NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

George ANDREWS is an American poet and writer residing in

Tangiers .... Gottfried BENN, poet and M.D., is described in the Theintroduction to his essay .... Ralph METZNER is at present anNIMH postdoctoral research fellow in psychopharmacology at Har-

vard University .... R. Gordon WASSON is Partner of Morgan PsychedelieIIGuaranty Trust Company, Research Fellow at the Botanical Museum ·

of Harvard University, and one of the world's leading experts on flVlflWmycology. He is the author, with Valentina P. Wasson, of Mush-rooms, Russia and History, and with Roger Heim of Les Cham-

pignons Hallucinog_nes du Mexique .... Alan WATTS, philosopher Vol. I Fall 1963and specialist in Far Eastern philosophy, is currently engaged in re- No. 2search at Harvard on problems of human identity. He is the authorof many books, including The Joyous Cosmology, The Way of Zen,and Psychotherapy East and West .... Gerald HEARD, noted re- Contentsligious philosopher and scientific interpreter, is a prolific writer, and

has recently completed a manuscript on the uses of LSD. He is EDITORIAL............................................. 118

author of the forthcoming Five Ages of Man. PSYCHOSIS:"EXPERIMENTAL" AND REAL ...... Joe K. Adams 121

BOTANICAL SOURCEs OF THE NEW WORLDNARCOTICS

................... Richard Evans Schuhes 145

ALAN JOURNEy ............ Timothy Lear)/_ Ralph Metzner 167

Ps VCHOMETAUoLIsZa.................... Sir Julian Huxley 183

THE TREATMENT OF ALCOHOLISM WITHAmerica's most adventurous PSYCHEDELIC DRUGSphilosopher describes his own ..................... The Editors 205

experiences, ranging from So_E COMMENTS CONCERNING DosaGe LEvELs OV

the diabolic to the divine, with PSYCHEDELIC COMPOUNDs FOR PSYCHOTHERAPEUTiCthe "mystic drugs"-LSD-25, EXPERIENCESmescalin, and the ........................ Gary M. Fisher 208

mushroom derivatives FOURPSlLOCValN EXPERIENCEs ...... Frederick Swain, et al. 219

THE Got) IN TIlE FLOWERPOT ............... Mary Barnard 244THE JOYOUSCOSMOLOGY

Adventures in the Chemistry of Consciousness ......................................... 252STATEMENT

ByALANW.WATTS Vo,..o,abyTimothy Leafy and [OF PURPOSE

l_lchard Alpert, Center for Research in Pcrsonalily, Harvard ! ................................. 259

University. Illustrated, $5.00, now at your I_okstore. $ CONTRIBUTORs......................................... 260

rANIl!l_N i

t 117

Farnsworth, are representative statements. This group advocatesstrict methodological control in experiments and strict social controlover use.

The second group, which for want of a better name may bereferred to as the "artistic" group, consists of artists, writers, paint-ers, musicians, and young bohemians. They adopt a generally re-bellious attitude toward established forms of artistic and social ex-

pression. Representative statements are McClure's Meat ScienceEssays and the Journal for the Protection of All Beings (both CityLights Books, San Francisco). In keeping with a tradition goingback at least as far as Baudelaire and De Quincey, drugs are usedto induce trances and visions, to enhance sensibility and creativity, or

EDITORIAL simply to enlarge awareness. Marihuana and peyote have long beenused by them; they have recently turned to LSD and other syntheticpsychedelics.

This second issue of The Psychedelic Review marks a ma-jor change in organization and policy. The journal is no longer pub-lished or sponsored by the International Federation for Internal The third group consists of psychologists, philosophers, psychia-Freedom. The leaders of that organization, Dr. Timothy Leary and trists, theologians, and others who have become interested in theDr. Richard Alpert, do not continue as members of the Review's use of these drugs to help induce experiences which transcend or-Board of Editors, and no continuing members of the Board are dinary space-time, conceptual, and ego-oriented categories. Theymembers of IFIF. The point of this sharp separation is to avoid the tend to view prevailing medical and psychological research modelsidentification of The Psychedelic Review with any single socio- as overly-restrictive and suggest the exploration and application ofideological group or perspective. Amid the controversy -- scientific, psychedelic experiences within frameworks which are educational,philosophical, legal -- that rages around psychedelics, the Rev/ew religious, or scientific in a broader-than-usual sense. Many mem-bers of the International Federation for Internal Freedom fall intoseeks to be an independent, non-partisan voice, this group, but the two are far from co-extensive: some voices in

IFIF sound more like those in the artistic group, and many in groupIn the United States there are at present three major groupsinterested in psychedelic substances and experiences. Each has its three have never been connected with IFIF. Aldous Huxley andown set of models and prescriptions; each uses its own terminology; Gerald Heard may be taken as representative. (See Heard's "Caneach has firm ideas about what psychedelic substances are, and how This Drug Enlarge Man's Mind?" in our preceding issue.) Mostand by whom they should be used. of those in this category stress the importance of expectation and

setting in influencing the character of the drug experience. Their

The first group, historically and in terms of size, is composed preoccupation with the internal state of the person undergoing theof pharmacologists and research psychologists and psychiatrists, drug experience reflects a disaffection with approaches that are pri-They tend to refer to these substances as "psychotomimetic" -- pro- marily behavioristic. They also tend to advocate disciplined prepa-ducing "model psychoses" m and recommend that they be used only ration and follow-up.to investigate pathological states of mind or to locate biochemicalfactors in psychosis. Whether or not they are influenced by the Of the three groups, the first is currently the strongest, andextent to which their research has revolved around psychosis, legal authorities, charged with the drugs, generally and understand-

this group is the most apprehensive of the havoc these drugs i ably reflect their attitude. The second group serves as the "loyalcan wreak. A recent article in the Archives of General Psychiatry opposition"; its self-styled role of rebel allows it the freedom to(May, 1963) by Cohen and Ditman, and an editorial in the Journal _ express radical and unusual points of view. It would be tidy to

of the American Medical Association (September 14, 1963) by j 119118

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1

think of the third group as representing a synthesis of the other two,but this undoubtedly would be an oversimplification. The three-way debate is likely to become more complex before it becomes less so.

In the charged and confusing realm which is that of the psyche- P SYC H 0 SI S Idelic substances as they now stand, The Psychedelic Review proposes

to serve as a forum for information, expression, and exchange, print- _E J I tI d R Iing significant reports from each of the three groups now on the scene xper menta an eaand others as they may appear. On no topic so fraught with weal

and woe are convictions and thought currently in such disarray: on --Now is there something wrang with this entire circus.no other subject does one hear from intelligent men who are trying CARL GIES_-

to be responsible such contrary claims and opinions backed by --Consistency, thou art a jewel.convictionso deep that it can be describedonly as passion.To lead Origin unknownus out of this corporate confusion, we have only the age-old toolsof reason, experience, and experiment. Their reports need to be ,lOs: g. AD,RS _focused, and there is no other organ dedicated to this end.

I SHALL ATTEMPT to present a theory of psychosis centeredHence The Psychedelic Review. It seeks your subscription, your around the topics of cognitive structure, emotion, role, cultural norms,

advice, your manuscripts, your contributions toward meeting its and communication, and to relate my theory to the cultural revolu-mounting debt, and (not least) your patience. For all save the latter, tion through which we are now passing, with comparative referenceswrite Box 223, Cambridge, Mass. 02138. to past revolutions. The contribution of the psychedelic drugs in

understanding both "psychotic" and "normal" behavior will be de-scribed according to this author's convictions, which have much incommon with those focused on "transcendental" experiences, butalso with those which have placed drug experiences and behavior inthe "model psychosis" context. The presentation is necessarilysketchy, because psychosis involves many problems interlocked insuch a way that they must be solved simultaneously rather thanpiecemeal, in any reasonably adequate theory. Many readers, how-ever, have doubtless been thinking along similar lines and will havelittle difficulty in filling in most of the gaps.

It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the idea that the

processes of socialization result in the individual's perception of someobjects and events as they in fact are, and of some objects and eventsas they in fact are not? No animal can survive without some validityin his perceptions, but no animal has only valid perceptions; manis no exception to either of these assertions, but, unlike other ani-mals, his culture (e.g., northern U.S.A.), sub-culture (e.g., properPresbyterian, midwestern large city), and immediate groups-of-reference (e.g., his nuclear family, family of origin, clubs, profes-sional affiliations) determine to a considerable extent not only what

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW

Psychosis: "Experimental" and Realcognitions will occur, but also the degree of validity of a given class

of cognitions. As we move from basic cognitive processes such as can formulate more clearly and succinctly. My own preference forfigure-ground formation and color perception to more complex or- a formulation in terms of deception stems from the fact that inganization of the cognitive field and to perception of objects as child-rearing practices, as in adult interactions, many concrete ex-members of a class and as thus possessing certain properties attrib- amples of intentional deception and of withholding of informationuted by the perceiver to members of that class, cultural determinants which results in unintentional deception can be cited and correctedusually play a greater and greater role, and differences between by telling the individuals concerned, in language they can under-groups become concomitantly greater. Within groups the situation stand, what one believes to be the truth. Comparisons with hypnosisis more complex, as group norms tend to minimize some differences and sleep, while valid, are both harder to exemplify and also lessand to maximize others, depending upon the specific group. The clear in terms of their implications; this is not to say that they aregeneralizalion can be made, however, that within every group each less important theoretically, or that they are not needed in a moreindi_ddual is deceived into living in a world which is only partly real, complete account of socialization processes and remedies thereof.when, of all animals, he has the greatest potentiality of living in thereal world, and of modifying the real world in ways which are to his IT Is L^RCEL¥ by means of language and definition of role that

advantage, groups cast a veil of illusions over the individual. Language, espe-cially, is a convenient vehicle for achieving some uniformity in

The thesis that the individual perceives only part of the reality illusions, as well as in valid perceptions, from one individual to"available" to him is hardly an original creation of the present author, another, in an especially deceptive and insidious manner (Schachtel,It has been expressed throughout the centuries in various forms, 1947; Adams, 1953). Definition of role is, however, at least a closesome much more adequate than the brief statement above. For ex- second. Roles not only prescribe the "moves" which an individual

ample, the ancient and recurring statements that people are "asleep" is entitled to make in relationships with others; they penetrate theor "blind," or that they are "actors" without realizing that they are interior of the individual and prescribe his perceptions, thoughts,acting, are expressions of more or less the same thesis, as are numer- and feelings (Goffman, 1959; Sarbin, 1954). Role behavior is anous more recent expositions by philosophers, ethnologists, psycholo- expression of cognitive structure and vice versa.gists, sociologists, general semanticists, novelists, psychiatrists, etc.Alan Watts (1961) prefers to say that the individual is "hypnotized" If one examines any given processes of communication which

by the culture; Erich Fromm (1941) has also used the analogy with are prescribed by roles and limited by language, one may becomehypnosis in describing the individual's empty role-taking and aliens- _ aware of something which is "not supposed" to be seen within the

tion from parts of himself and from others? culture _ namely, that the processes under examination perpetuate

i the delusions and ilhcsions of the members of the culture. For ex-Alfred Korzybski (1948), Eric Hoffer (1951), and Ernest ample, the restrictions on communication in judicial processes tend

Schachtel (1947) have written about similar processes, though with t to prevent the participants, including the defendant, from seeingdifferent words and emphases, that what is called "justice" is sometimes a hypocritical and tragicIn thus grouping together such a wide variety of formulations, farce. On the other hand, a lawyer or a judge may, during the course

I ilo not mean to deny important differences between the,n, nor to of his career, gradually "wake up," and may continue to "play the

. argue that the general thesis is correct simply because many learned game," and/or work toward judicial and legal reforms (Bazelon,people have held it, but to emphasize that it is continually "redis- 1960;Ploscowe, 1951).

J covered" and expressed in ways that sometimes obscure tbe under- Restrictions on communication very often serve the function of

! lying similarities. It is probably our false pride and our status preserving false beliefs, and this function is frequently not recog-striving, as well as the impossibility of reading everytlfing, which nized even by those who impose the restrictions. "The "excommuni-

often prevent our seeing and acknowledging that others have been cation" of an individual, for example, whether from a religious cam-trying to express that which we believe (sometimes correctly) we munity, a professional group, or "society" in general, can permit122 false beliefs about the individual to be perpetuated. When comments

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TTHE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Psychosis: "Experimental" and Real

about an individual are made in his absence, for example, he has no that point onward the individual is likely to find it difficult to articu-chance to correct whatever false beliefs are expressed, or to con- late with the culture. There are at least two ways in which an "in-tribute information which is lacking. These false beliefs and incom- sight" can trigger a neurological "jam session": (1) by arousing an

plete information about excommunicated individuals pla3' an extreme- intense emotion and thus altering the chemical composition of thely important part in the social life of the community. This principle blood and consequently the functioning of the brain, and (2) by ais partly recognized by those who refuse to form their beliefs about sudden collapse of boundaries between two or more cognitive struc-an individual on the basis of gossip and insist upon informing them- tures previously kept separated from each other, within that particu-selves firsthand, but the more general conservative function of ex- lar individual's total set of cognitive structures. Cognitive structuresclusion is rarely perceived (Lemert, 1962). are presumably related in some manner to the structure of neuro-

IT HAS BEEN RECOGNIZEDfor many years that "psychotic cpi- logical processes (Kohler, 1938; Hebb, 1949; Miller, Pribram, andso&s" can be precipitated by insights into oneself. It was for this Galanter, 1960). A sudden change in the former is therefore pre-reason, in fact, that Freud;ans tended to avoid taking "pre-psychotics" sumably accompanied by a sudden change in the latter.into treatment, whereas Jung took the unpopular and "mystical" THESE two _aECnANXSMSare not mutually exclusive, and per-

position that such episodes, preferably confined to the interviewing haps in most episodes they work hand-in-hand. The most importantroom, are the most effective, though admittedly hazardous, road to insights are probably those in which two or more cognitive systems,individuation, eachavailableto consciousness,are brought into relation. The de-

The precipitation of psychotic episodes by insights into the lense mechauism which breaks down is compartmentalization, whichoutside world has been less well recognized, at least within the has been relatively neglected in the literature, possibly because it ismental health professions. To acknowledge such a possibility is to a defense par excellence of most people called "experts," "scholars,"acknowledge that the culture permits, teaches, or trains the individual "intellectuals," "technicians," or "scientists." Theorists are usuallyto be blind or deluded; thus it locates pathology outside as well as very particular, for example, about what is "relevant" to their "disci-inside the individual (and in his relation to the outside) and in pline" or "specialty," what they are or are not supposed or required

particular it locates pathology in the most powerful institutions and to know or to do in their roles, exactly how an idea should beauthorities of the culture. Whereas the location of pathology within worded and the great superiority of one wording over another, etc.the individual is in accordance with the Western cultural tradition From the fields of logic and mathematics many clear examples canthat the individual is "ignorant," "bad," "sinful," "deprived," or be drawn of valid isolation of cognitive systems and of apparently

"depraved," except for the saving grace of outside forces, the loca- slight changes in wording which do in fact produce enormous dif-tion of pathology in the dominant institutions of the culture is hardly ferences in implications or in efficiency, and also some examples ofin accordance with the tradition of any culture. On the other hand, invalid compartmentalization and of quibbling over symbols whichWestern civilization, unlike some "prinfitive" societies, has con- obscures the similarity of underlying conceptual structures.tained and nourished also a tradition of critical examination of theworld as well as of oneself, a tradition inevitably in conflict with The evidence for the breakdown of compartmentalization ininstitutions or cultural patterns which blind the individual. This psychotic episodes is both phenomenological and behavioral. Phe-

i duality is particularly obvious in northern U.S.A. culture, which nomenologically, things seem to "run together" in ways that mayfrom the days of the first Puritan settlers contained a strong trend be alternately bewildering, amazing, inspiring, anIusing, bizarre, un-

toward critical self-examination _ with surprising psycholog4cal canny, terrifying, etc. Speech during such episodes is what wouldsophistication as well as strong conservative forces, without which , be expected when decompartmentalization occurs. What the indi--- i vidual says does not "make sense" in a conventional way; he doesnoculture can survive (Smith, 1954). not stick to the point and instead drags in matters which appear to

It is not difficult to see how insights, whether into oneself or observers to be completely irrelevant. In other words, a massivethe outside world, can precipitate "psychotic" episodes, and why from &differentiation of cognitive systems and linguistic habits occurs,

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEWPsychosis: "Experimental" and Real

which may be as bewildering to the individual as to those with whom

he may attempt to communicate, periphery. Whereas the designated patient often needs fuller and

For any given individual the massive cognitive dedifferentiations more accurate information than before, the information he receivescalled "psychotic episodes" result in more valid perceptions and is usually both less complete and less accurate. At the time whenbeliefs in certain respects -- the individual has now seen through he is suffering most from feelings of alienation, he is likely to besome of his delusions and illusions, idiosyncratic and/or culturally treated in such a way as to increase his alienation, especially as hetaught, but they usually result in new delusions and illusions and may behave in a way that is especially unattractive or repellent toin even less accurate perceptions and beliefs in some respects than others. Any demand for additional information is easily construedbefore. Cognitive processes such as memory, attention span, control as "paranoid" by those who see no reason for his lack of trust, andover impulsivity, and especially judgment are often impaired for who are thus blind without realizing it (Goffman, 1961). Whenmuch longer periods than the acute episodes themselves, and euphoric people lie or withhold relevant information they usually, if not al-or dysphoric emotions may continue, often appearing "inappropriate" ways, do so imperfectly; in other words, they emit incongruentto others and sometimes to the person himself. The way in which messages. These incongruent messages often place the receiver intothe individual is classified according to the official psychiatric nomen, a "double bind" (Bateson, et al., 1956). Lying and zeithholdin 9 ofclature depends upon the stage and circumstances during which he relevant information are perhaps the major causes of "mental illness,"is examined, as well as who examines him, etc. as well as the major ways in which such "illnesses" are perpetuated.

As each individual has lived in a somewhat different phenomenal Jung emphasized long ago that the road to individuation is

world and has belonged to a different set of groups-of-reference from narrow as a razor's edge, fraught with peril, and that only a fewevery other individual, and is subjected to a different environment fail to lose their way. As an individual begins to see things as theyand sequence of external events during his episodes, the individual are, in a way he has not done before -- to see clearly not only hisdifferences and communication di_Iiculties among those who have own blind and seamy past but also the stupidity, irrationality, cruelty,experienced psychotic episodes tend to be much greater than among and blindness of his own culture and groups-of-reference, he mustthose who have not, especially as the insights and ideas developed are have not only great tolerance for pain, including feelings of aliens-often among those which cannot be expressed within the vocabulary tion and uncanny emotions; unless he has advantages such as knowl-of the individual or, even worse, among those which the language edge, power, status (albeit this is a two-edged sword), devotedof the culture tends to militate against or rule out of existence or friends and relatives, and financial independence, the burden is likelyawareness. The kindness which a long-term patient may show to- to be beyond the endurance of any human being. The restriction ofward a new one in a mental hospital is perhaps usually accompanied the "sacred" mushrooms to high-caste individuals, found in somenot by au understanding of that individual but simply by the realiza- societies, makes considerable sense in this respect.tion that his phenomenal world, whatever it was. has collapsed, asdid the long-term patient's world at some time in the past. The solution found in Zen Buddhism and formulated clearly by

Alan Watts of becoming a "joker," i.e., one who has seen throughA aENeR^r- eRIlqC[er-_ of social psychology is that members of the arbitrariness or absurdity of social "games" but is able to "play"

groups are usually less open in their communications to outsiders them anyway, is helpful but not sufficient, because, as Watts wouldthan to other members of their own groups, i.e., tend tn give less presumably agree, some social "games" must _ot be played but brokenfull and accurate information, to voice their convictions or doubts less up, if we are td avoid a complete Hell on Earth. For example, thefreely, etc? The importance of this principle for the field of so-called "game" of "blame the Jews., "played" in Nazi Germany and in"mental illness" can hardly be overemphasized, because the labelling many previous and subsequent times and places, e.g., in Westernof an individual as "mentally il!," "emotionally disturbed," "psy- Europe during the 14th century, when the Black Death was blamedchotic," "schizophrenic," "paranoid," etc., immediately moves the on the Jews, must be broken up, although to be a "joker" might underindividual either entirely outside the group, or at least toward the ,: some conditions be necessary as a device enabling one to operate

underground in a different way. i.e., decently.!26I

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rTHE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Psychosis: "Experimental" and Real

Some patients who refuse to leave mental hospitals are no longer drop the word altogether. To avoid using the word "psychotic,"interested in the "games" which people on the outside insist upon reserving the latter only for the frightened, suspicious, obviously"playing," among these "games" being those of "blame it on the deluded, depressed, constricted, or empty experiences, is to overlook

ex-patients," "be kind to ex-patients but be careful about trusting what mental health experts -- with the exception of Jung and athem or telling them the truth," "one step forward, one step back," few other voices crying in the wilderness -- have traditionally min-"your private life is my business," "last things first, first things last," imized, i.e., the constructive aspects of "psychosis." That "psychotic""if you don't believe it, pretend you do anyway," "don't let your experiences can be emotionally gratifying is grudgingly recognizedright hand know what your left hand is doing," "be both prudish in many descriptions of patients, but seldom does one find even aand pornographic," "be both mechanistic and mystical," "sentence grudging recognition of the possible beneficial effects of these emo-first, trial afterward," "be both a coward and a gentleman," etc? tional orgies. The views of religious mysticism which have beenSome patients also have a partly justifiable punitive attitude toward held by most psychologists and psychiatrists make this one-sidedness

society -- "since you say I'm crazy, you can pay my room and hoard, particularly obvious. There is virtually no recognition of the possibleindefinitely." value of dysphoric emotions. When it comes to cognition, there is

All the psychedelic or "mind-manifesting" drugs attack the de- again very little recognition of the constructive or creative aspectslense of compartmentalization and thus make it possible for an in- of psychosis , despite the repeated lesson from history that peopledividual to see through some of the absurdities, inchtdin 9 status who put forth truly new ideas _ or old ideas which are unpopularsystems, of his own behavior, and of his own culture and groups-of- or unfashionable _ have often if not usually been said to be "insane,"reference? This, I believe, is the most important basis for attempts and that there has often been some truth in such accusations? Into ban or restrict the uses of these drugs, even more than the fact fact, labelling the innovator as "insane" has been a standard methodthat, unlike alcohol, they make possible great pleasure without sub- of fighting genuinely new ideas, as opposed to old ideas whose de-sequent punishment, contrary to the long-standing "moral" dicta of ceptive rewordings are eagerly accepted as the latest fashion. It wasWestern civilization. The distinction, however, between "tran- the irrationality of this kind of opposition to new ideas which ledscendental experiences" and "experimental psychoses" is, in my opin- William James to remark that one of the least important objections

that can be made to any theory is that the man who invented it was

ion, extremely unfortunate, and has resulted in a failure to recognize insane. James's remark can be generalized: one of the least importantthe great contribution that can be made by these drugs to an under-standing of what we have been calling "psychosis." Several years objections that can be made to any statement whatsoever is that theago the author heard Harold Abramson remark that every time man who made it is "psychotic" or "mentally ill" or "emotionallysomeone takes a large dose of LSD-25 he undergoes an experimental disturbed." By "least important objection" we understand that wepsychosis. At that time I thought Dr. Abramson, who had worked are concerned with the validity of the statement and not with theextensively with this drug for several years, old-fashioned, and question of giving the individual power over others, setting him upprivately congratulated myself on being more informed and up-to- as a model for others to attempt to emulate, or encouraging the whole-date, or even ahead-of-my-time. Now I am in complete agreement sale acceptance of everything he has said, or will say in the future.

with his statement, granted that the term "experimental psychosis" Hell is at least as instructive as Heaven, and out of the Hellcan give a very misleading impression about drug experiences and called "experimental psychosis" can come changes in the individual

that an "experimental psychosis" and a "real psychosis" are usually which are just as valuable or even more so than those arising fromvery different in some very important respects. 7 "transcendental ' ,,experiences. The tendency to give the patient or

subject as gratifying and "wonderftd" an experience as possible, toThe fact that an experience is extravagantly satisfying, in terms protect him from later trouble, and to assert that those who have

of emotions, sensations, and fantasy, complete with technicolor and "bad experiences" or later conflict have not taken the drug in asound-track, creatively and productively loaded with valid insights, " ,,proper context or with the "proper" preparation is a form of

does not justify our not labelling it "psychotic," unless we are to conservatism;the preceding word is not intended, however, to assign128

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I Psychosis: "Experimental" and RealTHE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW

believe, thus exposing themselves to the danger and excitement ofthis attitude to the lowest regions of Hell. It is kind to help people external conflict, n

to grow, change, or regress (in the service of the ego, of course) All paths to individuation, whether through "psychosis," druggradually and relatively painlessly, but it should not be assumed thatgradual and painless change ix always possible, or even necessarily states, psychotherapy, Zen Buddhism, general semantics, philosophy,

solitary confinement, Catholicism, Calvinism, thinking and reading ondesirable. In a world as irrational as ours, to be fully human one one's own, etc., are effective only if the individual can accept themust be capable of taking great and sudden pain. chaff with the wheat, only if he can look squarely at the horrors of

Although raptures about "transcendental experiences" often the world as well as its joys and beauty, can tolerate a variety offocus primarily on the visual splendors and lofty insights into the emotions (and thus supply his body with a variety of drugs), andmeaning of existence and the universe and the increase in aesthetic can summon up the courage to act in accordance with his moral prin-sensitivity, the real source of enthusiasm is much more likely to be the ciples as well as his more obvious needs, and thus have some self-

strong feelings and bodily sensations which are aroused, often for respect. In a society as hypocritical as ours is today, the most sociallythe first time in many years or since the individual was very young, unacceptable and dangerous acts are those which are most in accord-The ban on emotional expression, especially in Anglo-Saxon cultures ance with the private moral convictions of the individual. This is true

and especially among men, makes the enthusiasm and wonder arising not only for "intellectuals" and "worldly" people, but for "peasants"from drug-induced states readily understandable, because without and "small-minded '' people as we!l, because there are powerful indi-emotional expression the emotions themselves wither away? To at- viduals and groups on most sides of most fences, and because there

tribute one's enthusiasm to feelings and sensations is less congruent is widespread cynicism about "fighting City Hall" and about standingwith these cultures than to praise the "higher level" processes. The up openly for one's private knowledge and convictions.

same has been true in religious mysticism, although it has been WESTEa_ CIVXLIZArIOUhas gone through a number of cyclespointed out many times that the bodily sensations in religious mystic- or spirals which can be described as (1) the setting up of rules orism have become painfully obvious on occasion, e.g., when saints "games"; (2) the development of hypocrisy, i.e., a discrepancy be-have "gone wild" and shouted that they desired the body of Jesus? tween the way things are -- and are privately known to be, especiallyIn revivalism, also, emotional gratification is apparently the most by those having access to large amounts of accurate informationimportant source of enthusiasm, although to the individual who has and the way they are publicly acknowledged to be; and (3) the re-been "saved" the cognitive "insights" are believed to be the primary duction of some forms of hypocrisy and the setting up of "new"source (Sargant, 1957). Some individuals who have been "saved" rules. All three phases are present at any one time, with one or an-

have frequently felt good for months and have been able to live corn- other phase dominant with respect to a given set of rules. Hypocrisyfortably without searching for feeling through "sin," only to "fall develops when official rules make satisfaction in living difficult orfrom grace" eventually. Similarly, following gratifying emotional impossible -- as, e.g., excessive official restrictions on emotional ex-

orgies during drug sessions, many subjects have been able to live pression, sexual conduct, open conflict, excessive definition of role,for a time in their usual routine manner without boredom, eventually etc.to crave another gratifying orgy, which may be conceptualized pri-marily as an opportunity to rise to a "higher" level of existence or In eliminating or reducing hypocrisy a standardization or nor-knowledge, etc. The same can be said of many individuals who have realization of the population has in past times occurred, and suchexperienced intense emotions during "depth" psychotherapy. The normalizations have been extremely cruel and unjust, as certain in-search for "meaning" in life is usually in large part a search for dividuals and groups have served as totem animals, taking on thefeeling; unless the individual becomes aware of the nature of his projected collective guilt of the tribe, arising from hypocrisy, amongsearch, he may spend his life in a never-ending pursuit of cognitive other sources? The "new" rules have tended to be the old rules"insights" or "understandings," like those scholars and scientists : in disguised form, or modified versions which have been even worse;who keep searching for a "discovery" when their greatest needs some forms of hypocrisy are retained and new forms are created.would be met by standing up openly for what they already know or t

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW , Psychosis: 'E.rperimental' and Real

To a limited degree one must agree with the prophets of doom downward from that of the Catholic theologians, from "deprived" to(Spengler, Toynbee, Sorokin) that Western civilization has been "depraved," and liquidated or drove away the old aristocratic families

rolling downhill (Geyl, 1958). The normalization may occur under of Geneva, many of whom belonged to the political party known asvarious headings: in southern France (Languedoc) in the 13th and "Libertines." (It is worth noting that although Calvin never set14th centuries and in many other areas during the same and succeed- foot in the New World, he has been probably as important to thelng centuries, under the heading of eliminating "heresy"; in Calvin's development of the U. S. A. as any other man of modern times, lB)Geneva during the 16th century, under the heading of turning the The early Communist ideologists planned freedom in personal lifecitizens into sincere and honest "Christians"; throughout Western and the "withering away of the state," but as class warfare pro-Europe during the 16th and 1Tth centuries, under the heading of gressed it was discovered that sex "immorality" was incompatibleeliminating "witchcraft"; and in 20th century Russia and Germany, with being a good Communist, and that the State was helpful inunder the heading of developing good "Communists" and "Nazis," keeping the masses in their proper places (Reich, 1962). During therespectively. Each of these headings concealed certain normalizatians Nazi revolution the Prussian military leaders, the old aristocracy,which would have been impossible or more di_icult to carry out if had to become even more cold and cruel than they had been beforeseen clearly for what they were. and to revise their standards of honor in the direction of those of a

Secrecy has been of obvious advantage in normalizations. A middle class individual much more cynically contemptuous of averagesecond weapon is a principle made explicit by the inquisitors, by human beings than they were.Calvin, and by the Communists and Nazis, which can be stated asfollows: a person who is off the norm in one respect is likely to be During and immediately following a normalization, no one isoff the norm in another respect. For example, a person who dressed allowed to be himself, as no one fits the "ideal" which is officiallyoddly was suspect as a heretic. One of the most cruel of the in- held and enforced; thus, alienation from parts of oneself is produced,quisitors, Robert le Bugre, a reformed Patarin (Cathar), claimed to with resulting fear and hatred which are then displaced toward thosebe able to detect a heretic by the manner in which he moved. Is Al- who are discernibly "different," i.e., outsiders, who are made intothough ordinary citizens could help in rooting out heresy by inform- scapegoats. The great cruelty during normalization can be at leasting anonymously on anyone who seemed "off the norm," only an partly explained on the basis of this kind of process.

ideologist (inquisitor) could determine whether the individual was The drastic ideological changes and shifts of power which occuractually a heretic. Since statistical studies were even worse than during normalization increase the frequency of psychotic episodesthey are today, the "norms" themselves could be located conveniently and other disturbances. Mental illness is thus mixed in with religious,in the fantasies of the ideologists, and could also be decreed by them class, ideological, racial, and ethnic warfare. The thesis that manyto a considerable extent, as they gained power. Thus, the ideologists of the "witches" were "mentally ill" is not incompatible with the

were able, in all these times and places, to "normalize" the popula- thesis that many were followers of the Old Religion, or that manytion along whatever lines they desired or thought necessary. Lan- were members of the old landed gentry, who sometimes cling to oldguedoc had a culture distinctly different from that of northern religions, especially out in the provinces, or that many were poor andEurope, and was in general more advanced. Under the heading o[ ignorant. When one considers the widespread existence of practiceseliminating "heresy" it was transformed in the direction of northern such as forcing children to watch as their grandmothers or mothersFrance -- the southerners, including devout Catholics, had to be "nor- were burned alive (Lea, 1939) -- this was done by German Luther-realized." 14 The elimination of "witchcraft," from the latter part ans-- it would seem strange if "mental illness" were not prevalentof the 15th to the early part of the 18th century, was, among other during that period. These children probably saw, without being _blethings, the virtual liquidation of the remnants of a religion many to formulate their perception clearly, that they were in the hands of

centuries older than Christianity. Is Calvin, who had been called the destructive giant robots unaware of their irrational cruelty. Many"accusative case" by his more aristocratic and perhaps more ruthless of the children being labelled "schizophrenic" today may have hadand dishonest schoolmates, transformed the image of man a step similar perceptions.

132 ! 133I

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

Both hypocrisy and the reduction of hypocrisy tend to increase Psychosis: "Experimental" and Realthe incidence of mental and emotional disturbances. During both

phases behavior tends to be formal, secretive, and robot-like; people of whom have done the best they could with what they have known);feel alienated and distrustful. Information "leaks out" or is deliber- the emphasis on the public importance of one's private life; tile at-

ately provided, and the people who are most likely to be precipitated tacks on fraternal organizations; the attacks on the old religion ofinto psychotic episodes (by sudden insights) are those _om whom Christianity; and the formation of new secret societies?certain facts have been carefully concealed, in other words, women, There are those who wish to normalize this country under tileespecially old women. When normalization starts, many people are heading of having only "good Americans"; others wish to normalize"scared stiff" and thus are even more robot-like, suspicious, and eau- under the heading of eliminating or preventing "mental illness"tious. The "schizophrenic" perception of individuals as mechanical (Szasz, 1961; Gross, 1962). An example of the first is an item which

puppets is probably a valid perception; the "schizophrenic" sees the appeared in the New York Times Western Edition on Nov. 1, 1962,robotization that Fromm (1941) and others have described. This headed "Ideological split fills Amarillo with bitterness and suspicion."

perception can also be attained by means of the psychedelic drugs. Among its other activities, the John Birch Society had attempted topurge schools and libraries of "Communist" reading matter. Several

The greatly increased exposure to facts and ideas, through mass hooks, however, were removed for alleged "obscenities"; amongcommunication media, travel in foreign countries, etc., can greatly these were four Pulitzer Prize novels and George Orwell's Nineteenincrease the frequency of psychotic episodes, according to the present Eighty-Four, a satire on collectivist society. Thus, under the self-theory. It is interesting, for example, that an "uneducated" person deceptive heading of "elinfinating Communism" comes a "clean-up,"in a small town can purchase a paperback in a five-and-ten which even though the Russians are apparently much "cleaner" than Ameri-can reveal to him that some of the peculiar ideas which for years he cans and have objected to the "immoral" behavior of Americanshas taken as a sign of his secret insanity or depravity have been visiting their country. All the previous normalizations have includedwritten about by Plato, Whitehead, Russell, Freud, Fromm, Car- "clean-ups" -- that is why Europe is so clean. "Sex perversion,"

nap, etc? for example, was "cleaned up" in Germany by the inquisitors and

Hypocrisy is an unstable social condition, as everyone has to later by the Nazis; these "clean-ups" account for the current ab-sence of "sex perversion" in that country, just as the "clean-up" ofoperate in a fog, but the reduction of hypocrisy can in theory bebrought about by openly allowing people to be different and human, prostitution in San Francisco in the 1930's accounts for the currentwithout a normalization. If our country avoids a normalization, it absence of prostitution in that fair city. What has been virtuallyeliminated in "clean-ups" has not been "unclean" acts, which have ifwill be the first accomplishment of this kind in the history of Western anything increased as exclusive pursuits, but love and friendship,civilization; nevertheless, there is reason for hope. Normalization which cowards envy and take satisfaction in destroying, reducingrequires the consolidation of power, and it is much more difficult everyone else to their own empty and lonely condition. Any "lower"to consolidate power in the U.S.A. than in any of the previous times animal which could be taught to revile or be alienated from parts ofand places, for the following reasons: there are two major cultures its own body and the bodies of other members of its own species(with many influential sub-cultures), two major political parties, could easily be seen to be "mean and crazy." There are few data onseveral large communication media, many powerful individuals and this point; an experiment by Birch (1956) is relevant. In this ex-groups, and there are many checks and balances on an over-concen- periment, hoods were placed around the necks of pregnant rats sotration of power within government. Furthermore, women, who that they were prevented from the usual self-licking of the ano-find it more difficult to be deliberately cruel than do men, have much genital region which is increased during pregnancy. When theirmore power. Nevertheless, there is danger, as indicated by the roi- young were born, these mother rats, with hoods removed, ate mostlowing signs of the times: the tendency for activities to go "under- of their pups and failed to nourish the rest adequately; none survived.ground," so that it is difficult to obtain information which one be- The most "mean and crazy" humans, however, have not been female.lieves that he has a right to know; :8 the ridicule of old women (most : The possibility that normalization could occur under the heading

134 i of "eliminatingmentalillness"is illustratedby a remarkmadebyI

i 135

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Psychosis: "Experimental" and Real

a leading psychoanalyst, Dr. Bernard Diamond, in addressing the as status, power, or control. These are highly desirable characteristicsSanta Clara County Mental Health Association -- "A person who is for an ideology which can be used to divide, conquer, and establishoff the norm in one respect is likely to be off in another respect." tyranny.

This is the principle referred to earlier, made explicit by the in- Concepts which would interfere with normalization and withquisitors and later by Nazi and Communists. Dr. Diamond himselfis a relatively outspoken defender of the rights of individuals to live those forms of hypocrisy which are retained or created tend to becometheir private lives in the manner they choose rather than the manner extinct or to be considered inadequate, irrational, or old-fashioned.

