

-.01

-.16

Objec-!

Objec-tive tive

ll -.24 16

12 -.10 17

13 .01 18

14 -.31* 19

15 -.09 I 20

!

.12

-.13

-.36*

-.10

.21

As can be seen by an inspection of Table 3, the data for this sample

tend to show a low negati Ye relation between pre-interest and post

achievement. The coefficient of determination (!/) for the four sig-

nificant coefficients ranges from .09 to .l'(, so between 9 to 17 per-

cent of the variance in post-achievement for those objectives could

have been accounted for by pre-interest, and this was in an inverse

relationship, Only 5 percent of the total test variance in post-

achievement was associated with pre-interest, also in an inverse rela-

tionship.


The secondary research question asked whether or not participants

in the Social Action Unit, which was designed and :presented according

to the requirements of behavioral objectives, would perform satisfac

torily upon a criterion measure at the close of the instruct ion. The

criterion measure was a paper and pencil multiple-choice examination

consisting of So questjons. Criterion performance was arbitrarily set

at 60 correct answers out oi' the total 80. In Table 4, the post

achievement data are displayed. These data indicate that the subjects

in this sample did not achieve criterion performance.

An examination of Table l+ discloses that six students, or 14 IJer

cent of the srunple, achieved 93 percent or more of the criterion and

were at or above the 90th percentile. Also, 12 students, or 27.2

percent of the sample, achieved 87 percent or more of the criterion

and were at or above the 75th percentile. To achieve three-fourths of

the criterion, a student would have had to receive a score of 45 which

would have placed him at the ltOth percentile. Approximately two

thirds of the students achieved three-fourths or more of the criterion.

Interpretations: Primary Research Question

Since the only significant relation between pre-interest and post

achievement revealed by the research f'or an;>r of the instructional

objectives was a negative relationship, some inunediate questions were

raised, Did the subjects achieve more in those objectives in which

they were least interested? Or less in those objectives in which they

were more interested? Or did they have both high and low achievement

in objectives oi' equal interest to them? An examination of additional

81


82

TABLE 4

Frequency Distribution of Post-Achievement Total Raw Scores (N = 44)

Raw Percent of Percent of Score Criterion Frequency Percentile Sample

63 1.05 2. 3

59 .98 2.3

58 .97 2. 3

56 ·93 90 6.8

54 .90 4. 5

53 .88 80 4.5

52 .87 75 4.5

51 .85 70 6,8

50 .83 4.5

49 .82 60 9.1

48 .80 50 !;,5

46 .77 6.8

45 .75 40 6.8

44 .73 4.5

43 .72 30 4.5

41 .68 4.5

40 .67 20 4.5

39 .65 4.5

38 .63 2.3

37 .62 10 4.5

36 .60 l 2.3

33 .55 2.3


correlation matrices provides information to help answer these questions.

The results of the .!_-ratio and correlation analyses for pre- and

post-interest for each objective are }JresenteU ln Table 5. The data

are displayed by clusters oi' objectives for each instructor. It was

believed that such clustering would provide more stability than would

individual objective correlations alone, and in this way, a more com

plete instructor picture would emerge.

Since the social system theor,y was thought to be the subject matter

with which the students were the least familiar and with which they

would have the most difficulty, the data covering the objectives .for

that session (1-6) were analyzed separately, even though the instructor

for that session presented another session also,

A positive and significant relation between pre- and IJost-interest

for 17 of the 20 objectives and for the total test is evident in Table

5. There was an increase in mean interest for all objectives except

one; mean post-interest in objective 10 dropped slightly. The only

significant increase in mean post-interest was in the objectives of

Instructor No. 1, which included the social system theory objectives.

Frequency distributions of pre- and post-interest scores are given

in Tables 28 and 29, Appendix G. A study of them reveals what happened

in the marking of the interest inventm·y by the subjects.

The interest inventory scale ranged from 1 to 7, with neutral inter

est at the 4 position. The minimwn pre-interest score marked was 1;

the minimum post-interest score was 3. All objectives received a


84

TABLE 5

Relation Between Pre- and Post-Interest (N = 44)

Pre-Interest Objective

M SD

Instructor No. 1.: Social system (1-6); connnunity action (1.8-20)

1 5.55 1.23 6.02 .93 2.06* .44** 2 5.43 L13 5.86 .82 2.05·)!· .52** 3 5.23 1.49 5.89 .97 2.46·• .24 4 5.23 L24 5. 73 L13 1.98 .43--* 5 5.43 L34 5.89 L06 1.77 .5l·H-6 6.02 1.19 6.41 .82 1.78 .23

Sub-total (32.89) (6.67) (35.80) (4.94) (2.33)•· (.52)** 18 5. 75 1,26 5.91 L03 .65 .61** 19 5.61 L38 6.00 .89 1.56 .5T*'* 20 6.00 1.24 6.27 .92 1.17 .51**

Sub-total (17.36) (3.67) (18.18) (2.63) (1.20) (.59)** Total 50.25 9.69 53.98 7.03 2.07* -59**

Instructor No. 2: Role performance

7 6.00 L35 6.30 .76 1.27 .45** 8 5.82 1.08 5.95 .96 .62 .35·• 9 6,11 1.06 6,14 .82 .11 .25

10 6,00 1.20 5.95 L18 -.18 .38* 11 5.98 L17 6.36 .92 1.72 .44••

Total. 29.91 5.14 30.70 3.78 .83 .48**

Instructor No. 3: Community influentials; adoption-diffusion

12 5.86 1.21 6.27 .90 LBO .36•· 13 6.05 1,20 6.20 .85 .72 .40-><-14 5.75 1,14 5.B6 1.00 .50 .1~2** 15 5.59 1.32 5.84 LOB .97 .38* 16 5.59 1.28 5.8o 1.05 .B2 .51** 17 5.39 1.32 5.66 1.0B L06 .42-!C·*

Total 34.23 6.33 35.64 5.07 1.15 .53**

Test Total 114.39 19.77 120.31 14.68 1.60 .57**

**P <.01


maximum pre- and post-interest rating of 7. No median or modal score

for either pre- or post-interest was below 5. The total~ pre

interest score was 81 percent of the possible total score of 140. The

total ~ post-interest score was 85 percent of the possible total

score, an increase in overall. interest of approximately 4 percen·t.

Collectively, these data reveal that both pre- and post-interest

were consistently high f'or most students for most objectives of the

Social Action Unit; surely the lack of interest did not constitute a

problem in the study. Also, the data, especially the lack o£ signifi

cant dif'f'erences between pre- and post-interest means, seem to indicate

that the objectives were sufficiently clear to the subjects prior to

instruction for a valid self-rating of' interest to be made (Brunner et

al., l959).

A summary of' the data on the relation between post-interest and

instructor image is shown in Table 6. Similar data for all of the

objectives are in TabJ.e 32, Appendix G. nata on pre-interest and

instructor image are not reported; the students did not know who was on

the instructor team at the time they com,pleted the pre-interest inven

tory.

The set of ordered pairs for the comparison in Table 6 consisted

of' a student's interest score on a given objective matched with his

total instructor image score. The total score approach used with the

instructor image was based on the belief' that an individual's response

to an instructor is a function of composite elements from both the

85


cognitive and affective domains, which are difficult if not impossible

to identify separately ~>.nd any or all of which may be operating at any

given time. This concept is consistent with Hilgard's (1956) view

presented in the learning theory reviewed in Chapter II.

'l'AllLE 6

Sunnnary of Relation Between Post-Interest and Instructor Images (N = 44)

Instructor

-l!··XJl <.01

.25

,46H

.09

The data in Table 32 show that a significant positive relation-

ship was found betw·een post-interest and instructor image for two of

the objectives of Instructor No. 1, which does not constitute a trend,

and for all of the objectives of Ins+-,-.uctor No. 2, which does consti-

tute a trend; still no coefficients of determination exceeded .26.

There was no significant relation between student );lost-interest in

any of the objectives of Instructor No. 3 and their );lOSt-image of that

instructor, though interest in all of those objectives had increased

and students held a higher Lrr.age for that instructor than for any

other.

In Table 7 are displayed the sununary data which compre the three

instructor images. The raw score data upon which TabJ_e 7 is based

appear in Tables 23 through 25, Appendix G.

86


Item

Tota.l class

M SD SE Mode Median Maximum Minimum

Individual

M SD SE Mode Median Maximum Minimum

!12

!13

!23

":P <.05 *":P <.01

87

TABLE 7

Comparison of' Instructor Images

Instructor

No. l No. 2 No. 3

(N = 13 variables)

197.0 204.0 206,0 7.6 4.9 2.8 2.2 1.4 .a

191.0 199.0 205.0 196.0 204,0 205,0 209.0 212,0 210.0 187.0 198.0 200.0

(N = 44 subjects)

58.3 60.3 6o.a 5.6 6.0 5.2 .9 .9 .8

62.0 65.0 65.0 6o.o 63.0 62.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 42.0 46.0 38.0

2.7*

3.7**

-99


The data in Table 7 indicate that the class response was signifi

cantly more positive to Instructors Nos. 2 and 3 than to No. 1. As a

group, students responded to No. 3 with more homogeneity on all vari

ables than to either Nos. 1 or 2, As individuals, they were highly

homogeneous in response to all three instructors,

The instructor image yielded a total possible individual score of

65. The individual mean instructor rating for Instructor No. 1 was 90

percent of the possible score; it was 93 percent for each of the other

two instructors.

88

Of the 13 variables included in the instructor image, three pro

duced scores which seem especially pertinent to an interpretation of

the data. On "Knowledge of Subject,n Instructor No. 3, who had the

highest instructor i.Jnage and the highest achievement, was rated the

l.owest, receiving a total class score of 205 out of a possible 220.

Instructors Nos. 1 and 2 received 209 and 212, respectively. On "Clar

ity of Presentation,'' the scores for Nos, 1 through 3 were 191, 204

and 202, respectively. On ''Success in Stilnulating Interest," the

scores in the same order were 187, 199, and 200. "Knowledge of Subject"

and "Clarity of Presentation" will be discussed in connection with the

achievement data. Meanwhile, it is of value to note that the minimwn

total class image score for any instructor on any variable was received

by Instructor No. 1 on "Success in Stimulating Interest." This is par

ticularly significant in light of the data contained in Table 8.

In Table 8, the surmnary data on the relation between interest

change scores w1d instructor images are displayed. Average means and


standard deviations are reported in TabJ.e 8, because of the disparity

in the number of objectives which the various instructors handl.ed, An

average mean more readily provides for com;pa.ri sons.

TABLE 8

Summary o:f ReJ.ation Between Interest Change Scores and Instructor Images (N = 44)

Interest change scores

Instructor M SD Avg. M Avg. SD

1 3.73 7.93 .41 1.20

2 .80 4.71 .16 1.20

3 l.4l 5.65 .23 1.23

*P < .05

.!:

-. 31"*

-.l6

-.ll

Basically, the summary data in Table 8 indicate that there was

J.ittle relation between the change in interest and instructor images,

except for Instructor No. 1. An examination of the su;pporting data in

Table 33, Appendix G, shows that a significant negative relationship

obtained for objectives 1 (.05), 2 (.01) and 3 (.01) :for this instructor.

Seemingly, as student interest in those objectives increased, the

instructor image decreased.

Those objectives (1, 2, and 3) having a signi:ficant negative cor-

relation with Instructor Image No, 1 were included in the six objectives

for the session on social system theory, The average mean interest

change score for that block of instruction was .49, which is larger

than the average mean interest change score for any other block of


90

instruction. As Table 8 shows, the two sessions of Instructor No. 1,

considered together, had an average mean interest change score of . 41,

still the highest for any instl•uctor. Yet, as has been stated, Instruc

tor No, 1 had the lowest total group rating received by any instructor

f'or any one variable on instructor image and that variahle was "Success

in Stimulating Interest. 11

To treat first the difference in interest change scores for the

separate instructors, it should be noted again that student pre

instruction familiarity with subject matter areas of the Social Action

Unit was expected to be hie;her for all other sessions than for the one

on social system theory, For that reason, the smaller interest change

in the other sessions is not surprising. The students were more thor

oughly f'amiliar w·ith those areas and perhaps were able to estimate their

pre-interest in them to a finer degree. Corrnnent on the positive direc

tion of interest change in social system theory will be included with

the discussion on correlation between usefulness and interest.

To consider next the trend toward positive interest change and

negative instructor images, it can be said that, since Instructors Nos.

2 and 3 received relatively high ranking (93 percent of' total possible

score) in image with little change in interest, the small correlations

are not surprising. A possible explanation of the stai;i:::tical1y sig

nificant negative correlation for Instructor No. 1 follows.

The social system theory session was the first one of the unit,

and it was presented inunediately following the pre-achievement examina

tion. It was obvious to the team members that, in spite of repeated

assurances to students that the instructors and not the students were

being evaluated, the pre-achievement examination was a traumatic


91

experience for the students, A number of them openly expressed feel

ings of inadequacy and resentment because of the difficulty of the test.

The operation of defense mechanisms could be anticipated to result

(Miller, 1964), Immediately following the social system theory session,

Instructor Image No, 1 was completed, The post-interest inventory was

not administered until the end of the second day of instruction, By

then, it is believed, the students had a better perspective on the

total unit and there had been time for initial affective reactions to

become more objective. Such an explanation is consistent with the view

of Korchin (196l+) who has noted a loss of broad perspective by individ

uals dlll'ing strong affective states, accompanied by ina.bili ty to longer

perceive the essential aspects of a situation or to behave adaptively,

Rela.tio_g between interest and achievement

The relation involved in the primary research question, between pre

interest and post-achievement, was reported in Table 3. In addition,

certain other aspects of the interest-achievement relation were studied.

However, because there was the possibility that pre-achievement

might function to obscure an existing relation bebreen pre-interest and

post-achievement, the relation of pre- and post-achievement was examined

for its contribution to the total picture. Therefore, before moving to

an inspection of the additional interest-achievement findings, the re

sults of the correlation and !,-ratio analyses for pre- and post

achievement for each objective will be considered, These results are

presented in Table 9. Frequency distributions of pre- and post

achievement scores are included in Tables 30 and 31, Appendix G.


TABLE 9

Relation Between Pre- and Post-Achievement (N = 44)

Instructor No. 1.: Social system theory (1-6); community action (18-20)

1 1.82 -97 1.82 1.04 .00 .24 2 1.82 -99 1.75 1,04 -.31 .47** 3 1.75 -99 1.89 .95 .66 .34* 4 1.70 .95 2.09 1,01 1.85 -.09 5 1.77 1.03 2.00 .96 1.07 -35* 6 2.30 1.02 2.32 1.22 .09 .37*

Sub-total (11.16) (3.03) (11.86) (3.03) (1.09) (.41)** 18 1.98 1,02 2.52 1.23 2.26* .25 19 2.64 1,28 3.05 1.03 1.65 .21 20 2.68 1.31 3.18 .72 2.22* .48""*

Sub-total. (7.30) (2.85) (8.75) (2,01) (2. 77)** .31* Total 18.45 4.66 20.61 4.27 2.27* .40**

Instructor No. 2: Rol.e :Performance

7 2.43 .95 2,82 .92 1.94 .15 8 1.93 1.00 1.93 .87 .00 .26 9 1.82 -95 2.50 .88 3.51->* .28

10 1.59 -97 2.36 -97 3.74""* .34* 11 1.27 .87 1.52 -95 1.28 .19

Total 9.05 2,03 11.14 2.42 4,39·X··X· .33*

Instructor No. 3: Connnunity influentials; adoption-diffusion process

12 1.82 13 2.09 14 2.23 15 1.27 16 1.89 17 1,86

Total 11.16

Test totsl 38.66

"P <.05 ·•*p <.01

1.02 2.55 1.14 3.25

-99 2.25 1.04 1.82

.75 2.55 1,00 3.09 2.85 15.50

7.90 47.25

.95 3.46H .20

.81 5,51-JHI· .23

.94 .11 .51** 1.04 2.46·• -,06

.76 4.o8·x·~- .23

.88 6.09.)(-K· .04 2.72 7.30-K-)(· .18

6.86 5.45** .53**

92


The coefficients in Table 9 disclose that there was a significant

positive relation between pre- and post-achievement for the objectives

of Instructors Nos. 1 and 2, and a positive, though not significant,

relation for those of Instructor No. 3. The data seem to indicate that

to a considerable degree those individuals who came to the unit with

high achievement completed wlth relatively high achievement, and those

who scored low initially also scored relatively lower at the close.

