Orbital cyclostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous platform carbonates at Monte Sant’Erasmo, southern Apennines, Italy

Cretaceous Research (1999) 20, 81–95Article No. cres.1998.0138, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

Orbital cyclostratigraphy and sequencestratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous platformcarbonates at Monte Sant’Erasmo, southernApennines, Italy

*Francesco P. Buonocunto, *†Bruno D’Argenio, *Vittoria Ferreri and*Rosaria Sandulli

*Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, ‘‘Universita Federico II’’, Largo San Marcellino, 10-80138 Napoli, Italy†Istituto di Ricerca, Geomare sud, CNR, Via Vespucci, 9-80142 Napoli, Italy: Fax: 39.81.5979222;E-mail: [email protected]

Revised manuscript accepted 9 September 1998

Microstratigraphic (cm-scale) analysis of a Cretaceous (Santonian) carbonate platform succession (59 m thick) at MonteSant’Erasmo (southern Apennines) reveals the recurrence of textures and sedimentary structures hierarchically organized inm-thick elementary cycles and groups of cycles (bundles and superbundles); such organization suggests environmentalfluctuations of differing rank. A high-frequency climatic and eustatic control related to the orbital perturbations of the Earthcan explain the hierarchy of these cycles that compares well with the organization of a slightly older succession(Turonian-Coniacian) outcropping at Monte Tobenna, some 70 km to the south-east. In the latter case, as well as in severalLower Cretaceous carbonate platform successions of the southern Apennines, hierarchy of cycles as well as numerical analysisof the thickness of every stacked interval, each characterised by specific textural properties (lithofacies), has allowed us to inferspecific time values to the various orders of cycles, based on the Earth’s orbital periodicities. We suggest that the elementarycycles of Monte Sant’Erasmo were controlled by the precession of the equinoxes, while the bundles and superbundles wereforced by the short and long orbital eccentricity, respectively. Moreover, applying sequence stratigraphic concepts, wediscuss, at the superbundle level, the sedimentary dynamics of the studied succession in terms of depositional sequences andsystem tracts. Based on the inferred cycle durations, the Monte Sant’Erasmo section required not less than 2400 ky to form,the average accumulation rate (present day thickness) being c. 21 mm/ky. ? 1999 Academic Press

K W: cyclostratigraphy; sequence stratigraphy; orbital chronostratigraphy; sedimentology; carbonate platform;Cretaceous; Apennines.

1. Introduction

We present here the results of a microstrati-graphic (cm-scale) study carried out on the UpperCretaceous (Santonian) succession exposed atMonte Sant’Erasmo (Monte Maggiore, CampaniaApennines), where m-dm cycles of differing rank havebeen recognized. Such cyclicity is revealed by a carefulanalysis of textures, fossil content and sedimentarystructures examined stratigraphically to determinetheir recurrence through the sequence. The generalorganization of cycles moreover suggests a hierarchyof environmental oscillations which can be explainedby climatic fluctuations controlled by orbital forcing,closely comparable to the high-frequency eustaticcycles recorded in previously studied carbonateplatform sections of Cretaceous age in the central-

0195-6671/99/010081+15 $30.00/0

southern Apennines (D’Argenio et al., 1993; 1997b;Ferreri et al., 1993; Pelosi & Raspini, 1993; Longoet al., 1994).

The Monte Sant’Erasmo succession (Figure 1)crops out in the central part of Monte Maggiore, amountain group located some 40 km north of Napleswhich originated from the late Tertiary deformation ofa large Mesozoic-Tertiary carbonate platform, orgin-ally pertaining to the domains of the southern Tethyancontinental margin (D’Argenio, 1976; Channel et al.,1979).

The backbone of Monte Maggiore is formed oflimestones and dolomites ranging in age from LateTriassic to Late Cretaceous (Santonian-Campanian).Upper Albian—Lower Turonian deposits are absentin this region (Chiocchini et al., 1989), the gapbeing marked by bauxite horizons formed during a

?1999 Academic Press

82 F. P. Buonocunto et al.

long period of subaerial exposure (D’Argenio &Mindszenty, 1995). Resting disconformably on theCretaceous carbonates are Middle Miocene organo-genic limestones which in turn pass up into hemi-pelagic limestones and then Upper Mioceneterrigenous sediments. The hemipelagites are con-sidered to be evidence of drowning of the originalcarbonate platform at the inception of the orogenicevents which have resulted in their deformation anduplift (D’Argenio, 1976).

The succession is very well exposed on the southernside of Monte Sant’Erasmo and consists of evenly-stratified, grey to off-white limestones. The totalmeasured thickness is about 59 m, starting from375 m above sea level; the beds, ranging from 18 to173 cm thick, normally show in their topmost part anearly diagenetic overprint developed under meteoricconditions (pedogenesis, pervasive dissolution, karsticcavities).

Foraminifers are among the most significant bio-stratigraphical forms which, in order of their relativeabundance, are: Accordiella conica, Dicyclina schlumber-geri, Nummoloculina robusta, Nezzazatinella picardi,Moncharmontia appenninica and Pseudocyclamminasphaeroidea, locally associated with Dicyclina sp.,Cuneolina sp., Nezzazatinella sp., Bolivinopsis sp. andRotalinae; other common fossils, besides molluscs(gastropods and pelecypods, including Radiolitidae),are Thaumatoporella, Aeolisaccus, and ostracods.Dasycladaceans are occasionally found.