Among these concepts are courage, honor, decency, integrity, loyalty,he would choose for them; his statement, however, could easily be truth, friendship, honesty, love, kindness, fun, and fair-play? Theseused in the service of tyranny by experts or others more power- concepts have been largely ignored in the psychology of our time, ashungry. Szasz (1961) has made a brief comparison between insti- the reader can check for himself by examining the subject index oftutional psychiatrists and inquisitors, but even better analogies can Psychological Abstracts, which covers many "disciplines" in addi-be drawn between some psychotherapists in clinics and in private tion to psychology and includes foreign as well as domestic references.practice, and inquisitors. Members of the public, e.g., teachers and For example, during the 36 years of its publication, the index listsphysicians, are encouraged to watch for "subtle signs of mentdl ill- nine references under "courage," the latest being in 19487ness" (signs of heresy, signs of witchcraft) and to refer or report such

individuals to the proper authorities for help, and outpatient treat- Ideologies preserve certain attitudes and ideas within the culturement is now offered on an involuntary, as well as a voluntary, basis, and eliminate others. Old ideas and attitudes are reworded andPsychiatrists may be able to achieve much more power than they have claimed to be new discoveries by the ideologists, especially those whoat present, but if they do not align themselves on the side of the are ignorant of history and of the sociology of knowledge. Therights of individuals, they will become even more hated and feared dominant ideology of the U. S. A. has been Calvinism, and somethan were the inquisitors. This remark should not be construed as psychological theories and methodologies (as well as some varietiesan endorsement of "rights" such as walking down the street shouting of "common sense") are more-or-less disguised forms of Calvinisminsults or making scary faces, physical assault, vandalism, urinating (Fromm, 1941). Calvinism had several facets, including a mean andon a busy street in broad daylight, etc. If we are to preserve our crazy aspect exemplified by the beheading of a child in Calvin'sfreedoms, however, involuntary confinement resulting from such acts Geneva for striking one of his parents, thus upholding "parentalshould be for a stated maximum length of time, not an indefinite authority." This mean and crazy aspect of Calvinism was carriedstretch the termination of which is to be decided by an ideologist. Io the U.S.A. in many ways, e.g., in the old Connecticut "blue laws"

which gave fathers the legal right to kill disobedient sons (DollardDURING CULTURALREVOLUTIONSthe dominant ideologists pro- & Miller, 1950). Calvin outlawed most types of pleasure, even in

vide _he rationalization for normalization. Psychology (broadly de- the privacy of one's own home, and this aspect of Calvinism wasfined) is now, as before, a focal point of ideological controversy, also imported (Smith, 1954).22Modern psychodynamic theories (and some learning theories and

theories of interpersonal relations) share with medieval theology Individuals who oppose powerful social institutions are some-(the psychology of that era) the following characteristics: (1) eom- times labelled "' ,,insane. An instructive example is Thomas of Apulia,

plexity; (2) formulation in learned language unknown to the vast who in the 14th century, when Western Europe resembled an old-majority of people; (3) the appearance of objectivity, at the same fashioned asylum, preached that what was needed was more love andtime allowing sufficient concealed and self-deceptive subjectivity to less theology and Church ritual, that the reign of the Holy Ghost bad

be used in the service of the ideologists; (4) the principle of reversal, supplanted that of the Father and Son, and that he was the envoy ofso that someone or something can be shown by the ideologist to be the Holy Ghost sent to reform the world. The learned theologians"in reality" just the opposite from what he or it appears to be to the of the University of Paris burned his book, and he was pronounced

unlearned observer; and (5) an emphasis on sex and other puzzling insane by medical alienists and committed to life imprisonment, prob-and troublesome aspects of human or extra-human relationships such ably as a means of discrediting his work (crowds had been listening

136 137

I Psychosis: "Experimental" and Real

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW reaction lasting several months following a 200 tsg LSD-25 session, with-out hospitalization, and one year later managed to experience a spectacularpsychotic episode without benefit of drugs, resulting in one month's hospital-to him) more than as a "hunmne" alternative to the stake. Yet men

like Thomas have been relatively sane, whereas "homo normalis,' as ization. The statements herein are by no means free of the biases or valuesof the author; for example, I do not like to see people kept deceived orWilhelm Reich (1949) called him, has often been mean and crazy, locked up for years in order to help preserve respectability, the sex mores,and this has been especially true of his cynical leaders, or status systems. I have no complaints whatsoever concerning my owntreatment, and I consider myself extremely fortunate indeed.

One method of reducing hypocrisy and at the same time pre- 2The epistemological position of the author is similar to and perhaps identical

venting normalization is to defend the right to be "crazy" in the with that taken by the founders of Gestalt psychology long ago and recentlydiscovered by many others. See, for example, Koffka, 1935, and Kohler, 1938.sense of (1) seeking and loving the truth; 2s (2) loving people in- s A beautiful and moving literary expression of the idea that people are only

stead of hating them; 2s (3) openly respecting the rights of others half-awake is found in Thornton Wilder's play, Our Town. A! Hubbard,to be different from oneself and one's own friends or colleagues; one of the pioneer workers with LSD-25, expressed this idea very well bythe informal remark, "Most people are walking in their sleep; turn them

(4) living primarily in accordance with values other than status, around, start them in the opposite direction, and they wouldn't even knowpower, security, or material possessions; (5) openly challenging the difference."

powerful authorities and institutions' and (6) being a socially un- , This statement assumes that group membership is defined in other ways;' in other words, the statement is intended as an empirical assertion, not as aacceptable truth-teller instead of a socially acceptable liar. tautology. Important exceptions sometimes occur when anonymity is guar-

anteed, when the recipient of information is sworn to secrecy, etc. The free· · · exchange of "confidential" information about designated "patients" between

"experts" whose group membership is defiqed in terms of being "expert,".$'ummalry accounts for the feeling of alienation which some "experts" have toward their

A theory of psychosis as a sudden and drastic change in cognitive "patients," to whom these "experts" never say anything which they believestructure has been presented. The ways in which socialization, in- would not be "good * for the "patie,_t." Such "experts" are very similar tomany other politicians.

cluding deception, creates cognitive structures which change rapidly s,,,No, no!' said the Qneen. 'Sentence first -- verdict afterwards.'

upon exposure to new information have been described. The psy- first""Stuffanti nonsense!' said Alice loudly. 'The idea of having the sentencechedelic drugs attack compartmentalization and thus produce in- "'Hold your tongt,e!' said the Queen, turning purple .... "(quoted by

sights into some of the absurdities within the individual and also Jourdain (1918, p. 96] from Alice's Adventures in IVonderlancl.)within the social structure in which he is embedded. The constructive s Unfortunately these drugs have sometimes resulted in new status systems

aspects of psychosis, "experimental" or real, have been greatly psychoanalyticWhichcompetecircles.iUabsurdity with any others in existence, including tbose in

neglected in the literature. Psychology is a focal point in ideological 7 It is especially important that the subject understand that the drug is respon-conflict, as it has been in past cultural revolutions. Normalization. sible for his craziness or his loftiness and that his craziness or his loftiness

i.e., the reduction or elimination of certain individual differences and will be only temporary. When drugs are given without the subject's knowl-edge, as, e.g., certain criminals have been reported to have done in India

human qualities, has accompanied the reduction of hypocrisy in pre- with a mixture of marijuana and datura, the "experimental psychosis" canvious cultural revolutions, but there are reasons to believe that hy- become very real imleed. See Osmond and Holler (1958).

pocrisy can be reduced in the U. S. A. without such normalization. 8 Sir Isaac Newton is an example of someone who became "psychotic" afterputting forth a new idea, experimentally demo,istrable, and seeing how his

Suggestions are made for the accomplishment of this objective, learned colleagues in the Royal Academy reacted. He did not publish againfor about 20 years, meanwhile writing "metaphysics" (which is kept lockedFOOTNOTES up, a source of embarrassmeqt to physicists).

x The ideas expressed herein are in large part the result of the observatio,5 gSmith (1954) tells of the history of what the early Puritans called the heresyand experiences of the author during the two years of bis tenure as USPHS of Antinomianism, .f giving way to subjective conviction, emotion, and ira-Fellow, 1958-1960, and as a staff member of NIMH Project MY-2621, Io- pulsivity. Southerners were considered generally tainted with this terriblecated at the Mental Research Institute, Palo Alto Medical Research Founda- heresy. It survives as a form of "mental illness" or a "sign" of mental illness,tion, Don D. Jackson, Principal Investigator, James Terrill, Staff Psycholo- especially according to northern experts.gist, Charles Savage and Jerome Oremland, Research Associates. Grateful 10it has usually not been noted that such a desire may be very rational in aacknowledgment is made to Thomas Gonda. Department of Psychiatry,Stanford University, who sponsored my fellowship application, and to l.eo worhl in which men consider some parts of their bodies "dirty" and lookHollister, Richard Hamister and John Sears, who cooperated in the biweekly upon virginity as the "biglxest" state of womanhood.administration of LSD-25 to two hospitalized patients over a period of many xl Much of what is called "epistemology" and "methodology" is a complexmonths at the VA Hospital, Palo Alto. The views expressed herein areemphatically the sole responsibility of the author, who experienced a psychotic 139

138

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Psychosis: "Experimental" and Real

and deceptive rationalization of cowardice. This has been particularly ob- announced that a graduate student was planning a dissertation on the subjectpious in the field of philosophy, in which the convenient though double*edged of friendship, another member of the department exclaimed in surprise,idea developed very early that one cannot know or communicate anything "Friendship! _ What kind of damned topic is that?" The Association for-- "Nothing is; or, if anything is, it cannot be known; or, if anything is Humanistic Psychology has been formed to attempt to encourage interestand can be known, it cannot be communicated," (Gorgias, ca. 500 B.C.). and research in these and related concepts.

The principle is also readily discernible in psychology, history, and the social 2z John F. Kennedy (1956_ and Sir Compton Mackenzie (1962) have writtensciences. One form of this principle was called the "good taste psychosis" interesting books on the subject of moral courage, but their works are notby Harry Elmer Barnes, who added that the good taste psychosis among abstracted, as they are not members of our learned groups.respectable historians was the greatest enemy of truth in his field.

22For example, whereas the State of California has outlawed drunkenness only12Among these have been especially the following: women, children, old people, in public places, the City of San Jose has an ordinance against being drunk

followers of old religions, the old aristocracy, people in the "provinces," anywhere within the city limits, including one's own home. It is true thatuneducated people, especially of the "lower classes," Jews, Gypsies, and"odd," no attempt is made to enforce this ordinance, but neither is it repealed as

people who are who don't "fit in." Most of these totem animals absurd. The State statute is used diseriminately: "respectable" citizenscannot easily fight back; that explains their selection as totem animals, found drunk in public places are either !eft alone or escorted discreetly toRemnants of the old aristocracy who have managed to retain some power their homes, whereas "lower" class people are often thrown into the "drunk"are discredited on the basis of their "bad" sex lives, or allegations thereof, tank or taken involuntarily to a mental hospital, etc. This is an example,

la The English word "bugger," and similar vernacular expressions in French though not one of the worst, of hypocrisy as defined earlier.

and Italian, stem from the word "Bugres," by which the Cathari were 2a Translated into what is sometimes considered "scientific' psychodynamicdesignated because of their Bulgarian origin. The full significance of this theory, this means that someone has repressed his desire to sleep with thederivation is not known to the present author, but Robert's cruelty illustrates null class. The idea that the concept of truth is dispensable is an old idea,how dangerous it can be to reform someone. He was finally locked up "discovered" by various scientists and philosophers of this century. Lahimself. Barre (1954) gives one form of this idea, stating that truth in mathematics

l_ Current attempts to describe southern U. S. A. character structure in patho- is relative to what is called "mathematics" within the culture. This is similarlogical terms can be partly understiod in terms of the general phenomenon to the view of mathematics presented to psychologists by S. S. Stevensof acculturating conquered territory. This is not to say that these attempts (1951), with a different formulation. It is correct for parts of mathematicsare invalid, but that northern character structure is also pathological, though but not for other parts, especially the oldest parts such as the theory ofin a different way. The northern treatment of Negroes, for example, is at numbers (Myhill, 1952, 1960).

least as irrational as the southern treatment, though in a way which differs One of the most deflating papers ever written is that by Ness (1938). Inbehaviorally and psychodynamically. There has never been a culture that this paper Ness demonstrated that people, selected more-or-less haphazardlyhas not created pathological character structures, i.e., all "national character off the street, expressed all the concepts of truth to be found among thestructures" are pathological in some ways and to some extent, writings of philosophers. One can imagine how this discovery endeared him

la Christianity as actually practiced was by no means always clearly distinct to his learned colleagues.from the Cult of the Horned God, just as in contemporary Latin America On loving psychology, see Bugental (1962).

Christianity is not always distinct from the indigenous Indian religions. -°4Although I do not love everybody, I try not to hate anyone. Sometimes,la One of the author'_ grandiose delusions during his real psychosis was that however, I apparently do not try hard enough; I would be delighted to read

he was a reincarnation of John Calvin, among other historical figures. My in the newspaper that certain "experts" had been eaten by crows, and thatconviction that it would be salutary to lock everyone in solitary confinement some of the oversized cowards in high public and private off'ce had fallenat least once during his lifetime shows that this delusion, like most, has at overboard on one of their many voyages, been caught in nets, sliced up andleast a grain of truth. I was also tortured by the delusion that I was an boiled down for whale oil. In baboon societies the larger antt stronger malesactual descendent of that mean hypocrite, John Knox, the founder of Scottish remain on the outskirts, as the colony moves along the ground, and thus arePresbyterianism. the first to encounterdanger. This demonstratesthat large baboonstend

l? Many philosophers, e.g., Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Wittgenstein, have gone to have more courage and noblesse oblicle than many large men. There are,"insane." It seems probable that they saw through the absurdities of their nevertheless, some large men of the right type -- these are the ones who areown cultures, i.e., they ate of the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge not afraid of someone who shows that be is not afraid of them. Mr. Craw-(cf. May, 1961). ford Greenwalt is an example of a man in a high position _vho could do a

great deal more for this country than criticize the psychological testing in-la Several writers, e.g., Hanson Baldwin, have recently written of the pre- dustry (Gross, 1962]. Like Gross, he fails to see. or at least to say, that

valence of the mentality that values secrecy even when it is clearly unneces- this horrendous industry is carrying out the directives of more powerfulsary. agents and of impersonal social forces.lathe secret patriotic societies of the 1840's and 1850% members of which

were called "Know Nothings" by outsiders, are interesting antecedents ofsuch societies at the present time. References

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Hebb, D. O. The organlsation of behavior. New York: Wiley 1949. O'Brien, B. Operators and things. Cambridge, Mass.: Arlington Books, 1958.Osmond, H. A review of the clinical effects of psychotomimetic agents. /innals

Hoffer, E. The true believer. New York: Harper, 1951. New York/Icad. Sci., 1957, 66, 418-443.

Jourdain, P. E. B. The philosophy of Mr. B*rtr*nd R*ss*l. London: Allen& Unwin, 1918. ]43

142

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

Osmond, H. & Hoffer, A. The case of Mr. Kovish. 1. Ment. Sci., 1958, 104, BotanicalSources ofplato. A touchstone for courage, psychedelic Rev., 1963, 1, No. 1, 43-46.

TheNewWo Id Na coticsReich, W. Character analysis. New York: Orgone Institute Press, 1949. r r °_°

Reich, W. The sexual revolation. Fourth edition. New York: Noonday Press,1962. RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES

Sarbin, T. R. Role theory. In Lindzey, G. (Ed.), Handbook of social psy-chology. Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954. Man has learned to rely upon the plant kingdom not only for life's neces-

Sargant, W. Battle for tile mind. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1961. sities but also its amenities and ameliorants, in virtually every part of the world.

Schachtel, E. On memory and ahildhood amnesia. Psychiatry, 1947, 10, 1-26. man'sN°neOfclevernesstheameliorantSandingenuityhaShadthanamorethoseabsorbingwhichwe histOrYcallthe nOrnarcotic_r.bettershows

Smith, C. P. Yankees and God. New York: Hermitage House, 1954. The very word "narcotic" has taken on a sinister meaning in American

Stevens, S. S. Mathematics, measurement, and psychophysics. Iu Stevens, S.S. culture. There is probably no field _ save perhaps religion and politics

(Ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology. New York: Wiley, 1951. so replete with popular misinformation and purposeful misrepresentation. This

Sullivan, H. S. Schizophrenia as a human process. New York: Norton, 1962. condition is general, yes, even universal, insofar as the public is concerned.

Szasz, T. S. The myth of mental illness. New York: Hoeber-Harper, 1961. But its paralysis has invaded even our technical circles. The misuse of theterms "habit-forming" and "addictive," for example, is found even amongst

Taylor, G. Rattray. Sex in history. New York: Vanguard, 1954. our students. It is a fact that there are but two plant narcotics known to

Terrill, J., Savage, C., & Jackson, D. D. LSD, transcendence and the new cause addiction and to be physically, morally and socially so dangerous thatthey must be strictly controlled -- this fact is lost to most people, for whom

beginning. I. Nero. Merit. Disease, 1962, I35, 425-439. it is enough that a substance be called a narcotic to draw away aghast.

Watts, A. W. Psychotherapy east and west. New York: Pantheon Books, I use the term "narcotic" in its classic sense. It comes from the Greek1961. "to benumb" and, therefore, broadly applies to any substance (howsoever

Wilder, T. N. Our town. New York: Coward-McCann, 1938. stimulating in one or several stages of its physiological activity) which maybenumb the body.

The use of narcotics is always in some way connected with escape fromreality. From their most primitive uses to their applications in modern medi-cine, this is true. All narcotics, sometime in their history, have been linkedto religion or magic. This is so even of such narcotics as tobacco, coca andopium which have suffered secularization -- which have come out of thetemple, so to speak, have !eft the priestly class and have been taken up bythe common man. It is interesting here to note that, when problems do arisefrom the employment of narcotics, they arise after the narcotics have passedfrom ceremonial to purely hedonic or recreational use. This historical back-ground can explain much, especially when we realize that there are still some

*,q composite of two lectures ("Native narcotics of the New World" and"Botany attacks the hallucinogens") delivered in the Third Lecture Series,1960, Uolleoe of Pharmacy, University of Texas, and published in the TexasJournal of Pharmacy 2 (1961) 141-185. Slight changes from the originaltext have been made in several places, and additio_ml information has beenadded to bring the treatment of the subject up to date.

145144

!THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW J

iw

narcotics used by primitive peoples only in a religious or magic context: Botanical Sources of the New World Narcoticspeyote is a good example. This is why the botanist who goes out to search

for new narcotics in primitive societies must be versed in and sympathetic central nervous system to bring about a dream-like state, marked (as Hof-to anthropological or ethnological fields -- and we have come to refer to mann points out) by extreme alteration in the "sphere of experience, in thethis type of scientist as an ethnobotanist, perception of reality, changes even of space and time and in consciousness

None of the New World narcotics, save tobacco and coca, has assumed of self." They invariably induce a series of visual hallucinations, often inkaleidoscopic movement and usually in rather indescribably brilliant and richa place of importance in modern civilization, and many are still rather un-

familiar even to our botanists, chemists and pharmacologists. It is for this colors, frequently accompanied by auditory and other hallucinations and a· reason that I have chosen, even at the risk of seeming rather superficial, to variety of synesthesias. Notwithstanding this mushrooming new nomenclature,

it seems to me difficult to find a simpler and more serviceable classificationsay a few words about each of the native New World narcotics, with almostall of which I have had personal experience in the field over a long period, than that of Lewin.

By doing this, I hope to give you an overall picture of what we may term It is of interest that the New World is very much richer in narcoticthe "narcotic complex" of New World peoples. For sundry of these, the plants than the Old and that the New World boasts at least 40 species ofliterature, though recondite, is extensive, covering many fields of research; hallucinogenic or phantastica narcotics as opposed to half a dozen speciesbut for the greater number, bibliographic sources are few and pertain to only native to the Old World.

one or two fields of investigation. Reference to tobacco and alcohol, both It is clear that medical and psychological research into these strange agents,native American narcotics, will be omitted from this brief article, at a painfully embryonic state at the present time, promises more than we

The identification of the source plants of American narcotics has inter- are able fully to comprehend. Powerful new tools for psychiatry may be onlyested me since 1936. Consequently it is natural, I suppose, that my remarks one of the results of such investigations. But research into the effects of theseshould be heavily botanical. That the final and complete understanding of substances on the human mind must be carried out carefully, without haste ornarcotic plants rests solely and fundamentally on a knowledge of their botan- superficiality and, above all, by the most qualified personnel, for what mayical sources makes it obvious that the first step must he made in the direction be one of the most promising fields for progress ever within man's grasp canof botany or ethnobotany. Convinced of the importance of this step, I have easily be jeopardized or utterly destroyed by irresponsible and inadequatelystudied narcotic plants among North American Indians in Oklahoma, have planned research or by the manipulations of dilettantes.made several trips into the Mazatec, Chinantec and Zapotec Indian country

of northeastern Oaxaca, Mexico, and lived almost without interruption, from .4yahuasca. Caapi, Yai_

1941 to 1953, in the northwest Amazon and the northern Andes of South One of the wcirdest of our phantastica or hallucinogens is the drink ofAmerica. the western Amazon known as ayahuasca, caapi or ya]'_. Although not nearly

For some of the plants mentioned, there are no chemical, much less phar- so popularly known as peyote and, nowadays, as the sacred mushrooms, it hasmaceutical, data. For some, even, there are still serious problems concerning nonetheless inspired an undue share of sensational articles which have playedtheir botanical source or sources. Here, then, lies one of the most promising fancifully with unfounded claims, especially concerning its presumed telepathicfields for research, for we know that tropical America still holds secrets in powers.

connection with narcotic plants. In spite of its extraordinarily bizarre ability to alter man's physical andFor general purposes, there is probably no more serviceable classification mental state, this narcotic drink finally disclosed itself to prying European

i of the plants man uses in his striving for temporary relief from reality than eyes only about a century ago. And it remains one of the most poorly under-: that proposed by the German toxicologist, Louis Lewin. stood American narcotics today.

! Of Lewin's five categories, i.e., Excita,tia, lnebriantia, H3'pnotica, Eu- The earliest mention of ayahuasca seems to be that of Villavicencio inphorica, Phantastica, none has stirred deeper interest through the ages, and bis geography of Ecuador, written in 1858. The source of the drug, he wrote,none has foretokened a greater field for discovery for the present and future, was a vine used "to foresee and to answer accurately in difficult cases, be it

than the Phantastica. There have recently been proposed very learned and to reply opportunely to ambassadors from other tribes in a question of war;intricate words to distinguish the several kinds of narcotics. Our modern to decipher plans of the enemy through the medium of this magic drink andterminology has come to call these the hallucinogens, the psychotornirnetics, take proper steps for attack and defense; to ascertain, when a relative is sick,or the psychedelics. Differing from the psychotropic drugs, which normally what sorcerer has put on the hex; to carry out a' friendly visit to other tribes;act only to calm or to stimulate, the hallucinogens or psychedelics act on the womenfolk.,,t°welcome foreign travellers or, at least, to make sure of the love of their

146 A few years earlier, in 1852, that tireless British plant explorer, Richard

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Botanical Sources of the Neu, World Narcotics

Spruce, had discovered the Tukanoan Indians of the Uaupls in Amazonian

Brazil using a liana known as caapi to induce intoxication. His observations wrote, "are of a shining green, painted with the strong blood-red veinJ. It hwere not published until the posthumous account of his travels appeared in 1908. possibly the same species . . . distributed by Mr. Bentham under the name

One of Spruce's greatest contributions to science was his precise identi- of Haemadlctyon oma_onicum. It may be the caapi-pinima which gives iranauseoustaste to the caapi . . . and it is probably poisonous, but it is not

fication of the source of caapi as a new species of the Malpighiaceae which essential to the narcotic effect of Banisterla .... "I have consulted Spruce'ilwas called Bani. rteria Caapi. The correct name is now Banisteriopsis Caapi, unpublished notes at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and find that hesince it has been shown to be not a true Banisteria. stated that the caapi drink is made from the lower parts of the stems of Btm/,f-

The natives of the upper Rio Negro of Brazil use it for prophetic and teriopsis Caapi "beaten in a mortar with the addition of water and a small

divinatory purposes and also to fortify the bravery of male adolescents about quantity of the slender roots of the Apocynac (apparently a Haemadictyon)to undergo the severely painful yurupari ceremony for initiation into manhood, called caapi-pinima .... May not the peculiar effects of the caapi,' he queried,The narcosis amongst these peoples, with whom I have taken caapi many "be owing rather to the roots of the Haemadict¥on than to the stems of thetimes, is pleasant, characterized, amongst other strange effects, by colored Banisteria? The Indians, however, consider the 'latter the prime agent, at thevisual hallucinations. In excessive doses, it is said to bring on frighteningly same time admitting that the former is an essential ingredienL'

nightmarish visions and a feeling of extremely reckless abandon, but cooscious- It is clear that Spruce suspected that the apocynaceous vine might playness is not lost nor is use of the limbs unduly affected, a role in causing the intoxication. But he was not sure. Nor did he make

Two years later, in 1854, Spruce encountered the intoxicant along the any definite statement, being careful to point out that Banisteriopsir aloneupper Orinoco, where the natives chewed the dry stem for the intoxicating could produce hallucinogenic effects.effects. Again, in 1857, he came upon ayahuasca in the Peruvian Andes and

concluded that it was "the identical species of the Uaup/}s, but under a dif- Recent botanical work has shown that the genus Haemadlctyon is notferent name." distinct from Preatonia. Haemadictyon ama_onic#m, therefore, is now cor-

rectly called Prestonla amazoaica. It is a species known from only one col-Later explorers and travellers -- Martius, Orton, Crivaux, Koch-Griinberg lection, that made by Spruce along the lower Amazon in Brazil. We must

and others -- referred to ayahuasca, caapi or ya]l but in an incidental, even assume, consequently, that it is a very strict endemic.casual, manner. All agreed, however, that the source was a forest liana.

Now, I have previously pointed out that the narcotic species of Banizter_In the years following the early work, the area of use of Banisterlopsir opsir bear different vernacular names. In the northwestern Amazon of Brazil

Caapi was shown to extend to Peru and Bolivia, and several other species of and in adjacent parts of Colombia, it is termed caapi; in Amazonian Bolivia,the genus with the same use were likewise reported from the western Amazon. Peru and Ecuador, ayahuazca; along the eastern foothills of the Andes inOf outstanding interest was the work in 1922 of Rushy and White in Bolivia Colombia and Ecuador, it is _lajt.and the publication by Morton in 1931 of notes collected by Klug in the

Colombian Putumayo. Similarly, the work of the Russians Varonof and For some unexplained reason, writers usually have assumed that ayahuasc_Juzepczuk in the Colombian Caquetl in 1925-6 added information of interest and caapi refer to Banisteriopsis but that yaj_ refers to Prestonia ama_onlca,

notwithstanding the fact that this apocynaceous species is not known in theto the whole picture, region where yaj_ is prepared.

Serious complications, however, early entered the story of the correct

identification of ayahuasca, caapi and yaji. Back in 1890, Magelli, a mission- It was apparently the anthropologist, Reinberg, who, in 1921, first sug-ary in Ecuador, through a misuse of the native names for Jivaro intoxicants, gested that in Peru the source of ayahuasca and of yaj6 were different plants.confused our malpighiaceous vine-narcotics with one of the tree-species of He suggested tentatively that yaj6 might be Prestonia or a related genus.Datura. The effects of the tyro psychotomimetics differ widely. This con- The following year, the Belgian horticulturist, Claes, said that the yaj6 offusion, fortunately, did not enter the pharmacological or chemical literature, the Koregwahes of Colombia "might be" Prestonia amazonica. I have found

no voucher specimens of Relnberg or of Claes' collections, but the pharma-A complication which has, however, sorely plagued both the botanical cologists Michiels and Clinquart, who worked on Claes' material, reported

and the chemical literature, even as recently as 1957, stems from the days of that it seemed to belong to Prestonla amazonica.

Spruce. This meticulous observer noted, when he discovered caapi and identi- Another and an unnecessary complication arose when the Colombianfled its source, that another kind called caald-pinima or "painted caapi" in the chemist, Fischer, while admitting that no botanical identification of his ma-Rio Negro area might be "an apocynaceous twiner of the genus ttaemadictyon, terial had been made, referred yaj6 to Aristolochia; and the French pharma-of which I saw only young shoots without any flowers." "The leaves," he cologist, Rouhier, at first accepted this determination. Later, however, Rouhier140

149

Botanical Sources of the Nezv World Narcotics· . · THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW

Along the eastern foothills of the Andes in Colombia, yaj_ is prepared

pointed out the similarity of the narcosis from ayahuasca and doubted the as a concentrated decoction from day-long boiling of the raped bark ofpossibility that yaj& could be Prestonia omasonica. Ba#isteriopsis inebrians. I saw no admixture with any other plant, yet the

At about the same times Barriga-Viilalha and Albarracln, a Colombian drink had a very strong psychotropic effect. Its intoxication had an initialchemist and pharmacologist, respectively, described yaj_., on which they worked, stage of giddiness and nervousness, followed by profuse sweating and nausea.Then began a period of lassitude, during which a play of colors, at first mainlyas a "climbing shrub." a hazy blue, increased in intensity. This eventually gave way to a deep sleep,

In 1927, two French pharmacologists, Perrot and Hamet, published an interrupted by dreams and accompanied by a feverishness. No uncomfortableextensive review of what was then known botanically and chemically of this after-effects, save a severe diarrhea, were felt on the next day.complex of intoxicants. Botanically, they pointed out that 1) yaji, ayabuascaand caapi referred to one species of plant -- Banisteriopxis Caap/ and that My studies indicate that the Koftn, Inga and Sioua Indians of the Putu-2) no apocynaceous species is at all concerned with this narcotic complex, mayo area do often employ the leaves of Banlsterlopsis Rusbyana, knownlocally as ehagro-panga or oco-ya]_, as an admixture with the bark of B.

In reply to Perrot and Hamet, the German botanist, Niedenzu, published isebrians. I collected Banisteriopsis Ru.tbyana several times, when nativesseveral observations made from herbarium material. His specimens, of course, pointed it out as the plant employed to make yajl stronger. The botanist,are no longer extant, for they were burned in the Berlin-Dahlem BotanicalGarden during the last war, but his observations bear the stamp of authority, Cuatrecasas, has likewise found both species used together in the Putumayo.since Niedenzu was the outstanding specialist in the Malpiohiaceae. His Klug reported that these Indians "added to the ya]l (Banist_iop:i:studies indicated that ayahuasca in Peru and Ecuador ought to be considered ia_brla_) the leaves and young shoots of the branches of the oco-yaji orMascagnia psilopkyUa var. aatifebrilis, Banisterlopsls quitensis and B. Caapi. chaora-panga (No. 1971) (B. Rusbyana), and it is the addition of this plantThis introduced into the puzzle another genus, Mascagnia, albeit one closely which produces the 'bluish aureole' of their visions." The Colombian botanist,Garcla-Barriga, noted their use of two admixtures, one of the amarantbaceousallied to Ban_teriopsi:. Aitenanthera Lehnmnii, the other an unidentified plant; he reported that the

Another attempt to make order out of chaos came in 1930, when the Aitenaathera, when added to native beers or chicha, increased their intoxicatingFrench botanist, Gagnepain, stated 1) that ayahuasca was probably Banisteri- properties.ops/s ¢aap/, but yaj_ could not be referable to this species; 2) that yajlseemed to approach Prestonia amasonica; 3) that material sent in from df- It is, I think, quite significant that the relatively intensive, though spo-vergent regions by Reinberg and by Rivet seemed to represent the same mai- radic, botanical work in the Putumayo has not turned up Pre_onia in con-nection with yajl. And I think we are justified in doubting that the yajt ofpighiaceous species. Gagnepaln felt that yajt of Colombia was the samespecies as caapi of Brazil but that yajt of Ecuador was a different species of this area is wholly or partly made from this apocynaceons vine. Nevertheless,we must not dismiss the possibility for other regions. There have been severalBa#i_eriop_. serious intimations that Prestoaia enters the narcotic complex. And, in 1957,

Hammerman, in 1929, basing his observations on the field studies of the chemists Hochstein and Paradies analyzed ayahuasca from Peru, callingVaranof and Juzepczuk in Colombia, reported that Colombian yajl seemed it Banlsteriopsls C_pi, and, from the same region, yajl which they attributedto comprise several species of Bani._t_riop_'is, though most of it was probably to Prestonia amazonica. I have been unable to check the voucher herbariumB. i_/ten.gs, specimens upon which, apparently, the Peruvian botanist, Ferreyra, made his

determination. These chemists stated that the natives of the Rio Napo "com-Perhaps the greatest single advance since Spruce's contribution occurred monly consume a mixed extract of the B. Caapl and P. amc_o#ica leaves in

in 1931 when Morton described a new species of Banisterlop_'is from southern the belief that the latter suppress the more unpleasant hallucinations associatedColombia, naming it B. intbrians. On the basis of meticulous field work and with the pure B. Caapi extracts."observations of the German plant explorer, Klug, Morton reported that atleast three species are employed in this region: Bani_teriopsis Caapi, 8. i_- Much of my field work was done in the eastern part of the ColombianAmazon, near Brazil. Here Banlsteriopsis ¢oapi is usually used alone, butbrgans, and B. quitegsis and that B. longialata and B. Rusbyana may some- sometimes the leaves of B. Rusbyana are added. I noted a few reports oftimes enter as additional ingredients, admixtures, such as powdered tobacco or dried tobacco leaves and the crushed

During my 12 years of plant exploration in the Amazon Valley, I eh- leaves of an apocynaceous tree, the toxic Malouetia Tamaquarina. The drinkcountered ayahuasca, caapi and yajt and was able to partake of the ballucin- is invariably prepared as a cold water infusion in this region.ogenic drink on a number of occasions with the natives. In all cases save As far as I was able to judge from six or seven experiences with caapi,one, the beverage was prepared with Banisteriopsi:, regardless of the vet- the effects differ little from those from the boiled concoction used in thenaenlar name that was employed for the drink.

151150

t

)

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Botanical Sources of #te Nero World iVor¢oties

Putumayo. The intoxication is longer in setting in, and much more of thedrink must be taken, but the symptoms of the intoxication and their intensity botanical materials, Chen and Chen demonstrated that the alkaloid of Bunts-seem to me to be very similar, ttriopsis Caapi is harmlne and that telepathlne, yajeine, and hanisterine are

superfluous synonyms.It was my good fortune in 1948 to be able to witness the preparation

and to partake of a narcotic coopt-drink amongst the nomadic Makns of the Recent chemical investigation has, however, apparently reopened theRio Tikil near the Colombian boundary in Brazil. This is the same area in whole question. In 1953, working with material of Banlsteriopsls inebrlanswhich Spruce worked a century ago. From the bark of a forest liana, a which I collected in the Colombian Putumayo, O'Connell and Lynn founddefinitely hallucinogenic drink in the form of a cold water infusion, yellowish harmine in the stems and, in the leaves, "an alkaloid which was partly identifiedin hue and exceedingly bitter, is made. The liana represented an undescribed as harmine." Mors and Zaltzman, however, in 1954, questioned that harminespecies of the malpighiaceous genus Tetrapterys, which I named T. methystica, and yajeine were the same. Most recently, in 1957, Hochstein and Paradies,

likewise on the basis of botanically determined materials, found that Banis-In summary, we may state that: a) the narcotic known in the western teriopsis Caapi contains, in addition to harmine, the alkaloids harmaline and

Amazon as caapi, yajt and ayahuasca is made basically from species of Bani_- d-tetrah_'droharmine, the three differing only in their state of oxidation andteriopsis or from closely related malpighiaceous genera; b) the most widely therefore of considerable biogenetic interest. They conclude that "in view ofemployed species of Banisteriopsis are B. Caapi, B. inebrians and B. Rusbyana, the Iow degree of psychotomimetic activity reported for harmine and thebut B. quitensis appears also to be a major source; c) the genus Tetrapterys effectiveness ascribed to B. Caapi extracts, it seems likely that the harmalineis employed along the Colombia-Brazilian boundary, where only one species, or d-tetrahydroharmine may have substantial psychotomimetic activity in theirT. methystica, is known to be used; d)Mascagnia psilophylla var. antifebrills own right."

has been suggested as a source of ayahuasca, but the evidence is not strong; This is how far 100 years has brought us. How much farther is theree) the identification of yajl as an ,4ristolochia is without foundation; f) Pres- to go? Should we not step up the speed of our studies before time blots outtonia amasonica has frequently been named as a source of yaji; but there much of the native lore of the western Amazon?is little or no reliable evidence that it is ever employed, at least, as the prime

ingredient, in preparing the narcotic; g) non-maipighiaceous plants are known Datura and Other Solanaceous Plants

occasionally, but apparently not frequently, to be added as admixtures to- The well known intoxicating solanaceous genus, Daturo, has two Newgether with Banisteriopsis. World centers of aboriginal use. In the American Southwest (California,

If there be confusion in the botanical field, there is chaos in the chemical. Arizona, New Mexico) and adjacent Mexico, several herbaceous species, chieflyThis stems in great part, to be sure, from uncertainty as to precisely what D. meteloides and D. inoxia (the toloache of Mexico), have been a part ofthe plants involved may be. The problem consequently is basically an ethno- religious and magical rites from earliest times. They are still so employed.botanical one. Toloache, reported as a narcotic by all of the early chronicles, is still widely

An alkaloid was isolated from yajl! in 1923 by Fischer who named it employed in rural parts of northern and central Mexico.

telepathine, but he gave neither structure nor other pertinent data. At the In the Andes, from Colombia to Chile, and along the Pacific Coast ofsame time, Barriga-Villalba and AIbarracin reported two alkaloids from South America, where the Daturas are trees, a number of species are Imownspecimens of yaj_: Yaieine and ya]einine. Later, in 1926, Michiels and Clin- to have been of extreme importance in some of the ancient civilizatioms, in-quart isolated yajeine; and Reutter reported yttjeine and yojeinine from samples eluding the Incas and Chibchas, and are still valued in magico-religious andof yaj6 which, without herbarium specimens, he identified as Prestonia ama- divinatory rites in isolated areas of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. There issonica. In 1928, Lewin isolated what he called banisterine; this alkaloid, even a report of witch-ductors of the Ecuadorian highlands taking lessonsincidentally, was tried clinically in mental cases at that time. recently from Jivaro medicine-men and re-introducing the use of Datura into

In the same year, Wolfes, as well as Rumpf and Elger, claimed that both the populous and now civilized Andean tribes. The important economic speciesare Datura candida, D. sangulnea, D. aurea, D. dolichocarga, D. suaveolens

yajeinefoundinandthebanisterineseedsand rootsWereactua!lYofPetlanumharmine'Harmala°neOfofthetheindolefamilyderivatiVeSzygophyl, and D. arborea. A recently discovered species, Datura tndcanlcola, may alsohavebeen used.

laceae. This point of view has been generally accepted. Although pharmaco-

logical similarities between the activity of these alkaloids and harmine are The preparation and use of Datura differ widely. It is most generallyclose, Hamet, while agreeing that telepathlne, yajeine and hanisterine are taken in the form of pulverized seeds dropped into beverages such as chichaidentical, felt that evidence was not yet sufficient to identify them with harmin_ or native beers. Many South American Indians thus bring on the intoxication

Working, so far as I am aware, for the first time with accurately identified which is marked by an initial state of violence so furious that the partakermust be held down pending the arrival of the deep, disturbed sleep during

152153

'THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEWBotanical Sources of the New World Narcotics

u'hich visual hallucinations, interpreted as spirit visitations, are experienced.