The total test coefficient of determination ( .28) reveals that approxi

mately one-fourth of the total post-achievement experienced by the

students was associated with pre-achievement. In the social system

theory session, 17 percent of post-achievement was associated with :pre

achievement, which was the highest proportion of' variance shared by

these two factors in any session.

Although the correlation coefficients do not speak to the degree

of change, an examination of the _!-ratio analysis resuJ.ts shows that

the degree of difference between pre- and !JOSt-achicvement means was

significant at the .01 level for all sessions, excepting again the

social system theory session where the overall change was positive but

not significant.

Table 10 reflects the surmnary data for analyses made using differ

ent pairwise combinations of IJre- and post-interest \'lith pre- and post

achievement. The data for each objective for each of' these analyses

are found in Tables 34 through 37, Appendix G.

From the data in Table 10, it can be assumed that interest was not

functioning to any significant degree in relation to achievement. An

examination of the detailed data in Tables 3lt through 3'7, Appendix G,

93


reveals a combination of low and insignificant positive and negative

coefficients for all objectives for all analyses, with the following

four exceptions. ODjective 18 had a significant (.05) negative rela-

tionship between pre-interest and pre-achievement, objective 8 had a

significant ( .05) negative relationship between post-achievement and

post-interest, and the analysis of the relation between achievement

TABLE 10

Sununary of Pairwise Comparisons Between Interest and Achievement ( N = 44)

Pairwise comparison

Pre- interest /pre- achievement

Pre-achievement/-post-interest

Post-interest/post-achievement

Interest change scores/achievement change scores

-.11

-.18

-.02

.26

change scores and interest change scores yielded a significant ( .01)

-positive relationship i'or objective 1 and a significant ( .05) negative

relationship for objective B. When observed ln the context of low and

conflicting negative and positive results which existed, such isolated

instances of significant correlat.ions do not .in themselves appear to

constitute true significance.

The results considered so far indicate that affirmative answers

would have to be given to all three questions raised at the beginning

of this interpretation, In some cases students achieved more in those

objectives in which they were least interested, less in those objectives


95

in which they were most interested, and both high and low in objectives

of equal interest,

For example, mean pre-interest was highest for objectives 6, 7, 9,

10, 13 and 20. Of these objectives, 7, 13, and 20 were in the high

achievement gro11,I), Objectives 6 and 9 were -in the low-achievement group.

Mean pre-interest was lowest for objectives 2, 3, 4, 5 and 17. Of

these, 2, 3, 4, and 5 were in the low achievement group and 17 was in

the high achievement grou];l. The objectives second highest in pre-

interest were 8, 11, 12, and 18. Of these, 8 and 11 were in low achieve-

ment and 12 and 18 were in middle achievement. These data support the

conclusion that pre-interest was not functioning to any significant

degree in relation to achievement.

~ ~ achievement and instructor image

The data on the relation "oetween post-achievement and instructor

image are summarized in Table 11. The data for all objectives on this

relationship are included in Table 38, ApiJendix G. Since the pre-

TABLE 11

Sunnnary of Relation Between Post-Achievement and Instructor Images (N = 44)

Instructor

.o·r -.20

-.16

achievement test was admii:tistered before the students knew who the


instructors were, data on the relation between pre-achievement and

instructor image are not reported.

Computing the coefficient oi' determination for the coefficients in

Table 11 reveals that little post-achievement was associated with the

way in which the students perceived the instructors.

Summary data on the relation bebreen achievement change scores and

instructor image are displayed in Table 12, The data on which this

sununary is based are included in Table 39, Appendix G. Again, average

means and standard deviations are reported because of the varying nwnber

of objectives which the seJ_Jarate instructors handled. JUso, the average

mean and average standard deviation for each of the two sessions of

Instructor No. l are reported separately, as well as together, in order

to :provide for ease of interpretation,

TABLE 12

Summary of Relation Between Achievement Change Scores and Instructor Images (N = 44)

Achievement change scores

Instructor M SD Avg. M

1 2.16 lf.91 .12a .49b .24c

2 2.09 2.60 .42

3 4.3h 3.57 . 73

aData for social system theory session,

bData for conununity action session. cTotal instructor data.

Avg. SD

1.21a 1.34b 1.25c

1.14

1.20

.!:

,28

-.14

-.12


97

The date. in Table 12 show that the sessions of' Instructor No. 3 had

the highest average mean achievement change score, The data also show

that it was the social system theory session which brought the overall

average mean achievement change score of Instructor No. 1 to the lowest

position of the three instructors. The only objectives which had a sig-

nifica.nt positive relation between achievement change and instructor

image were three objectives in this session (Table 39, Appendix G). The

data suggest that those students who experienced low achievement for the

session also held the lowest instructor image.

Note again that in Tables 23 through 25, Appendix G, the instructor

image total raw scores reveal that Instructor No. 1 received the middle

rating for the variable nKnowledge of Subject Matter 11 and the lowest

rating for "Clarity of Presentation" and "Success in Stimulating Inter-

est.'' The interest and achievement data on the social system theory

session and the inst:ructor image data, taken togethe:r, suggest that:

(1) a higher positive interest change was experienced in the objectives

for that session than fo:r any other, even though the students perceived

the instructor as having relatively low "Success in Stimulating Inter-

est; 11 (2) the students perceived the instructo:r as knowledgeable, but

the students did not believe they finished the session with the subject

clear in their minds; and (3) subsequently student achievement was

lower in the objectives f'or that session,

Relation between interest/usefulness and achievement/usef'ul.ness ---- -

Since so lll11Ch of the program planning in a.duJ.t education is based

on the philosophy that instruction lllU.st be tailored to meet the felt


needs of students if learning is to occur, the decision was made to

measure student perception of the usefulness to them of achievement of

the objectives for the Social Action Unit. Two measures of post-

usef'ulness were made. One measure was mailed to 32 students three

months post-instruction. Of these students, 16 completed and returned

the inventory in time for inclusion in the statistical analyses, The

second measure was of 12 students innnediately post-instruction. The

varied approach to :post-usefulness was used in order to determine

whether or not there was a difference in perceived usefulness over

time.

The results of the ,:!!-ratio analysis for the data on post-

usefulness are presented in Table J.3.

Objective

l

2

3

4

5

TABLE 13

Relation Between Post-Usefulness Measure for Two Groups& (N = 24)

:!:. Objective :!:. Objective :!:.

.22 6 -.34 ll -1.35

.49 7 2.15-K· 12 .22

.98 8 .45 13 .21

-.19 9 1.87 14 .92

.49 10 1.06 15 .00

Total test ,:!! = ,69

Objective

16

17

18

19

20

:!:.

.22

.oo

.67

.86

1.12

aGrou:p 1: First 12 people responding to mailed usei'ulness measure. Group 2: Twelve pecple who were administered the usefulness

measure immediately p::~st-instruction.

":P <.05


The data displayed in Table 13 show that the post-usefulness mean

scores for the two groups differed significantly on objective 7 only.

Therefore, it seems logical to assume that for these students the

perception of usefulness did not vary significantly between innnediate

post-instruction and three months post-instruction,

In Table 14, the results are given for the analyses of the rela

tion between pre- and post-interest and post-usefulness for the two

groups re:presenting the two tYPes of past-usefulness measure. '!'he

findings in Table 14 show that for each groUJ? the overall correlation

coefficients between pre-interest and post-usefulness were generally

lower than those behreen post-interest and post-usefulness.

Group 1 data, three months post-instruction, does not evidence a

trend for pre-interest/post-usefulness, 'rhe most evident session

trend for Group 1 was in the significant (. 01) positive relation

between post-interest and :Post-usefulness for five of the social system

theory objectives (1-6). Since there had 'been a significant ( .05) in

crease in interest in these :Particular objectives at the time of the

post-interest measure (See '!'able 5), the data seem to indicate that,

as students become more .familiar with the objectives, they experienced

relatively higher interest in them, and according to Table ll.t, this

higher interest for both groups was associated also with how useful

they saw achievement of the objectives to be, Considering the social

system theory objectives for both groups, it can be seen that the

conunon factor variance of post-interest and post-usefulness ranged

from 5 percent to 7~· percent.

99


TABLE 14

Relation Between Interest and Post-Usefulness for Two Groups a

Pre-interest/Post-usefulness Post-interest/Post-usefulness

Objective r r r

GroUp l Groll:p 2 u-roUp 1

1 -.21 ,6Q-K-l< .55"* 2 .25 .?O·H· ,46-H· 3 -37'1.· ,JQ-X- )~5-X--)(-

4 .La-x-x- .25 ,62-X··X·

5 .62X-X- .18 ,44·H· 6 -.08 .21 .23

7 -.12 .71-X--X- .03 8 .05 .34" .26 9 .07 -.29 .17

10 ,JQ·X· , 5'{-X--X .18 11 -.03 .34" -.23

12 .21 . 34·• .21 13 .05 -.15 ,4JX·X 14 .08 .13 .4sxx 15 .00 .12 16 .26 .34 17 .44-x-.x- .24

18 .o8 .61-X--X- .23 19 .Hl .36 20 .26 .6o-x--x-

Total .29 .62-X+:- .5JkX·

aGroup 1: Usefulness measure administered three months post-instruction; N = 16

Group 2: Usefulness measure administered immediately post-instruction; N "" 12

"*P <.05 ·Hp <.01

r GroUp 2

,86kX· , 56-x--x-.63** , 58·X-ll .6o-J<:--x-.35'

,4?·JH!-.66·)h\(-

.15

. 73**

.72**

,72-lf.-X· .58-l<--)(· ,6p·-X , 72-X··M ,81X1o: ,82·X·X

.89-l<·-Ji-,8]-Jo:--)(-,82X-l<·

.84-x--x-

100


The total test post-interest/post-usefulness coefficient for

Group 1 also appears to lend support to the above conclusion; the :pro

portion of variance shared between the two factors in Group 1 was 28

percent. The correlation coefficients on the );lOst-interest/post

usefulness comparison for Group 2 were generally higher than those

obtained for Group 1. It is believed that memory may have functioned

101

to inflate these coefficients, since the two measures were made of

Group 2 within a short period of time. Nevertheless, the data indicate

that as the students perceived their interest so they also perceived

the usefulness of the objectives.

In Table 15, the correlation coefficients between pre- and post-

achievement and :post-usefulness are :presented. Again, the two groups

represent the two types of' );lost-usefulness measure.

Grou);l 1 shows a general trend tmm.rd negative correlations for

pre-achievement/:post-usef'ulness, of which seven were significant. A

high :positive correlation between these two measures wouJ.d have indi-

cated to some extent that students brought to the classroom a high

degree of achievement in those objectives which they believed were use-

ful. A negative correlation would seem to indicate that those students

who brought low achie·vement to the classroom were still able to per

ceive the usefulness of the objectives to them. This is illustrated

well by the social system theory objectives (1-6) where pre-

achievement was relatively low, as has been sholm, and yet three of the

six objectives had a significant negative relation between pre

achievement/post-usefulness.


TABLE 15

Relation Between Achievement and Post-Use:fulness f'or Two Groupsa

Pre- Post- Post-Achievement / Usefulness Achievement

Objective r r r

GroUp 1 GroUp 2 GroUp 1

1 -.36•· .26 .27 2 -.43** .02 .06 3 -.19 .17 -.06 4 -.56·H!- .13 -.35* 5 .00 .38•· -.11 6 ,44H -,06 -,02

7 -.38* -.07 .14 8 .32il· .31* -,20 9 -.36* -.35* .26

10 .37'• -.33' .26 n -.04 .10 .10

12 -.24 -.19 .n 13 .07 .16 .22 14 .12 .23 ,08 15 -.007 -.11 -.30* 16 -.n .16 -.42** 17 -.11 -.31·lf· .31'

18 -.21 -.23 -.48** 19 -.3Qil· -.09 -.09 20 -.03 -.22 .20

Total -.33* -.12 .01

a.Group 1: Usefulness measure administered three months post-instruction; N = 16

Group 2: Usefulness measure administered immediately post-instruction; N = 12

*P <.05 **P <.01

. . ··~

102

Post-Usefulness

r GroUp 2

-.18 .19 .26 .52**

-.06 -.39 ...

.oo

.02 -.35* -.72** -.52**

-.19 .10 ,06 .13

-.27 .37''

.09

.05

.02

-.19


103

Pre-achievement and post-usefulness for Group 2 does not indicate

enough of a trend to be meaningful, nor does the post-achievementf:post

usefulness analysis for either group. Since the latter coefficients

range widely, the proportion of variance shared between the two factors

in any one objective varied from .01 J?ercent to 10 percent for Group 1

and f'rom 0 to 52 percent for Group 2. 1'he only significant total test

coefficient on any of the four comparisons was for Group 1 pre

achievement/post-usefulness where .E = -.33.

In Table 16, data on the relation between interest and achievement

change scores and post-usefulness are shmvn, with the two tYIJeS of post

usefulness measure indicated.

For the Group 1 analysis of relation between interest change and

post~usefuJ.ness, coefficients were generally small, inconsistent, and

of minimal interest. For Group 2, there was a definite trend toward a

significant positive relation on this analysis. Since the interest

change, as has been shown, was generally positive, the data indicate

that perce})tion of usefulness was correspondingly :positive for this

group.

Though the relation of achievement change to post-usefulness was

somewhat more significant than the relation of interest change to post

usefulness for Group 1, the results were still inconsistent. Of seven

significant coei'f'icients, five were positive and two were negative. Of

thirteen insignificant coefficients, five were negative, seven were

positive, and one was zero. For Group 1 total test relation of achieve-

ment change to post~usefulness, approximately 10 percent of the variance

was shared by the two factors.


TABLE 16

Relation Between Interest Change Scores/Post-Usefulness and Achievement Change Scores/Post-Usefulness

Interest Post- Achievement Post-change usefulness change usefulness

Objective r

1a r

2b r ! b

GroU:p GroUp GroUp 1a Group 2

.13 • !~8-~--)(- -.41H· 2 -.35·)(· . ss-~·-x- .18 3 -.ll .16 .ll .10 4 .19 ,JJ·X· .18 ,J7·X· 5 -.24 .27 -.09 -0 34'· 6 .22 .07 -.33' -,l.f2·H

7 .16 -,52·X··X· .34< .07 8 .15 ,1.~6-X·-1<- -.l.JOH· -.Jl·lt 9 .05 -.09

10 -.15 -.21 ll -.08 .10 -,!+6-X--J(-

12 -.07 .00 13 .28 -.08 14 .38·' -.13 15 -.24 -.19 .20 16 -.08 -.20 -.4911--J.C 17 -.29 .22 .24 .4o-x-x

18 .ll -.23 .26 19 .007 .26 .08 20 .o6 .21 .23

Total .07 .29 , Jl·X· -.10

8 Group 1: Usefulness measure administered three months

bGroup post-instruction; N"' 16

2: Usefulness measure administered innnediately post- instruct ion; N = 12

*:P <.05 **:P < .01

104


Group 2 data on the relation of achievement change and !Jest

usefulness present a similarly inconsistent picture. Of the signifi

cant correlations, six were negative and two were positive. The total

test coefficient for Group 2 was negative and insignif'icant.