On the basis of this faunal association the studiedsuccession is referred to the Santonian (De Castro,

1966; Chiocchini et al., 1994; Radioicic, pers. comm.,1997).

Figure 1. Schematic geological map of Campania Apen-nines and location of Monte Sant’Erasmo (1) andMonte Tobenna (2) successions. Map: (a) carbonateplatform deposits (Mesozoic-Tertiary); (b) terrigenousmarine deposits (late Tertiary-Quaternary); (c) conti-nental deposits, including volcanics (Quaternary).

2. Facies analysis and environmentalinterpretation

We have examined the Monte Sant’Erasmo section ata cm-scale with the aid of a hand-lens, collectingsamples at the same scale and analysing the relativethin sections under the polarising microscope; inaddition, where needed by the size of the sedimentarystructures, polished sections and acetate peels of largesamples have been prepared. The rocks are entirelyformed by carbonate deposits, generally limestoneswith occasional mild dolomitization, and rare clayeyintercalations (<2 cm thick); the pore space iscompletely occluded by cements.

The microstratigraphic analysis of the MonteSant’Erasmo succession has been achieved throughthe definition of lithofacies, lithofacies associationsand clans in the examined strata, as in our previousstudies on carbonate platform deposits of southernApennines (D’Argenio et al., 1997b; Buonocuntoet al., 1994; Raspini, 1997).

On such grounds and on the basis of what iscurrently reported in the literature (see, e.g., Walker,1992; Reading, 1996), we recall briefly hereafter thatby lithofacies we mean a discrete rock volume (i.e.,a bed, or part of it), which may be distinguished byits primary characteristics (textures and sedimen-tary structures, constituent grain types, variety andabundance of fossil associations) which allow anidentification with respect to its adjacent over- andunderlying deposits. A lithofacies is considered tohave formed in a specific depositional (sub)environ-ment and may present a variable degree of modifi-cation due to early diagenesis in a marine and/ormeteoric environment.

However, a more precise interpretation of theoriginal depositional environment requires the identi-fication of associations of lithofacies. Lithofacies associ-ations are the product of relatively more extensivecarbonate platform areas (e.g., open lagoon, restrictedlagoon, tidal flat) and are expressed by rock volumeswhose composition includes a certain number of litho-facies (outcome of related subenvironments). Forthese groups of lithofacies the textures and sedimen-tary structures, together with the thanatocoenoses (thefossil assemblage we see at present in the rocks,including the specific variety and abundance in theassociations), indicate similar genetic conditionslinked to water chemistry (e.g., salinity, oxygenation),and physics (e.g., turbulence).

Orbital cyclostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy 83

Moreover these are some deposits which occur asepisodic intercalations within the various lithofaciesassociations. They represent the product of a suddenrise in hydrodynamic energy caused by wave, cur-rent and/or storm activity, and can be genericallyinterpreted as tempestites (Aigner, 1985; see alsoD’Argenio et al., 1989; 1997b).

Finally, groups of lithofacies associations whichtogether indicate an even more extensive environ-mental domain, constitute a clan; in the present studya clan may represent either an open subtidal domain(Clan I) or a more restricted subtidal to inter-supratidal (peritidal) domain (Clan II).

2.1. Lithofacies associations

Four lithofacies associations have been identified inthe studied section (Figure 2):

(A) RADIOLITID LIMESTONES. This associationis characterised by floatstones with molluscan shells;these limestones are always characterised by mud-supported textures, rich in fossils. At MonteSant’Erasmo only a lithofacies has been recognized inthis association:

A1. Radiolitid floatstone with benthic-foraminiferwackestone matrix (Figure 3a). A distinctive feature ofthese deposits is the high level of diversity, witnessedamong the molluscs by the presence of rudistids(Radiolitidae), normally associated with other large

pelecypods and/or gastropods and foraminifers (in-cluding miliolids, textularids, lithuolids, verneulinids).

Environmental interpretation. The mud-supportedtextures and the high-diversity level of the thanatho-coenoses suggest depositional processes in shallowmarine environments, slightly or not influenced bywaves and/or currents, where salinity and oxygenare maintained around normal values so as to favourthe diffusion of solitary rudistid forms (subtidalconditions with normal circulation).

(B) FORAMINIFERAL LIMESTONES. Thesedeposits include different textures ranging fromwackestone to wackestone-packstone and packstone:the grains are composed mainly of benthic foramin-ifers (miliolids, textularids, verneulinids, rotalids) as-sociated in places with Thaumatoporella, Aeolisaccus,peloids and intraclasts. Based on the diversity featureswhich distinguish foraminiferal thanatocoenoses, twolithofacies have been identified:

B1. Benthic-foraminifer wackestone, wackestone-packstone and packstone with Dicyclina and Thau-matoporella (Figure 3b). A relatively high degreeof diversity characterises the thanatocoenosis inthis lithofacies; as to the foraminifers, they mayinclude miliolids (cf. Nummoloculina robusta), lituolids(including Moncharmontia appenninica), verneulinids(including Dicyclina sp., Cuneolina sp., textularids androtalids.