This narcosis enables the witch-doctor to diagnose disease, to discover thieves alkaloid belonging pharmacologically to the same group as nicotine. Cytisineand to prophesy the outcome of tribal affairs and hopes. The Jivaro value is highly poisonous. Its intoxication is characterized by nausea and convulsions,

i Datura in correcting very refractory children who are given the seeds in the and death occurs as a result of respiratory failure.hope that the spirits of their forefathers may come to admonish them. The la spite of its toxicity -- or perhaps because of it -- the seed of Sophora

t Chibchas anciently gave women and slaves potions of Dotura to induce stupor secuncliflora was used formerly by Indian groups, especially in Texas andI prior to their being buried alive with departed husbands or masters, northern Mexico, as the basis for the Red Bean Dance. Various groups oft Accurate identification of the species used by the tribes for special the Plains Indians likewise employed the mescal bean in distinct patterns of

I leaves much to be desired, but since most species are known to con- use: as an oracularpurposes or divinatory medium, to induce visions in initiation ritesrain similar alkaloids -- hyoscyamine, scopolamine, atropine _ this is not and as a ceremonial emetic and stimulant. Its use today amongst the Kioxvasuch a serious problem as it is in the case of some other narcotics, and Comanche Indians as part of the ornamental dress of the leader of the

In one high mountain-girt valley in southern Colombia, inhabited by peyote ceremony may point to its earlier employment as a narcotic, a roleKzms/t and Ingano Indians, I collected in 1942 what, after 13 years of field which it lost with the sweeping arrival of peyote which was so much saferand herbarium study, I decided was a new solanaceous genus, closely akin and so much more spectacularly hallucinogenic.

to the tree-Daturas. Apparently a strict endemic, this tree has 12-inch flowers References to the mescal beans go back to 1539, when Cabeza de Vacaand long slender leaves from which an infusion is made for use similar to that spoke of them as objects of trade amongst the Indians of what is now Texas.of the Datura species. Methysticodendron /lmesianum, for that is what I They were mentioned in the mission literature of Texas as an oracular seed,

; called it, is stated to be more potent and more dangerous than the Daturas. and the Stephen Long Expedition in 1820 reported that the Arapaho and

! Its chemical composition includes !-scopolamine and hyoscyamine, with evidence Iowa Indians used large red beans as a medicine and narcotic.

' of the presence of very minor amounts of other alkaloids. What interests us especially about Sophora secandiflora is how, in suchThe Indians of this isolated Valley of Sibundoy may possess the most a short pet:iod of time, its use has disappeared so completely that we have

intricate narcotic consciousness of any peoples of the New World. In addi- but a fragmentary knowledge of the whole picture. The same fate lies intion to several species of tree-Daturas and Methysticodendron, they recognize store for other native narcotics, and it behooves us to act before aboriginaland keep through vegetative reproduction clones of Daturas which are vari- folklore be completely lost to us forever.ously atrophied as a result of virus infection. Some of these "races" are

such monstrosities that it is difficult to discover the species to which they Ololiuqui and Tlitliltzenbelong. The natives have special names for each clone. Since they are reputedly

stronger, weaker, or in other ways different from healthy Daturas in their The early chroniclers in Mexico, writing shortly after the Conquest,effects, they are conserved for very special Uses by the witch-doctors. Here discovered a number of intoxicants as major factors in native religions. Oneis an excellent problem never investigated but well worthy of research -- of the strangest was ololiuqui, the seed of which was a vision-producing nar-are they really chemically different and, if so, is the difference associated cotic. Several sources described the plant as a vine and illustrated it. Her-with the virus infection? nandez, the King of Spain's personal physician who spent a number of years

studying the medicinal plants, animals and stones of the new country, accuratelyThe alkaloidal family Solanaceae is so excessively rich in genera and illustrated ololiuqui as a morning glory in his work which was not publishedspecies in the Andean area that there would seem to be every probability that until 1651.

additional plants of the family may be found to be or to have been utilized

as native narcotics. Only further field research will tell. Religious persecution of the native cults by the newly arrived RomanCatholic authorities drove the use of the sacred narcotic plants into hiding.

Mescal Beans For four centuries, no morning glory with intoxicating principles ever cameto light. In spite of the insistence of reliable Mexican botanists in the liter-

In Texas and other southwestern states and in adjacent Mexico, one of ature that ololiuqui actually was a member of the Convolvulaeeae, the Americanthe characteristic plants of the drier areas is the shrubby Sophora secundifloro_ economic botanist Safford asserted that it must be a species of Datura. HeThe pods of this leguminose species bear dark red seeds known locally as reasoned that 1) no morning glory was known to contain principles active onmescal bean.tor, inMexieo, asfrl]olitos, the central nervous system; 2) the flowers of the morning glories were

The genus Sophora is rich in alkaloids. The seeds of Sophora secundi/Iora tubular and similar to those of Datura and the Indians could have fooledhave been found to contain cyt'tt/ne, known also as sophorine, a crystalline Hernandez with a substitution; and 3) the narcosis described in the literature

for ololiuqui coincided well with Datura-intoxication. Safford's identification154

155

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Botanical Sources o/ the New World Narcotics

was readily accepted and, to this day, is well established in the scientific hallucinations. It is primarily this extraordinary phase of the narcosis whichliterature, has convinced Mexican and North American Indians that the plant is a

Nothing could have been further from the truth. In 1938, in the hills divine messenger enabling the partaker to communicate with the gods with-of Oaxaca, I found a convolvulaceous vine growing in the door-yard of a out the medium of a priest and has occupied the serious attention of experi-c#randero. Thc seeds were employed as a sacred divinatory narcotic. As mental psychologists now for a number of years.

had been pointed out by Mexican botanists without the aid of voucher speci- Peyote goes back far in Mexican history. The chronicles of thc Con-

mens, it was referable to the white-flowered morning glory, Rivea corymbo:at quistadores are full of fanatic and vituperative condemnation of peyote as aThe few seeds available were examined by Santesson in Sweden who reported diabolic root. Missionaries combated its use in native religions as a sacredthat in frogs they induced a kind of "half-narcosis" and who suggested that element and compared the eating of the cactus with cannibalism.perhaps the active principle might be an alkaloid linked with a gluocoside.

Peyote survived, however, as a divine therapeutic agent and religiousIn 1941, I published a modest survey of our knowledge of the ololluqui hallucinogen in northern Mexico, where the explorer Lumholtz in 1892 dis-

plant, but nothing further was done until a Canadian psychiatrist, Osmond, covered its use in ceremonial dances amongst the Huichols and Tarahumaresbecame interested in the effects described for the narcotic. In 1955, he re- andsent back to Harvard University material upon which a definitive botanicalported four experiments with ololiuqui, characterizing Rivea-intoxication as determination was made.consisting of apathy and anergia together with heightened visual perception

and increased hypnagogic phenomena. He found no mental confusion but During the last half of the past century, Indian tribes from the Unitedinstead an acute awareness combined with alteration of time perception, f01- States brought back knowledge of the peyote from their raids into northernlowed a few hours later by a period of calm, alert euphoria. We might well Mexico. After 1880, peyote was accepted with great speed amongst man_,harken back at this point to Hernandez' statement that Aztec "priests corn- tribes in the United States as the central sacrament in a religious cultmuned with their gods . . . to receive a message from them, eating the which incorporated both Christian and aboriginal elements. By 1922, the ad-seeds to induce a delirium when a thousand visions and satanic hallucinations berents to the peyote cult numbered some 13,300 and, for protection againstappeared to them." It was so powerful that he wrote "... it will not be fierce and often unjust persecution from missionary and political circles, itwrong to refrain from telling where it grows, for it matters little that this was legally incorporated as the Native American Church. There are nowplant be here described or that Spaniards be made acquainted with it." many more tribes, as far north as Saskatchewan, represented in the peyote

cult in the United States and Canada; the figure has been put as high as aRecently, Wasson has established that the seeds of another morning quarter of a million. Having attended peyote ceremonies in Oklahoma, I

glory, lpomoea vlolacea, are employed in Oaxaca for the same purpose and must say that I am impressed with the reverence and seriousness of the Indianin the same way as those of Riven corymbosa/ he has identified Iporaoes in his practice of the peyote ceremony, the moral teachings of which are ofviolacea as the tlitlitt_en of the Aztecs. the highest. Since science has not demonstrated that peyote is a dangerous

For many years, chemists were unable to isolate any narcotic principle and addictive narcotic, I personally can see no reason for political interferencewhich could cause the characteristic intoxication, but in 1960, Hofmann was with its use in thc American Indian religious rites.able to find the active constituents. They are the amides of lysergic acidand of d-lysergic acid, chanoclavine and clymoclavine, substances hitherto There are some eight isoquinoline alkaloids in the peyote cactus. Whileknown only in the fungus ergot (C!azqceps purpurea). They have been found all of them undoubtedly contribute to the characteristic peyote intoxication,in Riven corymbosa as well as in Ipomoea vlolacea, one _ mescaline _ is responsible for the fantastic visual hallucinations.

So much has been written on the various aspects of peyote that I needPeyote not elaborate in this brief survey. What should concern us, however, is the

advisability of intensive chemical and pharmacological investigations of theAnother of the sacred plants closely tied in with religious practices which Cactaceae,especially of those genera allied to Lophophora. Alkaloids similar

the conquerors of Mexico encountered was the now famous peyote cactus, to or identical with those of Lopbophora have been found in species ofLophophora FVilliamsii. The spineless heads of this small gray-green cactus Anhaloniumand ,qriocarpus, but there seems never to have been carried out

with a long carrot-like root are sliced off and dried to form the so-called a concerted screening of the family. Of the more than twenty plants which,mescal buttons. The intoxication induced by eating mescal buttons is one of in Mexico, have been called "peyote," either because their physiological effectsthe most highly complex known and has been too often and expertly de- are similar or because they are used with Lophophora IVilliamsii, more thanscribed in the literature to detail here. The most spectacular phase of this half belong to the Uactaceae. Here is one area, I believe, where thc attentionintoxication is made up of the kaleidoscopic play of richly colored visual of chemists and pharmacologists is strongly indicated.

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Botanical Sources of the New World Narcotics

Rapt dos lndios Teonanacate (teonanacatl)

In the central part of the Brazilian Amazon, along the upper Xing6, to The Spaniards, like most Europeans, are mycophohes -- that is to say,be precise, a psychotomimetic snuff has recently been discovered. It is knownin Portuguese only by the name rapt dos indios or "Indian snuff." Nothing they have an innate dislike of mushrooms. At the time of Spain's great ex-pansion into the New World, they were fired by a religious fanaticism thehas as yet been published. My source of information was the late Dr. GeorgeA. Black, botanical explorer of the Brazilian Amazon, where he lost his life like of which has never been seen since. We can, consequently, understandin a rapids. Black informed me in a letter that this snuff is made from the the utter disgust of the conquerors of Mexico when they discovered certainfruit of the gigantic forest tree, Olmedioperebea sclerophy!la, a member of aint°xicatingkindof sacramentmushroomSorcommunionCalledteonancatl,inAztec religious"fleshOfrites.thegods," employed asthe Moraceae. One could hardly have chosen a less likely source-family foran hallucinogen. Unfortunately, we have no information about its manner Most of the early chroniclers were clerics, and they put special emphasisof use, and no chemical study has, to my knowledge, been carried out, so that on the need for stamping out such loathsome pagan customs. The peyotewe do not know anything as yet as to the nature of the active principle, cactus and the morning glory, ololiuqui, fell under their ban, too, but par-tlcular wrath was directed towards the mushrooms which, through the visions

induced by the sacred powers residing in the plant, permitted the Indian tocommune with the spirit world.

Salvia and Other Mints Sahagfin, a Spanish friar, was one of the first Europeans to refer to

A species of Salvia, of the Labiatae or Mint Family, has very recently teonanaeate. He made several references to mushrooms "which are harmfulbeen discovered by Wasson as an hallucinogenic narcotic in use in northeastern and intoxicate like wine" so that those who eat of them %ce visions, feel aOaxaca, Mexico. The species, Salvia divinorura, new to science, has the faintness of heart and are provoked to lust." He detailed the effects in onevernacular names hoja_ de la pastora or hoia: de Maria Pastora in Spanish reference, saying that the natives ate them with honey and "when they beginand ska-Pastora among the Mazatec Indians. to be excited by them start dancing, singing, weeping." "Some," Sahag6n

continued, "do not want to sing but sit down . . . and see themselves dyingAlthough the plant and its properties are familiar to virtually all Maza- in a vision; others see themselves being eaten by a wild beast; others imagine

tecs, there seem to have been no very early reports of the use of Sa/da that they are capturing prisoners of war, that they are rich, that they possessdivinorum in magico-religions rites. Its area of diffusion comprises only many slaves, that they had committed adultery and were to have their headsthe Mazatec country and possibly adjacent regions inhabited by Cuieatec and crushed for the offence . . . and when the drunken state had passed, theyChinantcc Indians. The leaves are consumed, usually by chewing them directly, talk over amongst themselves the visions which they have seen." In additionbut the effects may he induced when the leaves are drunk in water after to the detailed reports, several editions of Sahag6n's writing give crudehaving been crushed. Salvia leaves are taken when the mushrooms are not illustrations of the sundry mushrooms employed.available, their narcotic effects coming on quicker, but, while these are similarto the effects of the mushrooms, they are "less sweeping" and of shorter dura- There are four or five references to the sacred fungi in these e:irlytion. The psychotomimetic properties have been adequately experienced in the writings. According to Tezozomoc, for example, inebriating mushrooms werepart of the coronation feast of Montezuma in 1502. Friar Motolinia, whofield of Wasson and others in his party, died in 1569, mentioned the sacred psychotomimetic mushrooms in a work

Wasson has recently identified Salvia divinorum as probably the pipiltglnt- on pagan rites and idolatries. The physician, Hernandez, who studied the_intli of the Aztecs. medicinal !ore of Mexican natives for seven years, spoke of three kinds of

The chemical constituent or constituents responsible for the narcotic effects mushrooms used as narcotics and worshiped. Of some, called teyhuinti, heof Salvia divinorum have not yet been determined. As a mint, of course, the wrote that they "cause not death but mvdness that on occasion is lasting, ofwhich the symptom is a kind of uncontrolled laughter . . . these are deepplant would normally be rich in essential oils. yellow, acrid and of a not displeasing freshness. There are others again

Coleus Immila and two "forms" of C. B!nmei, both of the Mint Family which, without inducing laughter, bring before the eyes all kinds of things,and both species of Old World origin, have been pointed out by natives in such as wars and the likeness of demons. Yet others there are not less de-the Mazatec country to be likewise psychotropic, but these lack field corrobora- sired by princes for their festivals and banquets, and these fetch a high pricetion by critical researchers. As Wasson has stated, "it would seem. · · that With night-long vigils are they sought, awesome and terrifying. This kindwe are on the threshold of the discovery of a complex of psychotropic plants is tawny and somewhat acrid."in the Labiatae or Mint Family." Notwithstanding the relatively numerous and forceful Spanish reports,

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Botanical Sources of the New World Narcotics

nothing was known about these mushrooms until very recently. The first The work of the Wassons and Heim has indicated that a number of dif-attempt to determine them botanically was made in 1915, when the Americanferent species of Basidiomycetes are employed as sacred, psychotomimetic

botanist, Safford, asserted that teonanacate was, in reality, only the peyote mushrooms in Mexico. This was expected, in view of the ancient chronicle,cactus. The dried, brown, discoidal head or "button" of Lophophora Wil. but the wealth of genera and species still used m and probably not all haveliamsil, be wrote, resembled "a dried mushroom so remarkably that, at first been uncovered as yet -- is unexpectedly great. Furthermore, a large per-glance, it will even deceive a mycologist." Safford was led into this seriouserror first by his oft-stated belief that the Mexican Indians were deficient centage of those employed represent species new to science.

in botanical knowledge and secondly by the similarity of the effects of peyote Wasson and Heim failed to find Panaeolus employed by their informants,and teonanacate. Safford's outstanding reputation stamped his conclusions but it must be remembered that different curatutertu may use different mush-with authority, and they became generally accepted, rooms and that the purpose for which the intoxicant is taken in a given ritual

or siance may likewise have a part in choice of the species. The followingDr. Bias P. Rcko, a physician who did extensive botanical collecting in mushrooms make up the Wasson-Heim list oE Mexican hallucinogens: Can.Mexico, raised a lone voice in protest and, though he failed to produce

specimens, wrote, as early as 1919 and 1923, that teonanacate in reality was a atharellaceae-Conocybe siliginoides, growing on dead tree trunks; Strophari-aceae-Pxilocybe rnexicana, a small tawny inhabitant of wet pastures, appar-

dung-fungus and was still employed in religious rites in Oaxaca. ently the most highly prized by the users; Psilocybe aJtecorum, called "childrenIn 1936, an engineer, Robert J. Weitlaner of Mexico City, secured a of the waters" by the Aztecs; Psilocybe Japotecorum of marshy ground and

few specimens of a mushroom used in ceremonial divination in northeastern known by the Zapotecs as "crown of thorns mushroom"; PJqlocybe catrgle#centOaxaca and sent them to the Harvard Botanical Museum. They were poorly var. mazatecorum, the so-called "landslide mushroom" which grows on de-preserved but it was possible to assign them to the genus Panaeolus. In 1938 caying sugar cane refuse; Psilocybe caerule.rcegt var. nigripes, that has aand 1939, during the course of ethnohotanical field work in Oaxaca in the native name meaning "mushroom of superior reason"; and $tropharia cuben.gt.company of Reko, I collected Panaeolus sphinctrinus as one of the narcotic

mushrooms employed by the Mazatec Indians of Huautla de Jiminez. During The interest stirred up in the scientific world by this work encouragedthe same field studies, a specimen of Stropharla cubensir was likewise collected others to enter the field, but due primarily to the rapid nature of their workas one of the psychotomimetic mushrooms. In the time available, I was un- as compared to the sustained investigations of the Wasson group, they haveable to witness a ceremony, and so few mushrooms were available because contributed little to the total picture. The principal additions have been madeof the very dry season that it was not possible for me to take them experi- by Singer and Guzman who, in 1957, visited Oaxaca and found several othermentally: all were needed as voucher herbarium specimens, species of P_'ilacybe used.

I was able to publish two papers in which I suggested that Panaeolgr Undoubtedly there were many tribes in ancient Mexico who employedteonanacate, but we know with certainty only of the Chichimecas, who spoke

sphincl_'nus (P. campan_!atu_ var. sphinctrings) was probably the teonanacate Nahuatl. We know that today the sacred mushrooms are consumed by theOrValleySaCredformUShroomtwelveyears,°fthesoAZtecs,thatI andnevermYreturnedWOrkthentoOaxacat°°kme tot°continuetheAmazonthe Mazatecs, Chinantecs, Chatinos, Zapotecs, Mixtecs, and Mij es, all of Oaxaca;research, by the Nahoas of Mexico; and possibly by the Tarascans of Michoacan andthe Otomis of Puebla.

About fifteen years later, Mr. R. Gordon Wasson of New York and his

wife, intensely interested amateur ethnomycologists, read my papers and The Wassons have uncovered much indirect evidence which they havedecided to visit Oaxaca to pursue this fascinating phase of their llfe-long interpreted, correctly I believe, to indicate a very great extent for the use ofstudy of mushrooms. Their first trip was made in 1953. It has been followed psychotropic mushrooms in Mexico and Guatemala, as well as an astonishingby seven or eight expeditions to Oaxaca and other parts of Mexico. Wasson age for the mushroom cults. Certain frescoes from central Mexico, forsensed the need for intensive study of all phases of the use of the sacred example, dating back to 300 A.D., have designs which seem to put mushroommushrooms, so he enlisted the collaboration of specialists. The resulting re- worship back that far. There are likewise the archaeological artifacts now

called "mushroom stones" from the highland Maya of Guatemala, going backsearch, woven by Wasson into an intricately interrelated whole, will long to 1000 B.C. Consisting of an upright stem with a man-llke figure crownedhold a high place as an outstanding model of what can be accomplished by

well planned and carefully executed ethnobotanical investigation. Amongst with an umbrella-shaped top, these stone carvings have long baffled archaeolo-his collaborators, he numbers the French mycologist, Dr. Roger Heim, and gists who supposed them to be phallic symbols. It is now rather clear thatthe Sandoz pharmaceutical scientists under Hofmann. Wasson and his asso- they represented a kind of icon connected with mushroom worship.

ciates were able to witness and to take part in mushroom ceremonies and to The most important of the narcotic mushrooms of Oaxaca is Psilocybeeat o£ the mushrooms themselves, rnexicana. Besides the kaleidoscopic p/ay of visual hallucinations in color,160

161

Botanical Sources of the New World Narcotics'THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

tryptamine, the same constituent found in species of the closely related genusthe outstanding symptoms of Pdiocybe-intoxication are: muscular relaxation. Piptadenia.

flaccidity and mydriasis early in the narcosis, followed by a period of emo- Yakee or Paridltional disturbances such as extreme hilarity and difficulty in concentration.It is at this point that the visual and auditory hallucinations appear, eventually At the beginning of this century, the German ethnologist, Koch-Grfinberg,to be followed by lassitude and mental and physical depression, with serious mentioned an intoxicating snuff prepared from the bark of an unidentifiedalteration of time and space perception. One peculiarity of the narcosis which tree by the Yekwana Indians of the headwaters of the Orinoco in Venezuela.promises to be of interest in experimental psychiatry is the isolation of the There is every probability that this snuff was prepared from trees of thesubject from the world around him -- that is, without a loss of conscious- genus Virola of the Myristieaceae, the family to which our nutmeg belongs.

ness, he is rendered completely indifferent to his environment which becomes During my ethnobotanical field work in the Colombian Amazon, I learnedunreal to him ashis dreamlike state becomes real. of a particularly intoxicating snuff used only by the witch-doctors in several

Helm and his colleague Cailleux succeeded in growing cultures of Psilocybe tribes. This was the yakee or parica. After eight years of search. I discoveredmexlcams and other species. This opened the way for chemical study of that yakee was prepared from several species of Virola, V. calophylla, V.the fungus in the Sandoz laboratories in Switzerland. Hofmann and his calophyUoideaand, perhaps, V. elonoata. The natives strip hark from thegroup there isolated white crystals which were soluble in water and methanol trunks before the sun has risen high enough to heat up the forest. A blood-hut almost insoluble in usual organic solvents. They called the substance red resin oozes from the inner surface of the bark. It is scraped off with apdlocybine and found that it had an unusual chemical structure which re- machete or knife and hoiled in an earthen pot for hours until a thick pastesearch indicated to be an acidic phosphoric acid ester of 4-hydroxydimethyl- is !eft. This paste is allowed to dry and is then pulverized, sifted throughtryptamine. It is, therefore, allied to other naturally occurring compounds a fine cloth, and finally added to an equal amount of ashes of the stems ofsuch as bufoteabse and serotonin. Psilocybine is the first known naturally a wild cacao species. The ashes give the snuff consistency to withstand theoccurring indole derivative containing phosphorus. The discovery of such excessive dampness of the air which might otherwise quickly "melt" thea substance has implications of great import, for example, for the study of powdered resin-paste to a solid lump.

biogenesis of the ergot alkaloids and for many other aspects of chemical The active principle is undoubtedly the same essential oil -- myristici_investigation of the psychotropic indole alkaloids such as harmine and -- that is common throughout the family and that makes our household nut-reserpine, meg a dangerous narcotic when used in the appropriate amounts. Work cz

Psilocybc me.vicanacontains another indolic compound in minute amounts samples brought from the Colombian Amazon has not yet been completed.which, while closely allied to psilocybine is apparently not stable and has In the ethnological literature, yakee snuff has been consistently confused withnot yet beencrystallized. It is calledpsilocine, both tobacco and yopo snuffs, so that it is difficult to get a clear picture from

Since reporting on his preliminary work with Psilocybe mexicm_a,Hof- the literature of the extent of use of these three narcotics. We may say, how-ever, that yakee is employed by tribes in the Colombian Vaults and in themann has discovered psilocybine in other psychotomimetic species of this Orinoco drainage basin and in the upper Rio Negro basin in Brazil; if wegenus and in Stropharia cubensis. And I have heard unofficially that the same arecorrect in ascribing the "bark snuff" reported by Koch-Grfmberg to Virola,compound is suspected to occur in the genus Panaeolus. we should then include the headwaters of the Orinoco in Venezuela.

Psilocybine is now under clinical examination as an aid in experimental It may be interesting to append a few observations which I made person-psychiatry and in therapy, and promises to be as fruitful perhaps as lysergic ally after taking yakee. I took about one-third of a teaspoonful in two in-acid has been. halations, using the characteristic V-shaped bird-boue snulfmg tube. This

represents about one-quarter the dose that a diagnosing medicine man willViaho de Jurumena take to bring on an eventual state of unconsciousness.

Another little known South American intoxicant is a beverage called The dose was snuffed at five o'clock one afternoon. Within fifteen mia-vi#ho de ffurumena, prepared from the seeds of the leguminose Mimosa utes, a drawing sensation was felt over the eyes, followed very shortly by ahostilis. Identification of this narcotic drink, employed by the Pancarfi In- strong tingling in fingers and toes. The drawing sensation in the foreheaddizns in Pernambuco, Brazil, was made by Gongalves de Lima, who described gave way to a strong and constant headache. Within a half hour, the feetits role in the magico-religious ceremonies of this tribe. It is an hallucinogen and hands were numb and sensitivity of the fingertips had disappeared; walk-and is believedto transport the soul to the spirit world, lng was possible with difficulty, as with beri-beri. I felt nauseated until eight

The isolation of an alkaloid called nlyerine was reported in 1946, but o'clock, and experienced lassitude and uneasiness. Shortly after eight, I laywork completed last year indicates that nigerine is, in reality, N,N-dimethyl-

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down in my hammock, overcome with a drowsiness, which, however, seemedto be accompanied by a muscular excitation except in the hands and feet. to give hunters keener sight and as an agent for prophesying, clairvoyanceAt about nine-thirty, I fell into a fitful sleep which continued, with frequent and divination.

awakenings, until morning. The strong headache lasted until noon. A pro- Recent chemical work on carefully identified material has shown that thefuse sweating and what was probably a slight fever persisted throughout the major alkaloid of a number of species of Piptadenia is bufotenine. Presentnight. The pupils were strongly dilated during the first few hours of the also may be another hallucinogenic alkaloid, N_V-dimcthyl_ryptamine. Pipta-intoxication, denai colubrina, a species closely allied to P. pereorina, has up to 2.1 percentof bufotenine.

Though performed under primitive conditions in the jungle by myself, Another species of Piptadenia, P. macrocarpa, is the source of a snuff ofthis experiment does, I think, indicate the great strength of the snuff as apsychotic agent. The witch-doctors see visions in color, but I was able to the Andean regions of Peru, where the plant is called huilca. Little ofexperience neither visual hallucinations nor color sensations. The large dose a definite nature seems to be known about huilca and its uses, but it is be-used by the witch-doctor is enough to put him into a deep but disturbed sleep, lieved to have been the source of the strong, divinatory snuff of early Peru.during which he sees visions and has dreams which, through the wild shoutsemitted in his delirium, are interpreted by an assistant. That it is a dangerous Coca

practice is acknowledged by the witch-doctors themselves. They report the Although coca, the dried leaves of Erytlrroxylon Coca, does not con-death, about 15 years ago, of one of their number from the Puinave tribe stitute an hallucinogen, we should not terminate a discussion of South Ameri-

during a yakee-intoxication, can narcotics without a mention, howsoever brief, of this very ancient drug.It belongs to Lewin's Euphorica, along with the opium poppy, Papaver somni-

Yopo and Huilca ferum of the Old World. I include these cursory remarks on coca merelybecause, by and large, it is, next to tobacco, America_ most important nar-

The snuffing of narcotics is widespread in aboriginal America, especially cotic and one which, even at this late date, deserves further study from manyin South America. A number of different narcotics are involved, and there points of view. It is unquestionably, as employed by the Indians, one of theis still much to do to clarify all aspects of their botanical identity, most maligned of narcotics.

The most widely employed snuff, of course, is tobacco. From records There is no need to go into details which are easily available to all readers.in the literature, it is not always possible to distinguish when snuff is made The few lines which I shall devote to coca, the source of our cocaine, willfrom tobacco or from other plants, and this has caused much confusion, discuss certain aspects not commonly found in the literature nor easily avail-

The first scientific report concerning yopo or snuff from the leguminose able to those who have not had personal experience in the field with the narcotic.

Piptadenia is apparently that of Humboldt who, in 1801, saw the Otomacs The chemical makeup of coca is extremely complex, with numerous al-

along the Orinoco pulverize the seed of Piptadenia peregrina, mix the powder kaloids in six groups of the tropane series. The chemical literature usuallywith quicklime and use it l&e tobacco snuff. Spruce gave us the earliest de- attributes the source of coca to several species of Erythroxylon, but theretailed report, however, when he wrote about niopo amongst the Guahibos of

seems to be little botanical reason for referring all of the slight geographicalthe Orinoco of Colombia. variants to different species. Erythroxylon Coca is a cuitigen of long associa-

The principal area of use of the Piptadenia peregrina snuff seems to be tion with man, now unknown in the wild state and with a very wide altitudinalthe Orinoco basin and Trinidad. Safford has identified the coboba snuff of range.

ancient Hispaniola as Piptadenia peregrina, and he seems to have good, even Coca was a divine plant in pre-Colombian Andean cultures where it wasthough indirect, evidence, once restricted to the priestly class but early escaped to the common man.

As practiced today in the Orinoco basin of Colombia and Venezuela, Dried leaves have been found in Peruvian mummy bundles dating back atyopo-snuffmg is a dangerous habit carried on, not by witch-doctors alone, least 2000 years.

but the whole population -- men, women, children. The frightening intoxica- Coca chewing today is an integral part of the culture pattern in manytion first produces convulsive movements and distortions of the face and body isolated parts of the highlands of Colombia and in most highland parts ofmuscles, then a desire to dance which is rapidly overwhelmed by an inability Peru, Bolivia and the northwesternmost corner of Argentina. Its use in high-to control the limbs; it is at this point that a violent madness or a deep sleep land Ecuador has all but died out. From the Andes, the habit spread intodisturbed by a nightmare of frightening sights takes over. The intoxication the lowland in most parts of the northwesternmost Amazon Valley in Colombiaalways ends in a long stupor. The use of yopo in daily life in the llanos and Peru, where, however, it is employed in a rather different way. Allarea of Colombia and Venezuela may be relatively recent, for it was anciently highland groups chew the toasted leaves together with small pieces of limeemployed only for specific purposes, such as to induce bravery before a battle, or lliptu, of mineral, plant or animal origin. The Amazonian Indians pulverize164

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·THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW

the toasted coca leaves and mix the green powder with finely sifted ashesfrom leaves of the Cecropia tree; the resulting gray-green powder is packedover the gums and is not actually chewed but allowed to dissolve slowly andtrickle down to the stomach. Most Indian coca-users keep the cheeks full ofthe material throughout their waking hours.

What is very commonly overlooked or even purposely ignored in manygovernmental and sociological circles is the fact that coca, as chewed by thenative, is not of necessity physically, socially and morally dangerous enoughto warrant prohibitive laws. It has nothing in common with cocaine addic-tion, and coca-chewing apparently does not lead to addiction. Peruvian Indiansconscripted for the army where coca is forbidden are not unduly bothered by

in exploration of the northwest Amazon, I used coca daily and found no nn :desire for it when, back in the capital city, I had no supply. It is perhapsroughly comparable to the use of tobacco in our culture, and is certainly

much less of a problem in the Andes than is alcohol in a mechanized society Poet oF.,.de ,llln'er:orjSoul-neysuch as ours in the United States. Unwise legal prohibitions in certainAndean areas, aimed at extirpation of the coca-custom, have invariably driventhe Indian N deprived in his inhospitable, cold altitudes of the euphoriccoca m to the dangerously poisonous, locally distilled, alcoholic drinks, with

an attendant rapid rise in crime of every description. As Taylor has wisely ?IMO?HV tEARYsummed it up: "If medicine and addiction were its only uses, no one would

bother to read what follows. But neither the addicts nor most doctors, nor andmany others, realize that the birth of cocaine was tended by the gods, nur-

tured in the high purity o! the Andes without a taint of depravity, and was, RALPH Mk'IrZNERif not divine, so considered for countless centuries. Even today, it has the

touchof themiraculom." HERMANNH_ssE was born in July, 1877, in the little Swabian· * * * town of Cahv, the son of Protestant missionaries. His home back-

This brief discussion of native American narcotics of plant origin corn- ground and education were pietistic, intellectual, class/caL He eh-prises but a very superficial panoramic view of the work that has been done toted a theological seminary at the age of fourteen with the intentionon the hallucinogenic drugs and which has opened up such vistas of promise of taking orders, and left two years later. In Basel he learned thein both practical and academic fields of medical and biological research, book trade and nmde his living as a bookseller and editor of classical

I have wanted to emphasize the part that many apparently unrelated fields German literary texts. He became acquainted with Jacob Burckhardt,may take in such an interdisciplinary attack. And I trust that we have been the great Swiss historian and philosopher, who later served as theable to point out very specifically the two most important methods for the model for the portrait of Father j'acobus in The Bead Game. In

discovery of new drugs N on the one hand, examination of ancient records 1914 Hesse's "unpatriotic" anti-war attitude brought him officialand interpretation of folklore; on the other, field work amongst primitive

peoples who still live in close association with the plant world, censure and newspaper attacks. Two months after the outbreak of

Certainly none of us could have been ready to accept some of the fantastic the war, an essay entitled "0 Freunde, nicht d/ese T6ne" (0 Friends,reports of the early writers on the unearthly effects produced by the sacred not these tones) was published in the :Veue Ziircher Zeitun9: it wasmushrooms. Now toe know that they are er,re. We can no longer afford to an appeal to the youth of Gernmny, deploring the stampede to disaster.ignore reports of any aboriginal use of a plant merely because they seem to

fall beyond the limit of our credence. To do so would be tantamount to the In 1911 he travelled in India. From IgI4 to 1910 he lived in

closing of a door, forever to entomb a peculiar hind of native knowledge Bern, working in the German embassy as an assistant for prisonerswhich might lead us along paths of immeasurable progress, of war. A series of personal crises accompanied the external crisis

166 of the war: his father died; his youngest son fell seriously ill; his

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wife suffered a nervous breakdown and was hospitalized. In 1919, great book lies in the esoteric, the seed meaning concealed behindthe year of the publication of Demian, he moved to the small village the net of symbols. All great writers write the same book, changingof Montagnola by the lake of Lugano and remained there till the end only the exoteric trappings of their time and tribe.of his life. In 1923 he acquired Swiss citizenship, and in 1927 re-married. Hesse steeped himself in Indian and Chinese literature and HERMANN HESSE XSONE OV THE GREAT WRITERS of our time.philosophy, the latter particularly through the masterful translations He wrote Finnegan's Wake in several German versions. In additionof Chinese texts by Richard Wilhelm. In 1931 he remarried a third to being a wise man, he could manipulate words well enough to wintime and moved to another house in Montagnola which had been the Nobel Pri, e.

provided for him by his friend, H. C. Bodmer. In 1946 he wasawarded the Nobel Prize; in 1962, at the age of 85, he died. Asked Most readers miss the message of Hesse. Entranced by theonce what were the most important influences in his life, he said pretty dance of plot and theme, they overlook the seed message.they were: "the Christian and completely non-nationalist spirit of Hesse is a trickster. Like nature in April, he dresses up his code inmy parents' home," the "reading of the great Chinese masters," and fancy plumage. The literary reader picks the fruit, eats quickly, and

tosses the core to the ground. But the seed, the electrical message,the figure of the historian Jacob Burckhardt. the code is in the core.

Few writers have chronicled with such dispassionate lucidity

and fearless honesty the progress of the soul through the stages of Take Siddhartha _ _ the primer for young Bodhisattvas, writ-life. Peter Camen,zind (1904), Demian (1919), Siddhartha (1922), ten when Hesse was forty-five. Watch the old magician warming upSteppenwolf (1927), Narziss und Goldm_end (1930), Journey to the to his work. We are introduced to a proud young man, strong, hand-

some, supple-limbed, graceful. Siddhartha is young and ambitious.East (1932), Magister Ludi (1943) -- different versions of spiritual He seeks to attain the greatest prize of all -- enlightenment. Cosmicautobiography, different maps of the interior path. Each new step one-upmanship. He masters each of the other-worldly games. Therevises the picture of all the previous steps, each experience opens Vedas. Asceticism. Matches his wits against the Buddha himself.up new worlds of discovery in a constant effort to communicate Tantric worldly success. "We find consolations, we learn tricks with

the vision, whichwe deceiveourselves,but the essentialthing-- the waywe do not find." "Wisdom is not communicable." "I can love a

As John Cage is fond of reminding us, writing is one thing and stone, Govinda, and a tree or a piece of bark. These are things andreading is another. All writings, all authors are thoroughly misun-one can love things. But one cannot love words .... Nirvana is not

derstood. Most wise men do not write because they t'now this. The a thing; there is only the word Nirvana." Then i n the last pages ofwise man has penetrated through the verbal curtain, seen and known the book, Hermann Hesse, Nobel Prize novelist, uses words to de-and felt the life-process. We owe him our gratitude when he re- scribe the wonderful illumination of Govinda, whomains with us and tries to induce us to share the joy.

no longer saw the face of his friend Siddhartha. Instead he sawThe great writer is the wise mctn who feels compelled to frans- other faces, many faces, a long series, a continuous stream of faces

late the message into words. The message is, of course, around us -- hm_dreds, thousands, which ali came and disappeared and yet alland in us at all montents. Everything is a clue. Everything contains seemed to be there at the same time, which ali continually changedall the message. To pass it on in symbols is unnecessary but perhaps and renewed themselves and which were yet all Siddhartha. He saw

the face of a fish, of a carp, with tremendous painfully opened mouth,the greatest performance of man. a dying fish with dimmed eyes. He saw the face of a newly born

child, red and full of wrinkles, ready to cry. He saw the face of aWise men write (with deliberation) in the esoteric. It's the murderer, saw him plunge a knife into the body of a man; at the

way of making a rose or a baby. The exoteric form is maya, the same moment he saw this criminal kneeling down, bound, and his headhallucinatory facade. The meaning is within. The greatness of a cut off by an executioner. He saw the naked bodies of men and

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Hermann Hesse: Poet of the Interior Journey

women in the postures and transports of passionate love. He saw sented -- file conflict between ego and id, between spirit and ma-corpses stretched out, still, cold, empty. He saw the heads of animals, Serial civilization, the "wolfish, satanic instincts that lurk withinboars, crocodiles, elephants, oxen, birds. He saw Krishna and Agni.He saw all these forms and faces in a thousand relationships to each even our civilized selves," as the jacket of the paperback edition basother, all helping each other, loving, hating and destroying each it. "These readers [writes Hesse] have completely overlooked thatother and become newly born. Each one was mortal, a passionate, above the Steppenwolf and his problematical life there exists a

painful example of all that is transitory. Yet none of them died, they second, higher, timeless world . . . which contrasts the suffering ofonly changed, were always reborn, continually had a new face: only the Steppenwolf with a transpersonal and transtemporal world o4time stood between one face and another. And all these forms and faith, that the book certainly tells of pain and suffering but is thefaces rested, flowed, reproduced, swam past and merged into each story of a believer not atale of despair."other, and over them all there was continually something thin, unreal

and yet existing, stretched across like thin glass or ice, like a trans- As in $iddhartha, Hesse involves the reader in his fantasticparent skin, shell, form or mask of water -- and this mask wasSiddhartha's smiling face which Govinda touched with his lips at tale, his ideas, his mental acrobatics, only to show at the end that

that moment. And Govinda saw that this mask-like smile, this smile the whole structure is illusory mind-play. The mental rug is sud-of unity over the flowing forms, this smile of simultaneousness over denly pulled out from under the gullible psychodynamic reader.

the thousands of births and deaths -- this smile of Siddhartha -- This Zen trick is evident on at least two levels in the Steppenwolf.was exactly the same as the calm, delicate, impenetrable, perhaps First, in the little "Treatise," a brilliant portrait of Harry, the mangracious, perhaps mocking, wise, thousand-fold smile of Gotama, the with two souls: the man -- refined, clever and interesting; and theBuddha, aa he had perceived it with awe a hundred times. It was in wolf -- savage, untamable, dangerous and strong. The treatise de-such a manner, Govinda knew, that the Perfect One smiled, scribes his swings of mood, his bursts of creativity, his ambivalent

relationship to the bourgeoisie, his fascination with suicide, his in-

Those soho have taken one of the psychedelic drugs may recog- ability to reconcile the two conflicting selves. A breathtakingly subtlenile Govinda's vision as a classic LSD sequence. The direct visual psychological analysis. Then, the sleight of hand:con_ontation with the unity of all men, the unity of life. That

Hesse can write words such as "unity," "love," "Nirvana," is easily ......... There is . . . a fundamental delusion to make clear.understood. Every Hindu textbook gives you the ]argon. But his All interpretation, all psychology, all attempts to make thingsdescription of the z'i_tal details of the cosmic vision, the retinal comprehensible, require the medium of theories, mythologies and

lies; and a self-respecting author should . . . dissipate these lies sospecifics, is more impressive. Whence came to Hesse these concrete far as may be in his power.... Harry consists of a hundred or asensational' The similarity to the consciousness-expanding drug ex- thousand selves, not of two. His life oscillates, as everyone's does,perience is startlina. The specific, concrete "is-ness" of the illumi- not merely between two poles, such as the body and the spirit, thehated moment usually escapes the abstract philosopher of mysticism, saint and the sinner, but between thousandsDid Hesse reach this visionary state himself? By meditation? Spon- '...............................................