105

For this sample, there was a trend toward a generally insignificant

negative relation between pre-interest and post-achievement. There was

a positive and significant (.01) relation between pre- and post

interest, but no significant relation between yost-interest and post

achievement.

Post-:l.nterest had a positive significant (.01) relation with

instructor image for Instructor No. 2 only. Interest change was associ

ated with instructor image for Instructor No. 1 only. This relation

was negative and significant (.01). Since the trend of interest change

was positive, the trend for marking this instructor image evidently was

negative.

There was no significant relation between instructor image and

post-achievement or achievement change scores. There was a significant

positive relation between pre- and post-achievement for the objectives

of Instructor No. l (.01) and No. 2 (.05), but not for Instructor

No. 3.

Those students who received the usef'ulness measure three months

post-instruction did not differ significantly in their perception of

the usef'ulness of' the objectives from the group which received the

measure immediately post-instruction. Post-interest and post-


106

usefulness were positively and significantly ( .01) related for both

groups. Pre~achievement was negatively correlated with post-usefulness,

significant at the . 05 level, for the e;roup to whom the measure was

mailed. Post-achievement was not significantly associated wlth post

usefulness for either group.

These findings seem to indicate that, for this sample, the students

were highly interested in the objectives which they believed to be use

ful to them, but that neither interest nor usefulness was significantly

associated with achievement.

Nor was there evidence that the way the students perceived the

instructors V.'as significantly related to their post-achievement, All

instructor images were high. Still there was a significant difference

between mean ratings of instructors, and the social system theory ses

sion did have both a relatively lower instructor image and a relatively

lower post-achievement, though the relationship bch;een the two measures

for those objectives was not statistically significant. It is believed

that the relatively lower instructor image was, as has been noted, more

an evidence of defensive reaction to the J?:t'e-achievement examination

than evaluation of the instructor.

Since the Instructor Image No. 1 and post-achievement relation was

not significant, there is the possib:ility that the time allotted to the

session functioned w·i th other confoundl_ng variables to lower achieve

ment of its objectives, 'rhat session, wHh subject matter which was

difficult and comparatively new to the students, covered six objectives

and was presented in two hours. In contrast, the sessions which

attained the highest achievement, those of Instructor No. 3, also


covered six objectives, but they were over more familiar material and

were taught in four and one-half hours.

107

Surely the lack of achievement in the social system theo!'y session

reduced the overall post~achievement standing. Excluding the objectives

t'or this session from the post-achievement computation reveals that

41 percent of' the subjects achieved 90 percent or more of the criterion

performance on the remaining objectives; 73 percent, or approximately

three-fourths of the subjects, achieved three-fourths or more of the

criterion perfonnance (based on Table 22, Appendix G) on the remaining

objectives. This is a dif'ferent picture from that on the total test

presented in Table 4. Though the students maintained and increased

their interest in the social system theory session and considered it to

be usef'ul, their marking of the instructor image indicated that they

did not believe they fully understood the subject matter, and their

post-achievement in the area tends to support such a conclusion.

Interpretation: Secondary Research Question

The secondary research question asked whether students would per

form satisfactorily on a criterion measure when instruction had been

designed and presented with behavioral objectives as a base. From the

data displayed in Table 4, the conclusion was reached that the sample

did not achieve criterion perf'arma.nce.

Up to the time of the research, no in-depth evaluation of the

achievement performance of Staff College students had ever been made.

They are examined in other courses and units, but not in-depth nor in

a controlled fashion. i'hus, as was explained in Chapter III, the


108

choice of a suitable criterion for the research was a difficult one a.nd

the stipulation of' 60 correct answers out of a total of 80 was an arbi

trary selection, based upon the combined judgment Wld experience ot' the

Social. Action instructor team.

For these reasons, the evaJ..uation was indeed as much a.n eval.ua.tion

of the fa.cul.ty and curriculum as it was of the students. Knowledge had

to be obtained as to how much a.JJnost completely foreign information

could be conveyed to aduJ..t students in what period of' time and with what

expected behavior change. Also, there was the additional consideration

that the new information must be transmitted in a short-term, residential.

aduJ.t education environment where extra-curricular factors beyond the

control. of the faculty frequently operated to inhibit learning. One ex

ample of those factors which operated in this instance was the farewell

party hel.d by the first class of' thirty-two students the night bef'ore

their post-achievement examination and from which they did not return to

student quarters until 3:30 a.m.

Another element believed to have interfered w:l th the learning ex

perience was the pre-achievement examination. Its effect upon the

students, who were not test conscious in the sense that college students

a:re, ha.s already been noted.

In view of these considerations, student performance in post

achievement, though revealing, was not entirely unexpected. In Table 17,

data are presented which compare sample perfor.ma.nce to a normal.ized

sample of the same size. Since achievement change is considered to be

a truer picture of' actual achievement than post-achievement alone,

TabJ.e 1.7 is based upon standardized achievement change scOl'es.


109

As can be seen from the findings in Table 17, the sample was quite

normally distributed in achievement. The main departure from a normal

distribution was in the number of people in + 1 and +2 standard devia-

tiona, where four more than normal are in +1 and less in +2.

TABLE 17

Comparison of Achievement Change Scores Distribution with Normal Distribution (N = 44)

SD Normal frequency Sample frequency interval distribution distribution

-3 1 0

-2 7

-1 15 14

+1 15 19

+2

+3 1

The data seem to indicate that the sample achievement was fairly

representative of the population. This conclusion suggests that sample

failure to attain the achievement criterion did not make an effective

statement of the worth or non-worth of behavioral objectives. Rather,

the failure appears to be a function of curricul:wn expectations and

criterion validity, a position which the evidence gleaned from examine.-

tion of the data with respect to the primary research question surely

serves to reinf'orce.

In Chapter V, the implications of the research results are dis-

cussed, along with the f'in&l conclusions and recommendations.


CHAPrER V

FINAL CONSIDEHATIONS

In Chapter I, the basic issues lihich suggested the research prob

lem were considered. Those issues had to do with the need for adult

education in our twentieth-century society, the need for research in

adult educatio.r,, and specifically, the need for research in interest

as it relates to lear::1ing. In Chapter II, literature which had to do

with adult learning theory, the role of interest in learning, and the

role of behavioral objectives was revie,ved. Chapter III contained a

description of the research agency, research design, instrumentation,

and procedures. The data collected were presented and analyzed in

Chapter IV.

In Chapter V, a s1Jlllillary is presented of the research purposes and

findings, followed by the conclusions reached on the basis of the

findings, their implications, and the resulting recommendations.

Summary

The primary objective of the research was to determine the

relationship which exists between pre-interest and achievement in civil

defense adult education. The secondary objective was to assess the

level at which adult students perform when instruction is based on

behavioral objectives.

The research agency was an adult vocational education institution.

As such, it bridges the ga:p which exists for its students between the

110


111

academic environment and the practical realities of their world of' work.

For the purposes of the investigation, the research agency brought

academic subject matter and the needs of one area of the working world

together with principles of adult learning to develop a unit of instruc

tion for adult students. Purposely, a high content area was chosen for

purposef'ul in-depth testing v.'ith the intent of evaluating how much adult

students, with widely heterogeneous backgrounds but similar jobs, are

able to achieve in short-term, residential instruction, and what factors

are associated with that achievement, The conclusions reached on the

basis of the results obtained, it was believed, would hold implications

not only for the research agency and civil defense adult education but

also for other similar types of adult vocational education.

The subjects were pre- and post-tested on interest and achievement.

They were also post-tested for their perception of the usefulness of

achievement of the objectives and on the instructor image which they

held for each ir:structor. The Pearson product-moment correlation

formula and !-ratio analysis were used in analyzing the data.

The research fi:1dings revealed that (1) no significant relationship

existed between :pre-interest and IJOSt-achieYcment and that (2) the

subjects, as a grou:p, did not achieve criterion perfonnance. Add1tion

ally, the data disclosed the total-test relations shown in Table 18.

Conclusions

Based on the findings and their inter:pretation, as presented in

Chapter N, the following tentative statements can be made for the

forty-four subjects involved in the research.


Table No.

5 6 7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

TABLE 18

Summary of Total-Test Relations of Various Pairwise Coor;parisons (N = 44)

Pairwise comparison Relation

Pre-/post-interest +*-l<· Post-interest/instructor images +·~'l<· Instructor images

n.s. Interest change scores/

instructor images Pre-/:Post-achievement +-te-l!-... Pre-interest/pre-achievement n.s. Pre-achievement/post-interest n.s. Post-interest/post-achievement n.s. Interest change scores/

achievement change scores n.s. Post-achievement/instructor

images Achievement change scores/

n.s.

instructor images n.s. Post-usefulness, Group 1/

post-usefulness, Group 2 u.s. Pre-interest/post-usefulness +** Post-interest/post-usefu1ness +** Pre-achievement/post use:fulness Post-achievement/post-usefulness n.s. Interest change scores/post-

usefulness n.s. Achievement change scores/

post-usefulness +* Achievement change score

distribution

Note: + "' positive relation; - = negative relation

"P <-05 *"P < .01

Notation

One inst. only

!J.2 !13 !23 One inst. only

.!:

.!i.

!J.2 Group 2 only Groups 1 and 2 Group 1 only

Group 1 only Representative of population

112


ll3

1. Interest was not a significant function of achievement, even

though there was a relatively high pre-interest in the objectives which

not only was maintained but had increased by the close of instruction.

2. Although the su"ojects did not achieve criterion performance,

two-thirds of' them achieved three-fourths or more o:r the criterion.

Since the selection of the criterion was arbitrary and experimental, it

is believed that this result s:peal~:s more to the validity of the crite

rion and the natlU'e of curricular expectations for students than it does

to the worth or non-worth of behavioral objectives.

3, Pre-interest appears to have had more importance for ];lOSt

interest than did any other measure. Interest at the close of instruc~

tion was significantly related to the interest which the students initi~

ally brought with them to the instructional setting, but it was not

significantly related to the achievement which they brought, nor to the

achievement which they attained during instruction, Student post

interest was significantly related to the way in which students per~

cei ved the instruc ~ors for only one of the three instructors.

4. Pre~achievement held more significance for IJost~achievement

than did any other measure.

5. Student perception of the objectives as being h::_ghly useful did

not vary significantly over time from '\'That it wac at the close of'

instruction, 1'he evident stability of this student evaluation tends to

support the program management belief that the objectives of the Social

Action Unit are relevant to the work role performance of J?articipants.

6, Student interest in objectives was highly related to student

perception of the practical utility of those objectives. However,


114

neither interest nor usef'ulness was associated significantly with

achievement. A valid measure of use:f'ulness vrould, therefore, speak to

relative interest, but such a measure would not necessarily hold signif'i

cance for projected achieve:rnent.

7. The amount of tLme allotted for instruction in each objective

appeared to be a vital. function of significant post-achievement. 'rhis

conclusion is based on the fact that how the students perceived the

instructors did not account signif'icantly for their post-achievement

variance, yet instructor images revealed a lack of student understand

ing of' the subject matter covering "~he block of objectives in which

they had the lowest achievement and which were taught in the shortest

period of time.

8. Affective dimensions and certain extra-curricular activities

are factors which may operate in a residential adult education envi

ronment to such an extent; that they not only interfere with learning

but also make true evaluation of achievement of' instructional objec

tives most difficult, if' not impossible in same instances.

Examples will help to illustrate the reasons for the last conclu

sion. To begin 1-r.:i.th the aff'ective domain, the criterion should have

been stressed to the students, and it could not be, judiciously. Since

defensive reactions to the pre-achievement measure were obvious, to

have emphasized criterion performance, it is believed, T..rould have

increased resistance and inhibited the learning process even more.

Yet, it is especially true for adult students that achievement cannot

be evaluated on the basis of post-achievement alone, because of the

wide variability vrithin the students themselves and within their past

experiences (Miller, 1964).


115

Also, as an example of affective considerations, there was the

inconsistency which existed between student perception of the instruc

tor and actual student interest response to the objectives of the

social system theory session. 'rhough on the instructor imac;e the

students rated the social system theory instructor lmvest for success

in stimulatinr, interest, on the interest inventory they reported a

greater increase in interest for those objectives than for any others.

Again, it is believed that the apparent contradiction was related to

student feelings of frustration, helplessness, and inadequacy which

appeared to function markedly to inhibit adaptive behavior :i.Jnm.ediately

following the pre-achievement exa:mination.

An example of an extra-curricular activity which negatively affect

ed the evaluation process is the farewell party the night before the

post-achievement measure. The students simply were not physically nor

psychologically prepared to respond effectively on the examination the

next morning. This experience demonstrates one way in which group

cohesiveness may become a negative force to inhibit learninc;. It also

shows the need to anticipate and influence against such a turn of'

events, if possible,

Implications

The implications which the conclusions hold for learning theory,

interest theory, and the use of behavioral objectives, in adult educa

tion, are considered in that order.


116

Implications ~ ~ learning theory

Cronbach ( 1963) has suggested that 11 The greatest service evalua

tion can perform is to identify aspects of the course where revision is

desirable (p. 675)." He believed that, in the long run, the insight

obtained would be not only course s:pecific but also would mal<:e a con-

tribution to the development of all courses, One of the values of this

study was that it pinpointed a number of aspects of the curriculum

approach which could benefit from reexamination. 'I'hese aspects include

the time adults need for learnine;, the need to help them learn how to

learn, the strength of their resistance to change, and evaluation of

adult learning.

l. The time ~ ~ for learning, Adults are increasingly

aware of time limitations in life (Brunner et al., 1959; McClusky, 1964).

They take longer to learn than do children, due to psychological set

and other factors, and their sense of being behind schedule in life is

often acute. Add to these considerations the fact that instructional

time is more limited in adult vocational education than in almost any

phase of education, and a dilennna is described which the agency involved

in the research has not yet been able to solve with complete satisfac-

tion.

Since controlled, in-depth evaluation of achievement never had

been at tempted befo't'e in the research agency, the length o:t' time

allotted to various sessions for research purposes was based more upon

intuitive judgment developed from experience in adult classroom instruc

tion than upon objective judgment. This is not inconsistent with the


117

situation in much o:f the total educational envirorunent and is surely not

inconsistent with rr.ost adult vocational education practice.

Jensen (1965b) has stated that one of the value norms in our soci-

ety, the efficiency criterion of maximum output for minimtun input,

shapes the educational practice in the United States. Jensen argued

that the significance of this societal value i'or the participants in the

educational effort has received insufficient attention, because nearly

all experimental studies on the ef:fectiveness of instruction incorporate

the value in their design.

l~or these reasons, one of the needs of the research agency, and of

adult education, was to obtain information in a controlled fashion on

the length of time required for adult learning to take :place. In the

process, the significance to :partici:pants when insufficient time was

allowed became dramatically evident.

As has been shmm, the social system theory session covered six

objectives in two hours, with the lowest achievement resulting, whereas

the session having the highest achievement also covered six objectives

but in four and one-half hours, In defense of the judgment which made

such an allotment of time initially, it can be stated that it was done

on the basis of which information was believed to be the most essential

to the students for adequate performance of their jobs. 'l'his is exactly

consistent with the value system pictured by Jensen (1965b).