B2. Miliolid wackestone, wackestone-packstone andpackstone with associated other benthic foraminifers,Thaumatoporella and Aeolisaccus. On the whole, alower diversity thanatocoenosis characterises thedeposits of this lithofacies.

Environmental interpretation. The extremely varied tex-tures (from mud-supported to grain-supported) whichcharacterise this lithofacies association, the diversity ofthe foraminiferal thanatocoenoses, and the local pres-ence of intraclasts, mainly suggest shallow-water depo-sitional processes influenced by waves and currents.Moreover, the less pronounced diversity of lithofaciesB2 compared with B1 suggests that the sediments of theformer were located relatively closer to shore.

Figure 2. Lithofacies, lithofacies associations and clans ofMonte Sant’Erasmo succession and related environ-mental interpretation.

(C) MILIOSTRALGAL LIMESTONES. This litho-facies association is mainly represented by mud-supported textures (mudstone-wackestone andwackestone) characterised by oligotypic thanato-coenoses almost exclusively consisting of Thaumato-porella, Aeolisaccus and miliolids, associated in placeswith small gastropods, ostracods and rotalinids.


Based on diversity features characterising thesedeposits, we have identified three lithofacies:

C1. Miliolid wackestone with Aeolisaccus and Thau-matoporella associated in places with ostracods and smallgastropod shells (Figure 3c). This is made up of purecalcareous muds with abundant miliolids, Aeolisaccusand Thaumatoporella, frequently associated with small

ostracods and gastropods with thin shells. Smallarenaceous foraminifers are also found.

Figure 3. Depositional textures of the Monte Sant’Erasmo succession. (a) Lithofacies A1: molluscan floatstone (includingRadiolitidae) with benthic-foraminifer wackestone matrix; thin section, positive print, scale-bar: 1 cm. (b) LithofaciesB1: benthic-foraminifer wackestone-packstone rich in miliolids; thin section, positive print, scale-bar: 1 cm. (c)Lithofacies C1: miliolid wackestone with Aeolisaccus; thin section, positive print, scale-bar: 1 cm. (d) Lithofacies C3:Aeolisaccus—Thaumatoporella—wackestone with rare Rotalina; thin section, positive print, scale-bar: 1 cm. (e) LithofaciesD1: loferitic mudstone; the mm-size cavities are partially enlarged by dissolution processes, and are occluded by spariteand/or muddy geopetal fillings; thin section, positive print, scale-bar: 3 cm. (f) Intraclastic grainstone (tempestite)showing the erosional contact (arrows) with the underlying deposits; thin section, positive print, scale-bar: 1 cm.

C2. Small-miliolid mudstone-wackestone and wackestone,locally with ostracods, Aeolisaccus and rare Rotalina.These deposits are characterised by an abundance andsometimes dominance of small miliolids.


C3. Aeolisaccus and Thaumatoporella wackestone andwackestone-packstone, locally bioturbated, associated inplaces with rare Rotalina (Figure 3d). Of the threelithofacies forming lithofacies association C, this onecan be considered the most restricted, given thehigher degree of oligotypy which characterises itsthanatocoenoses.

Environmental interpretation. The abundance of thepelitic component and the oligotypic character of thethanathocoenoses suggest for lithofacies association Cdepositional processes in shallow areas of a carbonateplatform, characterised by restricted circulation.

(D) LAMINATED LIMESTONES. These depositsare represented by mud-supported lithotypes formedby mm-thick laminae, generally without fossils,irregularly undulating and laterally continuous(stromatolitic-type cryptalgal laminae). Such lami-nated limestones form layers only a few cm thick. Thislithofacies association is represented by:

D1. Stromatolitic and loferitic bindstone (Figure 3e).This lithofacies is formed by stromatolitic laminiteslocally showing a fenestral fabric characterised bynumerous mm-scale cavities of variable shape (loferitesaccording to Fischer, 1964; see also D’Argenio,1967), often enlarged by meteoric solution and oc-cluded by mechanical geopetal filling and/or by sparrycalcite.

Environmental interpretation. The stromatolitic texture,locally showing early diagenetic structures of fenestraltype, suggests depositional processes in environmentsvarying from low-intertidal to supratidal.

2.2. Clans

Lithofacies associations A and B, given that they arerepresented by a wide variety of textures (frommud-supported to grain-supported) and are consti-tuted of diversified thanatocoenoses, on the wholesuggest depositional processes in a relatively moreopen carbonate platform domain, characterised bynormal circulation and thus normal salinity and oxy-genation. These two lithofacies associations, suggest-ing a more open subtidal domain, are groupedtogether as Clan I (Figure 2). Mud-supported textureswith oligotypic thanatocoenoses (lithofacies associ-ation C) and stromatolitic-loferitic laminites (litho-facies association D) suggest depositional processes inmore restricted subtidal to inter-supratidal conditions(peritidal domain). They are grouped together asClan II.

2.3. Graded limestones with bioclasts and intraclasts

These deposits, which have basal erosive contacts,occur as episodic intercalations within all the abovelithofacies associations. They are represented bygrain-supported textures (grainstone and packstone)or even by floatstone with packstone-grainstonematrix, normally graded. The grains are mainly bio-clasts (small foraminifers and fragments of molluscanshells) and more or less rounded intraclasts. Amongthe latter there are some small dark pebbles (blackpebbles auct.) that are of either mudstone-wackestone(lithofacies association C) or loferitic mudstone(lithofacies association D).