.............................................. . ............... ......... .......................... ....,°.,..... ............... ......,..,..,

taneously? Did H.H. the novelist himself use the chemical path to Man is an onion made up of a hundred integuments, a texture madeenlightenment? up of many threads. The ancient Asiatics knew this well enough, and

' in the Buddhist Yoga an exact technique was devised for unmaskingthe illusion of the personality. The human merry-go-round sees many

The answer to these questions is suggested in the next lesson of changes: the illusion that cost India the efforts of thousands of yearsthe master: $teppenwolf _ _ a novel of crisis, pain, conflict, torture to unmask is the same illusion that the West has labored just as hard

at least on the surface. Hesse writes in a letter: "If my life were to maintain and strengthen.

not a dangerous painful experiment, if I did not constantly skirt

the abyss and feel the void under my feet, my life would have no The dualistic self-image is described _ the fascinating and corn-meaning and I would not have been able to write anything." Most pelling lCreudian metaphor _ and is then exposed as a delusion,readers sophisticated in psychodynamics recognize the drama pre- a limited, pitiful perspective, a ,hind-game. The second example of

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Hermann Hesse: Poet of the l_terior Journey

this trick occurs at the end of the book. We have followed Hesse Guaranteed," which indicates a kind of chess game in which the

in his descriptions of Harry, as he runs through a series of vain pieces are the part of the personality. Cosmic psychotherapy. "Weattempts to conquer his despair m through alcohol, through sex, demonstrate to anyone whose soul has fallen to pieces that he canthrough music, through friendship with the exotic musician Pablo -- rearrange these pieces of a previous self in what order he pleases,finally he enters the Magic Theater. "Price of Admission, your Mind." and so attain to an endless multiplicity of moves in the game of life."

In other words, a mind-loss experience. Another sign reads: "All Girls Are Yours," and carries Harry intoinexhaustible sexual fantasies. The crisis of the Steppenwolf, his

From a recess in the wall [Pablo] took three glasses and a quaint inner conflicts, his despair, his morbidity and unsatisfied longing arelittle bottle.... He filled the three glasses from the bottle and taking dissolved in a whirling kaleidoscope of hallucinations. "I knew that

three long thin yellow cigarettes from the box and a box of matches all the hundred thousand pieces of life's game were in my pocket.from the pocket of his silk jacket he gave us a light.... Its effect A glimpse of its meaning had stirred my reason and I was deter-was immeasurably enlivening and delightful N as though one were mined to begin the game afresh. I would sample its tortures oncefilled with gas and had no longer any gravity, more and shudder again at its senselessness. I would traverse not

once more, but often, the hell of my inner being. One day I wouldPablo says: be a better hand at the game. One day I would learn how to laugh.

You were striving, were you not, for escape? You have a longing Pablo was waiting for me, and Mozart too."to forsake this world and its reality and to penetrate to a reality

more native to you, to a world beyond time.... You know, of course, So Harry Hailer, the Steppenwolf, had his psychedelic session,where this other world lies hidden. It is the world of your own soulthat you seek. Only within yourself exists that other reality for discovered instead of one reality, infinite realities within the brain·which you long.... All I can give you is the opportunity, the ira- He is admitted into the select group of those who have passedpulse.,the key. I help you to make your own world visible.... This through the verbal curtain into other modes of consciousness. He· . . theater has as many doors into as many boxes as you please, has joined the elite brotherhood of the illuminati.ten or a hundred or a thousand, and behind each door exactly what

you seek awaits you.... You have no doubt guessed long since that find then whatf lq/here do you go from there? How can thethe conquest of time and the escape from reality, or however else itmay be that you choose to describe your longing, means simply the holy sense of unity and revelation be maintained? Does one sinkwish to be relieved of your so-called personality. That is the prison back into the somnambulent world of rote passion, automated ac-where you lie. And if you enter the theatre as you are, you would tion, egocentricity? The poignant cry of e.r-League member, H.H.:see everything through the eyes of Harry and the old spectacles of "That almost all of us -- and also I, even I _ should again losethe Steppenwolf. You are therefore requested to lay these spectacles myself in the soundless deserts of mapped out reality, just like of-aside and to be so kind as to leave your highly esteemed personality ficials and shop-assistaltts who, after a party or a Sunday outing,here in the cloak-room, where you will find it again when you wish. adapt themselves again to everyday business life/" These are issues

The pleasant dance from which you have just come, the treatise on faced by everyone who has passed into a deep, trans-ego experience.the Steppenwolf, and the little stimulant that we have only this mo-ment partaken of may have sufficientlyprepared you. How cctn we preserve the freshness; illuminate each second of sub-

sequent life? How can we maintain the ecstatic oneness with others?It seems clear that Hesse is describing a psychedelic experience, a

drug-induced loss of self, a journey to the inner world. Each door Throughout the ages mystical groups have formed to providein the Magic Theatre has a sign on it, indicating the endless pos- social structure and support for transcendence. The magic circle.sibilities of the experience. A sign called "Jolly Hunting. Great Often secret, always persecuted by the sleep-walking majority, theseAutomobile Hunt" initiates a fantastic orgy of mechanical destruc- cults move quietly in the background shadows of history. The prob-tion in which Harry becomes a lustful murderer. A second sign leto is, of course, the amount of structure surrounding the mysticalreads: "Guidance in the Building-Up of the Personality. Success spark. Too much, too soon, and you have priesthood ritual on your

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Hermann Hesse: Poet of the Interior Journey

hands. And the flame is gone. Too little and the teaching function Daumal's novel, Le Mont Analogue, 5 is a symbolic account of a sim-is lost, the interpersonal unity drifts into gaseous anarchy. The Bo- ilar league journey in France. The participants were experimentinghemians. The Beats. The lonely arrogants, widely with drugs such as hashish, mescaline and carbon tetrachloride.

Hesse never explicitly names ally drugs in his writings, butFree from attachment to self, to social games, to anthropo- the passages qnoted earlier from the Steppenwolf are fairly unequiv-

morphic humanism, even to life itself, the illuminated soul can sus- ocal in stating that some chemical was involved and that it had arain the heightened charge of energy released by transcendent ex- rather direct relationship to the subsequent experience. Now, afterperiences. But such men are rare in any century. The rest of us this first enlightenment, in Journey to the East, H.H. tells of sub-seem to need support on the way. Men who attempt to pursue the sequent visits to the Magical Theatre.psychedelic drug path on their own are underestimating the powerand the scope of the 'nervous system. ,4 variety of LSD casualties ... We not only wandered through Space, but also through time. Weresults: breakdown, confusion, grandiosity, prima-donna individual- moved towards the East, but we also traveled into the Middle Ages

ism, disorganized eccentricity, sincere knavery and retreat to con- and the Golden Age; we roamed through Italy or Switzerland, butfortuity. It makes 'no more sense to blame the drug for such casual- at times we also spent the night in the 10th century and dwelt withthe patriarchs or the fairies. During the times I remained alone, Ities than it does to blame the nuclear process for the bomb. Would often found again places and people of my own past. I wandered withit not be more accurate to lament our primitive tribal pressures to- my former betrothed along the edges of the forest of the UppervxJardspersonal power, success, individualism? Rhine, caroused with friends of my youth in Tiibingen, in Basle or

in Florence, or I was a boy and went with my school-friends to catchHuston Smith has remarked that of the eight-fold path of the butterflies or to watch an otter, or my company consisted of the be-

Buddha, the ninth and greatest is Right ,4ssociation. The transper- loved characters of my books; . . . For our goal was not only the., sonal group. The consciou,mess-expansion community. Surround East, or rather the East was not only a country and something geo-

yourself after the vision, after the psychedelic session, with friends wheregraphical,and nowhere,but it wasit wasthe homethe unionandofyouthall times,of the soul, it was every-who share the goal, who can uplevel you by example or unitive love;

who can help reinstate the iUumination. Later the link between the Steppenwolf's drug liberation and theLeague becomes more specific:

The sociology of transcendence. Hesse takes up the problemof the transpersonal community in the form of the League of East- When something precious and irretrievable is lost, we have the feei-ern Wayfarers. 8 lng of having awakened from a dream. In my case this feeling isstrangely correct, for my happiness did indeed arise from the same

"It was my destiny to join in a great experience. Having had secret as the happiness in dreams; it arose from the freedom to ex-perience everything imaginable simultaneously, to exchange outwardthe good fortune to belong to the League, I was permitted to be a and inward easily, to move Time and Space about like scenes in aparticipant in a unique journey." The narrator, H.H., tells that the theatre.starting place of the journey was Germany, and the time shortlyafter World War I. "... our people at that time were lured by Hesse is always the esoteric hand, but there seems to be little

many phantoms, but there were also many real spiritual advances, doubt that beneath the surface of his Eastern allegory runs the his-There were Bacchanalian dance societies and Anabaptist groups, tory of a real-life psychedelic brotherhood. The visionary expert-there was one thing after another that seemed to point to what was ences described in Journey to the East are identified by location andwonderful and beyond the veil." There were also scientific and name of participants. A recently published biography e traces theartistic groups engaged in the exploration of consciousness-expanding connections between these names and locations and Hesse's friendsdrugs. Kurt Beringer's monograph, Der Meskalinrausch. 4 describes and activities at the time.some of the scientific experiments and the creative applications. Ren6

i74 1Ts

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Hernumn Hesse: Poet of the Interior JourneyTHE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

What then was, is, the Leaguel' Is it the exoteric society withAnd again and again, in Swabia, at Bodensee, in Switzerland, every- a golden-clad President, Leo, maker of ointments and herbal cures,

where, we met people who understood us, or were in some waythankful that we and our League and our Journey to the East existed, and a Speaker, and a High Throne, and an extended council haul'Amid the tramways and banks of Zfirlch we came across Noah's Ark These are but the exoteric trappings. Is not the League rather theguarded by several old dogs which all had the same name, and which "procession of believers and disciples . . . incessantly . . . movingwere bravely guided across the dangerous depths of a calm period by towards the East, towards the Home of Light"? The eternal stream

Hans C., Noah's descendant, tri_nd ot the arts. _fas_lfe ever unfolding. The unity of the evolutionary process, toofragmented and frozen by illusions of individuality. '... a

Hans C. Bodmer is Hesse's friend, to whom the book is dedicated, very slow, smooth but continuous flowing or melting;... It seemedand who later bought the house in Montagnola for Hesse. He lived that, in time, all the substance from one image would flow into the..... ' heat the time in a house m Zurich named T Ark." other and only one would remain .... "

One of the most beautiful experiences was the League's celebra- Many who have made direct contact with the life-processtion in Bremgarten; the magic circle surrounded us closely there, through a psychedelic or spontaneous mystical experience find them-Received by Max and TilE, the lords of the castle.... selves yearning for a social structure. Some external form to do

Castle Bremgarten, near Bern, was the house of Max Wassmer, justice to transcendental experiences. Hermann Hesse again pro-where Hesse was often a guest. The "Black King" in Winterthur rides us with the esoteric instructions. Look within. The Leagu_refers to another friend, Georg Reinhart, to whose house, "filled is within. So is the two-billion-year-old historical archive, yourwith secrets," Hesse was often invited. The names of artists and brain. Play it out with those who will dance with you, but remem-writers which occur in Journey to the East, are all either directly bet, the external differentiating forms are illusory. The union isthe names of actual historical persons or immediately derived from internal. The League is in and around you at all times.them: Lauscher, Klingsor, Paul Klee, Ninon (Hesse's wife), Hugo But to be human is to be rational. Homo sapiens wants to know.Wolf, Brentano, Lindhorst, etc. In other words, it appears likelythat the scenes described are based on the actual experiences of a Here is the ancient tension. To be. To know. Well, the magician

very close group of friends who met in each other's homes in South- has a spell to weave here, too. The intellect divorced from old-ern Germany and Switzerland and pursued the journey to what fashioned neurosis, freed from egocentricity, from semantic ret?ica-was "not only a country and something geographical, but it was the lawfulti°n'Therhythmmindofconcepts.illuminatedThebYBeadmeditati°nGame,ready to play with thehome and youth of the soul, it was everywhere and nowhere, it wasthe unionofaUtimes." The Bead Game (Magister LudO, ? begun in 1931, finished

So the clues suggest that for a moment in "historical reality" eleven years later, was published six months after its completion,but in Switzerland, not Germany. "In opposition to the presenta writer named Hermann Hesse and his friends wandered together world I had to show the realm of mind and of spirit, show it as real

through the limitless pageants of expanded consciousness, down and unconquerable; thus my work became a Utopia, the image wasthrough the evolutionary archives. Then, apparently, H.H. loses projected into the future, and to my surprise the world of Castaliacontact, slips back to his mind and his egocentric perspectives.% . . the pilgrimage had shattered · . · the magic had then vanished emerged almost by itself. Without my knowledge, it was alreadymore and more." He has stumbled out of the life-stream into robot preformed in my soul." Thus wrote Hesse in 1955. The Beadrationality. H.H. wants to become an author, spin in words the Game is the synthesis and end-point of Hesse's developing thought;story of his life. "I, in my simplicity, wanted to write the story of all the strands begun in Siddhartha, Journey to the East, Steppenwolfthe League, I, who could not decipher or understand one-thousandth are woven together into a vision of a future society of mystic game-part of those millions of scripts, books, pictures and references in players. The "players with pearls of glass" are an 6lite of intellectualmystics who, analogously to the monastic orders of the Middle Ages,the archives?' Archives? The cortical library? 177

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Hermann Hesse: Port of tk, I_terior lourr_y

have created a mountain retreat to preserve cultural and spiritualvalues. The core of their practice is the bead game, "a device that The Game,as I interpret it, encompasse,the player at the conclusioncomprises the complete contents and values of our culture." The of his meditationin the sameway as the surface of a sphereenclosesits centre, and leaves him with the feeling of having resolved thegame consists in the manipulation of a complex archive of symbols fortuitousand chaotic world into one that is symmetricaland har-and formulae, based in their structure on music and mathematics, monious.

by means of which all knowledge, science, art and culture can berepresented. Groups which attempt to apply psychedelic experiences to so-

cial living will find in the story of Castalia all the features andThis Game of games. . . has developedinto a kind of universal problems which such attempts inevitably encounter: the need for a

speech, through the mediumof which the players are enabled to ex- new language or set of symbols to do justice to the incredible com-press values in lucid symbolsand to place them in relationto each plexity and power of the human cerebral machinery; the centralother.... A Gamecan originate,for example, from a given astro-nomicalconfiguration,a themefrom a Bach fugue, a phraseof Leibnitz importance of maintaining direct contact with the regenerative forcesor from the Upanishads,and the fundamentalidea awakened can, of the life.process through meditation or other methods of alteringaccording to the intention and talent of the player, either proceed consciousness: the crucial and essentially insoluble problem of thefurther and he built up or enriched through assonancesto relative relation of the mystic community to the world at large. Can theconcepts. While a moderate beginner can, through these symbols, order remain an educative, spiritual force in the society, or must itformulateparallelsbetweena pieceof classicalmusicand the formula degenerate through isolation and inattention to a detached, alienatedof a natural law, the adept and Master of the Game can lead the group of idealists ? Every major and minor social renaissance hasopeningthemeinto the freedom of boundlesscombinations, had to face this problem. Hesse's answer is dear: the last part of

the book consists of three tales, allegedly written by Knecht, de-The old dream of a u4n/vers/tas,a synthesis of human knowledge, scribing his life in different incarnations. In each one the herocombining analysis and intuition, science and art, the play of the devotes himself wholeheartedly to the service and pursuit of anfree intellect, governed by aesthetic and structural analogies, not by idealist, spiritual goal, only to recognize at the end that he has be-the demands of application and technology. Again, on the intel- come the slave of his own delusions. In "The Indian Life" this islectnal plane, the problem is always just how much structure the dearest: Dasa, the young Brahmin, meets a yogi who asks him tomind game should have. If there are no overall goals or rules, we fetch water; by the stream Dasa falls asleep. Later he marries, be-have ever-increasing specialization and dispersion, breakdown in comes a prince, has children, wages war, pursues learning, is defeated,communication, a Babel of cultures, multiple constrictions of the hurt, humiliated, imprisoned, dies and -- wakes up by the stream inrange in favor of deepening the specialized field. Psychology. If the forest to discover that everything had been an illusion.there is too much structure or over-investment in the game-goals,we have dogmatism, stifling conformity, ever-increasing triviality of Everythinghad been displacedin time and everythinghad been tele-concerns, adulation of sheer techniques, virtuosity at the expense of scopedwithin the twinkling of an eye: everything was a dream,evenunderstanding. Psychoanalysis. that whichhad seemeddire truth and perhapsalso all that which had

happenedpreviouslyw the story of the prince'sson Dasa, his cow-

In the history of the bead game, the author explains, the prac- herd's life, his marriage, his revenge upon Nala and his sojourn withthe Yogi_ They were all picturessuchas one may admireon a carvedrice of meditation was introduced by the League of Eastern Way- palacewall, where flowers,stars, birds, apes and gods can be seenfarers in reaction against mere intellectual virtuosity. After each portrayedin bas-relief. Was not all that whichhe had most recentlymove in the game a period of silent meditation was observed; the experienced and now had before his eyes -- this awakening out oforigins and meaning of the symbols involved were slowly absorbed his dream of princehood,war and prison,this standingby the spring,by the players. Joseph Knecht, the Game Master, whose life is de- this water bowl which he had just shaken, along with the thoughtsscribed in the book, sums up the effectas follows: he was now thinking- ultimatelywoven of the same stuff? Wasit not dream, illusion,Maya? And what he was about to live in the

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future, see with his eyes and feel with his hands until death should new besides. It seemed ages since the day and the world had lookedcome -- was that of other stuff, of some other fashion? It was a so beautiful, innocent and undismayed. The joy of freedom andgame and a delusion, foam and dream, it was Maya, the whole beau- independence flowed through his veins like a strong potion, and hetiful, dreadful, enchanting and desperate kaleidoscope of life with its recalled how long it was since he had !eft this precious sensation, thisburning joys and sorrows, lovely and enchanting illusion !"

The life of Joseph Knecht is described as a series of awaken- So there it is. The saga of H.H. The critics tell us that Hesseings from the time he is "called" to enter the Castalian hierarchy is the master novelist. Well, maybe. But the novel is a social form,("Knecht" in German means "servant"), through his period as Mag- and the social in Hesse is exoteric. At another level Hesse is the

ister Ludi, to his eventual renunciation of the order and the game. master guide to the psychedelic experience and its application. Be-Castalia is essentially the League, frozen into a social institution, fore your LSD session, read Siddhartha and Steppenwolf. The lastAgain the trickster involves us in his magnificent utopian vision, the part of the Steppenwolf is a priceless manual."Game of games," only to show at the end of the transience of this

form as of all others. Having reached the highest position possible Then when you face the problem of integrating your visionsin the order Knecht resigns his post. He warns the order of its with the plastic-doll routine of your life, study Iourney to the East.lack of contact with the outside world and points out that Castalia, Find yourself a magic circle. League members await you on alllike any other social form, is limited in time. In his justificatory sides. With more psychedelic experience, you will grapple with thespeech he refers to "a kind of spiritual experience which I have problem of language and communication, and your thoughts andundergone from time to time and which I call 'awakening.'..." your actions will be multiplied in creative complexity as you learn

how to play with the interdisciplinary symbols, the multi-level meta-l have never thought of these awakenings as manifestations of a phors. The Bead Game.God or a demon or even of an absolute truth. What gives themweight and credibility is not their contact with truth, their high origin,their divinity or anything in that nature, but their reality. They are But always -- Hesse reminds us -- stay close to the internalmonstrously real in their presence and inescapability, like some violent core. The mystic formulae, the League, the staggeringly rich intel-bodily pain or surprising natural phenomenon.... My life, as I saw lectual potentials are deadening traps if the internal flame is notit, was to be a transcendence, a progress from step to step, a series kept burning. The flame is of course always there, within and

of realms to be traversed and !eft behind one after another, just as without, surrounding us, keeping us alive. Our only task is to keepa piece of music perfects, completes and leaves behind theme after tuned in.theme, tempo after tempo, never tired, never sleeping, always awareand always perfect in the present. I had noticed that, coincidentalwith the experience of awakening, there actually were such steps and REFERENCESrealms, and that each time a life stage was coming to an end it was l$iddhartha. (Transl. Hilda Rosner.) New York: New Directions, 1951.fraught with decay and a desire for death before leading to a new New Directions Paperbooks, 1957. (Quotes from pp. 20, 144, 147, 151-53.)realm, and awakening and to a new beginning. [$iddhartha. Eine indische Dichtung. Berlin: S. Fischer, 1922.]

sSteppenwolf. (Transl. Basil Creighton.] New York: Holt (1929); UngarThe mystic or visionary is always in opposition to or outside of (1957); Random House [Modern Library] (1963). (Quotes from pp. vi,social institutions, and even if the institution is the most perfect 62,63,66-7, 197-99, 217, 246.) [Der $teppenwolf. Berlin: S. Fischer, 1927.]

imaginable, the Game of games, even if it is the one created by 8The Journey to the East. (Transl. Hilda Rosner.) New York: Noondayoneself, this too is transient, limited, another realm to be traversed. Press Paperback, 1957. (Quotes from pp. 31, 3, 10, 27-8, 29, 96, 118. Trans-After leaving Castalia, Knecht wanders off on foot: lation occasionally emended.) [Die Morgenlandfahrt. Eine Erz_hlung.

Berlin: S. Fischer, 1932.]

It was all perfectly new again, mysterious and of great promise; 4Kurt Beringer: Der Meskalinrausch,seine Geschichte und Erscheinungsweise.everything that had once been could be revived, and much that was Berlin: Spring:r, 1927.

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IiRen_ Daumal: Mow,st Analogue. An Authentic Narrative. (Transl. andintro, by Roger Shattuck; postface by V/ira Dauma!.') London: VincentStuart. 1959. New York: Pantheon, 1960. [Le mmtt analogue. Pr6face par

L,,,a,,,, Psychometabolisms Bernhard Zeller: Hermmm Hesse: Eiat Ckro,ik i, Bilder,. Frankfurt a.M.:Suhrkamp, 1960.

Mag;stet Ludi (TI_ Bead Game). (Transl. Mervyn Savill._ New York:Holt (1949); Un?ar Paperback (1957_. (Quotes from pp. 17, 39, 10, 500-1, SIR JULIAN HUXLEYZ355-6, 359, 367.) [Daz Giasperlta.tlgel. Versuch einer Lebensbeschreibungdes Magister Ludi Josef Knecht saint Knechts hinterlassenen Schriftea. As a mere biologist, I felt somewhat alarmed on being asked2 w. Ziirich: Frets & Wumutlg 1943. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1961.] to talk on psychological matters to a gathering of psychiatrists. I

lA complete listing of Hesse's works and the critical literature on him is eventually decided to approach the subject in the general perspectiveavailable in Helmut Waibler's Hermana Hesse: Eine Bibliographic. Bern of evolution, and to speak about the role of mind as an operative fac-and Miinchen: Francke, 1962. Pp. 350.] tor in the evolutionary process.

If we look at the process of biological evolution as a whole, wewill seethat it tends toward the production of types which can utilize

Did Hesseuse mind-changing drugs? more of the world's space and material resources more efficiently.To achieve this, new types of metabolic utilization appear. The

Although the argument of the preceding commentary does not most fundamental metabolic divergence was that between green plantsdepend on the answer to this question, there are sufficient clues in and animals. Later, there developed many new types of metabolicHesse's writings to make the matter of some historical and literary systems, capable of utilizing new materials. Termites, with the aidinterest. In Germany, at the time Hesse was writing, consider- of their intestinal protozoa, can utilize wood; ruminants can utilizeable research on mescaline was going on. This has been reported cellulose with the aid of their bacterial flora and protozoan fauna.in a monograph by Kurt Beringer Der Meskalinrausch. Much of Sometimes greater efficiency of exploitation is attained by symbiosis.

the material was also analyzed in Heinrich Kliiver's monograph, The most famous case of such symbiosis between complementaryMescal, the first book on mescaline published in English.* metabolic systems is that of the lichens, which are mixed organisms,

In response to our inquiry, Professor K16ver, now at the Uni- part algae and part fungi.

versity of Chicago, has written: It is important to note that these metabolic novelties may pro-duce results which affect the further course of evolution, by altering

To my knowledge Hermann Hesse never took mescaline (I once or even increasing the material resources available for future gener-raised this question in Switzerland). I do not know whether he even ations. Thus during much more than half the period of life's evolu-knew of the mescaline experiments going on under the direction ofBeringer in Heidelberg. You know, of course, that Hesse (and his tion on earth, there was no wood. When abundant wood was even-family) was intimately acquainted with the world and ideas of India. tually produced by large green terrestrial plants, it provided the ma-

This no doubt has colored many scenes in his books, terial for a new type of metabolic exploitation by termites. Again,, once terrestrial vertebrates had produced keratin in bulk, the oppor-

Readers of the journal who have any further information bear- tunity arose for the evolution of clothes-moths. This type of cyber-lng on this question are invited to communicate with the editors, netie feedback is a regular feature of the evolutionary process.

The other major tendency in biological evolution is manifested* Mescal. The 'Divine' Plant and Its Psychological Effects. London: Kegan in the evolution of mind, a trend towards a higher degree of aware-

Paul, Trench & Trubner, 1928. (To be reprinted late 1964, Univ. of ness. This is especially marked in the later stages of the process inChicago Press.) the dominant types of animals, notably insects, spiders and verte-

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brates, and is of course mediated by their brains. Brains can be re-garded as psychometabolic organs. Just as the physiological metabolic many orders of magnitude lower than that in any vertebrate brain.systems of organisms utilize the raw material provided by the physi. The legitimacy and indeed the necessity of extending the ca-cochemical resources of the environment and metabolize them into pacity for awareness to less complex organizations than our humanspecial material substances, so brains, more highly developed, utilize selves is equally obvious when we consider our own development.the raw materials of simple experience and transform them into After all, we all start as a fertilized ovum whose behavior gives nospecial systems of organized awareness, evidence of awareness. Unless we believe that an entity like a "soul"

or "mind" is somehow inserted into the human embryo fronl out-This at once brings up the perennial problem of the relation side at some stage, we must conclude that this capacity for subjective

between mind and body. We must first remember that the only awareness arises naturally and gradually in the course of developmentprimary reality we know is our own subjective experience. We can out of some dim original potentiality.only deduce that other human beings have similar subjective experi-em:es. This is perfectly legitimate, both logically and scientifically. In this connection an analogy with bioelectricity is useful. AsIt is also necessary pragmatically; life could not go on otherwise, any zoologist knows, there are several genera of electric fish. SomeWe are sometimes able to detect and prove differences in other are capable of giving quite severe shocks, while others, wlfich arepeople's possibilities of subjective awareness, as, for example, with inhabitants of nmddy waters where vision is not of much use, emitelectric pulses by means of which they detect objects at a distancecolor-blindness or "taste-blindness." But in general we quite legiti-mately deduce that other human beings are conscious and have minds and so can steer themselves. (In passing, it is interesting that Galensimilar to ours, because they are made in the same sort of way and mentions that electro-shock treatment was employed in antiquitytorpedo fish were used as a cure for headache and various other dis-behave in the same sort of way, and because that is the only basis orders.) A century ago, the electrical properties of these fish werefor understanding them and co-existing with them. supposed to be unique, and the problem of their evolutionary origin

The only satisfactory approach to the general problem is an was a great puzzle to Darwin. However, we now know that theevolutionary one. We begin with man as an organization of Weltstoff activities of every living cell in the body are accompanied by minute

the stuff of which the universe is made. The human organization electrical changes: such changes occur every time a gland secreteshas two aspects: first, a material one when seen from the outside, and or a muscle contracts. These are accidental epiphenomena, in thesecondly a mental or subjective one when experienced from the in- sense that they are not of direct biological advantage to the organism,side. We are simultaneously and indissolubly both matter and mind. but are merely consequences of the way living substance is made. In

Extending our survey to higher animals, it is not only scientific- electric fish, on the other hand, certain tissues (muscular in someally legitimate but obvious that we must ascribe subjective awareness cases, glandular in others), have been modified so as to amplify andto them, as Darwin did in his great book The Expression of Emo- summate these minute electrical changes until they reach an intensitytions in Man and Animals. It is all too obvious for the higher apes. whichis of biological significance.

It is equally legitimate to say that mammals such as dogs must possess This provides a perfectly good analogy with the evolution ofa marked degree of subjective awareness; otherwise, indeed, we mind. In this view, every living organism has what I may call ashould not be able to interpret their behavior at all. We can extend "meutoid" or potentially mental aspect, something of the nature ofthe principle to lower vertebrates with a high though lesser degree of subjective awareness which is merely a consequence of the way itcertainty. Indeed, I do not see how you can refuse some sort of is made, and confers no biological advantage in its life. Brains, onsubjective awareness to higher invertebrates such as bees and ants. the other hand, are organs where a large number of impulses fromThis, however, poses an extremely interesting neurological problem many different kinds of sense-organs, extero-, intero-, and proprio-

how are bees and ants capable of their extremely complex be- ceptive, are brought together in some kind of closed-circuit systemhavioral activities? For instance, bees have a symbolic language, yet andcan interact and combine there without issuing directly in motortheir brain is no bigger than a pin's head, with a number of neurons activity, as with reflex systems. Brains are thus a mechanism for

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW P.sychometabotism

intensifying, amplifying and organizing life's original dim subjee- This integration of sensory information into organized patternstivity to a level where it becomes significant in the life of the organ- which can be readily discriminated in awareness may produce ex-ism. traordinary results. Some of the most extraordinary are concerned

Today, we can be certain that biological evolution has taken with the way in which animals find their way about. For instance,place primarily, and indeed almost wholly, by means of the mecha- we now know that migrating birds find their way by steering withnism of natural selection. This means that no important character the sun if they are day migrants and by the constellations if they arecan evolve unless it is of biological advantage. This being so, mind night migrants. Of course, they can only do this by means of some

cannot be just a useless epiphenomenon; it must be of significance extremely elaborate computer system in their brains -- though thisand confer biological advantage. It does so by giving the organism is no more elaborate than the computer System in our own brainsa fuller awareness of both outer and inner situations, thus providing which enables us, while playing tennis, to anticipate our opponent's

better guidance for behavior in the chaos and complexity of existence, stroke with appropriate movements of our own. In both cases, how-

One way in which it does this is that, in some unexplained way, ever, the computer system is only the mechanism of the action; theit generates qualitative distinction out of quantitative difference. The organism must in some way be aware of the situation as a whole insensation of blue is irreducibly different from red. The difference order to put the computer system into operation. This instantaneousbetween blue and red depends on quantitative differences in the fre- awareness of total situations is a psychometabolic activity of decisive

quency of the light-waves reaching the retina and of the impulses importance for successful behavior.

passing up the optic nerves, but, as sensations, blueness and redness Many interesting psychometabolic organizations operate in higherare qualitatively distinct. Biologically, this permits readier discrim- animals. Frequently, learning capacity is grafted onto an innateination between objects: it is much easier to discriminate between response. A good example is found in the English Robin, which istwo qualitatively different colors than between two quantitatively quite different from the American Robin, a smaller bird with a

different shades of gray. brighter red breast. In the breeding season, the sight of a red-Discrimination is similarly aided by the radical qualitative dif- breasted rival will stimulate hostility in a male Robin in occupancy

ferences between the different modalities of sensation- sight, hear- of a territory. The same effect is produced by a stuffed dummy;lng, touch, smell, and so on -- which again are irreducible in terms even if the dummy's head, tail and wings are removed, leaving onlyof any common factor. Again, it is essential to be able to discrim- a fragment of body with a patch of red feathers, this will be attacked

inate potentially damaging situations and objects from those which in the same way. The sight of the red breast is a simple sign-stinmlusare potentially enjoyable and useful, and this has been achieved which releases a built-in mechanism of attack. On the other hand,through the radical qualitative difference between the sensations of the system can be modified by the further psychometabolic activitypleasure and of pain. Similarly, it is valuable to discriminate between of learning. A male Robin will learn to accept a female as matethreatening or dangerous situations and desirable or useful ones: even though she too has a red breast; and eventually, through be-this has been achieved by the evolution of sharp quantitative differ- coming aware of slight differences in behavior, he will learn to dis-ences in our "built-in" emotions -- fear as against curiosity, for ex- criminate between his individual mate and other female Robins,ample, or sexual attraction as against hostility, though they are indistinguishable to the human observer.

Finally, the central organ of awareness, the brain, has the aston-ishing capacity of integrating an enormous number of separate, and Just as the evolution of new kinds of material metabolism canoften disparate, elements of experience into an organized pattern of provide the material basis for further biological change, so the evo-which the animal is aware as a whole, and which it experiences as lution of new kinds or modes of awareness has effects on laterdifferent from all other such patterns. One of the ways in which evolution. Let me again take color and pattern as an example. Asexperience is integrated is in memory; another way is in mental soon as there were organisms which came into existence possessingorganizations for directing future behavior, the capacity for colored pattern-vision, new and adaptive patterns

began to evolve, both in members of the same species and in other186

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species. Such characters are called allaesthetic; they have evolved in or at least promoting sexual attraction. The red color .of lips andrelation to the sensory capacity of other organisms. Patterns of cheeksis obviously of value in sexual selection, and its supernormal.warning coloration in insects, for instance, could not have evolved enhancement by rouge and lipstick is the basis for a large portion ofexcept in relation to the color-vision of the predators of the insects; the lucrative cosmetics industry. The form of the female breast isand the striking color-patterns seen in the sexual display of birds also a sexual sign-stimulus: its enhancement is the basis for thecould not have evolved unless birds were capable of color-vision and manufacture of brassieres, and its supernormal exaggeration haspattern-discrimination. Striking examples of allaesthetic characters given rise to the article known as "falsies."are found in flower-color. Bees are completely red-blind, but they

can see ultraviolet. In consequence, there is a total absence of pure Ethology, as the study of animal behavior is now called, hasscarlet flowers pollinated by bees. Some pure scarlet flowers exist, led to some illuminating facts about the results of conflict situations.but they are all pollinated by birds, because birds can see red. Con- If a bird's aggressive impulses are stimulated by the presence of aversely, if bee-pollinated flowers are photographed by ultraviolet rival, it often shows what is called mi "intention movement" before

light, patterns are often revealed which are invisible to our eyes, but it actually starts fighting -- it gets itself into readiness for fighting.are of functional importance in guiding the bees to the nectar: they Similarly, if it is frightened, but before it actually flies off, it oftenhave been evolved in relation to this capacity of bees to see ultra-violet, shows an "intention movement" preparatory to flight. Sometimes a

Let me return to the simple visual patterns serving to release situation occurs in which two such emotional forces or drives arespecific behavior, which have come into prominence through the work opposed in conflict. For instance, early in the breeding season, whenof men like Lorenz and Tirrbergen and Thorpe. The newly hatched the birds begin to mate up, the close proximity of another individual

Herring-gull pecks at its parent's bi!l, which then regurgitates food still elicits a certain amount of hostility and/or fear. Accordinglyfor it. Tinbergen showed that if the newly hatched young is tested tile male bird, as he approaches the female, is simultaneously ani-before it has even seen an adult bird, it will peck just as well at a mated by sexual attraction, hostility and fear. The result is a corn-colored cardboard model as at the real parent's beak. The pattern promise attitude, intermediate between the intention movements o!of the beak -- yellow with a red spot at the tip of the lower mandible approachand of fleeing. Since such compromise attitudes are a reg-

acts as a sign-stimulus operating the mechanism releasing the ular feature of sexual approach in early breeding season, they have.pecking reaction, been utilized and polished up (if I may speak metaphorically)by

natural selection and turned into functional Sign-stimuli, which re-The whole system is "innate" -- genetically determined. But its lease sexual behavior-patterns in the mate. Attitudes which originate

operation can be modified. As mentioned earlier, the normal beak as mere consequences of a conflict become ritualized and convertedis yellow, fairly elongated and with a red spot near the end of the into something of biological importance in their own right.lower mandible. A model without any spot has very little effect on

the young. One with a spot of another color than red will be less Another surprising consequence of conflict is what ethologistsefficient than the normal pattern, but more so than a model without call "displacement activity." Apparently, when two conflicting drivesany spot. Shortening the beak will make the model less effective, are operating at high intensity, instead of just canceling each otherwhile a model which is not in the least like a normal beak, but is a out, theexcess nervous tension (if I may again speak metaphorically)very elongated rectangle with a very bright red spot near its end, spills over into some quite irrelevant activity. In bird courtship, thewill elicit a s, pernormal response -- it will induce the young to peck frequent conflict 'between hostility and fear, instead of leading to a

at it more vigorously than they will at their own parent's beak. compromise attitude, mayf,s,pill over into so-called displacement preen-rog: the birds "make as to preen themselves, but do not really do

We find similar phenomena in human beings. Here again, we so. Here again, actions which start as mere consequences may befind allaesthetic characters. In the evolution of man, both color and seized on by natural selection and converted into functional sign-form have been employed as sign-stimuli, releasing sexual behavior stimuli. Thus the displacement preening attitude of many species of

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Psychometabolisra

duck has been exaggerated, and the parts of the plumage to which between the members of the pair. They serve to keep the pair asso-it is directed have come to be adorned with bright colors, so that it ciated throughout the whole season, during which the young needhas come to play a significant role as a releaser of mating behavior, to be looked after by both parents.