Little, if any, thought had been given to the psychological sig

nificance to the students if they were faced with the task of mastering

difficult material in too short a time, more because no one knew with

any certainty how long a time was needed than for any other reason.


118

The research has shown the need to revise the time upward considerably,

and if enough time is not available, then the material must at the same

time be revised downward, or simplified, until a compromise situation

which can yield student success experiences can be attained. Since it

is planned that eventually the course which contains the Social Action

Unit will be taught throughout the United States by extension depart

ments of contracting universities, such guidance at this developmental.

point is extremely valuable.

Also, adult education program development in all areas should

refl.ect the same determined sensitivity to the significance to students

when the desired balance between stretching their minds or leaving them

with nothing errs on the side of too much in too short a time. The

problem of' widely varying ability in its students always will be present

in adult education, yet ideally, the instructional sessions should pro

vide the maximum help possible f'or all individuals. If' the sessions

can be ref'ined to a point where the less sophisticated are not completely

discouraged and the more sophisticated are not coll1Pletely disillusioned,

then achievement should be suf'f'iciently positive f'or a majority of' the

students for the classroom instruction to be judged successful.

2. The need.!£~ adult students learn how~ learn. Many adult

students have been absent from the classroom for extended periods of

time. Often they have forgotten, if' they ever knew, how to go about

learning. Though the instructor staff of the research agency was aware

of this fact, still the research pointed out that curriculum planning

had taken little notice of' the need to teach learning to learn

(Thompson, 1970). Pre-enrollment help in this area by adult education


institutions would be usef'ul for achievement, and aJ..so, it coul.d serve

to reduce resistance to change and prepare enrollees for a more satis

factory involvement in the learning experience.

119

3. Resistance !£ change 2:E_ adult students. The def'ensive reac

tions of the students when their feelings of inadequacy were aroused have

already been discussed. This is another area in which the insight pro

vided by the rf!search was more one of degree than of kind. Team members

were sensitive to the need to protect the self-images of the students.

Nevertheless, the revelation of' the extent of student ego-involvement

came as something of a shock. The students struggled with the achieve

ment examination before instruction just as intensively as they did

af'ter instruction, even though they were told a number of times, before

and whil.e they were working on the pre-achievement measure, that they

should not concern themselves with doing well, that they should simply

mark the questions for which they knew the answers and not worry about

the others. The impl.ication is that even more must be done to continu

ally reassure adult students, to hel.p them have success within the

learning experience in gaining a sense of achievement, to assist them

in building confidence in themselves and a better self-image.

4. ~ £.!: adult learning, The research pointed up the

need for more information on whether or not it is possible in the time

available in adult education to achieve the growth thought to be neces

sary (Thiede, 1964). Surely the study revealed that curriculum

expectations for s·tudents were too high ..

More importantly, the research raised the question of' what consti

tutes valid measurement of' adult learning. Thiede (1964} has suggested


120

that short-term. programs ma.y result in amounts of' change which are too

small for conventional coarse measuring procedu:res to detect. The

subjects were convinced that they had learned a great deal not revealed

by the test. Though subjective judgment of this type has low validity

for evalue.tion, nevertheless the conunents sup:port the belief' that the

highly verbaJ. quality of' the achievement measure contributed to the

modest resul.ts obtained.

In a sense, paper and pencil tests mea.sUl'e reading ability rather

than behavior exhibited as a corm:nunity change agent, as was necessary

in this case. Since behavior in the community is not available in the

classroom, it cannot be used to evaluate learning. Yet, the research

seemed to indicate that constructors of tests to be used with those

adult students who are not test conscious must be keenly sensitive to

the problems associated with such evaluation. Not the least of these

problems may be the limited reading ability of the students, as well as

their inability to function efi'ectively under the pressure of time

limitations in a. test situation.

Implications for adult ~ ~ theory

Since the only reason for the existence of adult vocational educa

tion is to hel.p participants with their work performance, it seems

logical that participants would have to perceive the course offerings

as useful in order for the courses to be successf'ul.. Th..: research

showed that the participants believed the objectives of the Social

Action Unit to be of considerable use~ Equally as inq"lortant, the

research disclosed that how students perceived the usefUlness of the


121

objectives was highly related to student interest in them. Separating

extrinsic interest from intrinsic interest in adult vocational educa-

tion is difficult, and the implication is that it may not need to be

done after all. People who are committing job time to learning more

a.bout the job, it seemr:, <rill be interested :i.n l'rhat is being taught if

they perceive it as useful to their job performance. Thus, effort

directed to meeting the needs of participants in adult vocational edu-

cation may be a broader and more re·ll'arding approach than equal effort

expended simply to arouse their interest. This is consistent with the

results of the work of Thorndike, \·Ieiss, and Dawis (1968) who found that

interests and needs belonged to the same class of variables.

Implications for the~ .2.£ behavioral objectives

When the team members prepared the behavioral objectives, they

asked themselves the questions posed by Drumheller (19'71):

.•• Was this topic or objective worth the emphasis it -was given? Is this objective ;.;orth evaluating? How should I weight these various objective enrphases in the evaluation instrument? Can we expect the learner to reach an avowed objective considering the method that was used? Will this proposed test item actually serve to measure the learner 1 s success in reaching the desired objective (p. 11)?

At the close of the research, the Social Action Unit was reexam-

incd on the basis of the questions, anU the research data provided

input to assist with more adequate a:1swers. Additionally, the data

gave assistance with distinguishing ugoals that are feasible from

goals that are unlikely to be attained in the time available, under the

conditions which are possible, and 'lrith the gro1Jl) of students to be

involved (Bloom, 1956, p. 27). n


122

Explicit behavioral objectives not only force this kind of evalua

tion, but they also make it possible. Because the instruction was

based on specifically-stated objectiveu, team members were able to

isolate trouble s:pots in the Social Action Unit where corrective action

must be taken, H:i.thout the behavioral objectives, it is entirely possi

ble that the research data would have been so general that they would

have had restricted usefulness. 'rherefore, the researc~ did make a

statement about the worth of behavioral objectives, ".:;hough not in the

sense of student achievement according to an arbitrary criterion.

This conclusion is in harmony with Hilgard's (1956) plea for

tolerance of negative findings in research on the basis that negative

results are worth knowing, It also reflects some of the judgment of

Francis Keppel, as quoted by Lippitt, McCune, and Church (1964), that

1 \'lithout research and experimentation, education remains the

only major profession w·ithout the guts to look at itself (p. 13). 111 In

light of the 11 new imperative" of adult education cited in Chapter I,

that of adult education providing continuing learning throughout life

for citizens in all segments of our society, now is not the time to

retreat. Hather, adult education must continue to examine what it is

attempting, and it must continue to compare what it is attempting with

what it is achieving.

Recommendations

In view of the findings and their im:Plications, the following

recommendations are made:

1. Further research should be conducted in adult vocational


123

education to determine the performance o:r adult students on a stated

criterion when behavioral objectives are used as the basis for develop~

ment and presentation of' instruction. Particular attention should be

given to a study design which teaches the same subject matter with the

same behavioral objectives in varying lengths o:f time for comparison of

achievement results •

.2. Adult educators should continue to search for innovative and

more meaningful ways to evaluate adult student achievement in short~

term courses.

3, Specifically, the Social Action Unit should be used for further

research. First, it should be revised to reflect fewer objectives for

each instructional session. The objectives should be broader in scope

and have more test questions to cover each than was the case in this

study; yet there should be a. smaller total. m.unber of test questions.

The smaller criterion measure, it is believed, would lower resistance

to testing. AJ.so, more instructioneJ. time should be allotted to the

social. system theory session.

4. To control for extra-curricular confounding variables, the

scope oi' the reseal'ch couJ..d be reduced to the first day of the unit,

which includes the social system theory session. Such time limitations

are one of the hard realities of the voca.tiona.J.. adult education environ

ment; to know what can be achieved in one day is of value.

5. Sample size should be increased by repeating the study over

several courses.

6. A pre-usefulness measure should be administered to determine

the relationship which student perception of usef'ulness prior to


124

instruction has with :post-achievement. The interest measures should be

retained in order to determine whether or not replication would produce

the same type of results.

7. Pre-tests should be given throughout the two-week course,

that students become conditioned to :pre-testing. Pre-testing should be

stressed as a self-evaluation device in order to reduce student defen

sive reactions to the pre-achievement test of the research pro,iect,

8. The instructor image should include an item ~o measure student

reaction to methodology.

The principles involved in these reconunendations for research using

t:ne Social Action Unit are considered to be generally applicable to any

achievement research conducted in vocational adult education.


APPENDIX A

OUTLINE OF INSTRUCTION UNIT USED IN RESEARCH

l25


OUTLDIE OF INSTRUCTION UNIT USED IN RESEARCH

COURSE TITLE: Career Development Program for Local Civil Defense Directors/Coordinators, Phase II: The Work Environment of the Coordinator

UNIT TITLE: Social Action

JJiiSTRUCTOR Nina Ruskjer, Leader; Max Doman; George Blincoe; TEAM: Dr. Charles Mulford

OBJECTIVES: See A:ppendix D

SCOPE: 1. The connnuni ty as a social system,

2. The role of the coordinator as a change agent within the community (role performance); role definition; role constraints; role conflict; goal displacement.

3. Interaction o:f civil defense coordinators with local government off'icials; the influence of role perceptions.

4. Community influentials and their importance in a.cCoJ1:9?lishing social change in a community.

5. How people ado:pt new ideas, the adoptiondif'fusion process.

6. Connnunity Action for Emergency Operations, a technig_ue for social action.

126


127 Time Plan for Unit

TUESDAY

P,M, 3:30 - 4:00 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROJECT

~: Pre-Interest Inventory.

WEDNESDAY

A.M. 8:00 - 9:05 ~: Pre-Achievement Test.

9:15 - 9:25 BREAK

9:25 - 10:00 INTRODUCTION TO UNIT

~: Introduction of team members, presentation of objectives for the unit, and preview of specific sessions assigned to individual team members.

Methodology: Panel discussion with student participation.

Handout: Outline of unit, including title, objectives, team members, scopes, methodologies, time plan, and instructor f'or each session.

10:00 - 12:00 THE COMMUNITY AB A SOCIAL SYSTEM

~: The nine elements of' a social system, six master :processes that go on within the system, and three condi tiona for social action, as they relate to the community and the local coordinator's function within the connnunity.

Methodology: Flip chart lecture/discussion, including assigned contributions by students.

Handout: "Social Systems and Civil De.fenae Action. 11

~: Instructor Image Questionnaire.

LUNCH

P.M. 1.:00 - 4:00 THE LOCAL CIVIL DEFENSE COORDINATOR'S ROLE AND RELATED FACTORS

~: The results of' ISU research studies on the role per.formance of' 240 local civil det'ense


128 P.M. 1:00 - 4:00 (Continued)

coordinators; role definition and its importance; role constraints; role conflict; goal displacement; and interactions with local government of'.ficials.

Methodology: Lecture/discussion/small group exercises/flannel board presentation,

Handout: 11 Summa.ry of Significant Rele.tionships. 11

~: Instructor Image Q.uestionnaire.

THURSDAY

A.M. 9:00 - 12:00 THE LOCAL CIVIL DEFENSE COORDINATOR AND COMMUNITY INFLUENTIALS; Interaction with the Informal

Community Power Structure

~: The practical application by local coordinators of research findings on seven hy}Jotheses regarding the informal community power structure actors.

Methodology: Discussion/small grou.P process/ analysis of video taped interviewsjpractice in interviewing.

Handout: 11 Identifying the Community Power Structure,11

LUNCH

P.M. 1:00 - 2:20 TEE ADOPriON-DIFFUSION PROCESS: How People Adopt Ideas

~: The process by which people accept new ideas, including the process stages of awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption,

Methodology: Fl.annel board presentation/ small group exercise, using an innovative tape recording as the vehicle for discussion.

~: 11 The Diffusion Process, 11

~: Instructor Image Q.uestionnaire.


THURSDAY (Continued)

P.H. 2:20 - 2:30 BREAK

2:30 - 3:20 CO!I-Th1UNITY ACTION FOR EMERGENCY OPERATIONS; A Technique for Social Action

~: Presentation of the model used in the technique; the social action princi:plcs involved.

129

Methodology: Lecture/discussion/group review of' handouts.

Handouts: Kit of all OCD Community fl.ctJ.on publications; "12-Step Approach to Community Action;" "Where the Action Is;n "Potential Civil Defense Activities of Private Sector Organizations,"

3: 20 - 3: 30 SOCIAL ACTION QUARTETTE

3:30 - 4:00 Measures: Post-Interest Inventory and PostUsefulness Inventory.

l~RIDAY

A.M. 8:00 - 9:15 Measure: Post-Achievement Test,

9:15 - 9:30 BREAK

9:30 - 11:00 COMJYIUNITY ACTION FOR EMERGENCY OPERATIONS: The Practical Application by One Civil Defense Coordinator

~: What one coordinator has atteTrqJted, the experience gained, and the lessons learned,

Handout: Furnished by speaker, as desired,

Library References Available to Students

l. Beal, G. M., Yarbrough, P., IO.onglan, G. E., and Bohlen, J. M. Social action in civil defense. Rural Sociology Report No. 34. Anie"S: Iowa Stite University, 1964.


2. Bohlen, J. M., Bea.l, G. M., Klonglan, G. E., and Tait, J. L. !;; comparative analysis_££ community~~: !!:. delineation and conwa.rative analysis ~ ~ structures ~ five Iowa conmnmities. Rural Sociology Report No. 50 . .Ames: Iowa State University, 1967,

3. Klonglan, G. E., Beal, G. M., Bohlen, J. M., and Mulford, C. L. ~.££~civil defense directors' role performance -I<Iinnesota, Georgia and Massachusetts, A summary of the final re;port. Rur:aiSOCiology Re:port No. 52-; 1\mes: IowaBtate University, 1966.

130

4. Klonglan, G. E., Beal, G. M., Bohlen, J. M., and Coward, E. w., Jr. Factors related~ adoption progress: !::. 1966 national study of pub:lic fallout shelter adoption. Rural Sociology Report No. b'l+. Ames: Iowa State University, 196"(,

5. Klonglan, G. E., BeaJ., G. M., Bohlen, J. M., and Nye, J. R. Local governing ~: Their relation !£ civil defense, 2: summary .£! the final report. Rural Sociology Report N~ Ames: Iowa State University, 19o7.

6. Yarbrough, P. (Ed.) Seminar EE: application of social science ~!£civil defense problems, Vols. I - III. Rural Sociology Report No. 6~Ames: Iowa State University, 1967,


APPENDIX B

SCRIPr FOR RESEARCH INSTRUCTIONS

J.3J.


l32

SCRIPr FOR RESEARCH INSTRUCTIONS

We have a couple of things to do before we begin the regular Social

Action unit.

You will remember that the Course Chairman spoke to you on the first

day of this course about the process by which the Career Program came

into being. Civil Defense Coordinators, plus State and Regional civil

defense personnel and outside consultants, all contributed in depth '1-?ith

advice and suggestions. In a sense, the Career Pl'ogram is still in the

pilot stage. We are continually asking members of its various classes

to provide feedback to assist us with revisions, improvements, or updating,

The Course Chairman also told you in the Introduction that during

this particular Social Action Unit we would again be asking for your help

in giving us specific feedback. You see, the staff here presents these

various units continually. We are familiar with the subject matter area,

and it becomes quite difficult for us after a time to place ourselves in

the student 1 s boots, to see things from his standpoint. l1e ask ourselves

things like, 11 Are '\'le really presenting what Hill help the Coordinator the

most?n nAre our objectives realistic? 11 Or, ttAre we setting our sights

too high?n ttor too lm·r'!" The only way we will know for sure is to have

you, and people like you, help to ans'"er the question for us--answer it

in some kind of a controlled, objective, in-depth sort of way.