Environmental interpretation. On the basis of texturalcharacteristics as well as of the associated sedimentarystructures (gradation, basal erosive contact), thesedeposits are interpreted as high-energy products,usually connected with storm events (tempestites)ranging from subtidal to tidal/supratidal settings(Aigner, 1985; see also D’Argenio et al., 1989, 1997b)(Figure 3f).

Tempestites, being locally intercalated with thedifferent (A–D) lithofacies associations, can be foundin both Clan I and Clan II deposits.

2.4. Other remarks on the sedimentary environment

The Santonian deposits of Monte Sant’Erasmo aregenerally represented by wackestone- and wackestone-packstone-type textures; the grains are formed bybenthic foraminifers (frequently including Rotalina),associated in places with algae (Thaumatoporellaand/or Aeolisaccus) and pelecypods including Radio-litidae (whole shells or their fragments). Dasycla-daceans, small corals and pellets are rare, whilst redalgae are absent. On the whole, these features suggestdepositional processes in carbonate platform environ-ments which vary from relatively open marine con-ditions (Clan I deposits) to peritidal conditions (ClanII deposits), characterised by more restricted circu-lation (lithofacies association C) and influenced bythe local development of tidal flat areas (lithofaciesassociation D).

Moreover, if the analysed deposits are considered interms of inorganic as well as organogenic components,we note in the Monte Sant’Erasmo succession anupward decreasing frequency of pelletal grains andgreen algae by comparison with lower (Turonianand older) intervals. Such an impoverishment of thetropical communities, particularly evident in moreoceanward sectors of the Apenninic carbonateplatforms (shallow ramps), must be framed in the


regional modifications of the benthic associationsconsidered as a consequence of Late Cretaceouspalaeoceanographic changes (Carannante et al., 1995;1996). These variations towards temperate-typebenthic associations, also revealed by an increasingimportance of bioclastic deposits produced in situ bybioerosive processes, led to a gradual transition fromthe high sediment productive benthic communities ofchlorozoan-type to the less productive communities offoramol-type (Lees & Buller, 1972; Lees, 1975), andhave been interpreted to be a result of ecologic stressconditions imposed on the Late Cretaceous tropicalshelves of southern Italy by the influence of cold andnutrient-rich waters originated by upwelling or coldcurrents (Carannante et al., 1995; 1996).

3. Cyclostratigraphy

Even though the basic principles of the cyclostrati-graphic analysis of carbonate platform successionshave been established for 25 years (Fischer, 1964)most of the papers dealing with cyclostratigraphy aredevoted to the pelagic realm (Einsele et al., 1991; DeBoer & Smith, 1994). Our approach to carbonateplatform cyclostratigraphy is based on a very richdata-set in which the vertical distribution of lithofaciesand their associations, as well as the products of earlydiagenesis superimposed upon them, are recorded.The cyclic character of the 59-m-thick MonteSant’Erasmo section has been revealed by theinterpretation of its stratigraphic evolution at cm-scale(depositional dynamics).

3.1. Elementary cycles

In total, 92 elementary cycles have been recognised(Figure 4), each corresponding to a single bed with anaverage thickness of c. 64 cm (range of 18–173 cm).In the topmost part of each cycle a phase of relativelowering of sea level is recorded, as witnessed byevidence of subaerial dissolution processes and pedo-genesis (early-meteoric diagenesis) which are veryoften directly superimposed on subtidal deposits.Such processes (which preclude an interpretationbased on tidal flat progradation-retrogradation) aretestified by the development of karstic cavities, mm- todm-size, occluded in places by geopetal crystal silt(sensu Dunham, 1969), silty-marly multi-coloured fill-ings (of greenish to reddish hues) and/or stalactiticcements; moreover collapse microbreccias may belocally found (Figures 4, 6). Microcodium-type struc-tures (Esteban, 1974; Klappa, 1978), as well asdiagenetic textures (pseudoalveolar features, rhizo-cretions and/or dark, irregular and discontinuous

micritic laminae) characterise some of the levelsmore intensely affected by early diagenesis in meteoricenvironments and generally suggest pedogeneticprocesses leading to the formation of calcrete-typehorizons (Wright & Tucker, 1991; Theriault &Desrocher, 1993).

Depositional cyclicity. Stratigraphically, the sequence oflithofacies testifies to different types of depositionalcyclic evolution (Figure 4). Three types of cycles havebeen recognized: upward-deepening to shallowing,upward-deepening, and upward-shallowing. To thefirst type belong elementary cycles (15 in all) withinwhich the lithofacies record phases of relative sea-levelrise, then a relative fall. The upward-deepening cycles(20 in all) testify to a rising phase of relative sea level,exceeding the rate of sediment production. In theupward-shallowing cycles (27 in all) the internalorganization of the lithofacies records a phase ofrelative sea-level lowering, after a sudden spreading ofmarine conditions above a previous emersion horizon.Finally, grouped in a category of their own, are theelementary cycles (30 in all) which are characterisedby marine lithofacies that remain unvaried; here onlythe upward variation of early diagenetic features (frommarine to meteoric) testifies to sedimentary cyclicity(diagenetic cyclothems in D’Argenio, 1976).