As Tinbergen and Lorenz have shown, these facts have rele- The bases of such emotional bonds are sometimes very interest-vance for man. Human beings show many displacement activities, ing. In his fascinating studies of monkeys, Professor Harlow ofsuch as scratching their heads when puzzled. More basically, conflict Wisconsin took new-born monkeys away from their real mothersand the reconciliation of conflict in meaningful activity are of funda- and gave them pairs of surrogate mothers. Both possessed an ironmental importance in human mental development, and are one of framework and a crude model of a face; one of them, the feedingthe chief concerns of psychiatrists. In man, instead of conflicting mother, was provided with a bottle of milk which was the babydrives resulting in overt compromise attitudes, they often continue monkey's only source of food; the other, or furry mother, merely

to operate internally. This results in a conflict of what we may call was covered with a furry material. In contradiction to psychoana-"intention urges" -- urges or drives toward aggression, or fear, or lytic theory, the baby monkey chose to spend much more time withsexual attraction; but whatever the conflict is based on, it is not the furry mother, who did not satisfy its hunger but gave it a feeling

overtly manifested in action. The problem is this: can these conflict- of protection and an agreeable tactile sensation. It will be extremelylng urges _aereconciled internally and converted into something which interesting to see what happens to these monkeys after they havecombines tile energy of both drives in a single and functionally valu- been brought up entirely by artificial mother surrogates. Can theyable "superdrive"? Or are their energies going to remain locked up, be made to reaffirm an emotional bond with a real female monkey orso to speak, in functionally useless conflict? Or is half the energy ahuman surrogate?:of file conflicting drives going to be wasted by the repression of oneof them? Besides bonds between members of a mated pair, and those be-

In mau there are very few examples of built-in sign-stimuli act- tween parent and offspring, there are familial bonds and the ex,

ing as releasers. The best-know n is the so-called smile reflex of the tremely interesting social bonds that operate in organized animalhuman infant, which Spitz and others have studied. Even a crude societies. Konrad Lorenz's delightful and important book, Kingmodel of a smiling human face will elicit a smile from the human Solornon's Ring, gives an account of some of these. I have only timeinfant at a certain early stage of life. Later, this becomes a more to mention one, but one which is of great interest. The wolf-pack isan organized society of proverbially aggressive animals, but whensophisticated reaction: learning enters in and you have to have areal face with a real smile, or at least a reasonable representation of a bigger or higher-ranking wolf is quarreling with a smaller orthem. The interesting thing about the smile reaction is that it is a younger one, and the smaller one feels that he is in danger of beingself-reinforcing process. When the infant smiles at the mother, even beaten and hurt, he will adopt a special "appeasement attitude," de-if she is not smiling, she will smile back in return, and vice versa. !iberately displaying his most vulnerable part. This acts as a sign-The self-reinforcing process establishes and helps to strengthen the stimulus which definitely inhibits further aggressive behavior on thepart of the larger wolf, or, if you prefer, releases a non-aggressiveemotional bond between mother and infant, pattern of behavior. However angry he may have been, he just finds

This establishment of emotional bonds between members of a himself unable to go on attacking the smaller animal which is adver-

species is obviously of the greatest importance in evolution. Once rising its defenselessness. An ethologist friend of mine has appliedagain there are traces of it in sub-human creatures. My first impor- this fact to human situations. He has twice recently avoided punish-tant piece of behavior study was on the courtship behavior of a ment for motoring offenses by assuming a cringing self-deprecatoryBritish bird, the Great Crested Grebe. In this species, both sexes "appeasement attitude." In one case an aggrieved car-owner didn't

develop elaborate sexual adornments in the breeding season and em- even take his name and address; in the other a policeman wouldn'tploy them in mutual displays. It is quite clear that, in addition to give him a ticket. I recommend this as a very useful piece of appliedtheir stimulative function, these displays serve as an emotional bond psychology, but it needs histrionic skill.

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Finally there are the bonds between generations. These become analysis showed that the habit had spread from three separate foci:of increasing importance in higher vertebrates. In some birds and there must have been three individual tit geniuses who discoveredmammals we see the beginnings of what one must call tradition, the how to open milk-bottles, and the practice spread by some form ofhanding down of the results of experience from one generation to imitationor learning.the next. Originally this occurs only across a gap of one generation:

thus among many carnivores, like foxes and lions, the young learn The amount of individual variability is quite high in all higherhunting from their parents, usually from the mother. But in the vertebrates and may 'be of decisive importance for the success ofcase of the Japanese monkey, we see the beginnings of cumulative the species. Thus, in the Blue Tit, this valuable habit was originatedtradition. The animals go about in large troops and each troop has by a handful of exceptional individuals. Distinctive individual vari-its own food-tradition (as well as its own type of social structure): ability also occurs, but in a rather different context, in Bowerbirds.different troops have slightly different ranges of foods. Occasionally gowerbirds are of extreme interest because they show the beginningthere will be an innovation. In one ease young monkeys were what of aesthetic preference. For instance, Satin Bowerbirds not onlywe call in human terms "naughty" and persisted in eating a for- prefer blue objects to put in front of their bowers, but reject redbidden food, even when their elders tried to stop them. Eventually onesand remove them to a distance. In subjective terms, they dislikethe new habit spread to other juveniles, then to their mothers, then red and prefer blue. Not only that, but the males will deliberatelyto the dominant males, and finally to the subdominant males: the paint the bases of the twigs composing their bowers with a mixtureprocess took over three years. In another case a new food habit of berry juices and charcoal chewed up in their mouths, using a(eating wheat) was begun by the dominant male, and then spread stick in their beak as a kind of brush. However, only a minority ofrapidly to females and juveniles. This is the real beginning of culture the males do this, and still fewer individuals have learned to indulgein the anthropological sense, based on the cumulative transmission their preference for blue objects by stealing blue bags from humanof experience, including some novel experiments, houses.

Then there are many examples of normally unrealized possibili- The realization of such latent possibilities depends on environ-

ties, cases where evolution has produced organizations which possess mentalconditions. As we have just seen, man has no greater capacitypotentialities that are not actually realized in the normal life of the for non-verbal mathematics than a Jackdaw. But in modern societies,species. One of the best known eases is the counting ability of birds, with the aid of symbolic language and proper training, many menProfessor Otto Koelder, in Germany, found that Jackdaws have just have the capacity for higher mathematics, although this could notas good a capacity for non-verbal counting as human beings. They havebeenany use to primitive man when he first evolved.

can distinguish between sets of objects according to their number Let me take a very different example. When ! was in Africaalone, up to seven, which is the limit of non-verbal counting for mosttwo years ago, I had the good fortune to see the famous lioness,

humans. Of course, if we employ verbal counting -- 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - Eisa, which Mrs. Adamson brought up and then released into the5 - 6 and so on -- we can distinguish very large numbers; but with- wild,where she had mated with a wild lion and produced three cubs.out it we cannot do any better than Jackdaws. Yet, as far as we It was really extraordinary to see how something that one must callknow, this ability to count non-verbally up to seven is not utilized a human-like personality had been elicited by love and interest andby Jackdaws in nature, devotedcare from this wild and aggressive creature.

Another example comes fr°ma Species of titmouse, Par,s coer-_de,s, the lliue Tit. In England and Western Europe after the last Unused potentialities are often implicit in the motor structures,var there was a veritable epidemic of milk-bottle opening by these of animals. It is on the basis of their unrivaled manipulative abilitiesbirds, pecking off the cardboard lids and drinking the cream. This thatchimpanzees and human beings are so intelligent. The same ap-

plies to elephants. They too are exceptionally intelligent, and canwas something no BlueTit had ever done before, manipulateobjects ahnost as delicately as can apes or human beings.

In this case, individual wtriation was also involved. Careful Sincethey do this with trunks instead of hands, I propose to call

192 193I

1THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW 'l P_ycho_tabol_m

their ability trombipulative (I am sure that Dr. Johnson would have to man: it endowed him with a second method of heredity based onapproved the term). But whatever we call it, it is on the basis of the transmission of experience, and launched him on a new phasethis ability that they have become so extremely intelligent and have of evolution operating by cumulative tradition based on ideas anddeveloped such an elaborate social llfe. knowledge. Both novelties are of course superposed on the biological

methods of transmission and evolution, which he also possesses.(One elephantine incident, though irrelevant to my present ar-

gument, will I think interest this psychiatric gathering. When my In man, organizations of awareness become part of the evolu-wife and I were in the Murchison Falls Park in Uganda, the Warden tionary process by being incorporated in cultural tradition. Accord-

told us that some months earlier he had heard an unusual type of ingly, in human evolution totally new kinds of organization are pro-excited screaming by an elephant. He came around a corner to find duced: organizations such as works of art, moral codes, scientifica middle-aged elephant bull approaching a younger male with homo- ideas, legal systems, and religions. We men are better able to evalu-sexual intentions. The younger male was rejecting these improper ate, to comprehend, to grasp far more complex total patterns and

advances; eventually the older bull became so frustrated that he lay situations than any other organism. We are capable of many thingson his back, rolled on the ground, and trumpeted. The younger that no other animal is capable of: conscious reflection, the idea of

male thereupon sat down on his haunches and just looked at the self, of death, and of the future in general; we have the capacity ofother; upon which the Warden laughed so loud that both the de- framing conscious purposes which can then be translated into action,phants took fright and ran off l) and of constructing values as norms for our activities. The result is

that evolution in the psychosocial phase is primarily cultural and onlyThus, if ! may sum up my argument, during the biological evo- to a minor extent genetic.

lution of animals, the upper level of organization of awareness has

been steadily raised. This has led to a steady increase in the extent Of course all these new types of organization evolve like every-and elaboration of what we may call the animal's significant world, thing else. The science of comparative religion shows how religionsthat part of the universe which has meaning for the organism. Think have evolved and are still evolving. The history of science studiesof the difference between the significant worlds of an amoeba and the evolution of scientific ideas and how they become operative in thea flatworm, of a flatworm and a fish, of a fish and a higher mammal, psychosocial process.

of a higher mammal and ourselves. Our mental or psychometabolic organizations fall into two main

categories: those for dealing with the outer world and establishingTins aRZNGS Uv TO uv m_AL suaJEcr. Throughout evolution, a relation with external objects; and those for dealing with our

the animal, with the aid of various bodily organs, utilizes the raw inner world and relating our perceptions and concepts and emotionalmaterials of its food, drink, and inspired air and transforms them drives to each other and integrating them into a more or less har-into characteristic biochemical patterns which canalize and direct its monious whole. The ultimate aim is to deal with all kinds of con-physiological activities. This is metabolism. But with the aid of its flict and to reduce mental friction, so as to get the maximum flow ofbrain, its organ of awareness or mind, it utilizes the raw material what is often called mental energy.of its subjective experience and transforms it into characteristic pat-

terns of awareness which then canalize and help to direct its behavior. Here I want to put in a plea against the physicists' had se-This I venture to call psychometabolism, mantic habit of appropriating terms from common human usage and

During the latter stages of evolution, an increasingly effident restricting their employment to physicochemical phenomena. In thetype of psychometabolism is superposed on and added to the uni- strict physicist view, it is no longer permissible for a biologist to useversal physiological metabolism. Eventually, about 10 million years the term "mental energy"; for the physicists, energy is somethingago, purely .biological evolution reached a limit, and the breakthrough exclusively material and mathematically definable in terms of mass,to new advance was only brought about by the further elaboration velocity and the like. But the biologist and the psychologist alsoof the psychometabolic apparatus of mind and brain. This gave rise need a terminology. There/s something operating in the awareness-

194 195

I

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEWPsychometabolism

organization of man and higher animals which is analogous to energy

in the physical sense, and can operate with different degrees of in- liams of Texas has coined a new word, propetology, to denote genetictensity. For this, we may perhaps use the term psychergy, without proneness. A science of propetology is badly needed.

committing ourselves to any views as to its precise nature. The old-fashioned behaviorists simply denied ally influence toA major job for all disciplines concerned with human affairs, genetic factors. For them everything was due to learning; and I

whether biochemistry, psychology, psychiatry or social anthropology, am afraid that a number of ethologists and students of behavior,is to investigate the extraordinary mechanisms underlying the organ- especially in America, still stick to that point of view. They forgetization and operation of awareness, so as to lay the foundation for that even the capacity to learn, to learn at all, to learn at a definiteand promote the realization of more meaningful and more effective time, to learn one kind of thing rather than another, to learn morepossibilities ill the psycho-social process of human evolution, or less quickly, must have some genetic basis.

When we look at animal behavior, it is clear that differences in One of the most curious discoveries of the past 30 or 40 yearspossibilities of awareness between different species are primarily has been that of the sensory morphisms, where a considerable pro-genetic. One species of bird prefers blue, another does not: the sign- portion of the population has a sensory awareness different fromstimulus which will release adaptive patterns of action in one species that of the "normal" majority. The best known cause is a taste-of bird, will not do so in another. There is obviously a genetic basis morphism. Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) tastes very bitter to the

for thedifference, majority of human beings, but a minority of about 25%, varyingF_.qually obviously, there is a genetic basis for the difference be- somewhat in different ethnic groups, cannot taste it at all except

tween the genetically exceptional individual and the bulk of the in exceedingly high concentrations. As R. A. Fisher pointed out in

species. All great advances in human history are due to the thought his great book, The Genetical Basis of Natural Selection, in 1930,or action of a few exceptional individuals, though they take effect two sharply contrasted genetic characters like this cannot coexistthrough the mass of people and in relation to the general social back- indefinitely in a population unless there is a balance of biological ad-ground. We have seen how, already in birds and mammals, the ex- vantage and disadvantage between them. Thus whenever we find

ceptional individual can be of some importance in the life of the such balanced polymorphisms, or morphisms as they are more simplyspecies. In man, the exceptional individual can be of decisive ira- called, we know that there must be some selective balance involved.

Quite recently it has been shown that PTC taste-morphism is cor-portance.

related with thyroid function; here we begin to get some inkling ofToday, many workers in psychology and psychiatry and other what advantage or disadvantage there may be. 'behavioral and social sciences resist or even deny the idea that genetic

factors are important for behavior. I am sure that they are wrong. Years ago, Fisher, Ford, and I tested all the captive chimpanzeesOf course environmental factors, including learning, are always op- in England for PTC sensitivity. We found, to our delight, thaterative, but so are genetic factors. To take an example, genetic dif- within the limits of statistical error they had the same proportionferences in psychosomatic organization and somatotype are obviously of non-tasters as 'human beings. People asked, "How did you findcorrelated with differences in temperament, and these with different out ?" Actually it was quite simple: we offered them a sugar solution

containing PTC. If they were non-tasters, they drank it up and putreactions to stress and proneness to different diseases, the cup out for more; if they were tasters, they spat it in our faces:

Frequently, it is not so much complete genetic determination we it was an all-or-nothing reaction. The fact that both chimpanzeeshave got to think about, but rather proneness to this or that reaction, and man react alike means that this balanced morphism must have

a tendency to develop in this or that way. This comes out very clearly been in existence in the higher primates for at least 10 million years.in regard to cancer: every different inbred strain of mice has a differ-

ent degree of proneness for a different type of cancer -- sometimes There are a number of these sensory morphisms in man. There

40%, sometimes 80%, in a few cases 100%. Professor Roger Wil- is a sex-linked morphism with regard to the smell of hydrogencyanide, HCN; about 18% of males are insensitive to it, which can196 '

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW

Psychometabolismbe dangerous in a chemical works or laboratory. There is another

smell-blindness with regard to the scent of Freesias. I personally less prone to suffer from operative and wound shock, and do notam one of the considerable minority of human beings unable to smell suffer nearly so much from various allergies. Meanwhile, there areFreesias; I can smell any other flower, but am absolutely insensitive indications that some chemical substance, apparently something liketo the particular smell of even the most fragrant Freesias. There adrenochrome or adrenolutin, is the genetically-determined basis forare visual morphisms; the best known is red-green color-blindness, schizophrenia, and in any case there is a chromatographically detect-which is also sex-linked. Another appears to be myopia. I remem- able so-called "mauve-factor" in the urine of schizophrenics.ber years ago discussing with Professor H. J. Muller the puzzling

fact of the considerable incidence of apparently genetic myopia in _his biochemical abnormality presumably causes the abnormalitymodern populations. However, he pointed out that during a consid- of perception found in schizophrenics. The way the schizophrenicerable period of human history, from the time when people began psychometabolizes his sensory experience and relates his sensationsdoing fine, close work and up to the period when spectacles were to build meaningful perceptions, is disordered. Accordingly he isinvented, myopia would confer certain advantages. The short-sighted subject to disorders of sensation and of all sorts of perception, in-man would not only be employed on well-paid work, but would cluding disorders of perception of time and space, and of association.

usually not be sent to war, so that there was less likelihood of his Apparently, schizophrenic individuals show much less consistency inbeing killed. This would balance the obvious disadvantage of myopia association tests than do normal people. T6e schizophrenic's worldin other aspects of life. is neither consistently meaningful nor stable: this naturally puts him

out of joint with his fellow human beings and makes communicationThere are some very interesting biological problems concerning with them difficult and frustrating, so that he retires much more into

sensitivity to pain. Some human mutants are apparently insensitive his own private world.to pain altogether and may incur terrible injuries because damaging

agencies do not hurt them; but these are very rare. On the other Hallucinogens like mescaline, lysergic acid, and psilocybin (fromhand, giraffes have mouth-cavities and tongues which appear to be a Mexican fungus) appear to exert similar dislocating effects on per-surprisingly insensitive to pain. I always thought that they used ception, even in incredibly low doses. In addition, they can producetheir beautiful long tongues to strip the leaves off the extremely totally new types of experience: some of their effects can elicit some-thorny acacia trees on which they often feed without getting pricked; _hing quite new from the human mind. They may have unpleasantbut apparently this is not so. Recently in the London Zoo, giraffes effects if the subject is in a wrong psychological state, and exceed-have been tested with spiny hawthorn branches: they accept them ingly pleasant and rewarding effects if he is in a right one. But inand chew them just as readily as soft foliage. This surprising fact either case they may reveal possibilities of experience which the sub-is worth further investigation, ject did not know existed at aH. For this reason the term psychedelic,

or mind-revealing, has been suggested for this type of psychotropicdrug. In many ways their effect closely resenfoles a very brief but

Ax ?_iv OTHERENDof the psychometabolic scale from sensation, acute schizophrenia: perception is disordered in a way very like thatwe have problems like schizophrenia. Apparently this too must in- seen in schizophrenic patients.volve a balanced morphism. First, in all countries and races there

are about l% of schizophrenic people; secondly, the disease appears In psychedelic drugs we have a remarkable opportunity for in-to have a strong genetic basis; and thirdly, as already mentioned, teresting research. Nobody, so far as I know, has done any workgenetic theory makes it plain that a clearly disadvantageous genetic on their effects on different types of psychologically normal peoplecharacter like this cannot persist in this frequency in a population people of high and Iow IQ, of different somatotypes, of differentunless it is balanced by some compensating advantage. In this ease affective dispositions, on verbalizers and visualizers. This would beit appears that the advantage is that schizophrenic individuals are of extraordinary interest: we might find out not merely how to cureconsiderably less sensitive than normal persons to histamine, are much some defect, but how to promote creativity by enhancing the creativeimagination.198

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PsychometabolismTHE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

sonality. However, to achieve this, a new approach is needed. Psy-

Another problem is to discover whether psychedelics modify orenhance dreaming. The study of dreaming has received a great ira- chiatry usually attempts to analyze the causes oJ the diseased con-dition and discover its origins. The very term psychoanalysis com-

petus since the recent discovery that dreaming is necessary for goodmental health. Ii people are prevented from dreaming night after mits the Frendian practitioner to this approach. This is important,but is certainly not sufficient. All important biological phenomena

night, their mental health begins to suffer. Dreaming, it seems, pro-vides a satisfactory way of psychometabolizing various facts and are irreversible processes, whose end-results are biologically more

experiences that have proved resistant to the integrating efforts of significant than their origins. Accordingly, we must study the wholeprocess, its end-results as well as its origins, its total pattern as well

our waking psychometabolic activity. Unconscious mechanisms take as its elements.revenge and provide an outlet in dreams. In psychology, pure and applied, medical and educational, our

Early detection is another facet of the schizophrenia problem, main aim should be to discover how to regulate the processes ofHere too, study and research are obviously needed. Granted that psychometabolism so that they integrate experience in a more effec-there is a genetic proneness to schizophrenia, it should be possible in tive and less wasteful way and produce a more fruitful end-organiza-

many cases to detect its symptoms in quite early stages of life. This tion. For instance, I am sure that a study of the origin and strength-could clearly best be done in the schools, so that it will be important ening of emotional bonds will repay a great deal of effort. Let meto establish a close link between psychiatrists and school teachers, take John Bowlby's work as an example. He studied the developmentThe teachers would pick out the children who are prone to schizo- of chikiren who had been deprived of maternal care (including care

phrenia; while the psychiatrists would then suggest appropriate meth- by a mother substitute) during a critical period of early life, andods of education and training to prevent the disease from developing, therefore were unable to form the primary affectional bond betweeninfant and parent. Such children proved incapable of forming fur-

Indeed, the subject of education in general clearly needs over-

hauling, in the light of the two views of the human organism that I ther emotional bonds and of developing a normal affectional andhave been advocating. Today, we have hardly begun to think of how moral organization. This whole problem of building up affectionalbonds, whether between members of a family or a social group, isto educate the organism as a whole _ the mind-body, the joint psy-

chophysiological mechanism which we call the human child. We ftmdamenta} for human life.confine ourselves almost entirely to mental education through verbalmeans, with the crude physical education of games and physical The overriding psychometabolic problem, of course, is how thedeveloping human being can integrate his interior life, whether by

training added as something quite separate. As my brother Aldous reconciling emotional or intellectual conflict in a higher synthesis, orhas stressed, we need non-verbal education as well, and education by reconciling diversity in a more embracing unity. Let me takeof the entire mind-body instead of "mind" and "body" separately, the creative arts as an example. Thus the poet must reconcile diverse

It is not 0nly in regard to schizophrenia that we are confronted and even conflicting meanings in a single work of art and, indeed,with situations which demand immediate remedial measures, but must employ multivalent or multi-significant words and phrases inlater find ourselves impelled to adopt a preventive or a constructive the process. Good poems and paintings are among the highest prod-attitude. Medical history is largely the story of people trying to cope ucts of man's psychometabolic activities. Milton's line, "Then feedwith disease, then attempting to prevent disease from arising, and on thoughts that voluntary move harmonious numbers . . ." beauti-

finally turning their knowledge to good account in the promotion of fully expresses this psychometabolic concept of artistic creation,positive health. The same is true of the psychological approach. The while Lowe's celebrated critical study, The Road to Xanadu, showshow Coleridge psycho,netabolized the raw materials of his personal

psychiatrist starts with the mentally diseased person, tries to curehim, or at least to prevent his disease developing further, but in the experience, his reading and his conversations and discussions, andwas able to integrate them into a single poem, "Kubla Khan," with

course of this remedial process, he acquires knowledge which can amazing emotional impact.be of extreme importance in building up a more fruitful normal per-

201

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Psychometabolismindicates for the future evolution of man -- a direction making for

As an example of the emotional impact exercised by great art, increased fulfillment of individual hmnan beings and fuller achieve-let me recall a story of Bertrand Russell. When he was an under- men by human societies.

graduate at Cambridge, he and a friend were going up his staircasein College and the friend quoted Blake's famous poem, "Tiger, _31 Pond Street. Hampstead N.W. 3. London, England. Reprinted, with per-mission of author and publisher, from Journal of Neuropsychiatry, Vol. 3,Tiger !, Burning Bright." Bertrand Russell had never heard or read Supplement No. I, August, 1962. (Special Supplement: Symposium, "Newerthis before, and was so overcome that he had to lean against the wall Psychotropic Drugs and Human Behavior," San Francisco. April 28-29, 1962.)

to prevent himself falling. 2 1 have later learned that such monkeys suffer irreversible emotional damageand grow up permanently abnormal. Something of the sort occurs with the

On the other hand, we all know that many poems and works of humanperiodofbabies'theirinfancy,deprivedas°fJohnadequateBowlbymaternalhasshown.l°veand care during a critical

art fail sadly to achieve this desirable result. The way in which anoperatively effective unitary pattern of intellectual, emotional and REFERENCESmoral elements can be built up, certainly deserves study, not merely EVOLUTION:in art, but also in morality, religion, and love. HuxleY,London.Julian:1942Evolutlon,;Harper, NewTheYork,Modern1943.Svnthesis'G. Allen and Unwin, Ltd.,

Mysticism is another psychometabolic activity which needs much Huxley, Julian: Evolutionin Action, Harper, New York, 1953.further research. A really scientific study of the great mystics of Huxley, Julian: The Humanist Frame, Harper, New York, Chap. 1, 1961.

the past, of their modern successors, of Yoga and other similar EvoLuTION OF MIND:movements, undoubtedly would be of great value. The scientist need Darwin, Charles: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Lon-don. 1872. Rev. & abridged by Surgeon-Rear-Admiral C. M. Beadnell,

not, indeed must not, accept at their face value the claims of mystic- Watts & Co., London. 1934. Philosophical Library, New York, 1955.ism, for instance, of achieving union with God or the Absolute, But Frisch, K. von: Bees, Their Vision, Chemical Senses and LahOre, Corneilsome mystics have certainly obtained results of great value and ira- University Press, Ithaca. New York. 1950.Frisch. K. von: The Dancln.oBees, Harcourt Brace, New York, 1955.portance: they have been able to achieve an interior state of peaceand strength which combines profound tranquillity and high psycho- BRAIN AND MIND:Hebb, D. O.: The Or.qani_ationof Behavior, Wiley, New York, 1949.logical energy. ALLAESTHETIC CHARACTERS:

There is also the still much neglected subject of hypnotism and Huxley, Julian: Evolution, the Modern Synthesis, Harper & Brothers, New

hypnosis, with all its implications. One of the darker chapters in York, p. 289, 1943.the history of science and medicine is the way in which the pioneer Cott, H. B.: Adaptive Coloration in Animals, Methuen & Co., London, 1940.hypnotists were attacked and often hounded out of the medical pro- INSTINCT, RELEASERS, LEARNING. IMPRINTING, ETC.:fession. Even today, there is still clearly a great deal to be discovered Lorenz, Konrad: Kin.q Solomon's Ring, Methuen & Co., London, 1952.in this strange and exciting subject. Tinbergen, N.: The Stud_ of Instinct, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1951.

Thorpe, W. H.: Learnlna and Instinct in Animals, Methuen & Co., London,The field of the psychiatrist and the psychologist today is nothing 1956.

less than the comprehensive study of hypnosis, drugs, education, K6hler. O.: "The Ability of Birds to 'count.'" Bull. Anlm. Behaviour, 9:41,

mysticism, and the subconscious, of mental disease and mental health, 1950.of the relation between normal and abnormal or supernormal experi: CULTURAL TRADITION IN MONKEYS:ence. Backed by the concept of psychometabolism and the fact of Dobzhansky, Th.: Manki, d Evoh4ng, The Evolution o_ the Human Species,the increasing importance of psychological organization of experience Yale University Press, New Haven. Connecticut, p. 212, 1962.

during evolution, they will be working for a better integration of EMOTIONAL BONDS:all the psychological forces operating in man's life -- emotional, ira- Harlow, H. F.. and Zimmermann, R. R.: "The Development of Affectionalaginative, intellectual and moral _ in such a way as to minimize Responses in Infant Monkeys," Proc. Amer. Philo#. Soc., 102:501-9,1958.conflict and to maximize creativity. In so doing, they will be in IIuxleY,Zool.J'Soc.,S':P."The492,C°urtshiP1914.Habits of the Great Crested Grebe, etc.,'*Proc.

harmony with the only desirable direction that our scientific vision 203

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Scott, J. P.: "Critical Periods in the Development of Social Behavior in Pup-pies," Psychosomatic Medicine, 20:42, 1958.

Bowlby, J.: "Maternal Care and Mental Health," Bull. World Health Oroan-igation, 1951.

Bowlby, J.: "An Ethological Approach to Research in Child Development,"Brit. I. Med. Psychol., 30:230. 1957.

Bowlby, J.: "The Nature of the Child's Tie to His Mother," Int. Jour. Psycho-analysis, $9, Pt. 5, 350-375, 1958.

TheTreatmentof AlcoholismRensch, B.: Homo Sapiens: yom Tier _um Halbgott, G6ttingen, 1959.Huxley, J. S.: "Origins of Human Graphic Art," Nature, 149:637, 1942.

Marshall, A.J.:Bozverbird_,ClarendonPress, Oxford, 1954. With P y hed IiMorris, D.: the Biology o[ Jrt, Methuen & Co., London, 1962. $ C e csEXCEPTIONAL INDIVIDUALS:

Hinde, R. A., and Fisher, J.: "Further Observations on the Opening of Milk The recent discovery and application of psychedelic substances

Bottles by Birds," Brit. Birds, 44:306, 1952. such as psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline in the treatment of chronic

Marshall, A. J.: Bowerblrds, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954. alcoholics represent a promising new approach to this major social

ORIENTATION MECHANISMS: problem. Four studies on the treatment of alcoholics with psyche-Thorpe,p.326,W'1956.H':Learning and Instinct in Animals, Methuen & Co., London, delics will be reported and summarized (1, _, 3, 4). All of these

Matthews, G. V. T.: Bird Nwoigation, Cambridge University Press, 1955. studies were conducted in Saskatchewan, Canada, in various hos-

pital settings and by different researchers using reasonably goodPOTENTIALITIES: controls and follow-up methods.Adamson, Joy: Born Free, Collins, London, 1960.

Adamson, Joy: Living Fret, Collins, London, 1961. The patient-populations in these studies varied somewhat amongCart, lq.: Return to the Wild, Collins, London, 1962. each other in terms of different psychopathological diagnostic cate-Maxwell, G.: Ring o! Bright Water, Longman._ London and New York, 1960. gories. Typically, only the most difficult cases of chronic alcoholism

MORPHISM: were selected for study and treatment with psychedelics -- patientsFisher, IL A.: The Genetical Thear_ of Natural Selection, Clarendon Press, who had undergone various forms of treatment over the years, in-

Oxford, 1930. cluding membership in Alcoholics Anonymous, without benefit.Fisher, IL A., Ford, E. B., and Huxley, J. S.: "Taste-Testing and Anthropoid

Apes," Nature, 144:750, 1939. The procedure employed in these studies generally used a singleHuxley, J. S.: "Morphism and Evolution," Heredity, 9:1, 1955. massive dose (200-1500/_g) of LSD in one treatment session. (InPSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, SCHIZOPHRENIA, ETC.: one of the studies the patients had the option of further sessions,Huxley, A. l...: The Doors of PercePtion, Harper, New York, 1954. if needed.) The patients were prepared for the ingestion of theHoffer, A., and Osmond, II.: The Chemical Basis of Clinical Psychiatry, psychedelics through individual psychiatric screening, medical ex-

Charles C. Thomas, $prkaglield, Illinois, U.S.A., 1960. amination and individual and group discussions about the nature of

Hoffer, A., and Osmond, H.: Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 2:306-370, 1961. the drug experience. The period of preparation varied from studyRopp, R. S. de: Drugs and the Mind, St. Martin's Press, New York, p. 182,1957. to study, lasting from two days to two weeks.

PSYCHOMETABOLISM AND POETRY: The patients spent the day of the "session," or drug treatment,

Lowes, J. L.: The Road to Xanadu, [Rev. ed.] Boston [etc.] Houghton in the hospital where the drugs were administered. The physical[pref. 1930] Vintage Books, New York, 1959. setting was carefully prepared to give the patients a sense of esthetic

enjoyment. The drugs were administered to each patient individually,with trained personnel and one of the researchers in attendance. All

2O4

2O5

lTHE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW The Treatment of _41coholi,rm With Psychedelics

the reports emphasized the importance of the investigators' previous Table 2:

personal experience with the psychedelic substances to further the un- Results of Treatment of Control Group which Received No

derstanding and rapport with the patients. Psychedelics under Otherwise Identical Conditions 5Interviews were conducted at the height of the drug-experience

and following the subsiding of the effects. For several days or weeks Much Lostfor

after the experience, the patients had an opportunity to discuss their Number Improved Improved Unchanged Follow-upexperience with a psychiatrist or in a group. Group I e 35 4 4 9 18

Group II 7 45 ? 3For an average period of about one year the patients were 12 23

followed up directly, or through Alcoholics Anonymous, for an as- Total 80 11 7 21 41sessment of the treatment effects. It should be noted that other forms

of therapy such as occupational and recreational therapy, as well as The results indicate that psychedelic drugs seem to be effectivesuperficial forms of psychotherapy, were employed in addition to agents for behavior change in the treatment of chronic alcoholics whothe administration of the psychedelic substances. The major em- had been recalcitrant to any other form of treatment. Inspectionphasis, however, was on the drug experience and was clearly so of Tables 1 and 2 shows that the patients who were treated withperceived bythepatients, psychedelic drugs show significantly more improvement than the

patients in the control groups, who received no drugs. Of the pa-The results of the treatment were assessed through ratings of tients who received psychedelic drugs, 72% (114 out of 159) were

the patient's behavior in terms of the following classification: judged improved after one year, as contrasted to 46% (18 out of1) Much Improved -- Complete abstinence for the assessment period. 39) who were followed up in the control groups,

2) Improved -- Reduction in alcoholic consumption which was con- The authors give various interpretations of their results on thefirmed by objective observers, basis of increased "self-awareness" and "self-acceptance', because

3) Unchanged -- No difference in drinking behavior observed, of the drug experience. More research is needed to validate furtherthe effectiveness of the psychedelic sttbstances in the treatment of

chronic alcoholism. But the beginnings, as reported above, seem veryTables 1 and 2 list the combined results of the studies, promising.

Table 1: -- The Editors

z Colin M. Smith, A new adjunct to the treatment of alcoholism: The hallu-Results of Treatment of Chronic Alcoholics with Psychedelics cinogenicdrugs. Quart.J. Stud. ,41cobol.,19, 406-417,1958.

2lq. Chwelos, D. B. Blewett, C. M. Smith, and A. I-/offer, Use of d-lyserglcLost acid dlethylamide in the treatment of alcoholism. Ibld., 20, 577-590, 1959.

Number of Much {or s I. Ross MacLean, D. C. MacDonald, U/tan P. Byrne, and A. M. Hubbard,Patients Improved Improved Unchanged Follow-up The use of LSD-25 in the treatment of alcoholism and other psychiatricproblems. Ibid., 22,34-45, 1961.

Study I x 24 6 6 12 m 4Sven E. Jenson, A treatment program for alcoholics in a mental hospital.Ibid.,23, 315-20,1962.Study II s 16 10 5 I m s Data from Sven Jensen.

Study III s 61 30 16 15 -- s Patients who received group therapy without LSD. they were "medicallyStudy IV 4 58 34 7 13 4 unfit" or refused LSD therapy. '

?Patients who received individual treatment; identical conditions as patientsTotal 159 80 34 41 4 in Study IV, Table 1.

206 207

TDosag# L_vels of P_ychtddic Compound#

elsewhere (e.g., Blewett & Chwelos, 1958; Chwelos, Blewett, Smith

Some Comments Concerning Hoffer, 1959; IFIF, 1963; Leary, 1962; MacLean, MacDonald,Bryne & Hubbard, 1961; Savage, Terrill & Jackson, 1962; Sher-

J wood, Stolaroff & Harman, 1962; Van Dusen, 1961; Watts, 1962).Dosage Leve s the treatment philosophy has as its goal a radical change inpersonality structure, with attendant changes in values, goals, mo-

Of h d J d tivation, beliefs and behavior. This sought-for change is character_Psyc e e ic Compoun s For _,_, by the individual's developing an attitude toward himself whichenables him to begin to experience himself and the world about him

h th in a positive, creative manner in which he assumes total responsibilityPsyc o erapeutic Experiences statef°rhis: own state of being. Sherwood, Stolaroff & Harman (1962)

The concept underlying this approach is that an individual can have6ARY FISHER a single experience which is so profound and impressive that his life

experiences in the months and years that follow become a continuingSUGGESTIONS FORDOSAGEare best made for initial experiences, growth process....

since an individual's receptivity and sensitivity to drugs is so variable There appears to emerge a universal central perception, apparentlythat only experimentation with various dosages can determine for any independent of subjects' previous Pbilosophlcal or theological incllna-individual the amount of drug that he will require for any particular tions, which plays a dominant role in the healing process. This centralexperience desired. At the outset it should be made clear that this perception, apparently of all who penetrate deeply in their explora-writer does not consider dosage to be the crucial factor in the ex- tions, is that behind the apparent multiplicity of things in the worldperience the subject will have. Factors such as the individual's fear of science and common sense there is a single reality, in speaking of

whiJh it seems appropriate to use such words as infinite and eternal.of self-exposure; his need to maintain a favorable impression of All beings are seen to be united in this Being....himself at all times; his willingness to learn; his ability to "go with"

changing states of consciousness; the rigidity of belief patterns; the Much of the "psychotherapeutic" changes are seen to occur asamount of insecurity about his personal worth; his preparatibn and a process of the following kind of experience:

intent as he goes into the session; his trust in individuals in general The individual's conviction that he is, in essence, an imperishable'selfand particularly his confidence in the people with him; the wisdom rather than a destructible ego, brings about the most profound reor-of those who share the experience with him; and the persistence with ientation at the deeper levels of personality. He perceives illimitablewhich he defines himself _ all these factors, and many more, are the worth in this essential self, and it becomes easier to accept the pre-crucial ones in determining the kind of experience an individual will viously known self as an imperfect reflection of this. The many con-have with the psychedelic compounds, fliers which are rooted in lack of self-acceptance are cut off at the

In spite of such a host of conditions, however, we have found source, and the associated neurotic behavior patterns die away. (p. 77)

that dosage does help or hinder the operation of these factors. An- It must be remembered that the impressions conveyed concern-other word of caution: a particular dosage does not guarantee a ing the efficacy and characteristics of the various drugs come fromparticular reaction. The variability of response to the drugs is enor- the writer's experience with them and contain all the biases andmous, largely because what is most important for a particular person prejudices inherent in any c/inician's working model. The material

to learn at a particular time will vary tremendously, and thus the is presented in the spirit of sharing experience gained in workingexperience will differ accordingly, with the psychedelic compounds in order to offer guideposts to those

The comments here offered concerning dosage are considered new in the field, and to offer the experienced some additional infor-an integral part of the philosophy of psychedelic treatment outlined marion on dosage and on technique of treatment.