So that is part of Hhat we are doine; right nol'r--asking you to give

us the benefit of your thoughtful, considered response. Remember this

is not an attempt to evaluate you as an individual; it is an attempt to

evaluate what we are doing here at Staff College.


133

One reason we picked the Social Action Unit was because the material

in it is probably newer to you than that in some of the other units of

Phase II, or at least it will be approached in a little different fashion

than you have been used to.

I have here a list of the behavioral objectives for the entire Unit.

Twenty objectives. They are detailed statements of specific things we

think you should be able to do when the unit of instruction is over. In

a minute I will give a copy to each of you. You will see at once that we

want you to rate your interest in each of the objectives-~honestly and

frankly, exactly what your interest is as you perceive it. By interest,

we mean your, let's say, emotional reaction to an objective--whether you

like it or dislike it, or just f'eel neutral about it.

Please listen carefully to this next point, Marking an interest

rating scale is dif'ficult. We know that. Because how does one judge

his degree of interest? But marking this interest rating scale this

afternoon is one of' the most important things you will have done for us

during your two weeks here. The crucial thing is that you mark a range

of interest. By that I mea.n that, if you react differently to one objec

tive than to another, even only a little diff'erently, then be sure to

mark it differently. It would be quite unlikely that you would feel

exactly the same about all of the objectives. If, out of hurry or for

some other reason, you mark all objectives the same, when you really

don't feel quite the same about all of them, you are not helping us in

this case. So do try to show the differences in your responses to the

various objectives.


'.i' '

Since you mark your interest in one in a relative way as compared

to another, perhaps you could do the job better if you read all of the

objectives through once before you begin marking. Then use your own

system. Maybe you wi.ll want to mark all of those in which you are most

interested first, all o£ those in which you are least interested next,

and then mark those in between. Whatever procedure you choose is fine

with us.

Do not hesitate to mark at the low end of the scale on some, if'

that is where your true interest level is. Or at the high end if your

interest is there. Be :frank. No one will ever make any attempt to

identify you by your symbol. We are interested in your symbol only to

be able to group all of the papers which came from one person, not to

know who that person is.

As soon as you receive your paper, put your symbol on it, so that

you do not forget. Next read the instructions. Then we will take a

minute for any questions you have and for explanation of any words in

the inventory which are not clear. Marking the inventory probably will

not take more than 15 minutes. When aJ.l of you have finished, I am ask

ing Keith to collect them and mix them up as he does it, just so you

will know your anonymity is preserved.

I:f you have any questions, while you are working, raise your hand,

and I will help you. As soon as you have all completed the interest

scale, I will explain what the second thing is that I said we were going

to do.

134


APPENDIX C

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

l35


'CIVIL DEFENSE CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

PHASE II

11 TllE WORK ENVIRONMENT OF THE COORDINATOR11

SOCIAL SYSTEMS AND SOCIAL ACTION UNIT

EXAMINATION

80 ITEMB TIME LIMIT: 1-1/4 l!rs.

DIRECTIONS: Each item is followed by four possible answers. The questions are designed so that more than one of the four possible answers may appear to be correct. However, for each item there is one answer which is better than the other three. Select the phrase or sentence whi"'CiliSthe ~answer for an item and place an "X" in the proper blank on the Answer Sheet,

QQ. NOT WRITE Q!:! ~ BOORLET

ANSWER ~ WILL ~ PROVIDED


1. In order to be classified as a social system, two or more persons must interact wl th each other:

a. one or more times.

b. many times, over a period of time.

c. over a period of time and in certain ways.

d. a number of times, formally and informally.

2. Sup:pose you live ip. Terrence, Mississippi. Relating this fact to social system theory regarding the characteristics of social systems, you know that you are automatically a member of:

a. a set of interdependent social subsystems.

b. a territoriality social system within territorialities, but not containing any territorialities.

nothing described in ~ and _£ above.

d. everything described in!: and:£ above.

137

3. If you know the characteristics of a particular formal social system in detail, which behavior of its members will you be able to predict?

a. Certain behavior.

b. All of the behavior.

c. Only informal behavior,

d. All formal and informal behavior,

4. You have a relative in a distant State and a friend in your connnunity who are both members of an organization vrhich has groups in communities throughout. the nation. According to social system theory concerning the ~haracteristics of a social system, •rhat do you know for~ that your relative and the friend vrill have in common?

a. Little, since they come from widely different sections of the nation,

b. Only language and a membership in an organization.

c. Some definitions and expectations.

d. A number of things from many aspects o.r lif'e.


5. In a conununity, the granting of rank, or power to influence, is a process which is:

a. not really e:x:plainable.

b. formal and based on well-defined patterns.

informal and based more upon the possession of wealth than any other factor.

d. informal and based upon many factors.

6. The elements (units of social structure and function) which social systems contain can be said to be:

a, alike in content in all social systems.

b. different in specific quality in each social Rystem.

c. related to some but not all of the processes which are going on in the social systems.

d. related to some but not all of the conditions for action within the social systems,

7. The Civil Defense Coordinator should know that the concept of territoriality, as it is used in social systems theory, is:

a. not a condition for action in the social system.

b. related to the interactions of the members.

c. completely controlled :Jy the members of the social system.

d. more important to his emere;ency operations program than are the elements and processes of the community social system.

8, There are certain master processes which occur in all community social systems, It is important to the Civil Defense Coordinator to know that these processes:

a, cannot affect the ultimate goals of a social system.

b. tend to affect the social system on a short-term basis only.

c. do not alter the elements, which are static.

d. alter the elements, which are dynamic.

138


139

9. Your local government needs lists of' all of the resources available in your jurisdiction (manpower, skills, facilities, equipment, etc.), and you wonder how you and the Department Heads can begin to organize the prOject. You decide the best way~~ to make sense of the many parts of' a social structure as varied as your conununi ty is to:

a. study the organizational pattern of the individual social subsystems.

b. idEmtify the leading social subsystems and determine how they link to the larger community.

c. identify as many as you can of the individual social subsystems and group them under the category of social systems to which they belong,

d. analyze the goals of the main social subsystems and decide whether they are related to emergency operations in any way.

10. The First National Bank of Goombie is located in your community. You recognize that this bank is a (an):

a. general institution.

b. specific institution.

agency social system.

d. formal voluntary system.

11. A Civil Defense Coordinator studies the social cl8.ss structure of' his community because the social class structure:

a. meets all the specifications of a social system.

b. is one of the most mutually exclusive categories of social systems.

is a concept which gives assistance wlth the formal program objectives of the various social classes,

d. is a concept which gives insights into the formal organizations of the community.


12. When you place a. social subsystem which is in your community into a specific category, you have:

a. taken only a first step which gives you a limited bit of useful inf'ormation about that subsystem.

b. demonstrated that you have all the infonnation required to compare and contrast that subsystem with the other subsystems within your cormnunity.

c. taken the necessary action to m.a.ke a decision as to whether or not that subsystem can relate we11 to emergency ope rat ions,

d. not done anything which would justify selection of any of the answers above (~, _£, or ,£) as correct responses.

14o

13. Your community is noted as the Cereal Center of' America because it contains a number of plants which manufacture breakfast foods. One of these plants, The Snowf'lakes Company, is a branch of Dynamic Food Mills, Inc. According to social system theory, you have reason to believe that The Snowi'lakes Company is probably:

a. more closely linked to the other food manufacturing social systems within the community than to any social system outside the community.

b. more closely linked to the local government social system than to any other social system.

c. more closely linked to a social system, or systems, outside the community than to any social system within the community.

d. not closely linked to any other social system.

14. The linkages between community subsystems and the larger society are characterized as being:

a. horizontal, with high structure.

b. horizontal, with low structure.

c. vertical, with high structure.

d. vertical, with low structure.


15. Local social subsystems having the ty:pe of linkage which unite a community with the larger society tend to:

a. be the most eff'ecti ve organizations which carry prestige.

b. be staff'ed by unpaid officials.

141

c. have fewer restraining influences which may prevent them from getting involved in emergency planning and operations.

d. have fewer resources,

1.6. The local Civil. Defense Coordinator position in a community establishes a ~ linkage between:

a. local government and the organizations in the private sector.

b. local government and the larger society.

c. State government and the larger society,

d. different organizations within the private sector.

17. Your community Chamber of Commerce and School Board agree to work together in a campaign to promote the use of public and private buildings as designated public fallout shelters. As it relates to social. system theo:ry, this situation is most specifically an example of':

a. inf'luence.

b. linkage.

c. socialization,

d. institutionalization.

18. The linkages between social subsystems within a conununity are characterized as being:

a. horizontal, with high structure.

b. horizontal, with low structure.

c. vertical, with high structure.

d, vertical, with low structure.


19. The type of linkages in his community which a Civil Defense Coordinator has to work hardest to promote, integrate, and coordinate are:

a. horizontal and institutionalized linkages,

b. vertical and institutionalized linkages.

vertical linkages,

d. horizontal linkages.

20. A Civil Defense Coordinator would expect that an organization within the community which had high boundary maintenance and low horizontal linkage ·would be:

a, resistant to all systemic linkage.

b. easily moved to cooperate in many community activities,

c. one of the foremost community organizations to support emergency IJlanning and operations,

d. resistant to getting involved in emergency planning and o:perations,

21. The major purpose of the Social Action Unit of instruction is to give each Coordinator:

a. tools to use in mobilizing his community's resources for emergency operations.

b. sociological terms which apply in a practical way to his community as a social system.

a background of information which he can use to make positive impressions in his local conununity.

d. the results of research which used Civil Defense Coordinators as subjects.

142


143

22. To have effective emergency planning and operations in his jurisdiction, the Civil Defense Coordinator has to change beliefs, values and behaviors of :people. Primarily, he must change those which are:

a. held by peo:ple as individuals.

b, held by people as members of family and church groups,

patterned within all conununity groups.

d. not institutionalized iV'ithin community groups.

23. A Civil Defense Coordinator who understands his community as a social system knows that the belief's, values, and behaviors which connnuni ty groups have:

a, define the problems which the groups have.

b. are held by all members eg_ually.

are not involved in grou1J problem solving.

d. vary between grou:ps, but not much.

24. Understanding his conmmnity as a social system would help a Civil Def'ense Coordinator to:

a. know the types of groups he would have to work hardest with in order to involve them in emergency :planning and o:perations.

b. recognize the :places where the decisions for his connnunity would he made.

understand what needed to be changed in particular social systems for emergency operations purposes.

d. select a.lJ. of the responses above (~, E_, and.£) as correct.


25. A Civil. Defense Coordinator has a constraint (restraint) upon his role perf'orma.nce when the:

a. chief executive of his jurisdiction announces that he (the chief executive) will make the decisions in the EOC.

b. chief executive of his jurisdiction unexpectedly doubles the emergency operations budget.

c. people in the community put little pressure upon the chief' executive of' the jurisdiction to plan for emergency operations,

d. department heads of his local government believe they a.re to play major roles in emergency operations.

26. The_ C_ivil Defense Coordinator has a constraint upon his role performance when:

a. the chief executive tells the department heads what they are to do in the EOC.

b. he has identified the top influentials in his community and recognizes that they have few facts on emergency operations.

c, the voluntary organizations in the community do not link horizontally.

d. his chief executive has not established a vertical linkage with the State Civil Defense Office.

27. When a very influential :person in the community says that he is in favor of the local government planning for emergency operations but that there are other more important things which need to be done first, then the:

a.. inf'luential person has role ambiguity.

b, Civil Defense Coordinator has a constraint upon his role :perf'ormance.

c, local government has low boundary maintenance.

d. chief executive of the jurisdiction has had no effective socialization.

144


28. The major constraints u:pon the Civil Defense Coordinator's role performance originate with:

a. the Program Paper and similar requirements o1' the Federal government,

b, forces in local government and the connnuni ty.

pressures from the State Civil Defense Office.

d. overly committed individuals in local goverrunent.

29. One characteristic of goal displacement is that it is:

a. most likely to occur in the early days of an incumbent's job.

b. nearly always present as a problem.

c. most serious when priorities are not uniformly agreed u:pon.

d. less serious when it is only caused by priorities which are not uniformly agreed upon.

30. A characteristic of goal displacement in civil defense is that it:

a. probably occurs in most jurisdictions.

b. occurs mostly in the larger jurisdictions.

c. can be avoided if a Civil Defense Coordinator pays attention.

d. is the ratio of Federal goals to conununity goals.

31. If your chief executive tells you that the preparation of the community to cope with natural disasters should receive your first attention, but you work upon the completion of the conununity shelter plan, this is an example of:

a. role congruence.

b. goal arnbiguity.

goal displacement.

d. role displacement.


32. Goal displacement refers to:

a. long-term priori ties that remain relatively fixed.

b. two or more simultaneous but conflicting priorities,

c. priorities that change, usually as one gets additional facts to consider.

d. priori ties which shift at different levels of a social system.

33. A person who answers the question 11 'Who am I? 11 with the statements, 11A volunteer Coordinator who spends 30 hours per week on civil defense, 11 11 A small but hopeful businessman, 11 and 11 Loving father, 11

probably has role:

a, displacement.

b. congruence.

c, consensus,

d. conflict.

34. A characteristic of role conflict is that it:

a. is peculiar to civil defense related jobs.

b. cannot be avoided.

c. is increased l1i th increased selectivity.

d. is reduced by increased orientation.

35. Research findings seem to indicate that when a Civil Defense Coordinator has role conflict, he is most likely to:

a. do nothing.

b. fol~ow his own ideas of what he should do.

c, try to effect a colliiJromise.

d. please the one who contributes the most to his support.

146


36. The situation below which best illustrates role conflict is that of the Ci vH Defense Coordinator who:

a. expects things from his city manager and mayor which he does not get.

b. does not meet the expectations of the department heads,

disagrees with his mayor and city manager on expectations for the department heads.

d, has different expectations held for him by his mayor and by his city manager.

37, According to research findings, communication between local Civil Defense Coordinators and State Civil Defense personnel:

a, must be greater lqhen job orientation has been slighted,

b. is relatively unimportant.

c. is needed most with increased selectivity,

d. nearly always results in high role performance.

38. Selectivity means the amount of care which was used in choosing a person to be a Civil Defense Coordinator. Low selectivity:

a. usually means that there will be a relative lack of commitment on the part of the person chosen.

b. may mean that more job orientation and/or communication will be required.

is not related to role performance.

d. nearly always results in low role perfonnance.

39. The higher the Civil Defense Coordinator's level of knowledge (of norms, );lower, sanctions, authority system, etc.) the higher will be the );lossibility that:

a. he will ex:perience dissatisfaction in his job over the long term.

b. he will be committed to his job.

c. institutionalization will not be af't'ected by his role pert'orrnance.

d_ undesirable boundary maintenance will occur.

147


148

40, Each of three primary activities must be accomplished by a Civil Defense Coordinator in order for him to have a relatively high level of role performance, These primary activities are:

a. socialization, orientation, and developing linkages.

b. boundary maintenance, communication, and developing linkages.

c. social control, socialization, and boundary maintenance,

d. boundary maintenance, institutionalization, and develOI>ing linkages.