Early diagenetic cyclicity. While the mm-size cavities(microkarst) reflect a minor meteoric influence andtherefore suggest ephemeral emersion (Em1 in Figure4; see also Figure 6a), the pedogenetic levels and thecm- to dm-size palaeokarstic cavities at the top of thecycles (Em2 in Figure 4; see also Figure 6b), as well asthe more penetrative and pervasive palaeokarst (Em3in Figure 4; see also Figure 6c) indicate more pro-longed emersion. A cyclicity suggested by early dia-genetic processes is thus evident and mirrors thecyclicity recorded by depositional facies.

Cycle thickness and depositional environment. Finally it isemphasised that there usually exists a direct relation-ship between cycle thickness and its sedimentaryfacies, the thinner cycles normally being characterisedby a prevalence of more restricted lithofacies, whereasthicker ones show a prevalence of more open marinelithofacies (D’Argenio et al., 1993, 1997b; Figure 4).

3.2. Hierarchical organization

The elementary cycles appear assembled in bundles,and the bundles in superbundles: the evidence ofthis grouping emerges not only from the internal


organization of the lithofacies but also from the mor-phology of the slopes where the periodic changes inlithology imposed by the environmental oscillationsresult in characteristic steps.

Figure 4. Microstratigraphic (cm-scale) log of the Monte Sant’Erasmo succession (Santonian). I. Number (from 1 to 92) ofthe cycles and graphic log showing the vertical organisation of lithofacies associations (from A to D, see also Figure 2).II. Curve of the elementary cycles derived from the stratigraphic variation of the lithofacies (from A1 to D1) and relatedearly diagenetic features. III. Boundaries of the elementary cycles; Em1-type boundary: microkarst and/or pervasivedissolution; Em2-type boundary: palaeokarst and/or calcrete; Em3-type boundary: pervasive palaeokarst affecting theentire underlying cycle. Note that cycles formed mainly of lithofacies associations A and B (Clan I) are normallycharacterised in their upper part by Em1-type emersion surfaces and only in a few cases by Em2-type emersion surfaces.By contrast, cycles formed mainly of lithofacies associations C and D normally show more intense early meteoricdiagenesis in their upper part (Em2- and Em3-type boundaries).

Bundles. The groups of elementary cycles (as shownin the column I, Figure 5), are identified both on

the basis of internal organisation of depositionallithofacies and on the degree of early diagenetic modi-fication. In the Sant’Erasmo section, 22 elementary-cycle groups (bundles) have been singled out. Theycomprise 3–5 elementary cycles and form units 141–359 cm thick (average thickness 250 cm) which sug-gest environmental fluctuations of relatively longer


Figure 5. Composite log of the Monte Sant’Erasmo sequence showing the hierarchical organization of the three cycleorders: the vertical axis gives their thickness in cm, while the lithofacies, lithofacies associations and clans, and their earlydiagenetic overprint are on the horizontal axis. I shows the vertical organisation of lithofacies (A1 to D1) and thedistribution of early diagenetic features related to the meteoric environment (Em1- Em2- and Em3-type boundaries, seealso Figures 4, 6) that identify 92 elementary cycles (see also Figure 4). II outlines both the vertical organisation of thelithofacies associations (A to D) which prevail (in %) within each elementary cycle, and the boundaries of the elementary


cycles marked by more intensive diagenetic processes of Em2- and Em3-type (emersion surfaces); it highlights 22elementary-cycle groups (bundles). III indicates the vertical variation of the prevalent clan (in %) within each bundle; bytaking into account the bundle boundaries marked by deeply penetrating early diagenetic features of meteoric origin(Em3-type emersion surfaces), six bundle groups (superbundles) with thicknesses varying from min. 643 cm to max.1004 cm are outlined. IV shows the system tracts (TR, transgressive and HS, highstand) of each superbundle and thelocation of sequence boundaries (SB) and maximum flooding surfaces (mfs).


duration. The curve (column II) in Figure 5 displaysthe relative variation of lithofacies associations (in %)and allows the bundles to be distinguished on thebasis of the following criteria: (a) identification of thebundle minimum water depth marking the bundle limit,which corresponds to the upper boundary of theelementary cycle, suggesting more restricted environ-mental conditions in respect to those of the adjacentunder- and overlying elementary cycles; this boundaryis normally marked by strong meteoric diageneticoverprint (Em2- or Em3-type emersion surfaces;Figure 6b, c); (b) identification of the bundle maximumwater depth; this corresponds to the interval suggesting

more open marine conditions within the elementarycycle in which there is the greatest thickness ofsubtidal lithofacies.

Figure 6. Detail of the Monte Sant’Erasmo succession showing diagenetic overprint at the top of bundles 11 and 12 andsuperbundle 3 (see Figures 5, 7 for location). Thin section photographs (scale-bar: 2 mm) show meteoric earlydiagenetic features characterising Em1-, Em2- and Em3-type boundaries of the cycles. (a) Lithofacies C1 affected bymicrokarst; the millimetric karstic cavities are occluded by geopetal crystal silt or by sparry calcite (Em1-type boundary);(b) lithofacies C3 affected by palaeokarst: karstic cavities are occluded by mechanical deposits (silt to sand size),normally resting on a first generation of palisade cements and/or showing a geopetal arrangement (Em2-type boundary);(c) the pervasive palaeokarst makes it difficult to identify the original depositional texture, and marks an Em3-typeemersion surface (boundary of superbundle 3).