2082O9

l'[HE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW /

Dosage Levels of Psychedelic CompoundsPrt-trtatment medication:

If the session is to be run in the morning and if the subject is is given, followed 20 minutes later by psilocybin. The dosage ofparticularly apprehensive, it is wise to give him some mild bedtime psilocybin again varies, but our range for first session experiencesedative. The main reason for this is to prevent a restless and fitful has been from 6 mg to 16 rog. Twenty minutes following the ad-

night where he remains in a twilight sleep and where the cortical ministration of psilocybin, LSD-25 is given. Again the dosage varies,activity is very fast and fragmented, but the most effective range we have found is from 300 to 500 t_g.

The effect of this staggered dosage is to ease the subject gently intoWe have found it wise for the individual to eat very lightly the the state of fluid expanded consciousness. One of the effects of

day before his session and to have an especially light dinner the eve- librium is to relax the musculature so that any somatic effects thening before the session day. If he can spend this day quietly, in subject begins to have from the psilocybin will not be imposed on a

peaceful surroundings with his guide (guru, therapist) and session rigid, tense and therefore painful musculature system. If the bodymates, this is excellent. The subject should not eat the morning of can become relaxed, loose, pliable and comfortable, then any somaticthe session, and he should also abstain from juices and coffee, effects that emerge from the psychedelics will be experienced in a

If the subject is apprehensive in the morning, and if this appre- comfortable soma which will lead to an acceptance of these effects,hension persists or is unusually severe, the subject should be in- rather than a resistance to them which would occur in a tense or-structed to take early morning medication. We have found librium ganism. Resistance results in the experiencing of pain, either so-

to be a very useful drug at this stage. Et should he noted that it is mafically or psychically. When the organism is in a fluid state,highly improbable that an individual will not have some degree of impinging or emerging somatic changes take place and are experi-anxiety preceding a first psychedelic session. Indeed, in this writer's enced in this pleasant somatic setting. One very effective techniqueexperience, it is only the very chronically psychotic individual who is to massage the individual early in the session. With quiet, relaxingwill show no demonstrable anxiety prior to a session. What is spe- music, soft lighting and comfortable, secure session mates, a verycifically referred to here is undue anxiety which is debilitating and slow, deliberate body and head massage brings the individual intowhich interferes with the functioning of the individual to the extent a relaxed, protective and nurturing environment, in which alarm andthat a snowball phenomenon is initiated, wherein he becomes anxious panic are hard to manufacture.

and his anxiety makes him more frightened until he loses all per- The methedrine serves to stimulate and activate the individualspective about the forthcoming experience. When this occurs, or it in this warm setting. Some individuals respond with too much

seems likely to occur, we have found it most effective to abort the thought activity to amphetamines, and if this can be determined priorreaction by early medication with librium. The dosage depends on to the session, then the methedrine should be omitted. With most

the individual's sensitivity to drugs. Our usage of librium has been people, however, this small amount of methedrine serves to producefrom 10 mg to 35 mg. A person's sensitivity to drugs can be roughly an effect of heightened interest and fascination with the panoramagauged by his sensitivity to other drugs. For instance, some people of experiences that begin to come into consciousness. We have found

need 2_ grains of aspirin to ease a headache whereas others need the use of psilocybin prior to LSD to be beneficial in that psilocybin15 to gO grains. Individuals' sensitivity to drugs varies tremendously, has a smooth, mellow, affectual tone. The initial effects are subtle,For example, given an equal amount of psychological rigidity and more gradual and more manipulatable than LSD. These techniquesresistance (clinically estimated), we have seen two individuals vary are all in the service of minimizing the likelihood of the individual'sin drug requirements by a ratio of 1 to 10 (e.g., one individual being becoming overwhelmed too quickly with his changing state of con-able to have a certain degree of experience with gStag LSD, whereas sciousness, attempting to abort the reaction and becoming panickedhis clinically controlled partner required 250 t_g). when he is unable to do so. Every precaution should be taken so that

If the individual does not have undue anxiety in his early morn- the indiz4dual does not attempt to shut off the developing cc'n.wiou_r-ing hours, we then recommend giving 10 mg to 20 mg librium as the ness expansion. By the time the LSD begins to take effect, the in-first drug in the session. Ten to fifteen minutes later 5 mg methedrine dividual has become relaxed, has begun to enjoy the increased sense

perceptions and has become fascinated with the world of awareness210

911

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Dosage Leud# of PsychedelicCompound#

that is beginning to open to him. The deep and profound experiences where additional drug is indicated, state that the use of this drugreleased by the LSD then flow uninterrupted, in an ever widening in quantities of 50 mg to 60 mg i.m. is very effective.scope. We have also found it useful to give librium when the individ-

ual gets into extreme states of agitation which pyramid, and fromAddi,g drug during tht stssion: which there is no release -- in terms of time, we would consider

We have experimented with boosting with various drugs and 40 to 50 minutes of extreme agitation and distress to be beyond thewith various dosages and time intervals. To date, our recommenda- point of therapeutic usefulness. Librium used i.m. in dosages oftion is that, given an initial adequate dosage, boosting is to be avoided, from 50 mg to 100 mg is very helpful in allaying the extreme agita-The primary season for this attitude is as follows: the individual tion and anxiety without bringing the individual out of the con-will learn first what he needs to learn first, and boosting is often the sciousness-expanded state. Librium in this respect is better thanresult of a prejudiced set of the guide as to what the subject should thorazine, the latter to be used when one wishes to terminate abe learning or experiencing. Secondly, boosting often indicates to session. This writer has found it necessary to terminate sessions on

the subject that it is the drug, after all, that is going to do the work infrequent occasions. Dosage of from 25 mg to 100 mg is usually(an attitude which we believe is to be avoided at all costs) and that sufficient.the guide has lost faith in the individual's ability to work out his

own resolutions to his conflicts and problems. Another important We have also found it helpful to use both librium and methe-

facet is that the individual often will take a stand early in the session drine in the latter phases of sessions. Sometimes after a thoroughlyconcerning what he is willing and what he is not willing to do, and exhausting emotionally charged session, it is difficult for the indi-will stick to it despite efforts of the guide and despite boosters. Often vidual to orient himself to various "levels" of experience and phe-this taking of a stand or position and sticking to it is a very important nomena, especially to the level of "usual" consciousness. Individualsexperience for the subject as he learns so deeply what and where his may go from one level to another quite rapidly, trying to under-commitments get him, and has the opportunity to translate this ex- stand or rationalize these various levels, but to no avail, since theperience into daily living so that he can see the fruits of his daily endeavor is premature. At these times we have found it helpful

to use methedrine in dosages of ti mg to 10 rog. This has the effectattitudes, of smoothing out the experience and keeping the individual in a

If the guide decides to boost, however, then we recommend that more expanded consciousness state for a longer period of time andhe use at least as much as the initial dost of LSD and that the with a gradual lowering of this expanded consciousness over an ex-boosting be done within the initial three hours. That is, if the in- tended period. When the individual is becoming more integrated individual has been given 350 t,g LSD, then he should be boosted with his experience, we then use librium again in dosages from 10 mg toan additional 350 t'g, and it is preferable that it be given i.m. In 25 mg as a relaxant and for a gradual soothing and calming effect.our experience it is expedient to give a booster if the individual be- Often if there has been somatic tension during the day, this dosagecomes completely entangled in an area in which he is in a circular of librium helps to loosen up, relax, and make the individual morebind wherein he is incapable of perspective and of conceiving any comfortable.alternative solutions to his conflict. This usually involves somedecision-making in which the individual sees that all old attitudes Use of Psilocybin:

and patterns of behavior leave him with unsatisfactory solutions. It is this author's opinion that it is not desirable to begin anIn these cases the individual simply bounces from one old reaction individual's psychedelic experiences with psilocybin. The reason forpattern to another, without benefit. The solution is then outside the this is that psilocybin does not have as great a potential as LSD forperson's limit of entertained possibilities. In these cases, additional breaking through the resistances to expanded states of consciousness.drug may be helpful to get him out of his bind, so that heretofore It is best to use the most potent material available to increase theunimagined answers are forthcoming. Some experimenters who probability that an individual will be able to overcome his resistancehave had experience using dimethyltryptamine in these instances and attain a state of cosmic (expanded) awareness. Psilocybin, al-212

913

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Dosage Levels of Psychedelic Compoundsthough a powerful psychedelic, does not have the breadth of power

of LSD. The experience of getting involved and encumbered with Table I gives dosage levels (low, standard and high) and lethalone's old, inadequate, value system or uncreative basic assumptions dose for the drugs, LSD, psilocybin and mescaline.about life is to be avoided, and the most powerful agent to breakthese attitudinal sets is to be used when available. Dosage require-ments are always to be viewed against this philosophical framework. TABLE 1

If LSD is not available for an initial psychedelic experience, dosages Dosage Levels for Some of the Psychedelic Compoundsof from 50 mg to 70 mg psilocybin are recommended. For initialpsilocybin experiences following LSD experiences, dosages of 1,5 mgto 30mgareusuallysufficient. Standard Highest

Initial Known

Psychedelic Given LDUse of Mescaline: Drug Low Dosage Experience to Man 50 rog/kg*

Since this writer has had limited experience with mescaline, thereader is referred to Unger's (1963) review for detailed informa- LSD 25 #g-75 tag 300 t_g-,500 t_g 1600 isg Mice: iv 50tion. Low dosages of mescaline are considered to be in the range Rats: iv 16.5

of from 100 mg to g00 rog, whereas for a standard psychedelic ex- Psil°CYbin 2 mg- 8 mg 20 mg- 40 mg 120 mg Mice: iv 285perience, dosages from 500 mg to 800 mg may be used. Dosages in

excess of one gram are to be avoided because of toxicity. When Mescaline 100 rog-200 mg 500 mg- 800 mg 1500mg Mice: ip .500mescaline and LSD are used together, the recommended dosage is: *LD

200 mg to 400 mg mescaline with 100 tsg to 300 t'g LSD. Opinion 50rog/kg: Median Lethal Dose; 50% of subjects expire with this dosagediffers with respect to the subjective effects of mescaline: some find expressed in milligram per kilogram of body weight.it smoother, more mellow and giving a more prolonged descendingexperience than LSD, whereas others find it harsh, rough and pro-ducing unpleasant somatic effects.

Unger (1968)states: Use of s_nall dosages with experienced subjects:

Although the conclusion was delayed by both dissimilarities in their This writer has often noted that experienced subjects tend tochemical structure and differing modes of introduction to the seieu: restrict themselves to a dosage level which they have found willtific community, it is now rather commonly adjudged that the sub- induce a psychedelic experience. It is our opinion that this level isjective effects of mescaline, LSD-25, and psilocybin are similar, equiv- often unnecessarily high, and we suggest that experienced individualsalent, or indistinguishable. (p. 112) experiment with smaller dosages. It is common experience that a

That the gross subjective effects are similar, no one would dispute, subject finds that he needs a smaller amount of material to induceBut it is this writer's impression that there are many distinguishing a psychedelic experience after he has had a few experiences withsubjective differences among the drugs. Unger's conclusion stems the larger dosage levels. However, individuals will often continuemainly from experimental subjects who had limited experience with to use dosages of from 100 to 200 tsg LSD. It is hypothesized that

each drug. In those subjects who have had considerable experience as dosage is decreased, variables of the environment and the claritywith all three drugs, it is commonly reported that, rather than being of mind prior to the session become increasingly important. Con-indistinguishable, there are many distinctive experiential character- sequently, prior to small dosage sessions, a period of meditation isistics of each drug. This writer is not familiar, however, with an), highly useful to enable the individual to relax and to clear his con-

research where experienced subjects have attempted to specify sciousness of irrelevancies. Dosages as Iow as l0 t,g to 25 t,g LSDor one mg to two mg of psilocybin have been found to produce

which of the psychedelics was given to them in a blind trial, rather amazing states of expanded consciousness.214

215

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Dosage Levels of Psychedelic Compounds

Use of small amounts of drugs [or an initial experience: psychedelic voyager to explore. Any stimulus which will enhance

One approach to be used with very anxious and frightened the subject's completely experiencing his senses should be employed.

subjects will now be discussed. This approach can be used with any The guide presents these objects to the subject and helps toindividual, of course, but with the majority of individuals it is not call his attention to the beauty of each object. In this respect it isnecessary and not even desirable. The main disadvantage of this

very beneficial for the guide to take a small amount of the drugapproach is that it can build up resistance and make the desired himself so that his state of expanded awareness can be shared bybreakthrough into cosmic consciousness more difficult. If, however, the subject. The guide's enjoyment of his surroundings enticesan individual is extremely apprehensive or frightened at the pros- the subject into the guide's world, and the more the guide is ablepeet of the psychedelic experience, and yet psychedelic treatment is

to reach a state of ecstatic wonder, the more he can share experi-indicated, small amounts of drug in a specially created atmosphere ences available to the subject. The guide goes about to create a state

can be most helpful. Dosages of from 25 tzg to '/5 t_g LSD are of beauty and delight to the subject--with any method at his disposal.suggested, and for some subjects who are extremely drug-sensitive,

even smaller amounts may be used. The idea is to create a hypnot!c- Somatic changes can be dealt with by having the subject corn-

like atmosphere in which the subject thoroughly enjoys himself and municate their first occurrence to the guide, who then suggests, per-begins to eperience his sense modalities to their fullest possible limits, haps in a hypotic-like manner, that the subject gently, then thor-It is better with this approach to have the subject with just one oughly, experience these sensations as pure sensation and takeguide, rather than the two or four session mates employed with the the label off the sensation (e.g., pain) and simply experience it as

larger dosages. This guide is very active in producing and directing it is. In this way the subject ceases to resist the somatically experi-a comfortable, relaxed and enjoyable experience. There should be enced sensations, and they then become delightful phenomena and

absolutely no interruptions, and the subject should be assured of cease to be painful. (Pain, either physical or psychical, is alwaysthis before the session begins. Special attention is paid to the decor caused by resistance to some naturally occurring phenomenon.)of the room, with soft lighting and pastel shades predominating.

A simply appointed room with selected objects is best. These ob- The purpose of the whole experience is for the person to learnjects are selected according to their artistic and aesthetic value, to experience himself and the things about him with fulfillment and

Objects with various combinations and values of color, shape and joy. Having a good time and experiencing beauty is therapeutic.texture should be selected. Objects which have been found to be This approach is to help the individual to release his tensions, toutost useful are: a single flower (a red rose, a pansy, a sunflower, experience his body in a delightful way, to enjoy music, to seea violet), fresh fruit (one orange, one banana, one nectarine, a vivid colors, to absorb works of art, to eat fruit and bread, to looksmall bunch of grapes), whole grain bread and cheese. Music, of at trees, flowers -- to be in awe of beauty. This is a good introduc-course, is most useful, and attention should be paid to the subject's tion to psychedelics. It is a good introduction to one's guide in a

favorite selections and composers. The music of Wagner, Sibelius, sharing experience. In this setting the guide must be an active par-Saint-Saens, Richard Strauss, Liszt, Chopin, Mozart, Tchaikovsky, ticipant, a constant companion, and a directing initiator into pleasantMahler and Grieg is suggested. Other forms of music are also very and beautiful experiences.helpful for mood change, such as Indian music, progressive jazz,

Gregorian chants, Negro spirituals and the Blues. Simple figurines REFERENCES

are useful -- some made from wood and others from stone. Deli- Blewett, D. fi., and Chwelos, lq., Handbook for the Therapeutic Use ofcate perfumes and incense can be employed, and precious jewelsLysergicAcid Dieth3damide-25:Individual and GroupProcedures. Mimeo-

are excellent. A variety of textures should be made available to graphed, 1958,Saskatchewan. (In press.)the subject. Laura Huxley's record, mentioned in her book, You

Are Not the Target, is an especially good one to play during the Chwelos, N., Blewett, D. B., Smith, C., and Hoffer, A., Use of d-lysergicacid diethyramide in the treatment of alcoholism. Quart. J. Stud. _41cohol,session, as she creates a beautiful, ecstatic and safe world for the 1959,20, 577-590.

216217

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW

Huxley,A.,TheDoor,ofPercet tian.N.Y.:Harper,1954'(Reprinted1962'F PI ybi E.,th ,'.=. HarCo,opho.. rha ':hardcovor our si oc n xperiencesedition, early 1964.)

Huxley, L. A., You /ire Not the Target. Foreword by A. Huxley. N.Y.: [Phenomenological accounts of spontaneou,_ or induced transcendent es-Farrar, Straus & Co., 1963. (The record titles, "Rainbow Walk" and"Your Favorite Flower,** are part of a series available from: Recipes for periences are valuable source raaltrlal for the psychology of con$ciouotesJLiving and Loving, Columbia Special Products, Box 500, Pica Rivera, expansion.therange of EaChhumanaCC°Unttemperamentitdifferent.andoutlook.Theranpe of e#peritnces is as wide a_California.) Of these four accounts, the first, by Frederick Smain, describes an expert.

IFIF, Tibetan Manual for Ego-Tra_cendent Experie,_ce Using Psychedelic ence with the original Sacred Mt_heoom, in OaxacaJ It is interesting to com-S_bstances. ,'Psychedelic Monographs," l_lo. 2, 1963. (In press.) pare the Mazatec Indian ritual with the modern rituals of experiment sad

Leafy, T., How to chan_e behavior. In Nielsen, G. S., ed., Clinical Psychology. therapy. II The second is b_ an artist who took Onthetic psilocybin in aProc. 14th Session. Intern. Congr. Appl. Psycho!., Vol. IV. Copenhagen: "naturalistic" experiment. I] The third is by a graduate $tndent in psychologyMunksgaard, 1962. [To be reprinted January, 1964, in Bennis, W. G., et al., who participated in the same series of experiments. In addition to the pereel*-eds., Interpersonal Dynamics. Essays and Readings on Interpersonal tual changes reported in the tn.crisps statement, many interpersonal aspects oSActions. Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press.] Also available from The the experisnce are emphasized in this account. II The fourth accountpsychedelic Revie_ as a special offprint, together with Huxley, A., programWrittenbYthatausedPriS°npdlocybin.]inmatetvho took part in an experimental rehabilitationVisionary F.xlgrience.

Macl. x.an. J. R., MacDonald, D. C., Byrne, U. P., and Hubbard, A. M., The Iuse of LSD-25 in the treatment of alcoholism and other psychiatric prob- Primitive religious rituals have always fascinated me, and I have soughtlems. Ouart. J. Stud./ilcohol, 1961, 22, 3_-45. them out in my travels whenever possible. A few years ago I heard of the

Savage, C., Terrill, J., and Jackson, D. D., LSD, transcendence and the new discovery of a new hallucinogenic mushroom in Mexico by the mycologist,beginning. ]. Nerv. Mental Disease, 1962, 135, 425-439. R. Gordon Wasson. The religious rituals woven around the mushroom cap-

Sherwood, J. lq., Stolaroff, M. J., and Harman, W. W., The psychedelic ex- tured my imagination. I decided to investigate at the first opportunity. It wasperience -- a new concept in psychotherapy. S. Neuropsychiatry, 1962, not till last fall that the opportunity suddenly came. I found myself in Mexicohunting for this mushroom, unfortunately with little knowledge of its nature,

4, 69-80. other than the meager information that it produces strange visions when eaten.

U_ger, S. M., Mescaline, LSD, _ilocybin. and personality change: A review. I knew also that this species of mushroom grows in the mountains of southernPsychiatry, 1963, 26, 111-125. Mexico, and that there is a Curandera (or Shaman) in the village of Huautla

Van Dusen, W., LSD and the enlightenment of Zen. Psyehologla (Kyoto), de Jimenez who performs religious mushroom rituals.I went to Mexico City with the hope of obtaining more detailed informa-l961, 4, 11.-16. sion before continuing on to the mountains. But those who might have knowl-

Watts, A. W., The Joyo_ Cojmology. Foreword by Leary, T., and AIpert, R. edge of the mushroom at the University of Mexico were on vacation. A pro-lq. Y.: pantheon, 1962. lessor who had experimented with it at the Institute of Anthropology was in

Europe. I could not find anyone who had even heard of the mushroom. So Iwas forced to start out alone by bus to the village, which I located on a map,in the Sierra Mazatec range in the state of Oaxaca.

After a long day's ride we arrived at the town of Tehuacan, where I hadto give up my bus for a broken-down outmoded public carrier, loaded with

ITThis account was first published under the title UThe Mystical Mushroom"("El Hungo Mistico!") in Tomorrow, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Autumn 1962), pp. 27-34. The permission of atrthor and publisher to reprint this article is grate-fully acknowledged.

219216

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Four PsilocybinExperiences

vegetables and chickens as well as people, which took us to the village of in an automobile. But they are good drivers. I have never seen an accident,Teotitlan in the foothills of the Sierra Mazatec. From that point on there though I expected them, time and again.were no regular transportation facilities. If you have ever travelled in the

remote areas of southern Mexico, you may appreciate the difficulties I eh- Precipitation was heavy. There were always clouds below and above us.countered. In Teotitlan there was not anyone who spoke a word of English, It rained every afternoon. On the map Huautla de Jimenez looked less thanand I speak no Spanish. By sign language I located a room in an inn, if such fifty miles. But due to the winding roads it was well over a hundred. Finally,it could he called. The sheets on the sagging bed had been used, so I slept on !ate at night we arrived caked with mud and dead tired. The postmaster ar-top of thc covers with my clothes on- ranged rooms for us. I must say they were better than the ones in Teotitlan.

The following day I walked through the village to familiarize myself withThe following morning ! began the frustrating ordeal of arranging trans- the surroundings. We were near the highest peak in the Sierra Mazatec. I

portation into the mountains. The few people who had jeeps showed no interest don't know the altitude, but it seemed around I0,000. This was It. Fromandwasrefusedayoungt°girl.takesheme'spentTheonlytheentire°neWhOdayShOWedleadingCOncernmefrom°VeronemYpersonPr°blemto here there was no place to go, only a few trails leading to the isolated huts ofanother, to no avail. At one point she did arrange to rent a horse for me at poor Mazatecs. It seemed we were on top of the world. Beautiful and strange

trees were everywhere. The village was on the side of the mountain, withthe250nagpeS°S'forWhichthat,amountSButin anyt°casetWentythed°llars'mandecidedlshoUldnottohaVerentbeentheablehorsetOafterbUy valleys below and the mountain peak above. As far as the eye could cee in

every direction there was nothing but mountain peaks, with the cloud coveredall. The following day the girl arranged with the postmaster to drive me into sky as a backdrop. The air was clean and cool from the rain and the altitude.the mountains in his jeep. He told me by sign language I should he ready at I lovedHuautla de Jimenez very much.seven o'clock that evening. I could not understand why he wanted to start on

The Mazatecs, of course, guessed I had come for the mushroom. Whysuch a difficult journey at night; however, I was there at seven sharp. By else would a Gringu come to Huautla? No one would ever have heard ofthis time it didn't surprise me that he too had changed his mind. I tried as

best I could to convince him he should take me in the morning, but he indicated Huautla de Jimenez except for the mushroom. It struck them as very humor-ous. When they saw me coming they would shape their hands in the form of

he had to work the following day. a mushroom and pretend they were eating it. Then they would laugh andThe next morning, purely by chance, I was walking the streets ready to slap their knees and throw their arms hilariously around each other. Soon

call the whole thing off when the postmaster appeared, ready to go. He had I was the joke of the town. Most of the women and children did not laugh,extra cans of gasoline and two other Mexicans in the hack of his jeep. I however, since they were afraid of me. Still other enterprising Mazatecs tried

climbed aboard and off we rode in a cloud of dust. There the girl was, waving as best they could to separate me from my money. But I did not have veryand smiling at me, with the sun glistening on her lovely gold teeth. Her feeling much and I held my own against them. Most of the Mazatecs of this regionfor me was obvious, and I was grateful to her. do not even speak Spanish. I understand Mazateca has four dialects and is

not related to any other Indian language. However, I was very fortunate inSoon I learned why it was so difficult to get transportation into the moun- finding a girl who spoke a little broken English which she learned in a school.tains. The paths were narrow and were forever winding upwards, around and

over mountains in hairpin turns with drops over the side of the road, 1,000 feet, Soon I learned the name of the Curandera who performs the mushroomstraight down. Moreover, no one had bothered to inform me that over twenty ritual, Santa Maria Sabina. The Mazatecs pointed to the top of the peak wherelandslides blocked the route due to the rains. No one had penetrated the she lived, overlooking the village. I asked one of the boys to lead me to hermountains for twenty-five days. Huautla de Jimenez had been sealed off from house. But he felt too lazy that day for such a long climb and wanted twentythe world, pesos. That seemed like too much money for such a small boy. I decided to

find my own way and started up the side of the mountain, following the trails.We of course were the first ones through, but we worked hard for the Now and then I would stop and ask directions, calling out the name of Santa

distinction. The smaller landslides we dug through with shovels. For some Maria Sabina. The women would run into their huts and close the door. Thewe waited while crews of local mountain Indians dug through for us. Others men would stare at me, while some would point the way. Finally, with mywe skirted by building logs and stones out over the edge of the cliff, then heart pounding from the climb, I reached a point near the top where Mazatecsgingerly inching the jeep around with only a few inches clearance, came out to greet me. They announced that here was the house of Santa

At home in Boston I am considered a reckless driver. But Mexican drivers Maria Sabina.

cannot he imagined by Bostonians. I can assure you I held my breath more Santa Maria Sabina

than once on this trip. We would sometimes take only a few inches' clearance The hut was only one room, with a dirt floor, thatched roof and mud walls.at full speed. The driver would not even blink an eye. Mexicans are fearless The household consisted of Santa Maria as the head, three men who were22O

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r!THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Four Pailocybin Experiences

her sons, three women, and numerous children, all living in the same drafty The heads of the mushrooms were brown and rather small, about an inchroom. They all slept, ate and lived on the floor. There was a wood fire in the in diameter. The stems were long and white. She carefully examined thecenter, without a chimney. The smoke escaped through the sides of the wall, mushrooms, then deposited six in each of three cups which she gave to thewhich had many holes and gain, where mud had fallen away. The damp and three men behind us. She then gave me a cup with ten mushrooms. I was gladchilly wind came from below, up the side of the mountain, over the ridge, to see I got more than six. She then took ten for herself. The mushroomsthrough the walls of the hut, and out the other side. No one was ever really still had dirt on them from the fields and they had been handled a great deal.warm during the rainy season. The food was unclean and the water was had. I tried to say they should be washed, hut no one understood me. So whatHow these poor people managed to survive under such conditions was a mystery could I do? I ate them, dirt and ail.

to me. However, it was their way of life and they were well adjusted to it. Each of us took five to ten minutes to eat the mushrooms. No soonerI naturally ignored these external factors. Otherwise I would never have had we eaten them than the three men behind us began vomiting and spitting.come to know them well or understand their religion. I had come to eat their I was surprised to learn this is what everyone is supposed to do. There wasmushroom. I approached them with warmhearted friendliness for which I a large pan placed to the side of us for that purpose. They all indicated I toowas well rewarded. At first they were slightly suspicious of me, but other should throw up. But I felt no nausea. I didn't feel like iL So I declinedAmericans had been there before. Gradually they became quite friendly, the offer. This surprised them and they discussed the matter among them-

Santa Maria Sabina was about sixty-five years of age and looked much selves. I felt fine, about the same as before I ate the mushrooms. I also feltlike any other Mazatec woman. She was humble, reserved, and worked hard slgihtly superior that I did not have to throw up. I noticed Santa Maria didat the daily chores with the other women. But I knew she was famed among not throw up either,

the Mazatecs as a Shaman. As I watched her closely, it could be seen she I asked for more mushrooms, feeling that if I should not have more,had wisdom in her dark eyes, sunk deep behind her high wrinkled cheekbones. Santa Maria would have the good sense not to give them to me. She's sup-She had composure and a quiet contentment which added to her maturity, posed to be able to look at you and tell how many you should eat. She looked

I drew from my pocket a picture of a hallucinogenic mushroom. The Latin me in the eye a moment. Then she put eight more mushrooms in my cup.name is Psilocybe mexicana Helm. The Mazatec Indians call it Teonanacatl, I had eaten five of these when one of the Mazatecs behind us realized howmeaning "God's fleshy Her eyes brightened and she talked about the mush- many mushrooms I was eating. He excitedly tapped me on the shoulder, want-room. After watching me closely for a few minutes, Santa Maria indicated she lng to know the number f had eaten. I counted out fifteen on my fingers. Hewould have the mushroom ritual that night for my benefit. Since nothing more slapped the side of his head with his hand, as though he were going to fallcould be said, I went outside and lay under a tree to rest and wait for the over. Then the three began saying No! No! No!, meaning I had eaten toonight, while the fog roiled up from below and surrounded me. many. No one, absolutely no one, eats fifteen of these particular mushrooms,

When night came I reentered the hut and sat close to the fire, while the other than Santa Maria. They were really afraid for me. With this inform, a-household ate their dinner. They of course offered me some, and I accepted tion I carefully set aside the other three and did not eat them. But Santaa little watery soup and some tortillas. It is very easy for a North American Maria remained undisturbed and said nothing. This was comforting. She satto get dysentery. In fact, I did end up with it before I finished the trip. At quietly facing the altar and began chanting. She sang the chants like a canticle,that time I had not had water for four days, and I was not to have any for with rich, vibrant and tender tones.

another week when I returned to the plains below. As a substitute I drank Within half an hour the mushrooms began to take effect. First there were

beer and bottled soda pop. For food ! ate only tortillas, beans, and sometimes vivid flashing colors. Then a clammy chill came over me and I began shaking.a little soup. This did not upset me greatly. I expected the mushroom to have some toxic

When their meal was finished, the straw mats were unrolled and the chil- effect. I did not intend to let a few cold chills interfere with the experience,dren were put to bed. The women lovingly caressed the children till they fell after having come so far. I pulled my collar tight around my neck and satasleep. Then the three women went to beds leaving only Santa Maria, the three there, shaking. My joints began to stiffen a little. But then, within fifteen

minutes, these toxic effects subsided and I felt wonderful. All the fatigue ofsons and myself, the day !eft me. I felt strong and light of body. My hack straightened, and

In one corner of the hut an altar had been set up, with two long candles I never felt better. I relaxed and began to meditate on the colors.and a glass vigil in the center, surrounded by bouquets of flowers. A straw

mat was spread before the altar and Santa Maria sat on it crosslegged, mo- The chanting was fascinating, in a rising and falling crescendo. The notestioning for me to sit beside her. The three men sat behind us. The candles had a crisp freshness about them which carried authority. Intricate art motifswere !it. Then she pulled a large bowl of freshly picked mushrooms from appeared in vivid colors, with a predominance of light blue. But there were

also greens and reds in various shades. The motifs unfolded in a long pano-under the altar.

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Four PJilocybin Experiences

remic view. Then they formed a spiral and we travelled down the spiral. Our still. Gradually the feeling came that we had been sitting there an extremelysense of sound was heightened and we heard distant music, long time. In fact, it seemed we had always been sitting there. Then instine-

Of course I cannot be certain, but it seemed to me all five of us were lively a name came to me from the recesses of my mind, as though I had

having the same experience. Our consciousness changed many times during always known it, the "Land of Eternal Waiting." Yes, it was clear to me

the night. It seemed we all changed together. I attribute this to tile control that we were waiting there eternally. What we were waiting for, I don'tSanta Maria exerted over us. The various states of consciousness seemed to know; but we were definitely waiting.

vary with the rhythm of her chants. If she changed her timing, our visions The memory of my past life began to dim. When was it I l/red my life

changed with it. on earth ? It seemed many years ago, if I had lived there at all. I began to

The motifs subsided and our surroundings were immediately transformed worry. Would this never end? I certainly didn't wish to remain here forever.

into a new scene. There was a light, warm, red glow which engulfed us. What were we waiting for ? I was losing my identity. I felt it might be a

Then there appeared before us dancing celestial eagle gods, with all their hypnotic spell. I tried to arouse my memory by recalling the name of myplumage. The vision was not blurred or uncertain. The lines and colors were father and close friends. At first the names were dim, out of some distant

so sharply focused that it seemed much more real than anything I normally past. But with effort they returned quite clearly. Still I felt I had lost contact

see with my eyes. The dancers were accompanied by a sensitive, ethereal music with life on earth. I was really worried. Perhaps I had died from mushroom

with a background of drums. The timing was fast, but soft. The eagle gods poisoning without realizing it, long ago. How could I know for sure? Perhapswere exceedingly graceful, fully absorbed in their dancing. They became I really was in the Land of Eternal Waiting.ecstatic. We too became absorbed with them. It was wonderful.

One thing bothered me. Where was the hut, the altar, the damp ground Silence

and the sleeping people? The candles on the altar had been extinguished to Silence had become a part of me. It seemed years since I had spoken.

heighten the experience. My curiosity aroused, I took a match from my pocket But I roused myself and forced myself to speak. To my surprise the Mazatecs

and lit it to look around. Everything seemed to be in order. As I put my answered in English. I swear it. This really was hard for me to believe. It

mind on the hut it came into focus. But the vision of the dancers also re- shook me up a hit. There was some kind of telepathic communication between

rosined. Somehow the two worlds seemed to intermingle. If I concentrated us. We could understand one another, each in his own language. I was lateron the hut, it was predominate. But if I concentrated on the vision of the told it sounded to them that I spoke in Mazateca.

daneers, my awareness of the hut receded. Or, if I wished, I could main_tln They answered, '_Yes, we really are in the Land of Eternal Waiting. This

a balance of the two. I seemed to have control of my will and intellect. I is reality. This is your true abode. Your life on earth never really happened.

was able to point my mind in any direction I wished. However, I felt my It was only a dream. You have been sitting here with us all along. You have

mind in turn was influenced by the emotional content of the visions, much in been dreaming a very long time. Now you are awakening from your dream.

the same manner that emotions influence the mind in normal circumstances. You are coming back to reality. We belong here together. This alone is rea!."

I then turned the match towards Santa Maria. What a surprise l She What they were saying seemed strangely true. At first I wouldn't admit

seemed transfigured. Her eyes shone with a glow that seemed to light up it, but I felt this was more real than anything I had ever experienced. Was

her head. She looked thirty years younger. There was not a wrinkle in her it really possible? Yesl I concluded, it was possible. This was reality. Ali

face. Her skin was light, clear and almost translucenL Here, at night, she else was unreal. I was awakening from a dream. A veil had been lifted. Thewas master of another world, the world of the mushroom. She was regal, ab- past was shattered. I kept scratching my head. Wowsorbed in ecstasy. What a contrast to her miserable existence during the day.

She was then a humble, unbelievably poor Mazatec. At night she was a We talked a long while on the subtle nature of reality. They explained

queen in her strange mythological realm. I blew out the match and returned it to me with patience and kindness. Normally the Mazatecs are a simple child-

to my vision with enthusiasm, like people, absorbed in their struggle for existence. During the day I never

detected a tendency for intellectual pursuits. But here in the night with their

The dancing soon came to an end and the music stopped. The eagle gods mushroom, they were concerned with nothing else. They were highly articulatevanished. A new scene quickly took shape. I found all five of us sitting a

few yards apart from each other in a semi-circle. We were in the center of and presented their views with wisdom and insight. They thoroughly con-a vast, endless desert. We were merely sitting in silence, each absorbed in vinced me. Finally, we returned to silence.

his own thoughts. I found my own mind grappling with the nature of reality. Rut still something disturbed me as I sat there. My mind began workingI felt somehow I was on the verge of a discovery, a new realization which overtime. If I were dead to the world, I might as well make the best of it.I couldn't quite put my finger on. It was an eerie feeling. Time stood I figured if I really had died many years ago, my family and friends were224

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Four Psilocybin E.rperiences

probably dead also by this time. True, I was in rapport with these people and emotions. My emotions overflowed. I felt a Divine rhythm beat in the coreI really seemed to belong with them. But, I would be damned if I would of my heart. To express these feelings, I rose on one foot, light as a feather,continue sitting there throughout eternity. Is that all there is to do? How and turned slowly on my toes. I was not in the least wobbly. I now had per-foolish can you be? This might be reality, but it was senseless, purposeless, feet physical control. I began to do the eagle dance. I danced with my armsI felt like a fool. I began to get mad, really hoL and torso more than my feet. Then I began to chant in i_fazateca, and I moved

I turned to them and shouted, "You're all crazy, and so am I. We're all and swayed to the rhythm of my own chanting. It all came about as naturallymad, stark raving mad. We can't sit here like this forever. We're absolutely as breathing the air.

crazy I" They all politely nodded their heads in agreement and understanding. The dance did not take place only in my mind. I really did do the eagle"Yes l We are all crazy. However, this is reality nonetheless. There is realit_ dance with my physical body. At one point I became vaguely aware I waseven in madness." They had an irrefutable answer for everything. I was dancing in the mud hut. I could sense and even see many people crowding intofinding out even more of the truth, too much of the truth. They tried to the hut. Other Mazatecs in the area were apparently pushing in to watch me.soothe me. But I would not be soothed. I could see them if I wished, or I could be lost from them in my dance of

I announced I was leaving, there and then, though I didn't know where ecstasy. Their presence did not disturb me as it normally would. I quicklyto go. Only the endless desert lay before me. I stood up to walk away. But else.becamereabsorbed in my dancing and my identity as Santos, oblivious to alimy legs were like rubber. I was so wobbly I couldn'l take a step. This made

me even more furious. I felt I was being tricked. I don't know how long I danced. Somewhere along the way, my chantingUnder the influence of the mushroom, one's power of concentration is far changed into a song, all in Mazateca. Now normally there is nothing at all

more pronounced than normally. You become deeply absorbed in whatever unusual about my voice. It is quite ordinary. But in that state of conscious-you may be thinking. There is no external distraction. You can glue your ness, tones came out of my throat which are unimaginable to me, long, sweet,mind on one thought or one emotion and hold it there as long as you wish, beautiful, exotic tones. The notes flowed out with strength and power, without

effort, it is hard to believe, but it did happen. It really did.indefinitely if need he. Whatever you do is emotionally intense.