41. If a Civil Defense Coordinator does not know what he is supposed to do in the Community Shelter Planning Program of his conununity, he can be said to be experiencing role:

a. displacement,

b. ambiguity.

c. conflict.

d. expectations which are unshared,

42. The results of research on definition of the Civil Defense Coordinator 1 s role indicate that:

a. local government officials are :performing certain tasks which are not a part of their job.

b. misconceptions of roles are important only when you hold them about your Olffi role.

specific program definitions with clear-cut boundaries are more important than role definitions.

d. the role of the Civil Defense Coordinator does not require any further definition,

43. ~ is best defined as:

a, the expectations which a person himself holds for his performance in a position.

b, a set of expectations applied to an incwnbent of a position.

the actual behavior of an incwnbent of a position.

d. none of the points given in 2:' E_, and~' above.


44. If' a Civil Defense Coordinator's role is not officially defined in clear terms, it can lead to:

a. high role conflict and high role performance.

b. low role conflict and hich role :performance.

c. hieh role ambiguity and lm·r role performance.

d. lm.,r role performance and high goal displacement.

!~5. A typical power actor (influential) in a community would least likely be found in the age group of': --

a. 30 - 4o.

b. 40 - 50.

c. 50 - 6o.

a. 6o - 70.

46. The person most likely to be a ltey or top power actor in his connnunity, by reason of the formal authority vested in his job or position, is:

a. a court judge.

b, the president of a company.

c. the chairman of the school board.

d. the editor of the leading newspaper.

47. Power actors in a ccu:mmmity perceive certain attributes as essential for giving individuals social power or influence. From the following list, select the one most positive attribute for giving social power:

a, Family background.

b. Formal education.

Wealth.

d. Long-term residence in the community.

48. Connnunity influentials have similar personal and social characteristics. The one characteristic where the most variation is apt to occur is:

a. income group.

b, age group.

occupation,

d. length of residence in the conununi ty.


I'

49. Af'te!' introducing yourself, the first information you should give an interviewee (knowledgeable person) when using the reputational interview technique to ask for names of community influentials is:

a. the distribution which will be made of the infonnation provided.

b, how you will use the names,

c. why you want the names.

d. the :purpose of the interview.

50. In conducting a reputational interview, the most important item in connection with the greeting and introduction is:

a. eye contact, c. facial expression.

b. voice modulation. d. tY]?e of gestures.

150

51. If you plan to take notes while interviewing a knowledgeable person about community influentials, what preliminary information can you give to ease his mind on this point? Tell him:

a. nothing, since most people would expect you to take notes,

b. that you can't remember well.

that you wish to be accurate in spelling the names he suggests,

d. that you are concerned with having his comments in detail.

52. In choosing the knowledgeable persons in the community who will be interviewed in order to identify power actors (influentials) one should select the interviewees from:

a. any occu}Jation which gives them an opportunity to see, hear, and knm.; a good deal about various community issues.

b. any occupation which influences conununity members and issues most,

c. banking and business, since the economic areas and issues are the most vital to the largest number of community members.

d. the area of religion, since ministers in a conununity collectively know more people than any other group.


151

53, Civil Defense Coordinators (change agents) who have a knowledge of the interpersonal relations of the power actors within the conununity power structure, will find such information LEAST useful in:

a. diffusing new information and ideas into the power structure,

b. obtaining feedback information from the connnunity power structure.

c. building linkages to relevant poiver cliques within the power structure.

d. securing unlimited support for an j.ssue placed before the conununity power structure.

54. Power actors in a connnunity are most likely to support a shelter program if it is limited to: --

a. home construction.

b. private construction.

c. Federally financed building solely for public use.

d. utilizing existing connnunity buildings and future new buildings.

55. The prime purpose of the Home Fallout Protection Survey was to get data on home basements, The results of this survey should help you ~in:

a. determining power actors' attitudes,

b. completing your community shelter planning,

c. planning future surveys for shelter.

d. making civil defense education plans.

56. In securing cooperation of power actors for emergency operations programs, you would recall (from research) that most power actors:

a. feel they have a community responsibility in the area of ci vi! defense.

b. resent civil defense programs.

c. have a reasonably good knowledge of civil defense activities.

d, rely on Civil Defense Coordinators for their civil defense information.


152

57. Individuals move through well-defined stages in accepting a new idea or practice. The advice and conunents of friends and neighbors are used most by an individual during which stage?

a, Interest. c. Evaluation,

b, Awareness, d. Information.

58. The trial stage of the diffusion process is characterized by:

a, use of ideas. drill and training,

b. small scale eX];Jerimental d. practice to increase skill.

59. As they take part in the diffusion process, individuals have certain characteristics. They:

a. mentally reject advice of friends or neighbors.

b. relate better to complex than simple ideas.

can distine;uish one stac;e from another.

d. generally proceed at the same rate.

60, Recent research shows the average United States citizen is nearest what diffusion-adoption stage in thinking about the Civil Defense program for his community?

a, Awareness. c. Trial.

b. Interest. d, Adoption,

61. According to research findings, people used newspapers as a source of information on public fallout shelters during the stage of:

a. awareness, evaluation.

b. trial. d. adoption.

62, During the trial stage of adopting an idea or program, an indi vidual will rely most on information from:

a, nei.'~hbors and friends" c. government agencies,

b. mass media. d, salesmen, dealers, promoters.


63. Social research shows that the second most important source of ini'ormation in terms of making people aware of new ideas is:

a. radio and TV, c. public libraries.

b. government agencies, d, salesmen and dealers.

64. During a period of crisis people seek information. To stimulate maximum diffusion of infonnation during a hurricane alert, you would use:

a. telephone. c. newspapers.

b. radio and TV, d. magazines,

65, When people are pushed toward adoption of a new idea, you would expect to get:

a, an increase in the rejection rate,

b, a decrease in time spent in the evaluation stage,

153

an increase in the number of innovators and e8rly adopters.

d. a decrease in time spent in the information stage.

66. Individuals may be classified in terms of the rate at which they accept a new idea. The last few persons to adopt or try a new idea are classed as:

a. laggards. c. late legitimizers.

b. late majority. d. late innovators.

67. The first people to adopt ideas are caJ.led innovators. The most outstanding characteristics of innovators is their:

a, weaJ..th. c. social position.

b. education. d. community activity.


68. People who never adopt a new idea, program, or process are termed nonadopters, Such individuals have a characteristic of being:

a. the oldest. c, of middle social class,

b. avid readers. d. among the better educated.

69. One of the best ways to get conununity action for emergency operations is to make sure that:

a.. all organizations in the private sector have emergency operations assignments.

b. the highest elected official makes public appeals to private organizations to assist with emergency operations.

c. public and private organizations work together in emergency operations aasigrunents.

d. department heads select individual members of the community for emergency operations posts.

154

70. The best reason why local govermnent must be involved in community a.cti'O'Iii'or emergency operations is because J.ocal government officiaJ.s:

a. have the responsibility to use private sector resources in case of' emergency.

b. wiJ.J. learn ef'fective emergency operations in this way.

c. can best identify the informal power structure in the conununi ty.

d. must maintain services to the comnunity during an emergency.

71. Community action f'or emergency operations is mandatory because:

a. people are not interested in emergency operations.

b. competition f'or tax dollars and skilled personnel is greater than ever before.

c. the Civil Def'ense Coordinator must play a larger role in his community.

d. most locaJ. emergency operations plans are obsolete.


72. Connnun:i.ty action for emergency operations should follow the principle that:

a. every private organization should have an emergency operations assignment.

b. specific private organizations should assist specific departments of local government.

c, members of private organizations should accept emergency operations positions only throue;h their omt specific organization.

d. the Civil Defense Coordinator decides which emergency functions are to be assigned to specific private organi>mtions.

73, The dual aPproach in maldng use of' the private sector of a connnunity means that the Civil Defense Coordinator:

a. approaches private organizations for emergency operations assistance in company with another person.

b. makes sure that at least two :people, or groups, are qualified to cover a particular emergency operations fUnction, so that an alternate is available, if needed.

c. has both the formal and informal power structures assign private organizations to emergency operations posts.

d. uses private organi3ations in the ccnmnunity to do those emergency operations tasks which they can do best.

74. With reference to "Community Action for Emergency Operations, n the term structural capability refers to the capability of a group in the conununity to:

a. be organized accordine; to local government's organiM zational pattern.

b. provide specific serv:i.ces durinc; emergency operations because of its particular orc;anizational structure.

c. provide structUl'es w·hich the group mm.s or controls to be used in emergency operations.

d. write an emergency operations plan.

155


75. When it is said that many organizations in the community already have an emergency operations assignment whether anyone ever planned for them to have it or not, what is meant is that:

a, leadership always emerges from among the survivors of a disaster and organizations are no exception to this leadership pattern.

b. so much help is needed after a disaster that organizations will be reg_uired to assist, whether or not they had planned to do so.

c. after a disaster, organizations will quite naturally fall into helping with tasks which are closely related to what they do normally.

d. after a disaster, no one is exem:pt from helping,

76. What we mean when we say we need nto build an emergency operations capability into the connnuni ty11 is that:

a. an emergency operating center should be constructed for direction and control.

b, a disaster organization should be created in the private sector of the community to take charge in a disaster.

c. the capability for emergency action which already exists in the connnunity should be used and expanded upon.

d. the community can expect to be able to function without a Civil Defense Coordinator.

77. The best reason why a Civil Defense Coordinator is such a vi tal linkinhis community's emergency operations program is that:

a. the quality of his role performance affects so many people.

b. responsibility for the social action of the community rests with him.

c. he directs the emergency o:perations of his connnunity,

d. he coordinates the organization of the conununity' s emergency resources into one unified whole.

156


78. The Department of Public Works in your local government is small and will need assistance in times of emergency. When it comes time to select someone to help the department, you decide to ask:

a, a local moving company to assist.

b. a local utility company to help you locate suitable organizations to assist.

c. the department head what conununity groups could best help him with the -work he bas to do.

d, the State Civil Defense Office what you should do.

79. Your critical function in 11 Comrnunity Action for Emergency Operations centers around the activity o.r:

a, moving the government and people of your community to work together in emergency planning and operations,

b. establishing lists of essential emergency resources.

locating essential skills in the cormnunity which are needed for emergency operations,

d. getting an emergency operations :plan written for the jurisdiction.

So. One reason for bringing the department heads of local govermnent in on the early stages of :planning for "Community Action for Emergency Operations 11 is that you recognize the principle that:

a. people are more apt to support that which they help to create.

b. you need the benefit of their experience to organize the civil defense office.

c. the more people there are on the team the easier it will be to get effective emergency operations planning done.

d. involving them will help you get the full support of your chief executive.

157


APPENDIX D

INTEREST INVENTORY


159 Identification Symbol -----

INTEREST INVENTORY

The purpose of this rating scale is to measure the degree of in~ terest which you have in the objectives, or goals, of the Social Action Unit of instruction in Phase II. Please mark the rating scale honestly and frankly.

In marking the scale, make your judgments on the basis of your current interest only, as you perceive it today. Show the differences in your degrees of interest in the various objectives by circling the number which most nearly approximates how you feel, according to the definitions given below of what the numbers mean.

1. Strongly uninterested: Not only have no interest in achieving the objective but have a strong negative reaction to doing so.

2. Quite uninterested: Not interested but less negative reaction than in!·

3. Slightly uninterested: Not interested but EE_ negative reaction.

4. Neither interested nor uninterested: Neutral in your reaction.

5. Slightly interested: Small positive attraction to achieving the objective.

6. Q,uite interested: Moderate positive attraction to achieve--more interest than _2, less than 1·

7. Strongly interested: High positive response; high attraction to achieve.

To illustrate, Objective No. 1 is:

1. Define a social system.

If you are not interested in learning to define a social system and are, for example, a little angered at the idea of having to do so, circle 1. If you arc not interested in achieving this objective but are not "ingered, perhaps only bored, at having to do so, then circle 2. If you are not interested but have no adverse feelings toward it, circle 3. If you just do not care one way or the other, circle lL And so on. It is highly possible that your interest will range to all points of the scale by the time you have marked all twenty-f'ive objectives.

Proceed in this way: Read all of the objectives through once; then mark the scale by circling your choice in each case.


Are you interested in being able to:

l. Define a social system?

2. Briefly describe the elements, processes, and conditions for action in a social system?

3. Make a checklist of categories of social subsystems within your community, with specific examples of each?

4. Identify the type of linkage involved when local social subsystems are linked to the

Uninterested N s q E t u u

i T t g R

n h A g t L l y

larger society and give some characteristics of this linkage? 1

5. Identify the type of linkage involved when local social subsystems unite to work togethe:r on a mutual goal and give some characteristics of this linkage?

6. Explain the importance which an understanding of the community as a social system has for you as a Civil Defense Coordinator?

7. Identify some of the factors (constraints) t-lhich operate to affect a Civil Defense Coordinator's role performance in an adverse >·ray?

g h t g

l y y

160


l6l

Uninterested N ~ s q s E q t l u r T 0 g R g

h A h g t L t g l l l 1 y y y y

8. Define goal displacement and give an exemple of one of the causes for the goaJ. displace-ment which many Civil Defense Coordinators experience? 1 2 6

9. Define role conflict, describe some of the most important situations which may cause role conflict for a Civil Defense Coordinator and explain what action will help to reduce it f'or him? 2

lO, Identify and explain the inter-actions of those i terns {vari-abl.es) which research has indicated have the most impor-tant influence on a Civil Defense Coordinator 1 s role J..'erformance? 4

n. Explain the importance to the Civil Defense Coordinator of a clear official definition of his role? l 6

l2. List several personal-social characteristics of power actors (influential persons} in a community social system?

13. Describe the main points to be considered in interviewing knowledgeable persons in order to identif'y the power actors within a community social structure? l 6


1.4. Describe how to apply at least one research finding about connnunity power actors to one of your community action pro~ grams for emergency operations?

15. Identify the sequence and de~ scribe the five stages of the mental. process through which people pass as they are making a decision to accept (or re~ ject) a new idea?

16. Identify the sources of' infer~ mation that individuals use during the difi'erent stages of the :process in which they con~ aider adoption of new ideas?

17. Explain the characteristics of' individuals who adoiJt ideas at dif'f'erent rates?

18. Briefly describe the technique called 11 Connnuni ty Action for Emergency Operations" which is presented during the Social

Uninterested q u

g h

g t l l y y

N E u T R A

g h t g l 1 y y

6

Action Unit? 6

19. Explain what is meant by the dual a:p:proach in making use of peo1Jle, skills, and resources in ncommunity Action for Emer-gency Operations"? 1

20. Describe the £'unction which the Civil Defense Coordinator perfonns in "Community Action for Emergency Operations 11 ? l 7


APPENDIX E

USEFULNESS INVENTORY


164

Identification Symbol -----

USEFULNESS INVENTORY

The purpose of this rating scale is to mea.sure ;_rou ,judgment of how useful achievement of the various objectives of the SocJ8.l Action Unit of instruction in Phase II is to you on your job. Please mark the rating scale honestly and frankly. Circle your answers. (Be sure to fill in your identification symbol at the top of this page.)

In your judgment, hu .. much usefulness does it have for you in your job to be able to:

1. Define a social system? poor

2. Briefly describe the elements, processes, and conditions for action in a social system? poor

3. Make a checklist of categories of social su1Jsystems within your cornmunity, with specific examples of each? poor

4. Identify the type of linkage involved when local social subsystems are linked to the larger society and give some characteristics of this

fair avg. good exc.

fair avg. good exc.

fair avg. good exc.

linkage? poor fair avg. good exc,

5. Identify the type of linkage involved when local social subsystems unite to work together on a mutual goal and give some characteristics of this linkage? poor fair avg. good exc.

6, Explain the importance which an understanding of the community as a social system has for you as a Civil Defense Coordinator? poor fair avg. good exc.