Superbundles. The superbundles comprise 3–4 bundleswhose thicknesses vary from 643 cm to 1004 cm(average 836 cm). They suggest relatively lower-frequency environmental fluctuations. The identifi-cation of superbundles was obtained following criteriaanalogous to those used to single out the cycle bundles(column III in Figure 5). In this case a superbundleminimum water depth marks the superbundle limitand it is suggested by the recurrence, up-section, of


thinner bundles formed of a large proportion of ClanII deposits and characterised, in their upper part,by widespread early diagenetic fabric created in ameteoric environment.

The superbundle boundaries (Figure 6c) corre-spond to the upper limit of those bundles wherethere is the most intense development and deeperpenetration of the above early meteoric modifications(Em3-type emersion surface). A superbundle maximumwater depth is suggested by the recurrence, up-section,of more open marine conditions (Clan I deposits)within thicker bundles whose upper limits arecommonly represented by Em2-type emersionsurface.

Eustatic fluctuations. In the studied succession, thelarge proportion of elementary cycles characterised byEm1-, Em2- and Em3-type diagenetic boundaries,that are directly superimposed upon subtidal deposits,suggests that the environmental fluctuations werecontrolled by eustasy (Buonocunto et al., 1994;D’Argenio et al., 1997b). Indeed, the infrequentoccurrence of lithofacies association D indicatesthat exposure as a result of tidal flat progradation(Ginsburg, 1971; Jones & Desrochers, 1992) was nota significant process. Other genetic mechanisms, suchas episodic tectonic subsidence (Cisne, 1986; Fischer,1986), may also be excluded in this case. In fact theLate Cretaceous was a time during which the originaldepositional realm wherein the Monte Sant’Erasmo

succession developed was in a mature stage of thermalsubsidence within a passive continental margin; itssubsidence rates may be considered quasi-constant(Channel et al., 1979; see also D’Argenio & Alvarez,1980, and data set therein).

Figure 7. Monte Sant’Erasmo succession showing the strata (elementary cycles) grouped in superbundles. To the right aredetails of the hierarchical organisation of the strata in bundles (numbered from 14 to 18; see Figure 5, column II) andsuperbundles (numbers 4 and 5 in Figure 5, column III). Note the stepwise profile of the slope owing to changes inlithology and bed thickness that indicates most superbundle limits (thin recessive intervals).

Orbital control. Finally, the above-mentionedhierarchical cyclic organisation, whose physical evi-dence is recorded at single stratum level (elementarycycles) and at strata-group level (bundles and super-bundles) (Figure 7), and in which 3–5 elementarycycles unite to form a bundle and 3–4 bundles asuperbundle, allows us to hypothesize that thiscyclicity was controlled by high-frequency climaticand eustatic changes modulated by variation in orbitalparameters (Milankovitch-type cycles). More specifi-cally, the elementary cycles are considered to repre-sent the precision cycle of the equinoxes (c. 20 ky), thebundles the short eccentricity cycle (c. 100 ky), andthe superbundles the long eccentricity cycle of theEarth’s orbit (c. 400 ky). An analogous hierarchicalcyclic organisation of facies attributed to orbitalforcing has already been widely inferred, based onrelationships between the various cycle orders andusing spectral analysis methods in several Cretaceouscarbonate sequences of the Apennines and thesouthern Alps, both in shallow water (Ferreri et al.,1993; Pelosi & Raspini, 1993; Longo et al., 1994;Brescia et al., 1996; D’Argenio et al., 1997b; Raspini,1997), and basinal deposits (Fischer & Schwarzacher,


1984; Herbert & Fischer, 1986; Claps & Masetti,1994); for both shallow and deeper settings, see alsoEinsele et al., 1991), Fischer & Bottjer (1991), and DeBoer & Smith (1994).

Orbital chronostratigraphy. It is worth noting here thateven in the pelagic realm the number of cycles actuallyrecorded in the sequences is not the ideal one (i.e., 5elementary cycles per bundle and 4 bundles persuperbundle) because several local conditions mayproduce omission or coalescence at elementary cycleor group of cycles level (Fischer, 1991; D’Argenio etal., 1997b). But, while in terms of the rock record asubstantial amount of time may not be represented, interms of elapsed time we assume that a single cyclerepresents c. 20 ky here (regardless of the amount oftime not represented by sediments), a bundle repre-sents c. 100 ky (even if one or two elementary cyclesare missing in it) and, accordingly, a superbundle maybe considered to be a result of a sedimentary processdeveloped for c. 400 ky (in spite of the number ofbundles). This is the base for assembling chrono-stratigraphic diagrams quantifying the minimum timerequired for a succession to accumulate.

3.3. Comparison with the cyclicity of Monte Tobenna

The hypothesis of Milankovitch-type periodicity in theMonte Sant’Erasmo sequence may be strengthenedby comparing these results with data derived from thestudy of the Monte Tobenna section (Picentini

Mountains), Turonian p.p.-Coniacian p.p. in age (DeCastro, 1966; Ferreri et al., 1993).