The situation called for drastic action. I really had to get away if ! were The following day I was told my voice carreid through the valley belowgoing to maintain any sort of emotional balance. I threw hack my head and and was heard ali over Huautla de Jimenez. Everyone in the surroundingwilled myself out of that place by sheer force of concentration. It was as area heard me. Those in the immediate vicinity came crowding into the hut

though an explosive charge inside of me ignited. I exploded upwards like a to watch. It must have been quite a performance. As I write this account, Irocket, instantaneously, straight up through the sky. The others followed me, sort of drift off and relive the whole thing.

as though they were sucked up by the vacuum created by my ascent. When my wonderful lovely songs came to an end, I began to lose myI emerged in some delicate ethereal upper region of space. I found my- feeling of godhood. I changed completely. I became a child. I did not par-

self standing, calm, collected and free. I was immediately master of myself ticularly want to be a child, but I became one nevertheless. I felt like a childand my surroundings. The realization quickly came that everything is a state and acted !_e one. Finally I lay on the floor like a child crying for its mother.of mind. I am free and master of myself if I will myself so. I am whatever Not its earthly mother, but some kind of Divine Godly mother.I believe myself to he, if my belief is strong enough. My mind was released

After lying on the floor for some time, I began to return to my normalfrom its previous struggle. I felt strength, like a giant. I felt like a god. state of consciousness. The effects of the mushroom then wore off ratherYes, this was It, the real moment of truth, quickly. The visions ceased. The transition took perhaps twenty minutes.

The Mazatecs sat down crosslegged beside each other while I remained The only thing which remained was the emotional impact of the experience.standing, deeply absorbed in my realizations. They looked at me and chanted MYsurroundings lost the vivid colors. Everything looked disgustingly normal."Santos, Santos, Santos" in unison. This distracted me slightly from my I then stood up rather sheepishly, tried to look nonchalant, and lit a cigarette.thoughts. I said, "What ? What's that? Santos? Who is Santos? Am I It was four o'clock in the morning. I had been under the influence of theSantos?" They answered, "Yes, you are Santos. Now you are coming to mushroom for seven hours. Apparently about two hours longer than theknow your true self." Mazatees, due to the larger quantity I had eaten. Perhaps my experience was

They waited a moment for this to sink in. Well, I really began to feel more intense than theirs for the same reason. I was not the least tired. Phys-like Santos, whoever he is. I became totally identified with a mental image ically, I felt in excellent condition. In fact, I then carried on a full day ofof Santos which took shape in my mind. It was accompanied by a feeling of activity without any fatigue. I could not detect any ill effect or any form ofecstasy. I seemed to move automatically, guided not by my will, but by my hangover from the use of the mushroom.

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Four P,rilocybin ExperiencesInitiation _ a Mtzgatec

obligation to remain true to the social structure of New England. I muchAt daybreak, Santa Maria initiated me as a Mazatec. Not as an honorary prefer to identify myself with the Mazatecs.one, but as an honest-to-goodness Mazatec. She rubbed a green earthy sub-

stance into my arms, chanted, and proclaimed me her son. But we could no The question also arises as to whether the mushroom creates a pseudo-longer communicate with one another by words, only sign language, transcendental consciousness. I don't think the mushroom creates anything.

Visions and states of consciousness cannot rise out of the inert chemicalsAs I descended into the village that day, I found the atttltude of the contained within the mushroom. These experiences can only be produced

population towards me quite different than the day before. No one made fun from within the mind. And the mind can only produce what it contains. Theof me. Everyone came to me and tried to talk. They would then talk among mushroom can only act as a releasing agent through its chemical components.themselves about me. They would point at me, then put their arms around I have not studied any scientific papers on the P.rilocybe mexicans Heim. Ime. Obviously, they felt I was someone special when it came to eating mush- can only analyze the mushroom from my own unscientific experience with it.rooms. Even prices came down. Cigarettes were cheaper. Food, beer and l_y experience was not intellectual, but emotional. Each person must try itthe few other items I bought were all a little less than the day before. Yes for himself if he wishes to pass judgment.

indeed, these were my people. If anyone can have these experiences without recourse to the mushroom,After a few days I had to leave Huanfla, though I wanted to stay on. I fine and good. Certainly such visions would be far more desirable if they

was running short of money and I didn't want to impose on the Mazatecs. could be experienced without the help of a chemical releasing agent. The mush-The food and lack of good water was beginning to tell on my health. I had room has its limitations. I certainly do not wish to be dependent on a mush-no blankets and no equipment. I didn't seem to be of much use in their work- room for my spiritual life. Its value lies in that it can open up for the firstaday world. Ail I was good for was eating mushrooms. And they were run. time in vivid panorama that which previously lay hidden and unknown. It cannlng out of mushrooms. So I had to leave, with, of course, reluctance, make us deeply aware of our own mystic nature in a way that would notI don't recommend the mushroom to anyone, even thoug_ they are phys- otherwise be possible.

ieally harmless. They are not a narcotic. They are not habit-forming. It is Sometimes, even now, I think perhaps Santa Maria was right when wenot possible to develop a physiological craving for them. The mushroom sea. were sitting in the "Land of Eternal Waiting._ Maybe I am still sitting there,son lasts four months, from June to September. The other eight months the dreaming. Perhaps I have only resumed my dream of living in this world.Indians do not miss them and go about their normal life. But many people Perhaps my being here is only the product of my imagination. How can !

would be terrified at the loss of identity caused by the mushroom. One really know? Can we ever be really sure of anything? But if all is a dream,American I know of became hysterical with fear. Some experience adverse I must say the dream I like best is the one where ! shoot up through the skypsychological effects and go through horrifying ordeals. Even some Indians and become Santos. Man, that's really living.are afraid to eat the mushroom. Most people do not even want these statesof consciousness. Then even at best, how many people can make a trip toHuantla de Jimenez in the Sierra Mazatec? · ® ·

But each person responds differently, according to his temperament and

psychological makeup. For those who are psychologically attuned to this sort I_of thing and who seek the hidden depths of the unconscious mind, the possi-

bilities of exploration are unlimited. The variations are endless. One can It is difficult to write this type of report because my major way of ex-enter mythological realms and mental worlds undreamed of. I should also pressing myself is painting rather than through words. I believe that theadd that if one gives spiritual meaning to these experiences, such as the Indians experience can be broken down and each part examined by itself, and in thatdo, the results are far more significant than for one who merely sits down, way I can try to present a total idea of what was experienced. Some thingseats the mushroom and waits to see what happens, now do seem either foolish or unbelievable, but I shall try to be as accurateOf course, many people criticize the use of the mushroom as barbaric and aspossible.

primitive. Some consider these states of mind psychopathic. Of course, I The first thing I will consider will be the visual part of the experience.agree that if someone did the eagle dance on Tremont Street in Boston, it My vision seemed to broaden and I was able to see everything at once _ towould be psychopathic. But to do the eagle dance in the dead of night in see everything totally and never really feel that I was unable to see smallHuautla de Jimenez is the most normal thing in the world. What we consider details. However, when focusing on a particular object all details becamepsychopathic depends entirely on our social conditioning. I don't feel a moral visible _ in other words I think that the details cannot be seen in the total

but were never missed. When focusing or narrowing the visual field, I was228

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEWFour Psilocybin Experiences

able to see all details. ! was able to concentrate entirely on one object to the

total exclusion of all others. The one object would seem to radiate light or felt that my reactions were slowed or impaired in any way. In fact I reallyglow from within. From time to time other members of the group would take felt much freer in my movement and capable of performing any physical task.

on this glow which would attract my attention, and then I would narrow the Perhaps the most amazing thing to me was what happened to me when Igaze. This inner glow for some reason seemed to disappear when that person's wanted to express myself verbally. Most of the time I felt that there was noreverie was interrupted by someone else's comment. People seemed different reason to talk. When I felt that something was important to say, ! first hadfrom objects, in this regard. After focusing on an object the object would to find the words to express the thought. I was really thinking thoughts freeglow, but with people the person could start to glow before focusing on him. from the limits of verbiage. It was then a matter of translating thought intoAll space seemed to be curved, and the importance of verticals and horizontals words. Many times when I wanted to say something I would struggle todiminished greatly. I was acutely aware of this because of my extreme interest find the words and by the tmie I had found them fortunately someone else

in the Bauhaus painters and the DeStyle group. I have always felt that the had said it and I could relax I While many things were not discriminatory,vertical and horizontal orientation was extremely important, hut the whole idea I think that on the idea level I was most discriminatory. Ideas presented byseemed to break down. Even the Cubists seemed unimportant. A new arrange- others in the group were either accepted or rejected with intensity. I wasment of space seemed necessary. Objects didn't seem to end abruptly but had

either happy at what had been said or extremely annoyed.an ability to extend themselves. This may be partially due to my feeling

toward the objects and their feeling toward me at the time. Possibly the most important part of the experiment for me was my aware-ness of a totality and awareness of nothing. Thoughts took on a great reality,

Color and the reality of space were actually not a new experience to me. and I could sit and enjoy myself thinking. Sometimes the thoughts were soIt was very similar to the reality of both during a period of high painting delightful and so real that I would laugh happily over them. While theexcitement. In fact I believe that visual disorders may occur more with slight thoughts took on this reality at the peak point of the experience, I felt thatturpentine intoxication, sometimes referred to as turpentine poisoning, and the I was able not to think. I could sit empty and then a thought would pulselack of oxygen which takes place in the artist's studio (fairly large quantities through my mind. I was never quite sure whether the thought came from --of oxygen are consumed by the drying of linseed oil and reduce the amount originated -- with me or outside me. Many times I felt like a large receiverof oxygen present in the air, combined with turpentine vapor; this can and through which things were passing. I felt as though I were collecting informa-does affect perception). Space itself took on a very real quality and was re- tion. This made me extremely happy. My laughter was about this happinessluted in its shape to visual concentration. When looking at an object close at and was not in response to what other people in the room had said.hand, I felt as though ! were in a cylinder of space. Space closed in around

me but was open at the top. When looking at the total, the corners of the From time to time a rather petty unimportant disagreement took placeroom were unimportant and seemed to curve -- the space of the room was between the other people in the room. My immediate response would he tonot really related to the four walls but was enclosed within them. Once again try to take sides, and before I could say anything I would realize how foolishthe top seemed open and the floor uneven. When leaving the room and then this situation really was and would laugh at myself for having thought ofcoming back into the room, it seemed to have an umbrella-shaped top Participating in such foolishness.

(mushroom-shaped) which hung below the ceiling. When looking out of the There were times when I became extremely restless and walked aboutwindow, there always was a thorough detachment. The space was not as real. the room. It almost felt that I could walk away from my physical self. IEverything was clear and sharp, but not real. would walk and then stop walking in hopes that I could continue on. This

Hearing was also changed considerably. I could hear everything quite would happen once or twice, but I was snapped back and never was able toclearly -- never quite sure where the sound was coming from. Coins jingling stay outside for any duration -- even though I think I would have liked to.in a pocket, keys being rubbed together, someone scratching, and voices, were This just seemed as though it should follow but never did. I was not afraid.all of equal importance. Sounds which were ordinarily screened out were from Everything that was happening to me was good. Everything that I touchedtime to time annoying because they could interrupt someone's speech. --everything that I saw.

Physically ! felt extremely well. Here I think it is important to mention

that in November I underwent surgery for a rectal fistula. It hasn't, to the Several times I was bothered by H. to do some drawings, which seemedpresent time, healed. This is the first time for me since the middle of October to be an invasion of privacy to even think of doing such a thing at that time.that I have been able to move freely without pain. Naturally that was delight- What was happening was more important to me than trying to record it.ful. It is difficult for me to be certain of whether or not the drug was a real Being was the most important thing, and I didn't want anything to interferehelp in this area, but for the past week I have actually felt more comfortable with being. I felt a communion with all things. It was difficult for me toand less worried about this situation. It was a great pleasure to move. I never determine whether I was reaching out to all things or whether all things

were reaching out to me. I now feel that it must have been a mutual reaching230

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Four Psitocybin Experiences

out because I was convinced at the highest point that the right wall loved the extended themselves over a much longer duration of time. My wife and Ileft wall and that all walls loved me. And that I loved them. At this very had made a commitment for that Saturday evening quite some time ago, andhigh point, I seemed to be aware of everything within my view as well as we felt obligated to follow through with the engagement. I suppose I wasthose outside my view. What was behind me was as real as what was in front still "high" at that point, but it surprised me how I was able to project toof me. At one point I am sure that everything came together with me. I others my feeling that things were good. Several people mentioned that Ibecame excited at this point -- extremely excited. I tried to walk away from made them feel very good. Now I think that the most important part of whatmyself. At one point I walked from the room to the next, and for a bric{ has happened to me, since the experiment, is that I seem to be able to get amoment was outside the house. I didn't feel the cold or the snow. I then good deal more work done. Sunday afternoon I did about six hours' workfound myself back in the house. Walking hack into the other room, every- in two hours' time. I did not worry about what I was doing -- I just did it.thing seemed to have slowed down. I sat down, put my head back and dosed Three or four times I wanted a particular color pencil or a triangle and wouldmy eyes. B. put on Ginsberg's recording. With my head back and my feet go directly to it, lift up three or four pieces of paper and pull it out. Neverstretched out, the space for the first time changed its dimension. It flattened thought of where it was -- just knew I wanted it and picked it up. This ofout. It felt almost as though my head were above water and my body was course amazed me, but I just relied on it -- found things immediately. Myin the water -- or that my body was not. Ginsberg drifted to me across this wife was a little annoyed at me on Sunday afternoon because I was so happy,level plain, then started to fade. My eyes were closed, and a large black pool but I would not be dissuaded.

started to open up in front of them. I was vaguely conscious at ti{is point When painting, it generally takes me an hour and a half to two hoursthat I was almost not breathing, and took several deep breaths. I seemed to to really get into the painting, and three or four hours to really hit a peak.be gasping for air. This worried me for a minute, but all was good and I Tuesday I hit a peak in less than a half hour. The aesthetic experience wasstopped worrying. As the space continued to expand, a small white object more intense than I have experienced before, so much so that several timesseemed to be coming toward me or perhaps I was going toward it -- extremely I had to leave the studio, and finally decided that I was unable to cope withbrilliant As I came closer, I was able to see a red spot in the white. I was it and left for good l I now have this under control to some extent, but I amvery anxious to find out what would happen, and then someone said, "Do delighted that I can just jump into it without the long buildup, and I cer-you want to listen to this?" and someone else said, "bio, take it off" and it tainly hope it continues.

disappeared. I remained in this position, trying to get back, trying to find out. . . . all these words really don't say it.When I came back it seemed to me that I had to think how to breathe,

how to get it started. I felt that [ had not taken a breath in some time andgasped for air. Once again _ not at all worried. The one time during theentire session that I was aware of any taste or odor was when I came hackand there seemed to be a strange taste in my mouth and a most unusual odor.I really don't know what it was or how to describe it -- the first time I have IIIcome in contact with it. I felt that I had to have something to drink. B. obliged. The first noticeable change came about with regard to strange color effects.

The plain was gone and I became aware of different parts of my body The room changed in illumination and, with it, also in feeling-tone, fromgetting extremely warm, which fete extremely good. No part ever seemed to bright and sharp to glowing reddish and warm. For the first time, I seemedcool off, just other parts getting warm. After some time this ceased, and I to understand the existential-phenomenologicai experience of shifts in one'shave a feeling that this part of it was over. I opened my eyes. In a way I total state of being and the transformation of one's perceptual world as awas surprised to find where I was and began to move about, a little disappointed consequence of this. Everything is pulling together and tightening up, orbut quite happy. At this point my head was filled with thoughts -- all important expanding and receding, with the concomitant change in color perception whichthoughts, all private thoughts. I was still extremely happy and would from leads to or precipitates a diffuse and global experience of warmth or othertime to time chuckle to myself about how wonderful it was to be, and how feeling-dimensions. In addition to this, one sees after-images following move-good to know all that I knew. I must confess that this feeling has not left. ment, and a strong glowing of color or color-radiation. At first, however,

there are no hallucinations. It is rather like a fluorescent light which comesMany thoughts are still buzzing around, and I am still happy, from within the eyes of the others or which is penetrating the objects that

After that, I felt physically worn out, extremely tired, but my mind was one visualizes. The light is unsteady and glittering, as if reflected by diamondsstill very very active. After walking around to my car and driving home, this or other precious stones in a tremendous variety of very rich colors. Thenphysical exhaustion left me in about thirty minutes and I felt very good again, everything becomes transparent and nebulous, a continuous change and trans-

There are, I think, important aspects to what happened to me which have figuration. One has the impression of drifting clouds, and gentle flowing and

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intermingling of boundaries and substances. All blemishes disappear, and oneperceives familiar objects and particularly other faces or movements of limbs discovered the secret of their origin, thc source whence all this sprang. ]t

seemed only a matter of skill to pinpoint what I visualized, to bring it onin a peculiarly stylized manner, as if the essence or underlying idea were strug-gling or pressing, rather, to reveal itself, paper or canvas as a most articulate form of artistic expression. The most

dominant theme was one of "modernness," and the expression of our ownNext, peculiar boundary shifts enter into one's awareness -- definite ageand future ages.

shifts of perspective. This manifests itself in such a way that the limbs ofone's body as well as those of the other people in the room suddenly appear Another peculiar feature was the conviction I had of the objectivity ofisolated and independent; they glide or soar away and interpenetrate, or these visual forms. They must exist "out there," they must have existencecoalesce into each other. ]t is a most striking experience that the vertical independent of me and my experience. I can participate m better, I can see,and horizontal ordering-principles gently disappear; they slip away, so to reach out, touch them; I have the privilege of being confronted with essences,speak; the coordinate system vanishes, perhaps the most vivid experience or in tangential transaction with essences. In all of this, now, it may well berealization of perceptual change, that the major factors were the ideas and preoccupations I had prior to the

experience, i.e., seeing fragments of Picasso's Guernlca and being concernedEarly there is another strange experience. One suddenly feels a kind of with the notion of the objectivity of values, in a philosophical sense.

reversal of structure of one's head and eyes. It is as if one's skull was sud-denly expanding like a balloon being blown up and that a huge spherical hollow The next stage, so to speak, although not directly differentiable becausewas thus created which then served as the stage of visual drama. The eyes of the extremely fluid boundaries and the elimination of structured spatiality,appear no longer as looking out from within into the world, but rather they was an acute loss of time perspective or time-boundness. Past and futureare reversed upon themselves, clinging to the walls of the hollow sphere look- faded away, and one was living exclusively and ecstatically in the present,ing in and moving freely along the total inner surface of that sphere, so here and now. Time did not flow, no temporal movement -- it practicallythat ever new perspectives are opened up and phenomena reveal themselves stood still -- it felt like glassy warm glue, of heavy viscosity. There wasin thousandfold manifestations at a phantastle speed. One can also feel one's no concern with time, which was most significant of all. It manifested itselfeyelids much like a curtain that can be drawn or let down. One has the ex- in temporary abandonment (objectively speaking) of tasks one set out to do,perience that one's head is like a cloak of different layers of cloth, like a but forgetting and leaving things unattended to and suspended without re-curtain, which are all in movement, floating before one's visual field so that membering, and trying to continue only to become oblivious again of whatone can penetrate them. The inside and outside is felt, not as contained one was trying to accomplish. Acts or designs were often acutely experiencedwithin myself, a well-described container or system, but rather out there or as ideas, with no potential. One developed an acute inability to act. I wantedin here in a purely directional sense; a visual direction, not a blind orients- to do certain things like getting up and moving to another place or to eattion, i.e., knowing where one is in our usual experience. One can hold one's something, but I was unable to accomplish it. Either I was too lazy, unablehead in one's hands, for instance, and suddenly one experiences one's fingers to move, or the idea in itself was satisfying without realization in action.as strangely knocking from the outside of one's face, disconnected and foreign, Phenomenologically, it was not like a traditional motive or wish that one felt,then elongating and growing into grotesque but friendly, snake-like creatures, that I wanted to do something; rather, it was more like an idea I had ofor rather creations, as one finds them in Miro or Picasso. Fragments break something which then vanished or oscillated into something else. I did actoff, there is constant mutation of parts, which then slide away to the side in on occasion, however, and my actions had a peculiarly felt design and purpose.a swirling movement, interpenetrating each other. Together with this as a I had to do this and that, there was a certain compulsive quality about it, justconstant accompaniment, one encounters the most luminous colors and pat- this and no other way. Momentarily I became aware of the exclusiveness ofterns, all asymmetrical but beautifully shaped, very "modern" designs. Every- the design. I was strangely free, I had only one thought, everything else didthing reminded me very intensely of modern graphic art and painting, and not matter at all.

I experienced a reassuring feeling of familiarity in this world of Miro, and One feature of this is the "power of perception." One seems unable toPieasso's Guernica. ! had the confident feeling that I really understood theexecute an act like walking over to sit down in another chair, but this is

meaning and expression of these modern forms for the first time, understood wholly compensated for by merely thinking about it. Seemingly, one doestheir origin and shared in the creative act from which these experiences spring, not have to move physically but can just as easily move about spzrRually,"The idea went through my mind: "If I could only fixate these images, if I ....

to use a crude and ambiguous concept. It appears that one is no longer boundcould only hold them or reproduce them, then I would be able to say exactly by physical laws of movement, as though one were free to soar or glidewhat so many have tried to say." I felt that I was at home in a world of through space in some non-material form and leave one's body behind muchwhich we obtain only sparse glimpses in works of art, and I felt that I had like a corpse. One has an exhilarated feeling of lightness and freedom from234

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THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Four PsilocybinExperienc#z

restriction, as if one were living five feet off the ground and moving like The total atmosphere was definitely paradisal and heavenly. I had thenotion of "this is it," "this is the moment of truth," "I know that everythinga breeze of air. leads to this," "this is complete harmony and ecstasy." There were moments

I ate grapes and bananas, and they tasted most delicious in a very rich where the concern was: who will relinquish this willingly in order to con-and sensuous way. Chewing and swallowing were intensely pleasurable, and tinue to take care of things outside this group ? More importantly: who willone could really abandon oneself completely in the exploration of this singuhr see to it that the state continues, that the ordinary tasks of the world aresensuous experience, which literally came over one without one's active par- attended to? There was a singular absence of concern with technical thingsticipation. Everything else was screened out, one was not able to hold more or with the general problems of civilization. All everyday activities seemedthan one thought, image, or feeling in one's consciousness simultaneously. I far removed and futile.felt suffused with feeling. Only global differentiations of one's feeling-states,which alternatively took possession of oneself, could he made. I felt some- I felt that I was unable to take care of anything physically. I could nottimes hot, warm, or cool, but never totally unpleasant, do anything if, for instance, the fire from the fireplace spread to the whole

At times I felt that the only problem left in my world was the regulation building. Rather I felt that the conflagration was spreading and that it shouldof temperature in order to maintain this intensely pleasurable, secure, peace- spread, and there was a glowing overmeaning in this word of conflagrationful, permanent, even eternal state of suspendedness in a communion, The for me. But there was never a sensation of fear or apprehension for me, ormeans-end thinking dropped out completely. There is a tremendous sense of a realization that anything could happen to us. We, and I felt this quite dis-freedom involved, freedom from different wants, freedom from having to do tinctly, were inviolable, we bad arrived, we were unified with the ground ofthings, freedom from one's past and future. Things are arranged for one, being, we were already transfigured, dead and at the same time so intenselyif one only trusts. Momentarily one might worry about who is there outside alive as never before. I experienced a sense of initiation and participation inour state to keep this going, because I am certainly unable to do so at this a great mystery; everything became knowing and known.time; but these detachments are few and brief. It is more like things happen,one no longer carries plans around in one's head, no designs, no purposes, no There was an acute awareness of the others in the room, but only whengoals, just the NOW. they were present. Most of the time people floated in and out of my experi-

ential horizon. When they were there, they had to be there -- it could notThere always seems to be only one m if any -- instantaneous purpose,

here and now, a sole concern, a single problem, which has to do with the be any other way -- everything had to be just as it was. There was a surgingimmediate situation, like changing the temperature, one's temperature. It is sensation of appropriateness and "rightness" about everything that went on:tremendously difficult to visualize and realize action-patterns, how to go about it could not conceivably be any other way. Viewing the others, there was ancertain things, because one is so captured by the moment, caught up in the overwhelming and continuous, vibrating, sensuous feeling and expression ofimmediate, bathing oneself in sensuous experience from which one cannot ecstasy. There were no visions or desires of actual physical union or evenphysical contacts but rather a type of spiritual interpenetration -- two veilsremove oneself, being drawn over each other. The unitive feeling had the power and sensation

One has a strong sense of communion -- one wants to share and to ex- of a warm shower in which one became completely enveloped. Physical dis-tend the experience for ali those present. There arose a very strong feeling tance was not experienced as such. A glance or visual impression felt likeof fellowship among the group, a feeling of shared knowledge, experience a reaching out and amoeba-like engulfment. One lived in one's glance, oneand privilege. The atmosphere was almost that of a sanctuary. We had extended oneself in one's visual projection, one lived and travelled with one'smade it, we were chosen and rewarded. It was like having reached a safe eyes and view. :'harbor. This security made everybody present very unthreatening. There wasplenty to share, one was in a giving and sharing mood. One could really give One became acutely aware of facial details, like quivering lips and vibrat-oneself without any pretense or reservation. One felt definite kinship and lng noses which signalled the experience of ecstasy and which gave testimony

unity with the whole group, which bad transcended all kinds of pettiness and to the universality of one's feelings and the harmonious and parallel, or simul-earthly worry; one did not need to pretend. Therefore, I felt acutely that taneous, resonance in this experiential community. ' One became aware of lips,I was encountering the people as persons, as they really are, without any dis- cheeks, the falling of hair, and eyes which had 'the most remarkable depthtortion of role status or accomplishment. I felt as if I could penetrate directly and radiation. Faces became mysterious, stylized, angelic, transfixed, idealized.to everybody's soul. There was a gratifying and reassuring openness about my There was a double entendre about every gesture, glance and' moveroent.own feeling, although I still felt not quite able to communicate this openness Everything seemed like a sophisticated and oversvhelming "come-on". game.

intensely eroticized. The people looked as jf tbeY:were on stage_ acting andand acceptance.

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behaving in a slow and deliberate yet overdrawn and stilted manner. Thewomen present changed perceptibly toward ideal pictures or representations The self-reference recedes into the background, and the judgmental ability or

of the sensuous temptress or the Madonna. I had the feeling of partieipating the motivation for forming opinions and judgments vanishes.

in a very modern drama; all movements were affected and stilted, mueh like One's gaze is synonymous with the direction of one's living. One is fullythe stalking movements of animals (e.g., pointing dogs) who circle each tuned in. One lives in one's senses, mostly visual, thc most peculiar experi-other, facing in different directions yet acutely and mysteriously centered ence of "I-am-my-glance; I-am-in-my-eating." I fully participate in the ac-around a common core of meaning and purpose; engaged and knowing, tivity without reservations, I am wandering, gliding, soaring through a

phantasy world in exploration. I have escaped from the boundary and local-I was definitely aware of several levels of communication going on among ization or fixation of my physical body and completely lack that usual and

the people present, strictly according to the degree of previous acquaintance typical self-reflection and self-anchoring of my normal existence by whichor affinity or familiarity. There was a peculiar experience of areas of limits I channel and categorize experience in the appropriate barrels or regions ofand liberties -- as if a grate of restrictions and freedoms had been laid over experienee-colleetion.

the interactions of the people present. A glance was as powerful and as direct The symbol of the way or voyage is most appropriate: being on one'sa message as the most private and elaborate verbal statement, and, consequently, way, in a novel and mysterious world which is totally unfamiliar and in whichthe direction of looking seemed to move in preordered or guided channels.Particularly the meeting of eyes, the knowing look that binds and draws two the familiar is transformed into something bizarre. One moves in wonder-people together was governed by the perceived degree of liberties in terms ment and awe, is drawn here and there, beckoned and invited by the phantastic

phenomena that reveal themselves. It seems futile to start comparing thatof previous familiarity. The mere observation of others, on the other hand, which happens, with previous experience or familiar structures; one can onlylooking at aspects of others, profiles, hands, and lips -- this kind of sensuous, try to keep oneself open to the drama of presentation, and to respond to theesthetic meditation, (better, contemplation) of the features of others

vibrant and dazzling invitation to a graceful, sensory and experiential dance.seemed singularly appropriate and justified. The quality of visual interpene- A phenomenon is encountered, I accept it, questioningly; a new phenomenontration as a form of very intimate and personal communication through one's intrudes, and again I acknowledge its self-disclosure. I am on the way, thisgaze became very apparent, is how it has to be, and it would be presumptuous, I would be to that extent

Although only the people present seemed' to count, or to exist -- i.e., deprived, if I tried to manipulate what was revealing itself, and to make it overseemed to constitute one's experiential world -- there were moments in which in my own image.

one wished to have others join, particularly those dearest to one (but not I believe that it is a mistake to believe that I can use the experience topresent), to have them share in this unique and most wonderful of experiences, gain insight into myself in an analytical sense, to use it as a sort of magnify-which transcends everything imaginable. The general feeling with regard to lng glass, microscope, or focused beam to penetrate into the mysteries of mythe others was one of unqualified benevolence. The common experience ex- self-structure or self-organization. I would rather tend to use it to gain in-erted a strong unifying force. There was absolutely no hostility or malice, sight into the potentials of consciousness and different states of consciousness

of which I am capable. I would like to experiment with differing experientialThis is definitely an "end-in-itself" experience and phenomenon. The only worlds, that of the modem age, the Baroque, the Gothic, etc. I would like

ambition dmring the state seems to be to maintain it, and this by small cor- to transform the environment in a way that would be conducive and visionaryrectives in the global situation such as finding the right place to sit, to lie in this kind of a world, while recording my impressions either by talkingdown or to stand, or to adjust the temperature. As to the rest, one is com- out loud or by writing simultaneously.pletely suspended and truly living in one's experiences much more so than

ever before. Activity is activity, situation is situation, and they should remain I would say that I can gain insight into the nature of consciousness or

what they are, as everything -- one feels -- should remain what and as it is, experience, the meaning and essence of being and the experience of harmony,no change is contemplated or desired, the purest suspension in "presentness" the mystery of life, communion and sharing, the delight of ecstasy, the tern-imaginable. Any form of utilitarian thinking is pushed out. It is a peculiar porary suspension of rules, the primacy of being over any form of having.style or immersion into "passivity," Of course one moves, things are changed, Being-in-relationship _ yes; in relationship with the objective world of thingsthere is much fluidity, etc., but this is perceived as happening to one, as a dis- and experiential states, the prearranged balance and harmony of everything.turbance, as disequilibrium Only to return to the state of tranquillity and I encounter appropriateness in myriad manifestations, I participate in a kindsuspendedness, of harmonious and convincing equilibrium, in the way everything truly is,

and how everything should be. I almost acknowledge a Diz,lne order becanseI had a profound experience of otherness" and "differentness." The or- I know that it exists: I participate in it, I create it and am created by it, I

_lering principles, particularly the directing forces of our mind, are relinquished, liveit and am lived by it, it reveals itself to my being.

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THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW Four P_ocybin £:rperiences

· bad things I'd done with them, to them, and the way ! treated them. I shut

IV this out and started thinking of what I wanted out of life and how I was

going to go about getting these things, not the material things, for under the

This was my second experience with this wonderful drug. I'm with the drug material things did not matter to me at all. But again nothing came.

same group as the first session. At only one time during this session was I could not control the pattern of thought, all that I experienced was a periodmy own experience anything like the first, and for a very short .time. The of complete nothingness, a void, empty, devoid of thought This blank period

drug was not as powerful to me as it was before. The session was very quiet seemed to last for some time, the only thing I could do was let the drugand peaceful. Everyone wrapped up not in their own world as last time, but stimulate my thoughts. As soon as I stopped trying to think of what I

in deep thought We all took the drug at about 10 minutes to Il and then wanted, the drug took over on the same pattern of thought as I had experi-we all went and !ay on our respective beds. G. brought in his tape recorder enced in my first session.and a couple of tapes he had made of a number of records, a few I'd heard

before, but the others seemed new to me. I only recognized one record really, The last Indian record came on and I closed my eyes: nothing, no color,

an East Indian record, that was played at my last session, nothing at all. I opened my eyes and felt very dizzy, so I closed my eyes

again and all of a sudden a vision came unto me, waves of sound, strings

About 20 minutes after taking the drug we all grew very serious, deep in waving with sound, the music, its very strings danced before me. The strings

thought I felt a twitch in my left eye and on occasion I still have it when were gold, bright and brilliant. A voice came from the strings, mystical and

I get excited or nervous. The next effect that came about was a pleasant Godlike in its tone, precise in its pronunciation, far away and abstract in its

warmth in the room. The room did not change, except to become more gayly meaning to me. Then I saw the little green man again, emerald green, robe

colored and friendly. I guess the next thing that happened, happened while about him, long legs and arms wrapped about himself, bald head shining withI was looking at a photography magazine. I was a little toward the edge of light, long thin ears, bright green eyes, sly wide, grinning mouth. He had

the bed and I began getting dizzy and felt that I would fall off the bed as I gold earrings in his ear, long, thin eyebrows and a little beard growing fromsettled myself comfortably in the middle of it. Then I felt as though the his chin. He spoke of the music, of the very strings he sat upon.pillow I had my head on would fall to the floor. I began moving it and it

fell to the floor. I remarked to G. when I got up to get it, that I knew it Then I was scared. I thought someone had pulled a trick on me, and the

was going to happen, little man disappeared. I thought to myself someone has dubbed the record· I smoked while the drug took its hold of me, but not at all for about with their voice, someone who I don't know, someone very clever in his triek-

twq hours. I looked through a book of Pieasso's paintings that G. had brought ery. Someone wanted to hypnotize me, make me the living, speaking dead. I

in and also the photography book, before the drug really took hold of me. told myself that there was time and that I would let myself be hypnotized.

Then I realized I'd heard this record, these strings, this voice, at my last

My bed was in the same spot as the last bed I lay in when I had my last session and that I had seen this little green man also. And that I thought

session _ over between two windows, then near the record player; at this someone had dubbed the record, that it was a trick to hypnotize me and that

session near the tape recorder. ,And the sun came in the window .directly I wanted to be hypnotized then too. Then it all went away. And in its placebehind me. came once again the vast, empty desert. And the mountain range with its

· Next, I began getting extremely nervous. I paid no attention to any of one high mountain reaching into the cosmic sky. I saw myself running as

the others, nor they me. I just lay back with a come-what-may attitude. The I did before. I came to the mountain and climbed it in a running gait. !reached the top. There was the same rock, the softness of it still there. On

others did the same. It was So peaceful and content just lying there on that this rock was a man, a man both young and old. He had about his slim body,bed. If.I moved, I got nervous and shaky. But I felt I would stay in the

a liquid robe of the bluest blue. He had his hands folded in his lap. Theybed forever, that I would never leave it, nor did I want to. seemed to glow, his fingers were long and bony and his hands slim and fine.

· I tried to think of the people I knew outside and some of the things I'd He was looking into the sky and did not hear me. He had long, womanlike

done with them, but I just couldn't do it. I tried very hard to recall the fun hair, smooth and shiny and black, coal black. I could only see part of his

and good times I'd had with these people, .but as I said, I couldn't, face, a small pointed beard covered his cheeks and chin, his eyes glowed with

· . a yellow light and his nose was long and thin. He seemed to be speaking but

'i So I tried thinking of the people I'd met while I'd been in here and in I could not hear him. Maybe he was praying. I spoke to him, "Hey man,other jails. I e0uldn'tdo that either. ' what are you doing here? I know you. I saw you before on a mountain."

Then all at once I could think of the people I knew both in and out of No answer. I could not help talking jive talk, abstract words. Then thejail, but not of the good times and the fun I'd shared with them, just all the vision disappeared and did not return.

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THE .PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Four PsilocybinExperiences

The next thing that came to me surprised me greatly. It's the same thingI wanted to think of before. I saw my friends, everyone I ever knew, had the game I played was, just saw through it, saw the ends I would find, in-

stead of the ends I'd imagined. Disaster l Everything seemed so hopeless, soanything to do with, I knew their names. But all I saw, all I heard, scared me.It's all the bad things I'd ever done to this certain person, that certain person, foolish, so futile, not a bit of fun, no love involved. It sickened me, what waspeople I thought I loved, I'd hurt them and they in turn hurt me. I saw the. life, a life of this kind, just misery for myself and those who loved me.girls I'd gone with, the guys I hung with, my family, my relations, different I again asked what I wanted from life and at once I got an answer --people I knew. But all that would come was the bad, stealing, lying, beating, love, peace, plenty, intelligence, not power but friends.

hurting, swearing, cheating, insulting, things I could no longer think of with- I felt all wise now, ali knowing. I got up from my bed and paced theout feeling guilty. I saw guys in here, in other jails, heard about what they room for a few minutes and smoked a few more cigarettes. I went over andwere doing, what they'd done. It was all so scary, so horrible. Sickening in its sat on the table. G. came over and we talked, I don't recall of what Thenimpact. I saw what a life of crime was, hated it, fought it, licked it. Hopeless I went over and started looking through the book of paintings again. Theypeople caught up in it, the small-times doing the pettiest, vilest things . Things were all beautiful, all so simple. G. came over and we both found two pfc-that make me shake to just think of them. The poor small-time criminal, un- tures we talked lengthily on, I liked them, he liked them. Then I saw a bagfortunate, gutless being, fighting the world they live in. They fought the of chips on the table, opened them and began eating them. They were verypeople they loved, hated people that did not a wrong. Spit on them and the good. I asked G. if he wanted some. He said no.only people that really matter.