7. Identify some of the factors (constraints) which operate to affect a Civil Defense Coordinator 1 s role performance in an adverse way? poor fair avg. good exc.


165

8. Define goal displacement and give an example of one of the causes for the goal displace-ment which many Civil Defense Coordinators experience? poor fair avg. good exc.

9· Define role conflict, describe some of the most important situations which may cause role conflict for a Civil De-fense Coordinator and explain what action will help to reduce it f'or him? poor fair avg. good exc.

10. Identify and explain the interactions of those items (variables) which research has indicated have the most important influence on a Ci v:i.l Dei'ense Coordinator 1 s role performance? poor fair avg, good exc.

11. Explain the im:portanoe to the Civil Defense Coordina-tor of a clear official definition of his role? poor fair avg. good

12. List several personal-social characteristics of power actors (influential persons) in . community soc.:.al system? poor fair avg, good exc.

13. Describe the main points to be considered in interviewing knowledgeable persons in order to identify the power actors within a community social structure? poor fair avg. good exc.

14. Describe how to awly at least one research finding about community power actors to one of your community action pro-grams for emergency operations? poor fair avg. good exc.

15. Identify the sequence and de-scribe the five stages of the mental process through which people pass as they are making a decision to accept (or re-ject) a new idea? poor fair avg. good exc.


166

16. Identi.fy' the sources of in-formation that individuals use during the dif'f'erent stages of the process in which they consider adop-tion of new ideas? poor fair e.vg. good exc.

17. Explain the characteristics of individuals who adopt ideas at different rates? poor fair a.vg, good exc,

18. Briefly describe the tech-nique called 11 Community Action for Emergency Opera-tions 11 which is presented during the Social Action Unit? poor fair avg. good exc.

19. Explain what is meant by the dual awroach in making use of people, skills, and resources in ncommunity Action f'or Emergency Opera-tions"? poor fair avg. good exc.

20. Describe the function which the Civil Defense Coordinator performs in 11 Community Action for Emergency Operations"? poor fair avg. good exc.


APPENDIX F

INSTRUCTOR IMAGE QUESTIONNAIRE

167


168

Identification Symbol------

INSTRUCTOR lliAGE QUESTIONNAIHE

Please answer the following questions honestly and frankly. Circle your answers. Do not give ~rour name, but place your identification symbol in the space provided above.

What is your opinion concerning this instructor 1 s:

l. Knowledge of subject: (Does this instructor have a thorough knowledge of the subject matter?) poor fair avg. good exc.

2. Clarity of presentation: (Are ideas and explanations presented at a level which you can understand?) poor fair avg. good ex c.

3. Fairness: (Is this instructor fair and impartial in his treatment of all students?) poor fair avg. good exc.

4. Attitude tmrard students: (Do you feel that this instructor respects you as a person?)

5. Success in stimulating interest: (Is this unit interest-

:poor

ing and challenging?) poor

6. Enthusiasm: (Does this instructor show interest in and enthusiasm for the subject?) poor

7. Attitude toward student ideas: (Does this instructor have respect for the things you have to say in class?) poor

8. Sense of' humor: (Does this instructor see and share amusing incidents with students?) poor

fair avg. good

fair avg. good exc.

fair avg, good exc.

f'a.ir avg. good

f'air avg. good exc.


169 9. Encouragement of student

Tarticipation: Does this instructor encour-

age you to raise questions and express your own ideas?) poor fair avg. good exc,

10. enness: Is this instructor able to

see things from your point of view?) poor fair avg. good exc.

ll. Self-control: (Does this instructor remain poised when little problems arise in classn poor fair avg. good exc.

12. Consideration of others: (Is this instructor patient, considerate and courteous?) poor fair avg. good exc.

13. Evaluation: (What is your overall. opinion of this instructor?) poor fair avg. good exc.


APPENDIX G

DATA TABLES

J.70

Reproduced w

ith permission of the copyright ow

ner. Further reproduction prohibited w

ithout permission.

TABLE 19

Pre-Interest Scores

Objective Student

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO ll 12 l3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

4 4 4 4 6 6 5 7 6 5 6 5 4 6 6 6 4 4 4 100 2 6 6 7 5 5 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 6 6 5 7 7 7 129 3 6 6 5 6 7 6 7 6 6 7 6 5 6 6 5 5 5 7 '1 7 121 4 6 7 6 7 7 7 7 6 7 6 6 7 7 6 7 6 7 7 7 7 133 5 5 5 2 4 4 4 6 4 5 5 4 4 6 6 6 6 5 4 4 4 93 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 ll9 7 6 5 5 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 ll3 8 5 4 2 4 4 7 6 5 7 5 6 4 6 5 4 5 4 4 5 6 98 9 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 4 6 5 7 115

10 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 90 11 6 6 5 6 7 6 7 6 6 7 6 5 6 5 6 6 5 6 4 5 116 12 7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 4 7 7 7 4 4 4 7 7 7 105 13 3 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 2 2 4 2 3 63 14 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 3 3 3 6 6 7 110 15 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 121 16 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 7 4 4 6 6 5 5 7 7 7 97 l7 7 7 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 134 18 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 120 19 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 l40 20 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 2l 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 138 22 6 6 7 6 6 7 6 6 7 6 7 5 5 6 6 6 5 6 6 7 l22 23 6 5 7 5 3 7 7 6 5 6 7 7 6 6 7 7 7 6 4 5 119 24 2 3 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 4 4 4 2 2 3 53 25 5 5 3 3 5 6 7 7 7 7 5 5 5 3 5 5 3 6 6 5 103

1-'

i:J

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 19 (Continued)

Objective Student

4 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

26 7 6 5 6 6 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 133 27 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 28 7 7 5 5 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 127 29 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 6 126 30 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 123 31 4 3 4 3 5 4 4 4 3 5 5 4 4 3 3 4 !; 3 4 76 32 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 14o 33 5 5 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 5 6 5 5 5 6 112 34 7 7 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 118 35 6 6 6 7 7 7 6 6 7 6 7 7 5 6 6 7 7 6 6 127 36 5 5 4 5 5 6 5 7 7 5 7 7 7 6 5 6 6 6 5 7 116 37 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 5 6 5 4 6 6 3 3 3 4 6 6 7 99 38 5 5 5 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 5 6 100

39 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 5 6 6 6 4 4 4 100 4o 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 5 5 6 6 5 6 5 6 4 5 5 101 41 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 137 42 6 6 7 5 5 7 7 6 7 7 4 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 5 7 127 43 5 5 5 4 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 5 7 5 5 4 5 6 7 114 44 6 6 7 5 5 7 7 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 5 6 7 7 125

1;l

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 20

Post-Interest Scores

Objective Student

4 6 8 14 16 18 1 2 3 5 7 9 10 11 12 13 15 17 19 20 Total

1 5 5 6 5 5 5 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 5 6 5 4 4 4 109 2 6 5 6 6 6 7 7 5 5 6 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 lll 3 6 6 5 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 7 7 7 129 4 6 6 7 6 7 7 7 6 6 7 7 7 7 6 6 7 7 7 6 7 132 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 5 5 g 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 102 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 5 6 6 117 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 134 8 4 5 5 5 5 5 7 5 7 5 7 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 7 106 9 5 6 5 6 7 7 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 6 6 7 124

10 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 14o 11 4 5 5 3 4 6 6 4 4 3 7 6 6 5 4 4 5 6 6 5 98 12 6 6 6 5 6 7 5 4 5 4 6 5 6 4 6 5 5 5 6 6 108 13 5 5 6 5 5 6 5 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 5 4 5 5 5 5 106 14 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 121 15 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 121 16 5 5 7 4 4 7 6 7 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 5 6 6 6 107 17 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 139 18 6 6 7 6 7 7 7 6 6 '7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 135 19 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 20 6 6 6 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 130 21 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 22 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 123 23 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 6 4 4 5 4 5 4 4 99 24 6 6 7 7 7 6 6 5 6 6 7 7 5 6 5 5 4 4 5 6 116 25 7 6 5 6 6 7 6 5 6 6 4 4 5 6 7 5 5 6 7 7 116

2

Reproduced w



ithout permission.


Student Objective

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

26 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 14o 27 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 28 6 7 6 5 7 7 6 4 6 5 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 6 6 cr 120 29 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 14o 30 7 6 5 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 4 5 4 6 6 6 118 31 5 4 4 3 3 4 4 5 5 4 6 6 5 4 ,, 5 4 4 5 6 90 32 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 33 6 5 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 109 34 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 140 35 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 6 6 5 7 6 7 125 36 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 5 5 6 7 7 5 7 7 7 6 6 6 125 37 4 5 4 4 5 6 6 4 5 3 5 4 4 3 5 4 4 6 5 7 93 38 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 128 39 6 6 4 4 5 6 6 5 6 5 4 6 4 5 4 4 4 3 4 4 95 4o 6 6 6 4 4 5 5 6 4 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 6 5 6 5 105 41 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 7 7 7 120 42 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 120 43 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 7 124 44 7 5 6 6 5 7 6 6 6 5 4 7 7 5 7 7 5 5 6 7 119

i

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 21

Pre-Achievement Scores

Objective Student

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

1 4 1 2 0 2 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 47 2 2 3 3 4 l l 3 2 0 1 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 45 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 45 4 2 2 1 0 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 l 4 4 0 2 4 2 1 4 45 5 2 3 2 1 2 4 3 2 1 2 3 2 l 3 1 2 3 3 4 45 6 3 3 l 2 1 1 3 2 3 0 2 l 3 4 2 2 1 3 3 4 44 7 1 l 2 2 2 2 3 3 l l 2 2 3 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 44 8 1 3 4 2 2 2 3 l 2 2 l 2 2 1 1 3 2 3 3 3 43 9 3 2 2 0 3 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 4 3 4 43

10 0 4 2 1 2 2 4 3 3 0 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 4 2 41 11 4 3 l 4 2 2 3 2 2 1 0 3 2 l l 2 3 l 3 l 41 12 2 2 2 3 2 l 3 3 0 3 l 2 3 l 0 2 2 2 2 4 40 13 2 1 1 2 3 2 3 0 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 l 1 4 39 14 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 4 l 2 l 3 3 3 4 3 39 15 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 0 3 1 2 3 2 0 2 38 16 2 2 4 1 l 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 0 2 3 2 1 l h 3 37 17 2 0 1 0 l 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 4 2 37 18 2 0 l 1 2 2 4 0 3 1 0 3 l 3 0 2 2 2 3 4 36 19 1 1 1 2 4 2 l 2 3 2 0 0 1 3 0 2 2 1 3 4 35 20 2 3 2 0 0 2 1 2 2 ' 3 1 2 1 0 3 2 1 L. 3 35 21 2 1 2 1 0 3 1 3 0 0 l 2 2 3 1 l 3 2 4 3 35 22 1 2 2 2 2 2 l 3 2 2 0 3 0 2 1 3 2 l 2 1 34 23 2 l 1 1 2 3 2 0 2 1 l 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 34 24 l 3 3 1 l 3 2 1 2 2 0 2 2 4 l 2 l 2 0 0 33 25 2 2 2 l l 3 3 l 0 4 l 0 0 2 1 3 0 1 3 3 33 ....

--o ~

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 21. (Continued)

---Objective

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 l7 18 19 20 Total

26 1 0 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 l 1 1 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 33 27 3 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 1 3 l 2 3 1 l 0 0 0 0 0 31 28 3 1 l 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 31 29 0 l l 2 0 4 l 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 0 1 2 2 2 1 27 30 0 2 3 2 1 0 1 3 1 2 3 0 3 2 0 1 1 l 0 0 26 31 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 l l 0 3 1 2 0 1 0 0 19 32 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 14 33 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 4 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 3 4 4 45 34 3 3 2 2 2 4 1 3 2 3 2 2 4 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 53 35 2 2 0 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 1 0 4 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 39 36 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 3 2 0 3 2 2 2 3 42 37 2 3 3 2 4 4 2 2 2 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 4 3 4 3 55 38 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 2 1 2 1 1 3 2 0 2 0 3 2 3 40 39 2 2 0 2 3 2 4 3 2 3 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 3 3 3 42 4o 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 2 1 l 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 4 4 42 41 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 45 42 2 2 3 3 4 l 3 3 2 l 0 3 2 2 0 1 2 2 4 3 43 43 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 4 4 50 44 2 2 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 2 36

~

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 22

Post-Achievement Scores

Objective Student

l 2 ' 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

l 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 l 2 3 2 3 2 3 4 4 3 54 2 l 2 2 4 l 2 4 3 3 l 2 2 4 3 l 2 4 3 3 4 51 3 l l 2 l l 2 3 2 3 4 0 2 3 l 2 3 3 l 2 3 40 4 1 0 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 4 4 2 3 4 2 4 2 50 5 2 4 3 2 3 3 4 l 3 2 3 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 3 3 45 6 2 2 2 3 2 0 3 3 4 l 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 0 2 3 44 7 l 2 2 4 2 l l l 3 l 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 " 2 3 46 8 3 2 l, 2 2 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 l 3 3 4 4 3 58 9 2 3 l 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 l l 3 2 2 2 4 3 l 3 43

10 2 4 l 3 3 l 3 2 2 l 2 2 4 2 3 3 3 4 4 3 52 ll l l l 2 2 4 3 2 2 2 l 4 3 1 0 4 3 3 3 2 44 12 1 2 2 2 2 2 l 3 l 3 3 0 ,, l 1 2 3 1 1 4 39 13 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 1 3 4 l 3 4 2 3 3 4 3 4 4 56 14 2 2 2 2 l 2 4 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 4 4 49 15 3 2 4 2 1 2 4 2 2 3 3 2 4 1 0 4 4 2 4 3 52 16 3 1 2 2 2 0 3 3 2 2 0 2 3 2 3 3 3 0 2 4 41 17 0 1 3 3 2 2 4 2 3 l 3 1 4 l 1 2 2 4 4 3 46 18 2 0 l 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 4 3 4 4 48 19 l 1 2 2 1 4 3 2 2 3 l 3 4 4 3 2 4 0 4 4 50 20 0 2 1 4 l 2 3 1 4 3 3 3 3 l l 3 4 2 2 3 46 2l 2 3 1 1 0 l 3 1 3 2 2 4 4 1 2 2 3 2 4 4 45 22 3 2 2 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 0 3 2 2 2 3 4 3 3 3 49 23 2 2 3 0 2 3 3 2 3 2 l 3 2 3 3 4 2 2 4 3 49 24 2 2 4 3 l 4 3 l 3 4 3 3 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 59 25 1 1 l l 1 l 4 2 0 l 1 2 3 2 l 3 3 2 3 3 36

!:j

Reproduced w



ithout permission.