In the Monte Tobenna sequence, which crops outsome 70 km to the south-east of Monte Sant’Erasmo(Figure 1), a microstratigraphic study has highlightedan analogous hierarchical organization, which is inter-preted to have been controlled by varying orbital par-ameters, as also suggested by data obtained fromspectral analysis of textures as well as sedimentary anddiagenetic structures (Ferreri et al., 1993; Brescia etal., 1996). Table 1 compares orbital periodicity calcu-lated for the Cretaceous (in years) with stratigraphicperiodicity (expressed in average thickness values) ofMonte Sant’Erasmo and Monte Tobenna and derivedfrom the cyclostratigraphic analysis.

From this comparison, a close correspondenceemerges between the Turonian-Coniacian strati-graphic periodicities of 69 and 264 cm at MonteTobenna (linked respectively to precession andshort eccentricity) and the Santonian stratigraphicperiodicities of 63.7 and 250 cm at MonteSant’Erasmo. Less evident is the correspondence atsuperbundle level (long eccentricity cycles) betweenMonte Sant’Erasmo and Monte Tobenna. Anexplanation for this discrepancy may be that, whilstthe Monte Tobenna superbundles are consideredcomplete in that they always comprise four bundles,in Monte Sant’Erasmo most of them (3–6 inFigure 5) lack one, being composed of only threebundles.

Table 1. Time and thickness periodicity in the Monte Sant’Erasmo and Monte Tobenna cycles.The orbital periodicities for the Late Cretaceous are based on calculations by Berger et al. (1992).The stratigraphic periodicities for elementary cycles and their groups at Monte Sant’Erasmo aresimply average values derived from our field measurements, while for Monte Tobenna they comefrom previous studies (Ferreri et al., 1993). For the latter periodicities we also give the figures whichare only from the spectral analysis of the lithofacies thickness within the elementary cycles and notfrom the thickness of the whole cycles. The strong correlation between the stratigraphic (i.e., fieldmeasurements) and spectral (i.e., based on the lithofacies thickness within the cycles) thicknessperiodicities has been assumed to be additional evidence of the orbital control on the cyclicity and itshierarchical organization (Brescia et al., 1996).

Orbitalperiodicity

(years)

Stratigraphicperiodicitiessedimentary

(cm)M.S.Erasmo

Stratigraphicperiodicitiessedimentary

(cm)M.Tobenna

Stratigraphicperiodicities

spectral(cm)

M.Tobenna

LONG ECCENTRICITY 403 600 836 1049 1108SHORT ECCENTRICITY 95 900 250 264 264OBLIQUITY 39 000 107PRECESSION 19 000 63.7 69 85AGE Santonian Turonian—Coniacian


4. Sequence stratigraphy

It is well known that the main aim of sequencestratigraphy is the subdivision on a regional scale ofsedimentary bodies into genetic packages (depo-sitional sequences) bounded by unconformities andby their correlative conformities to provide a chrono-stratigraphic framework for physical correlation andstratigraphic prediction. Hence, a depositionalsequence represents a complete cycle of deposition asa result of the interaction of tectonics, eustasy andclimate (see, e.g., Payton, 1977; Wilgus et al., 1988;Emery & Myers, 1996; Miall, 1996).

Many of the concepts and principles of sequencestratigraphy are based on the observation, mostly fromseismic data, that basin-margin systems developconsistent depositional geometries (progradational-,aggradational-, retrogradational-type). In trying tointerpret the ordering of sedimentary events recordedin the shallow-water carbonate deposits of the MonteSant’Erasmo succession, such concepts are difficult toapply because the geometries developing on the top ofa carbonate platform are mostly of aggradational-type.Moreover the carbonate systems are essentially bio-genic and differ from siliciclastic systems in theircapacity to produce sediment in situ; they may, there-fore, respond differently to relative sea-level variations(Schlager, 1992; see also Emery & Myers, 1996).Nevertheless, shallow-water carbonates, if analysed ona cm-scale, provide much information regarding rela-tive sea-level fluctuations and sediment productivityvariation owing to changes in the abundance anddiversity of the biocoenoses. As mentioned above,high-frequency environmental fluctuations, modu-lated by the Earth’s orbital perturbations, are thoughtto be at the root of the hierarchical cyclic organisation(expressed by elementary cycles, bundles and super-bundles) of Monte Sant’Erasmo section, and of manyother Cretaceous shallow-marine successions out-cropping in the southern Apennines (Ferreri et al.,1993; Buonocunto et al., 1994; D’Argenio et al.,1997b), and also in the Jura Mountains (Strasser,1988; 1994).

We assume here, therefore, that superbundles, ascycles of relatively low-frequency, have had the greatestprobability of being preserved in the sedimentaryrecord, with the possible omission of one or more oftheir elementary cycles or bundles (D’Argenio et al.,1997b; Raspini, 1997). On this basis, and as they aredelimited by emersion surfaces, superbundles can beinterpreted in terms of depositional sequences (Ferreriet al., 1993; Strasser, 1994; D’Argenio et al., 1997b).Figure 5 (column 4) shows the stratigraphic organiz-ation of Monte Sant’Erasmo superbundles, and their

interpretation using sequence stratigraphic concepts.In these terms, the superbundle limits (Em3-typeemersion surfaces) represent sequence boundaries(SB) whilst the relative maximum water depth of eachsuperbundle indicates a maximum flooding surface(mfs).