I looked at L., then closed my eyes and saw him again with a face foi-l hated crime, I now thought in this vision, and it meant something, but lowing him, a woman's face. I got scared at this and felt I was going crazy.

what? Then this too disappeared. I got up at this period and went to the I told myself, "I'm not going crazy, it's the drug, it's the drug," but still Ibathroom. I wasn't drunk this time, nor was I dizzy. Nor did I want to saw this. It's then that I opened my eyes and went to the bathroom. Therestay in this bathroom as I did before. I weighed nothing in my mind as I couldn't have really been a blank spot in my thought after all.

did before. I just did it with little forethought. I smoked cigarettes now, one I started looking through the photography magazine and saw picturesafter another. They tasted rotten. By the taste, I felt I did not want to I didn't see the first time I looked at it. I fell for one of the pictures of asmoke, but I smoked four or five butts. I looked at the food on the table,

young woman, and I felt I must some day meet this woman and make love toI wasn't hungry. I looked at the milk there, drank one glass, wanted more her. G. came over once again and I showed him the picture, he said it wasn'tso I drank someone else's glass too. It tasted wonderful, sweet and warm. I his type. I asked him what was his type. He went through the magazine tryingwent over to the window and saw a few guys in the yard playing basketball, to find his type. He found one, a face, a look of living enticement. I nowIt looked like fun. Some of the other guys were on the football field prac- knew his type, I asked him what his interests were and he said photography,tieing for Sunday's game. They looked very good out there, even better I a little art. I knew most of his other interests. We talked about art, aboutthought with no other team on the field. I heard the yard radio, advertising photography. He said his wife did some painting and drawing, that he tooksome new car. I giggled, it seemed very funny that someone should be telling some photos and slides. I asked him what his wife looked like and hethe con what car they should buy. What a waste of work. vaguely described her to me. I asked him if his baby had blue eyes, he said

I went back over to the bed and lay down and started thinking about yes. We started talking again and he went away. And he listened to the music.the crime bit once again. I found, now, that I could control my thoughts, I went around the room a few times feeling very energetic, very wise, verythe music was washed out, I paid no attention to it. I saw that crime was powerful, very handsome.foolish, a coward way out, a ridiculous flaunt in a child's game. Anyonecould steal, anyone could kill, anyone could hurt the ones that loved them.But not anyone could he a cold, calculating, professional criminal. To liethis, one would have to cut one's love from his life, his heart from his bodyhis mind would be as a robot. Anyone could be a drunk. It took nerve tosteal, but it took more nerve to be honest to fight for the right things in life,to live and let live.

A criminal, at least myself and all I've ever met, were either unlovedchildren or lost individuals. Lost between right and wrong. What they wantedand the means to it. They knew their ends, power, wealth, money could notbuy friends, loved ones, happiness, beauty, intelligence. I saw how foolish

242 243

The God in the Flowerpot

poppy would probably not be out of place. Several species of hal-lucinogenic mushrooms belong in the list, or would belong if they

The God in the Flowerpot '-' cou,_ be induced to grow in pots.! have used the American peyotebecause it is perhaps the most thoroughly documented of all theseplants, none of which is valued for its vitamins or caloric content.

MARY BARNARD All are drug plants: they inebriate, soothe pain or function as mind-changers. Some of them are open doors to the otherworld, and as

HEms zs A CACTUS I'CA,T in a flowerpot; it is small, spineless, such they have religious uses. They are sacred plants, magic herbs

grayish, apparently inedible and hardly a thing of beauty by any or shrubs, magic carpets on which the spirit of the shaman can travelaesthetic standard. The botanist would recognize it as Lophophora through time and space. Like shamanism, which has been describedwilliam._ii. The scientist engaged in pharmaceutical research might as a religious technique rather than a religion in itself, the magic

identify it as a source of the drug called mescaline. Wyoming Indians plants are vehicles for a special kind of experience adaptable to therefer to it among themselves as "the medicine," using that word in use of most religions that acknowledge an otherworld and permitits double meaning as a cure for illness and a source of supernatural its exploration.

power. The Tarahumara Indians of Mexico call it hikuli, and theAztecs called it peyotl. To the white men who are familiar with it, IF THERE WERE SUCH A FIELD AS THEO - BOTANY, the study ofthe peyote cactus is a plant containing an interesting assortment of these plants and their cults would be work for a theo-botanist. As it is,alkaloids in varying proportions. To the Indians who use it in re- little has been published in the way of comparative studies, perhapsligious ceremonies it is often more than a "medicine," it is a god. for the very good reason that the scholar who attempts such a studyThe plant, which has a limited range in extremely arid, almost un- must step out of his own field into four or five others, and therebyinhabited country along the Mexican border, is the object of annual risk his reputation. Laymen, therefore, who have no prestige topilgrimages ,by the Tarahumara, who must make a journey of several lose, burst in where scholars fear to tread, and here am I. My owndays on foot to collect it. Oklahoma and Wyoming Indians import interest is in the mythology of the drug plants, and my approachthe dried "button" or raise peyote in pots. Whenever possible it is has been by way of mythology, a study as perilous to the scholar aseaten fresh, without preparation; the dried button may be powdered, theo-botany. The hazards have therefore seemed less and the facts,pounded into paste or made into tea. The god, being rendered fit for such as we have, reassuringly firm. My approach to the subject waseating, presides over the meeting where peyote is taken and "sends" inadvertent, almost accidental; my experience that of one who hasthe songs sung and the visions seen by the members who partake of been treading water interminably and feels solid ground beneaththis sacrament. The peyote cult is not based on a written or spoken his feet at last. Half a dozen important mythological themes -- theWord, but on the experience of the members during the communion, shaman's journey, the food of immortal life, the food of occult

knowledge, the fate of the disembodied soul, the communication withMy hypothetical flowerpot might have contained any one of a the dead, plant-deities -- all converge on this point: that is, on some

dozen plants, for instance, the Texas mountain laurel whose seeds actual food (usually a drug plant) ritually consumed, not symbolicallyare known as "mescal beans," several varieties of Datura including but for the experience it confers. Most of these drug plants arethe jimsonweed of the American Southwest, certain lianas of the what Aldous Huxley calls "mind-changers." The experience differsSouth American forests, a kava (awa) plant from Polynesia, the according to the drug or mixture of drugs and alcohol taken by thesoma of ancient India, the haoma of the Parsis, the coca of Peru, or shaman, the initiate or the communicant whoever he may be. HeIndian hemp -- the source of marijuana and hashish. The opium may fall into a coma lasting for a day or more; he may be awake,

but anesthetized; his mind and body may be stimulated to wakeful-* Reprinted with permission from The American Scholar Vol. 32, No. 4,

Autumn, 1963, pp. 578-86. This article is part of a forthc°ming book by ness and fatigue dispelled so that he can perform feats of enduranceMiss Barnard. quite impossible without the assistance of the drug. He may experi-

244 245'._..

I

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW The Cod in the Flowerpot

ence color visions of varying intensity. Euphoria, quickened or he would probably have hallucinations of some sort -- visual or

dulled sensation, a displaced center of consciousness seemingly out- auditory or both. The peyote ritual, which presumably took shapeside the body, a sense of enormously protracted time and extended gradually, was later attributed to the personified peyote, a god whospace, and a feeling of weightlessness, of escape from the forces of was said to have revealed himself in a vision.gravity, are among the possible effects. Usually the communicant

fasts for a day or longer before taking the peyote, soma, mushroom IF THE READER SUPPOSES that I am using the myth to shed light onor extract of jimsonweed. One good reason for the fast is of course the origins of the peyote cult, he is mistaken; I am using the Lopho-the quicker and more powerful action of the drug on an empty phora williamsii and all we know about it to shed light on the myth.stomach. It should be obvious at once that if we lift the myth from its cul-

tural context, and substitute the word "cactus" or even "plant ofBearing these facts in mind, let us return to the peyote and its life" for the word "peyote," the tale might quickly find its way into

mythology. So far as I know there is only one peyote myth, although collections of myths and folklore concerned with imaginary fruits,there are many variations on the single theme. Since the peyote tra- leaves, roots or stalks that are sought over the earth, guarded bydition has moved outward from the very limited peyote-growing dragons, used to inspire poets, to lend strength to the arm of theregion, the myth has presumably been passed along with the dried warrior or renew the youth of the immortal gods. Should we con-plants and the ritual. The peyote myth tells how an Indian (or dude, then, that the myth of peyote's discovery is one variant onseveral Indians -- number, age, sex and condition varying according an almost universal theme attributable to the almost universal same-

to the particular version) is lost or wounded and left for dead in ness of the unconscious mind ? Or is it possible that the plants inan uninhabited desert region. Starving, thirsty, at the end of his the other myths are not necessarily imaginary? Are they, perhaps,strength, he stumbles upon the peyote. A voice tells him to eat it. real plants in imaginary gardens ? Perhaps their mythical uses areHe eats it and feels his strength miraculously restored. His hunger derived from their cult use, and extended by hyperbole until theand thirst are alleviated, and he is able to make his way back to his plant itself becomes mythical in the songs and retold tales.people, to whom he bears the word of a new god sent to heal their

suffering. Usually the Indian hears a voice directing him to eat the The soma-drink of the Hindus was made from a real plant uponplant, or sees a godlike form in the shape of an Indian brave stand- which the soma cult rested just as the Plains Indian or Tarahumara

ing where the plant stood; in some versions he is given instructions peyote cult rests upon the peyote plant. The soma plant, pounded,by Peyote himself on the proper performance of the peyote ritual, soaked, and wrung out of a strainer, provided a drink that was ine-Peyote has been used to prolong the endurance of dancers, to allevi- briating even without fermentation. The soma was deified as theate pain, to produce visions, to give courage in warfare and generally god Soma, who inspired seers and poets and fortified the warrior.

as a means of healing and communion in the peyote cults. The kava-drink of Polynesia was prepared in much the same wayfrom the kava plant (Piper mythysticum, "intoxicating pepper")

There are several points of almost equal importance in this and was used as a ritual drink, as a libation poured to the gods, andbrief summary. One is that the first man to eat peyote was very as a trance-inducing beverage for the soothsayers. Both these plantslikely on the verge of starvation in that arid region where the plant have heavenly counterparts that provide a tipple for the gods. Ingrows. It is so unpalatable in appearance, so difficult to chew and other words, they have a mythology, and a much more extensive

swallow, that only a ravenously hungry man would be likely to make mythology than that of the peyote plant. The jimsonweed, preparedthe effort. The lack of food plants in the peyote-growing area makes by maceration and mixed with water in a ceremonial bowl, was for-this hypothesis still more plausible. Furthermore, if a hungry man merly used by some California Indians during initiations, when the

were to eat the fresh peyote he would almost certainly have a novice was expected to see visions and gain shamanistic power. It,startling experience similar to the one described in the myth. His too, has its mythology. The sacred mushrooms of Oaxaca are takenstrength would be restored in an apparently miraculous manner and raw, on an empty stomach, like the fresh peyote. When the shaman

246 247

THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW TheGodin the Flowerpot

has swallowed the mushroom, the mushroom-deity takes possession the narrative can be explained in part by the shaman's reluctanceof the shaman's body and speaks with the shaman's lips. The sha- to give away his secrets, and in part by the fact that early inform-man does not say whether the sick child will live or die; the mush- ants were inclined to regard the shaman's act as Satanism if theyroom says. Some Indians say of sacred plants used by their shaman, were Christians or sheer hocus-pocus if they were skeptics. Thethat the soul of an ancestor has entered the plant; it is he who takes current anthropological tendency, so far as I can make out, is topossession of the shaman and speaks through his mouth. The oracle study the shaman as a psychological or cultural phenomenon. Mirceaat Delphi chewed laurel leaves for the same effect; in a state of Eliade in his book Le Charnanisme mentions the use of drug plantsinebriation induced by a small amount of cyanide in the laurel, she by many shamans, but seems to consider the drugs incidental to thesurrendered to the god (in this case Apollo), who used her as his tradition. The pattern, he implies, is already formed; the drug,instrument. His will was made known through her utterances de- when discovered, is adapted to the shaman's use. This assumptionlivered in trance and interpreted by the attendant priests. The laurel parallels that of the mythologists who put the desire for an afterlifewas, of course, sacred to Apollo. and the belief in an imaginary nectar of immortality before the ex-

perience of actual plants and beverages used in the ceremonial corn-Apollo, like the Norse god Woden and most shamans of what- munion with the gods or the ancestors. The food of occult knowl-

ever race or sect, was associated with healing as well as divination edge, by the same token, is treated as fiction; and when the shaman

or prophecy. The same plant that brings visions or otherworld ex- drinks a mysterious beverage, it is assumed that he does so in pre-periences may alleviate pain. Even if it does not, the herbalist who tence that it is the mythical draught. But isn't this putting Medea'sknows the medicinal uses of healing herbs has the best opportunity chariot before her team of serpents ?to possess the occult knowledge conferred by hallucinogenic shrubsand fungi. There are plants used to ease the pain of childbirth Wnmq wE;CONSIDERTHEORIGINOFTHE MYTHOLOGIESand cultsand myths of magic plants used for the same purpose. There is a related to drug plants, we should surely ask ourselves which, afterPeruvian tale, very like the peyote myth cited above, telling how all, was more likely to happen first: the spontaneously generatedmen first discovered the use of the cinchona bark from which quinine idea of an afterlife in which the disembodied soul, liberated fromis made. If we begin our inquiry into the possible reality of the the restrictions of time and space, experiences eternal bliss, or the"magic" plants figuring in mythology with a compendium of real accidental discovery of hallucinogenic plants that give a sense ofplants and their real uses in medicine, divination and religion, the euphoria, dislocate the center of consciousness, and distort timelist is immensely long and inevitably immensely tangled because _tndspace, making them balloon outward in greatly expanded vistas ?medicine, divination and religion are tangled. Medicine enters this A belief in the soul's reincarnation would seem to me more plausiblecomplex not because primitive medicine was limited to faith healing, than the widespread idea of a soul's continued independent, dis-but because the shrubs and herbs used in treatment were also used incarnate existence after it leaves the body, a concept usually ex-in religious ceremonies, plained by night-dreanling or an irrational fear of the dead. Perhaps

the old theories are right, but we have to remember that the drugplants were there, waiting to give men a new idea based on a new

The most obvious thread for the ambitious theo-botanist to experience. The experience might have had, I should think, an al-grasp would be the relation of drug plants and intoxicants to sha- most explosive effect on the largely dormant minds of men, causingmanism and its characteristic mythology of the disembodied soul. them to think of things they had never thought of before. This, ifThe greatest obstacle the student would encounter is a dearth of you like, is direct revelation.knowledge about the drugs used and their precise effects on the

nervous system. We know enough about shaman mythology to make Trance, self-induced by whatever means, is an inseparable parta beginning, and we have many eyewitness accounts of shamar; per- of shamanism. During the trance the shaman's body is said to beformances; but all too often we are told simply that the shaman emptied of his soul. There are two traditional interpretations of"takes something," without being told what he takes. This gap in this phenomenon: one is the replacement of. the shaman's soul by

24e _ 249.

The God in the FlowerpotTHE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

tradition, another variant of the food of immortality. Here theanother spirit, that of a god, ancestor or deceased shaman. (The emphasis is not on shamanism or the consultation of oracles, but ondeceased shaman may of course be both god and ancestor, and any mysticism combined with alchemy. The Taoists, in their searchof the three may take animal form.) In the other interpretation, for an actual "food of immortality," experimented with drug plantsthe one I am concerned with here, the liberated soul of the shaman and venoms. They knew the uses of laurel, Indian hemp and taus-goes on a journey, perhaps in search of a lost soul, perhaps as escort carine extracted from the glands of the poisonous toad. They knewfor the soul of one who has just died, conducting it to the land of the lin#-chih, the "divine fungus" eaten by Taoist hermits and de-the dead. The dislocated or liberated soul may fly across the pampa picted by Taoist painters. In one of his poems, Li Po announceson a spirit-horse or ascend into the sky, to the moon or the North that he has swallowed the pellet of immortality "and before theStar. R. G. Wasson, describing the effect of the divine mushroom lute's third playing" -- that is, the third stanza of a song m "havetaken in a s6ance at Huautla, says: "There is no better way to de- achieved my element." Does anyone suppose that Li Po really be-scribe the sensation than to say that it was as though my very soul lieved that a pellet would make him immortal ? Was his pellet simplyhad been scooped out of my body and translated to a point floating imaginary ? Or was he speaking of the euphoria conferred by onein space, leaving behind the husk of clay, my body." This is the of the drug plants known to the Taoist priests? To me it seemsshaman's journey, clear that his pellet was as real as a pellet of peyote paste; it was

to him a "food of life" in the same sense that our aqua vitae is aThe effect of peyote or hallucinogenic mushrooms taken cere- "water of life." I also suspect that at least half the other foods of

monially to the accompaniment of drums, songs or the hypnotic life (apples, ambrosia, leaves, bark, roots and elixirs) had theirchant of the shaman demanding the descent of the spirit is naturally beginnings in real plants. The "talking" grasses and trees that thesomewhat different from that produced in a laboratory or office while shaman uses to bring on his trance are certainly real, and insofar asa doctor sits beside his subject with a notebook. Nevertheless, they are used by him for this purpose, they are foods of knowledgeAldous Huxley's testimony on the effect of mescaline, especially -- that is, of occult knowledge. Looking at the matter coldly, un-insofar as time is concerned, is eloquent: "I could, of course, have intoxicated and unentranced, I am willing to prophesy that fifty theo-looked at my watch," he says, "but my watch, I knew, was in an- botanists working for fifty years would make the current theoriesother universe. My actual experience had been, was still, of an concerning the origins of much mythology and theology as out-of-indefinite duration or alternatively of a perpetual present inade up date as pre-Copernican astronomy. I am the more willing to prophesy,of one continually changing apocalypse." The mushrooms of Huautla since I am, alas, so unlikely to be proved wrong.do not contain mescaline, but the effect, according to Mr. Wasson,is similar: "The mushrooms sharpen, if anything, the sense of

memory, while they utterly destroy the sense of time. On the night , , , ,that we have described we lived through eons. When it seemed tous that a sequence of visions had lasted for years, our watcheswould tell us that only seconds had passed." The Indians say ofthe mushrooms: "Le llevan ahi donde Dios estd" -- "They carry

you there where God is."

When the soma is poured on straw, the souls of the ancestorsgather in their thousands to drink it, because this is their food.When the kava is poured in libation or drunk by the priests, thesouls of the dead are invoked, and the entry of the shaman intotrance announces their arrival. Ceremonially speaking, these arefoods of disembodied spirits, but the Chinese have, in the Taoist

25125O

Book Revie_vs

BOOK REVIEWS contentof the volumes and to point drugs on conditioned responsesin an-out papers of special interest to read- imals and man, the influence of spe-

Sarwer-Foner, G. J., (ed.), The Dy- ers of The Psychedelic Rev/em. See- cific and non-specific factors on theSOME RECENT BOOKS ON namics of Psychiatric Drug Ther- eral of the older volumes are of clinical effects of psychotropic drugs,

pSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY ap?. Springfield, Ill. :C. C. Thomas, course out of date in terms of the measurement of changes in human1960. Pp. 624. $16.00 experimental data included, behavior under the effects of psycho-

Cholden, L. (ed.), Lysergic dcid tropic drugs, and biochemical mecha-Diethylamide and Mescaline in Ear- West, L. J. (ed.), Hallucinations. nisms related to the site of action ofperimental Psychiatry. N. Y. and N.Y. and London: Grune & Strat- psychotropic drugs.London: Grune & Stratton, 1956. ton, 1962. Pp. 295. $9.?5 The volnme edited by Cholden is

partly outdated but is valuable for itsPp. 85. 8325 Pfeiffer, C. C., and Smythies, J.R. concise, non-technical presentation of The.4nnals ojFthe Nero York ,4cad-

Abramson, H. A. (ed.), The Use of (eds.), International Review of the major facts and problems, em? of Sciences have published twoLSD in Psychotherapy. N.Y.: Neurobiology. Vol. 4. N. Y. and The Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation volumes in this area. The first, editedJosiah Macy Foundation, 1960. Pp. London: Academic Press, 1962. Pp. sponsored in 1959 a now famous con- by Kety, contains the classic paper304. fi_.00 382. $12.00 ference on the use of LSD in psycho- by Humphry Osmoud, "A Review of

the Clinical Effects of Psychotomi-Bradley, P. B., Deniker, P., Radouco- Rinkel, M. (ed.), Specific. and Non- therapy. This volume, edited by one metic Agents," as well as reviews of

Thomas (eds.), Neuro-Psychophar- specific Factors in psychopharma- of its participants, Harold Abramson, the literature up to 1956 and severalmacology, Vol. I. [Proc. of the 1st cology. N. Y.: Philosophical Li- is the transcript of this conference. reports of original experiments.Meeting of the Collegium Interna- brary, 1963. Pp. 114. $3.?5 Five papers and panel discussions aretionale Neuro-Psychopharmacolo- presented covering a range of related Eleven out of the thirty-three papersare devoted to serotonin and its pos-gicum, Rome, 1958.] Amsterdam Wikler, A. The Relation of Ps?chi- topics including psychoanalytic psy- sible role in the nervous system. Theand N. Y.: Elsevier, 1959. Pp. 728. atry to Pharmacology. Baltimore: chotherapy with LSD, the nature of second volume, edited by Siva Sankar,

$2?.00 Williams$4.00(paper).& Wilkins, 1957. Pp. 322. chotherapypSych°l°gicalbyreSp°nSeSsymbolict°presentation,LSD'psy- has three sections: (1) studies of ex-Rothlin, IL (ed.), N euro-P Jychophar-

macology, Vol. 2. [. · · 2nd Meet- Woolley, D. W. Biochemical Bases of the study of communication processes perimental psychoses and neurohor-lng . . . Basel, 1960.] ]bid., 1961. Psychoses. Hew York: John Wiley, under LSD, and a clinical case his- mones, which contains papers on mes-Pp. 521. $24.00 1962. Pp. 331. $11.95 tory. This volume is an important caline, LSD, sleep deprivation, sero-contribution to this area, presenting tonin, etc.; (2) studies on psycho-

Garattini, S., and Gbetti, V., Pr_,cho- The above list is by no means ex- on both anecdotal and empirical lev- pharmacological drug action, whichtropic Drugs. [Proc. International haustive but is representative of the els the evidence for treatment success chiefly contains papers on the metab-Symposium on Psychotropic Drugs, major books and monographs on psy- within traditionally oriented psycho- olism of various mind-altering drugs;Milan, May, 1957.] ]bid., 1957. Pp. chopharmacology and related topics to therapy. Of greater interest are the and (3) studies on schizophrenia and606. $19.50 date. (Books specifically on narcotics described attempts to develop new behavior, which reports the latest re-

Kety, S. (ed.), "Pharmacology of have not been included, nor have books forms of therapy based on the arche- search on the problem of a physio-Psychotomimetic and Psycbothera- on pharmacology in general.) All typical and symbolic aspects of the logical or biochemical basis of schizo-pentic Drugs." Ann. iV. Y. dcm/. these are concerned with mind- LSD experience, phrenia.Sci., Vol. 66, 1957. Pp. 4,13. $5.00 changing drugs (tranquilizers, stimu-lants and psychedelics mainly), and The volumes edited by Bradley, The Dynamics of Psychiatric Drug

Siva Sankar, D. V. (cd.), "Some Bio- indicate the enormous amount of reed- et al., Rothlin, and Garattini and Therapy, edited by Sarwer-Foner, andlogical Aspects of Schizophrenic ical and scientific discussion that has Ghetti are international conference ,4 Pharmacologic Approach to theBehavior." dna. iV. Y. dcad. Sci., taken place concerning these sub- proceedings of a highly technical and Study of the Mind, edited by Feather-Vol. 96, 1962. Pp. 490. $4.50 stances, specialized nature. The second IVeu- sto]_e and Simon, are conference pro-

Featherstone, R. M., and Simon, A. Ail except the last two are coufcr- ropsycho/_harmacolooy volume, for ex- ceedings in which a range of phar-

(eds.), d Pharmacological Ap- ence proceedings and transcripts of ample, has symposia and papers on macological research is presented.proach to the Study of the Mind. symposia. No attempt will be made the following five topics: the prob- The Featherstone and Simon volumeSpringfield, II1.: C. C. Thomas, here to review them extensively. It leto of antagonists to psychotropic has a broadly conceived scope and1959. Pp. 399. $10.75 will suffice to indicate roughly the drugs, the effects of psychotropic emphasizes a complete section on the

253252

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW Boo!_Reviews

hallucinogens. A brief article by A. enology of hallucinations, social as- attitudes in drug-response; and an ex- schizophrenia. The "psychotomimetic"cellent review (by H. E. Himwich) action of LSD and its antagonism toHalliday on psychological studies of pects, phantom sensations, body im-of the correlation between abnormal serotonin are crucial links in the ar-

these drugs, and an article by Sidney age boundaries, psychophysics andCohen on the therapeutic potential of reality, etc.). This volume is espe- psychic states and fluctuations in levels gument. Much experimental evidenceLSD, are of particular interest. This c_ally interesting in its clear recogni- of brain chemicals, is presented and other biochemically-volume includes a paper by Aldous tion of the essential similarity between produced abnormal psychic states areHuxley on the social, ethical and re- the states of consciousness induced Abraham Wikler's monograph, al- also discussed. The book is well writ-

ten and invaluable for anyone inter-ligious implications of new biochem- or produced by many different means though it does not include the most

ested in this highly controversial andico-psychological techniques, or conditions, recent work, is still by far the most

subtle and methodologically sophisti- constantly expanding field.

The Sarwer-Foner volume repre- The fourth volume of the lntcrna- cated book in this area. With 270sents a number of research topics in- tional R_i_ of Neurobioloyy con- pages of very concise, closely-reasoned · · ·eluding: (l) The physiological effects tains two papers of outstanding inter- and lucid exposition and almost 900of the neuroleptic drugs and their est. One, by L. G. Abood and J.H. references, Wikler describes and dis- Meat Science Essaytpsychological implications, (2) The Biel on "Anticholinergic Psychoto- cusses all of the major mind-altering Michael MeClureeffects of neuroleptic drugs on ego mimetic Agents," is the first exhaus- drugs. The first section reviews the San Francisco: City Lights Booksdefenses and ego-structure, (3) The tire review of the chemistry and phar- uses to which the drugs have been put: 1963. Pp. 82. $1.50.influence of the milieu and sociolog- macology of this new series of ex- the production of coma (insulin, COz,ical determinants of b eh a vi or, tremely potent consciousness-altering barbiturates); "psychoexploration' This book contains a handful of(4) Transference and countertrans- drugs (Ditran and related corn- (CO 2, barbiturates, ether, metham- colorful outpourings on themes ofference problems in relationship to pounds), phetamine, L S D ), tranquilization suicide, death, revolt, drugs and sexu-drugs, and (5) Therapeutic aspects The other is a review by A. Hoffer (chlorpromazine, reserpine, azacyclo- ality, freedom, Artaud, Camus, Biich-of the neuroleptic drugs. Papers by of "The Effect of Adrenoghrome and nol, meprobamate); arousal and ele- ner. McClure's writing is effusive,A. DiMascio and G. Klerman on the Adrenolutin on the Behavior of Ani- ration of mood (amphetamines, pip- opinionated, shimmering, singing withrole of non-drug factors in human mals and the Psychology of Man." radrol); diagnosis (barbiturates, epi- happy affirmation: "A new era is atpsychopharmacology and R. Hyde on The theory, first proposed by Hoffer nephrine and methacholine); produc- hand and it must be joyfully strug-psychological and social determinants and Osmond, that adrenochrome and tion of "model" psychoses (LSD, gled for in full awareness and eh-of drug action are especially interest- adrenolutin are "psychotomimetic" has mescaline). Then come three sections joyment of life. The change is noting in their recognition of the impor- been controversial. It is now gener- on theories and mechanisms of drug only inside of myself. In all mentance of subject-experimenter inter- ally accepted that they produce action at the biochemical, physiolog- there is a new consciousness. A newaction and the effects of other envir- changes in animals, and less widely ical and psychological levels, in which combat for freedom and happiness

each of these drugs is discussed sep- and pleasure is beginning everywhere.onmental factors in responses to accepted that changes in the percep-drugs. Some general problems in tion, thinking and feeling of humans arately. Wikler's philosophy of sci- ..."drug therapy and the use of drugs in also occur. Hoffer concludes from his ence is operational, and he is at all His brief statement on "Suicide andpsychoanalysis are discussed and il- review of the work that "the kind of times explicit and insistent about the Death" is one of the best discussionslustrated with case material by M. visual hallucinations seen with mesca- separation of observations and infer- of this subject since Hermann Hesse'sOstow and others, line, LSD, psilocybine, and other sub- ences. Although difficult to read, this "Treatise on the Steppenwolf." The

stances is not produced." It is still book is most highly recommended for essay on "Revolt" traces patterns inan open question whether adreno- anyone seriously interested in the sci- animals and men: the revolt of the

The volume on Hallucinatioa_ con- chrome or some other active epineph- entitle explanation of the effects of body, of physiological process againstrains 26 papers on hallucinations in- mind-changing drugs.duced by drugs (3), sensory depriva- rine derivative occurs in the human the domination of the head, the learn-tion (2), sleep deprivation (2), hyl>- organism, ed structures that are useful for sur-nosis (1), occurring spontaneously in Woolley's book is a statement of the rival but constrict and cause pain andpsychosis (4), and on general topics The volume edited by Rinkel con- theory which he was one of the first separation.(hallucinations in children, neuro- tains some papers on the role of per- to propose -- that defects in the me- Two of the pieces in the volumephysiology of hallucinations, phenom- sonality variables and experimenter tabolism of serotonin are the cause of are about drugs. One, "The Mush-

254 J 255

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW BookR_view,

room," is an account of a session animals and know it · · · play with reallty-levels of the peyote nalssance par les Gouffres, one of twoFor some in the high there is a experiences. With heroin, for ex- books on mescaline by the Frenchwith psilocybim glimpse of a final strangeness and ample: writer who occupies somewhat the

People are the main thing with alienation -- a complete true sane There is no combat with cir- same position that Aldous Huxleycumstances or events -- no bore- occupies in English-speaking coun-the mushroom .... The strangest, madness. It is a glimpse seen

most grotesque, and most glorious by many men many times. Phys- dom or intensity. Sitting on a tries. (The other, Miserable Miracle,people on earth are selected and icians who believe mental illness bed or a trip are the same. Thereparaded in front of you. It's one is a disease and not a struggle of is quiescence even while moving; has just been published by City Lights,of the most elevated comic dramas the soul and spirit in threat of there is an inviolable stillness of $1.95.) The City Lights ffournal pro-ever seen. All is both comic funny dissolving are wrong. A man who person. You are a warm living rides probably the best cross-scctiunand 'Comedy' in the sense that has seen complete cold fiery- stone. In a fast open car you are of the products of the whole "beat"Dante wrote The Divine Comedy. colored emptiness with all of the a herculean vegetable -- the wind

on your face is a pleasant hand.You laugh and weep staring at flashes of lights and radiances and movement.the faces and bodies and weird solids in its splendor of shallow You half-nod at the passing ofcostumes and godliness and beast- chill hollowness carries the sight scenery. Eating and drinking are * * *liness of mankind, forever. He cherishes what he the same but without interest. You

Ecstatic insights into the concrete can create beyond the emptiness, feel yourself exist in a place or Birth. (Number 3)and he puts what he can into that activity but without feeling of re-physical manifestations of psychic mo- emptiness to warm it. Finally, sponsibility. There is nothing to Double Number in 2 books. Newments and impulses abound, perhaps, a deep enough measure drag you. You have occurred. York: Birth Press, 1960. Pp. 160,

of wisdom may come over him so A new kind of self takes over 75 illustrations, $2.00. Edited by T.he can love what was always there -- there is not so much I. I is anAll humanity passed us by cov-

ered with sores and bandages, and before his discovery. Perhaps then interference with near-passivity. Kupferberg (381 E. 10th St.).

tee shirts, and furs, and psychoses, he may love the things that pre- This is a full large life -- there This double number of Birth is de-and raptures _ not one of them ceded in existence the new works is not much criticism, anythinglooked like anything I had ever of his hand and brain .... fills it. Rugs are as interesting as voted to stimulants of many varieties.seen. Every shadow or detail of a street. Whatever is spoken is The first part covers alcohol, mari-face, emotion, highlight of lip or as meaningful as any other huana and peyote; the second opium,hair, or swarthy arm-hair stood There is religiousness -- no speech ....out in unique radiance, other word names the height of Cocaine is an ace of sunlight tobacco, tea and coffee, and various

The account ends with a poem in human feeling that includes the that can be snuffed through the stimulants. The two pamphlets con-personal and quiet active ecstasy nostrils into the brain. For days stitute a kind of collage of social re-"Beast Language." of being a cohesive and singular it lightens the black interiors of action to the various mind-changers.

being within all. There is no bar- the body and lends an ivory cast The aim is not "to settle the prob-The "Drug Notes" are much better, rier between you and what you of sleekness and luminosity tosense. There is no thought of a the senses, leto(s) of 'narcotics,' but merely air

Peyote, Heroin, Cocaine. Each one spoon. It exists in its most prl- and expose several of their most in-a masterful experiential vignette. In- meval, barest and most vibrant Comparative phenomenological de- teresting, delightful and deadly faces."terior landscapes are drawn with lov- spirit state. It is there to be used, scriptions of different states of con-ing precision. Three extracts from seen, touched or not. There are Newspaper clippings, medical ar-no inversions of desires but sciousness are hard to find. The Drug ticles, literary descriptions, poems, his-"Peyote" may serve as examples: only the immediate: thirst and Notes are valuable miniatures by a

And to see colors leap into ten hunger and their satisfactions, gifted word-painter, torical texts, drawings, advertise-trillion unexpected glows and fires Water in the mouth is an Ocean ments; from Egyptian papyri and me-and radiances _ to see the sharp moving in the cave of the Uni- * * * dieval Latin tracts to Ne_ Yorkedges of definition upon all ma- verse. We live in a void and weterial things, and all things radi- carry the void with us -- it is an City Lights Journal (number one) Times reports and de Ropp -- a be-ating chill or warm light _ is to emptiness that we fill with the Edited by L. Ferlinghetti wildering and amusing variety ofknow that you've lived denying traces of our gestures. We warm San Francisco: City Lights Books, opinions. For each of the "stimu-and dimly sensing reality through it and enlarge it or it darkens and 1963. Pp. 112, 4 illustrations, $1.50. !ants," attitudes can be found ranginga haze. All things beam tuner closes upon us l from enthusiastic espousal to hyster-light and color like a pearl or City Lights ]oursal is a new liter- ical condemnation. These small vol-shell. All men are strange beast- ary annual containing poems, essays, umes are of great value in obtaininganimals with their mysterious his- The descriptions of heroin and co-tories upon their faces and they caine experiences are strikingly dif- stories by Williams, Ginsberg, Kef- some rational and humorous perspee-stare outward from the walls of ferent. Physical sensations dominate ouac, Burroughs, McC!ure, and an tire on this emotion-laden and taboo-their skin -- their hair is fur -- extract from Henri Michaux's Con- ridden area.secretly far beneath all they are the awareness. Not like the cosmic

257256

THE PSYCHEDELICREVIEW

OTHER BOOKS

Drugs and Bchavior ing autonomic, motivational, and path-Edited by L. Uhr and J. G. Miller ological states; (d) experimental use

New York: Wiley, 1960. Pp. 676. of observational techniques; and (e) __$10.75 controlled subjective measures.

This book reviews some effects of The Drug Experience

psychoactive drugs (tranquilizers, en- Edited by David Ebinergizers and psychotomimetics) on New York: Orion, 1961. Pp. 385.human behavior and experience. The $5.9551 chapters are of two general types: The subtitle of this book is "First- STATEMENT OF PURPOSEthose discussing general theoretical person accounts of addicts, writers,

and methodological issues involved in scientists and others." There are Recent years have witnessed a widespread increase of interest

drug research, and those reporting on about 40 accounts of individuals who in the alteration of consciousness. The discovery of the psychedelicspecific research studies. The firs_ have used, been addicted to, or havesection, the methodological, chemical, experimented with a number of mind- substances, such as LSD, psilocybin and mescaline, has been a major

biological, and clinical context for altering drugs including hashish, her- factor contributing to this interest. Scientists and scholars from

psychopharmacology, is divided into oin, bhang, opium, mescaline, peyote, diverse areas, as well as laymen, have recognized the importance of(a) biochemistry, physiology and psilocybin, LSD, mushrooms, mari-pharmacology, and (b) methodology, huana, and morphine. A very read- these substances as powerful tools for the exploration of conscious-

The second section, experimental pro- able volume with much diverse ma- ness. The effects of psychedelic substances pose fascinating prob-

cedures and results, includes: (a) ex- terlal including accounts by Aldous lems for medical and psychological research and have far-reachingperiments on animals of potential ap- Huxley, Billie Holiday, Cocteau,plication to human subjects; (b) ob- Havelock Ellis, Allen Ginsberg, De implications for many issues in the sciences and the humanities.jective assessment of normal human Quincey, Aleister Crowley, William

behavior; (c) techniques for assess- Burroughs. The Psychedelic Review is designed to serve as a forum for

the cxchange of information and ideas about these issues. It will

publish original research reports, scholarly and historical essays, out-

standing phenomenological accounts of spontaneous or induced tran-

scendent experiences, and reviews of relevant pharmacological andother literature.

258 259

The· ' ' ' Psychedelic Bedew

Vol. I 1964 No. 3

CONTRIBUTORS

lot K. Adams, Ph.D., is a practicing clinical psychologist in

Palo Alto, Calif .... Gary M. Fisher, Ph.D., is a practicing clinical Contents

psychologist in Los Angeles .... Sir Julian HuMty, world-famous EmTORIALS ............................................ 262

biologist and former director-general of UNESCO, is author of A Tribute to A!dous Huxley .............. Gerald Heard 263several books on evolution. Timothy Leafy, Ph.D., is president of

Aldofis Huxley--A Tribute .............. Huston Smith 264the International Federation for Internal Freedom .... Richard

Eva_ Schultes, Ph.D., is Curator of Economic Botany, Botanical Some Remembrances of Aldous Huxley ...... Alan Watts 265

Museum of Harvard University .... Frederick Swain has been associ- The Last Message of Aldous Huxley ...... Timothy Leafy 267NOTES ON THE PRESENT STATUS OF

ated for many years with Vedanta Ashram in La Crescenta, Calif ....OLOLIUHQUI AND THE OTHEE

Mary Barns rd is a writer and Greek scholar residing in Vancouver, HALLUCINOGENSOF MEXICO .......... R. Gordon Wassctn 275

Washington. THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLES OF THE SERI_ OF

RIVEA CORYMBOSA AND IPOMOEA VIOLACEA Albert Hofmann 302

UTERINE STIMULANT EFFECT OF EXTRACTS OF

MORNINGGLORYSE._S

, , , , Ara H. Der Marderosian, Anthony M. Guarino,John I. De Peo and Heber W. Youngken, Jr. 317

THE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE:

ITS PRODUCTIONAND INTERPRETATION.... Timothy Leafy 324The Review welcomes advertising. It especially welcomes comments

and reactions from its readers, who are invited to submit their opinions, PoEM... from (he Maximus Poems .......... Charles Olson 347ideas, and critiques ior either private communication or 9ubllcation. COMMUNICATIONS;

_The Editors.-- AN OPEN LETTER TO MR. JoE K. ADAMS .... Lynn Sagvtn 354

Book REVIEWS ......................................... 357

BOOKS RECEIVEO ....................................... 370

CONTRIBUTORS ....................................... Cover

261

260