Student Objective

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

26 0 l 1 2 l 4 2 0 2 2 2 4 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 37 27 4 2 2 3 4 3 1 l 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 53 28 l l 2 l 2 2 3 3 3 2 0 2 3 l 0 2 3 0 4 4 39 29 2 2 1 2 l 2 1 1 l 3 0 3 3 l 3 2 2 2 2 3 37 30 1 2 l 3 3 1 3 l 2 l 0 l 3 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 41 31 1 0 1 3 l 1 2 1 2 0 0 3 3 4 l l 4 3 l 1 33 32 l 0 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 l 1 3 3 1 2 3 4o 33 1 1 1 l 1 L 3 4 4 2 1 4 3 3 l l 3 3 3 4 48 34 3 4 3 3 2 4 4 1 2 3 2 4 4 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 63 35 l 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 2 4 4 3 43 36 4 2 3 1 3 2 3 l 3 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 4 3 4 3 56 37 3 1 l 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 1 4 4 3 2 2 4 4 4 4 53 38 2 2 l 2 2 4 3 2 2 2 l 3 4 3 0 2 3 2 3 2 45 39 2 3 0 0 3 2 4 2 2 3 2 2 4 3 2 4 2 4 4 3 51 4o 4 l 3 l 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 4 54 41 l 2 2 l 4 4 2 1 4 2 l 4 4 2 l 2 2 4 4 4 ''" 42 2 l 2 l 4 0 3 2 l 2 l 2 2 2 2 l 3 2 2 3 38 43 3 l 3 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 56 44 l 4 l 2 3 3 l 2 4 4 2 2 3 l 2 3 2 l 4 3 49

!cJ,


l79 TABLE 23


Student Ntnnber of image item

l 6 10 11 12 13 Total

1 4 4 4 4 55

4 4 4 4 53

4 4 4 55

60

65

6 62

4 4 4 49

57

9 65

10 4 4 55

11 4 57

12 4 57

13 4 4 52

l4 62

15 63

16 4 49

l7 64

18 4 62

19 62

20 65

21 64


180


Nmnber of image item Student

10 11 12 13 Total

22 4 61

23 62

24 4 4 4 52

25 53

26 4 4 53

27 64

28 4 4 4 4 52

29 64

30 65

31 4 4 4 57

32 4 59

33 4 4 4 4 4 54

34 4 62

35 4 4 4 60

36 4 4 59

37 42

38 63

39 4 4 61

40 4 4 46

41 64

42 4 4 61

43 4 4 4 6o


181


Student Number of image item

10 11 12 13 Total

44 4 59

Total 209 191 208 200 187 203 196 191 190 189 195 205 202 2566

Mean 4.8 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.3 4.6 4.11 l1.3 1!.3 4.3 4.4 4.7 4.6 5.8


182 TABLE 24


Number of image i tern Student

10 ll 12 13 Total

1 63

4 53

64

5 65

4 4 4 4 52

65

4 4 4 59

8 65

4 4 4 55

10 4 60

11 63

12 65

13 4 52

14 65

15 65

16 65

17 65

18 65

19 65

20 65

21 65


183 TABLE 24 (Continued)


7 10 11 12 13 Total

22 62

23 65

24 53

25 57

26 65

27 65

28 62

29 65

30 65

31 51

32 6o

33 51

34 48

35 61

36 65

37 47

38 62

39 54

40 46

41 65

42 65

43 61


,\

184 TJ\BLE 24 (Continued)

Number of image item Student

1 4 10 11 12 13 Total

44 4 4 57

Total 212 204 204 207 199 209 199 199 201 198 205 204 212 2653

Mean 4.8 4,6 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.7 4,6 4.8 6.0


185 TABLE 25



4 10 11 12 13 Total

62

4 55

62

65

4 4 63

65

65

4 4 4 4 57

4 4 55

10 63

11 63

12 65

13 63

14 65

15 64

16 4 4 4 4 54

17 64

18 62

19 4 62

20 65

21 65




10 11 12 13 Total

22 61

23 59

24 57

25 59

26 65

27 65

28 6o

29 65

30 65

31 56

32 57

33 62

34 38

35 62

36 57

37 65

38 58

39 5'7

4o 59

41 65

42 50

43 64



Number of image item Student

10 11 12 13 Total

Total 205 202 205 210 200 205 208 208 205 203 206 207 209 2673

Mean 4.7 4.6 4.7 4.8 1+.5 4.7 1f.7 4.8 1, .. 7 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.8 6.1

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 26

Post-Usefulness Scores (3 Mos. Post-Instruction)

li = 16

Student Object.::.ve

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 :c4 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

2 4 3 3 3 4 5 4 2 4 3 5 4 2 3 4 4 3 1 2 2 65 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 5 5 3 5 4 5 3 4 5 4 4 4 4 84 7 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 72 8 3 3 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 61

10 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 4 3 3 3 3 3 67 ll 2 2 1 2 3 4 2 3 2 4 4 3 2 2 4 3 2 2 1 49 14 4 4 4 5 4 5 5 L. 4 4 5 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 82 15 5 5 lj 5 5 5 4 4 4 L. 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 92 19 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 4 5 4 5 91 21 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 lOO 22 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 5 4 3 3 4 5 4 t, 4 77 24 5 4 4 4 3 5 4 4 4 lc 5 4 4 5 3 3 4 4 4 4 81 26 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 t, 4 4 4 72 27 5 5 5

' 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 4 5 90

30 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 80 31 5 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 76

._. ~

Reproduced w



ithout permission.

TABLE 27

Post-Usefulness Scores (15 min. Post-Instruction) N ::=: 12

Student Objective

l 2 3 4 5 c 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total

33 4 3 4 3 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 75

34 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 97

35 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 95

36 5 4 3 3 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 4 84

37 2 3 4 2 4 5 5 2 4 3 3 2 4 4 3 3 2 4 4 5 68

38 4 4 4 3 3 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 85

39 3 3 2 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 57

4o 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 74

41 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 82

42 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 94

43 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 4 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 74

44 5 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 3 3 5 5 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 81

,_. &


190

TABLE 28

Frequency Distribution of Pre-Interest Scores (N = 44)

Interest scale _intervals Total

Objective Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 0 1 2 5 10 16 10 244 2 0 0 2 8 ll 15 8 239 3 0 3 2 8 12 7 12 230 4 0 0 4 9 12 ll 8 230 5 0 0 4 8 10 9 13 I 239 6 0 1 0 6 2 16 19 265 7 1 0 2 3 3 15 20 261, 8 0 0 1 7 3 21 12 256 9 0 0 2 2 ,, 17 19 269

10 0 1 2 1 6 16 18 264 ll 0 0 2 ,, 6 13 19 263 12 0 1 1 4 7 15 16 258 13 0 1 1 3 5 14 20 266 14 0 0 3 3 8 18 12 253 15 0 1 3 5 7 16 12 246 16 0 1 3 4 8 1'1 ll 246 17 0 1 2 9 10 ll ll 237 18 0 1 0 9 4 15 15 253 19 0 2 1 6 9 ll 15 247 20 0 0 2 5 6 9 22 264

Totals 14 39 109 143 282 292 880/5033


l9l

TABLE 29

Frequency Distribution of Post-Interest Scores (N = 44)

Objective Interest scale intervals

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Score

1 '+ 6 l9 15 265 2 3 9 23 9 258 3 5 8 l8 l3 259 4 2 5 8 17 12 252 5 l 4 9 l5 l5 259 6 1 6 ll 26 282 7 l 5 18 20 277 8 l, 9 16 15 262 9 2 6 20 l6 270

lO 2 3 lO 9 20 262 ll 3 4 ll 26 280 l2 3 4 15 22 276 l3 2 6 l7 19 273 14 l 3 lO 17 l3 258 l5 6 ll ll l6 257 l6 5 l4 10 15 255 17 6 17 7 14 249 l8 l 3 lO l5 l5 260 l9 3 8 19 l4 264 20 3 5 13 23 276

Totals 69 l65 301 338 880/5294


Objective

1 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Frequency Totals

TABLE 30

Frequency Distribution of Pre-Achievement Scores (N = 44)

Achievement scale intervals

0 1 2 3 4

4 11 20 7 2

5 10 18 10 1

4 14 17 7 2

5 11 22 ,, 2

5 11 20 5 3

2 7 16 14 5

0 9 12 18 5

4 10 16 13 1

5 9 19 11 0

4 19 ll! 5 2

8 20 12 4 0

5 10 19 8 2

5 7 15 13 4

1 10 15 14 4

12 15 10 "( 0

2 9 25 8 0

5 8 21 8 2

3 11 17 10 3

5 2 10 14 13 ,, 6 ,, 16 14

88 209 322

192

Total Score

80 80

77

75

78

101

107

85

80

70

56

80

92

98

56

83

82

87

116

118

880/1701


Objectives

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Frequency Totals

TABLE 31

Frequency Distribution of Post-Achievement Scores (N = 44)

Achievement scale intervals

0 1 2 3 4

3 16 14 8 3

!; 14 19 3 !;

1 16 17 7 3

2 11 15 13 3

1 J.l; 16 10 3

3 8 15 8 10

0 5 8 21 10

1 14 17 11 1

1 3 18 17 5

1 7 16 15 5

7 14 16 7 0

1 3 19 13 8

1 0 4 21 18

0 11 15 14 4

5 12 14 12 1

0 3 18 19 4

1 0 9 18 16

4 4 12 13 11

0 4 10 10 20

0 1 5 23 15

160 277 144

193

Total Score

80

77

83

92

88

102

124

85

110

104

67

112

143

99

8o

112

136

111

134

1110

880/2079


Objectives

l

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Totals

TABLE 32

Relation Between Post-Interest and Instructor :nnage (N "" 44)

Instructor No. l Instructor No. 2 ! !

.29

.20

.08

.33*

.32"*

.07

.35*

.31*

.31-M·

.36*

.51**

.21

.20

.09

.25 .46H

194

Instructor No. 3 !

.07

.17

-.007

.09

.07

.07

.09


TABLE 33

Relation Between Interest Change Scores and Instructor Images (N "' 44)

Interest change scores Objectives f---------,---------1

M SD

195

Instructor no. 1: Social system theory (l-6); community action (18-20)

1 .48 1.17 -,3Q·X-2 .43 1.00 -,4J.·H· 3 .66 1.57 -. 39"** 4 .50 1.27 -.14 5 .45 1.21 -.16 6 .39 1.28 -.26

Avg. (.49) (l.25) 18 .16 1.03 -.10 19 .39 1.15 -.06 20 .27 1.11 -.16 Avg. ( .27) (1.10)

Total 3. 73 7-93 -,3J.·X·


7 .30 1.21 -.17 8 .14 1.17 -.07 9 .02 1.17 -.15

10 -.05 1.33 -.09 ll -39 1.13 -.15

Avg. (.16) (1.20) Total .so 4.71 -.16

Instructor No. 3: Community influentials; adoption-diffusion process

12 .41 1.23 -.20 13 .16 1.16 -.11 14 .11 1.17 -.10 15 .25 1.35 .009 16 .20 1.17 -.05 17 .27 1.30 -.05

Avg. (.23) (1.23) Total 1.41 5.65 -.11

"1> <.05 -K··X}) < ,QJ.


TABLE 34

Relation Between Pre-Interest and Pre-Achievement (N = 44)

Objective

4

7

8

9 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Total

.03

-.16

-.26

-.14

-.20

.09

-.09

-.01

-.03

-.04

.26

.02

.22

-.20

.o8

-.27

.02

-.35*

.16

.06

-.11

196


TABLE 35

Relation Between Pre-Achievement and Post-Interest (N "' 44)

Objectives

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Total

-.25

-.12

-.05

-.23

-.19

.24

-.02

.26

.27

-.18

.14

.11

.o8

-.04

-.06

-.27

.06

-.22

.04

-.10

-.18

197


l98

TABLE 36

Relation Between Post-Interest and Post-Achievement (N = 44)

Objective .!:

1 -.16

.01

.14

.25

-.16

-.16

.01

8 -.31*

9 .03

10 -.05

11 -.17

12 .o4

13 .03

14 -.23

15 -.07

16 -.09

17 .o6

18 -.05

19 -.15

20 .03

Total -.02

*p <.05


199

TABLE 3'1

Relation Betw·een Interest Change Scores and Achievement Change Scores (N" 44)

Objective E

.43·H

.03

.12

.13

-.09

-.25

7 -.09

8 -.38*

-.16

10 .20

ll .21

12 .04

13 .16

14 -.07

15 .ll

16 -.21

17 .10

18 .20

19 ,14

20 .oJ.~

Total .26

"JJ <.05 *"JJ <.01


Objectives

l

2

3

4

5 6

7

8

9 10

ll

12

13

14

15 16

17

18

19

20

Tote.J..s

TABLE 38

Relation Between Post-Achiev>mlent and Instructor Images (N = 44)

Instructor No. 1 Instructor No • .2 Instructor No.

! ! !

-.ll

.28

-.03

.08

.14

.04

-.ll

-.06

-.13

-.10

-.ll

-.14

.03

-.27

-.02

.15

-.18

-.07

.09

-.22

.07 -.20 -.16

200

3


Objectives

TABLE 39

Relation Between Achievement Change Scores and Instructor Images (N = 44)

Achievement change scores

SD

201

Instructor No. 1: Social system theory (J.-6); community action (18-20)

1 .00 1.24 -.09 2 -.07 1.04 .34·> 3 .14 1.11 .31'*· 4 ·39 1.45 .14 5 .23 1.14 .36' 6 .02 1.27 .02

Avg. (.12) (1.21) 18 .55 1.39 -.01 19 .41 1.47 .16 20 .50 1.15 -.05

Avg. ( .49) (1.34) Total 2.19 4.91 .28


7 .39 1.22 .02 8 .00 1.14 .02 9 .68 1.09 -.26

10 .'1'7 l.ll .ll ll .25 1.16 -.21

Avg. (.42) (1.14) Total 2.09 2.60 -.14

Instructor No. 3: Community influentials; adoption-diffusion process

12 .73 1.25 -.08 13 1.16 1.21~ -.04 14 .02 .95 -.22 15 .55 1.52 .07 16 .66 .94 .21 17 1.23 1.31 -.30*

Avg. (. 73) (1.20) Total 4.34 3.57 -.12

'P < .05


LIST OF REFERENCES

202


LIST OF REFERENCES

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Allport, G. W, loJhat units shall vre employ? In G. Lindzey (Ed.), ~~~motives. New York: Rinehart, 1958.

Apps, J. H. I.i'undarnentals oi' adult learning. InS. Grabowski (Ed.), Adult learning and instruction. New York: Syracuse University, E'RfCClearine;ho'ii'.Se ~:m Adult Education, 1970, ED 045 867.

Axf'ord, R. 'tl. Adult education: The open door. Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Co,, 1~ -- --

203

Baker, E. r~. Effects on student achievement of behavioral and non~;(4)~o~~~.objectives. The Journal~ Experimental F.ducation, 1969,

Barrilleaux, L. E. High school science achievement as related to interest and IQ, Educational and Ps,ycholog:i.cal Measurement, 1961, 21(4)' 929-936. -

Beals, R. A., Brody, I,. The literature of adult education. New York: American Association for Adult Educiiti'Oi1,~

Berdie, R. F. Interests. In F. Harriman (Ed.), l!:ncyclopedia of Psychology. New· York: _Philosophical I.ibrary, 1946. -

Berdie, r:. F. Scores on the Strone; Vocational Interest Blank and the Kuder Preference Record in relation to self ratings. Journal .£!:Applied PS,YChology, 1950, 34(1), ![2-49. ---

Bergevin, P., Morris, D., & Smith, H. Adult education procedures: A handbook of tested patterns .L\_.r e{[\:::L:tilf~pation. New Yo~ Se'abury Press, 1963~ ---

Blakely, R. J. What is adult education? In M. Knowles (Ed.), Handbook of adult education in the United States. Chicago: Adu~ EcilleatTo'il7i:'S'Sociation oft'heu' .----s:-T. ,~

Blaney, J. P., & McKie, D. IilloHledge of conference objectives and effect upon learning, Adult Education Journal, 1969, 19(2), 98-105.

Bloom, B. S. (Ed.) 'raxonomy of educational objectives: ~.f.: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay,l95b-.--

Bloom, B. S. Testing cognitive ability and achievement, In N. Gage l~~j~, Handbook~ research~ teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally,


204

Bone, J. H. A statistical analysis of'~ patterns Ef high school students and their relationship to intelligence and achievement. (Doctoral dissertation, 'l'he Pennsylvania State University) Ann Arb:Jr, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1957, No, 25-071.

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