Therefore the study of the sedimentary organisationof carbonate platform deposits, supported by analysisof the stacking pattern of cycles and cycle groups,allows the interpretation of these successions in termsof depositional sequences. In this context the super-bundles represent the operative units used to arrive athigh-resolution regional correlation as well as toassemble chronostratigraphic diagrams (D’Argenioet al., 1997a, 1997b).

5. Summary and conclusions

We have presented here the main results of a micro-stratigraphic study carried out on a carbonateplatform succession of Santonian age that cropsout on Monte Sant’Erasmo (southern Apennines,Italy).

Cm-scale analysis of textures and sedimentarystructures has allowed us to interpret the generalcharacteristics of Late Cretaceous depositionalenvironments represented by this succession andto highlight their subtle stratigraphic variations.Deposition occurred in shallow-water settings whereconditions fluctuated from a subtidal domain, withnormal marine circulation (lithofacies associations Aand B), to subtidal conditions with restricted circu-lation (lithofacies association C) as well as tointertidal/supratidal settings (lithofacies associationD). Storm deposits were found interspersed withinthe full range of lithofacies associations, suggestingepisodic rises in hydrodynamic energy which affectedthe sedimentary environments from time to time.

The cyclic environmental fluctuations recorded bythe succession are interpreted to have been controlledby high-frequency eustatic variations caused by Earth’sorbital perturbations. This is reflected in a well-organised hierarchy of environmental fluctuations ofdifferent relative frequency: the elementary cycles aresuggested to represent the c. 20 ky periodicity of theprecession, groups of 3–5 elementary cycles (bundles)record the c. 100 ky of the short eccentricity, andgroups of 3–4 bundles (superbundles) reflect thec. 400 ky of the long eccentricity perturbation of theEarth’s orbit (Figures 5, 7, Table 1). The orbital con-trol hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that a strictlyhierarchical cyclic organisation comparable with that ofMonte Sant’Erasmo has also been recognised in otherLower and Upper Cretaceous carbonate successions in


the southern Apennines (see, e.g., Ferreri et al., 1993;D’Argenio et al., 1997a) and the Jura Mountains(Strasser, 1988, 1994).

The rock record discussed represents only a part ofthe time needed for its accumulation. Hence, whenrestored to its constituent lithofacies, in most cases anelementary cycle, a bundle or a superbundle is incom-plete; however, with respect to the time elapsed, it isassumed they represent respectively c. 20, 100 and400 ky intervals and, therefore, provide a basis forassembling chronostratigraphic diagrams suggestiveof the minimum time required for a succession toaccumulate (D’Argenio et al., 1997b).

The basic concepts of sequence stratigraphy havebeen also applied, particularly at the level of super-bundles, in the Monte Sant’Erasmo succession. Thesesuperbundles, as cycles documenting eustatic vari-ations of a relatively lower frequency, and beingdelimited by discontinuity surfaces marked bymeteoric early diagenetic processes, can be defined asdepositional sequences (Figure 5) and thus discussedin terms of system tracts, sequence boundaries andmaximum flooding surfaces. This procedure is thebasis for the application of cyclostratigraphy to prob-lems of high-resolution physical correlation of distantsuccessions of strata (D’Argenio et al., 1997a).

Finally, having assumed a duration of c. 400 ky forthe superbundles, it follows that the 6 superbundlescomprising the Monte Sant’Erasmo succession(c. 60 m thick) record a minimum time interval equalto c. 2400 ky. Taking into account the ratio of eachsuperbundle thickness with the time interval each ofthem represents, it is possible to calculate their accu-mulation rate (referred to the present day thickness,regardless from the omissions in the rock record) at anaverage of 20.9 B (mm/ky or Bubnoff units) for thewhole succession (Table 2).

Acknowledgements

This work has been carried out in the context ofthe High-Resolution Stratigraphy Programme of theResearch Institute Geomare Sud, National ResearchCouncil, Naples and of the Department of EarthSciences, University ‘‘Federico II’’, Naples. We ac-knowledge financial aid from the Ministry of Univer-sity and Scientific and Technologic Research of Italy(grant MURST 60%, 1996, to B. D’Argenio) as wellas space and laboratory facilities offered by Geomare.

The present research is also part of the doctoraldissertation of F. P. Buonocunto who carried out alarge part of the field work, with additional fieldcontributions by R. Sandulli and V. Ferreri. Themicrostratigraphic analysis and discussion of the datainvolved all of the authors. We thank R. Raidoicic,who reviewed the biostratigraphy, and A. Raspini andS. Amodio for fruitful discussions. Last but not leastwe express our sincere thanks to the referees. Dr G.Lelkes and Dr J. Ineson, and to the Editor, Prof. D.Batten; we are particularly indebted to the latter twofor having patiently restored and greatly improved ouroriginal manuscript.

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Orbital cyclostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous platform carbonates at Monte Sant’Erasmo, southern Apennines, Italy