Office Automation - Alagappa University

0599

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY ALMAPPA Wan/MITT

(A State University Established by the Government of Tamilnadu - Reaccredited with 'A' Grade by NAAC)

KARAIKUDI — 630 003 Tamil Nadu, INDIA

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION (Recognized by Distance Education Council (DEC), New Delhi)

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Master of Business Administration

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Paper 44:4A MBA ISP1

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Office Automation

OFFICE AUTOMATION

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

MBA Fourth Semester

Paper 4.4.1

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY Karaikudi - 630 003 Tamil Nadu

Reviewer

Dr. M. Selvam Dean, Faculty of Management Alagappa University, Karaikudi

Authors

Sanjay Saxena: Unit (1.0-1.3, 1.7, 4.0-4.4) © Sanjay Saxena, 2013 Gagan Varshney: Units (4.7, 5) Gagan Varshney, 2013

Prof. Subhash Krishna Chitale & Ms. Chandralpushpanjall Patel: Unit (6.3-6.6) © Prof. Subhash Krishna Chitale & Ms. Chandra Pushpanjaii Patel, 2013

Vlkas Publishing House: Units (1.4-1.6, 1.8-1.12, 2, 3, 4.5-4.6, 4.8-4.11, 6.0-6.2, 6.7-6.15) Reserved, 2013

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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE Office Automation

Syllabi Mapping in Book

UNIT I Computer System: An Introduction: Basics and Evolution of Computing—Hardware and Software Aspects—Modern IT Accessories—Operating Systems and Application Software—Introduction to Network Setting—LAN and WAN, Internet and Intranet—Information Needs of Business and IT Support—Impact of IT on Business Excellence.

Unit 1: Computer System: An Introduction (Pages 3-60)

UNIT 2 Fundamentals of Working with a Computer: MS Word—Creating, Opening, Saving and Formatting Documents—Mail Merge—Working with Spreadsheets: MS Excel—Tables—Formulas and Functions—Data Analysis using Excel—Linking Work Sheets and Work Books—Charts—Macros Forms—Pivot Tables.

Unit 2: Fundamentals of Working with a Computer (Pages 61-126)

UNIT 3 MS PowerPoint and MS Access: Creating a PowerPoint Presentation (PPT) using Slide Master, Animation and Graphics in PPT, MS Access—Creating and Modifying Databases—Report Generation—Linking Access Files with MS Excel Files; MS: Project: Creating Project Design, Schedules, PERT/CPM Charts and Reports.

Unit 3: Ms PowerPoint, MS Access and Ms Project (Pages 127-200)

UNIT 4 Internet and E-Commerce: E-Mail Etiquette—Usages of Search Engines and Portals—Website and Web Based E-Mail, FTP and Net Meeting—Wi-Fi Environment in Modern Offices—E-Advertisements—Basic Models of E-Business: B2B, B2C, C2C and Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce).

Unit 4: The Internet and E-Commerce (Pages 201-238)

UNIT 5 Buying and Selling through the Internet: E-Payment and Electronic Fund Transfer—E-Ticketing—IT for Supply Chain—Payment Gateway and Security Systems—On-Line Stores—E-Banking—Internet Banking—Smartcards and Plastic Money.

Unit 5: Buying and Selling through the Internet (Pages 239-264)

UNIT 6 Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): Enterprise Resource Planning System—Data Mining—Data Warehousing—Teleconferencing—Online Office Suite—Paperless Office—Telecommuting or Telework—Virtual Team—Virtual Business.

Unit 6: Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) (Pages 265-317)

I

I

... I

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1-2

UNIT 1 COMPUTER SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION 3-60

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Unit Objectives 1.2 Basics and Evolution of Computing

1.2.1 History and Generation of Computer 1.3 Hardware and Software Aspects

1.3.1 Types of Software 1.4 Modern IT Accessories 1.5 Operating Systems and Application Software 1.6 Introduction to Network Setting 1.7 The Internet and Intranet 1.8 Information Needs of Business and IT Support 1.9 Impact of IT on Business Excellence

1.10 Summary 1.11 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 1.12 Question and Exercises

UNIT 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF WORKING WITH A COMPUTER 61-126

2.0 Introduction 2.1 Unit Objectives 2.2 Working with Microsoft Word 2007 2.3 Working with Spreadsheets 2.4 Summary 2.5 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 2.6 Question and Exercises

UNIT 3 MS POWERPOINT, MS ACCESS AND MS PROJECT 127-200

3.0 Introduction 3.1 Unit Objectives 3.2 MS PowerPoint 3.3 MS Access 3.4 MS Project 3.5 Summary 3.6 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 3.7 Questions and Exercises

UNIT 4 THE INTERNET AND E-COMMERCE 201-238

4.0 Introduction 4.1 Unit Objectives 4.2 The Internet: An Introduction

4.2.1 Internet Protocols 4.2.2 IP Address

4.3 Searching 4.4 E-Mailing 4.5 Wi-Fi Environment in Modern Offices

4.6 Electronic Advertising 4.7 Basic Models of E-Business 4.8 Mobile Commerce 4.9 Summary

4.10 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 4.11 Questions and Exercises

UNIT 5 BUYING AND SELLING THROUGH THE INTERNET 239-264

5.0 Introduction 5.1 Unit Objectives 5.2 E-Payment and Electronic Fund Transfer

5.2.1 Digital Wallets 5.2.2 Digital Cash 5.2.3 Online Stored Value System 5.2.4 Digital Accumulating 5.2.5 RIGS or Real Time Gross Settlement 5.2.6 NEFT or National Electronic Funds Transfer 5.2.7 E-Ticketing

5.3 Balance Payment System 5.3.1 Digital Credit Card System 5.3.2 Digital Cheque Payment System 5.3.3 IT for Supply Chain

5.4 Payment Gateway and Security Systems 5.4.1 Protecting Internet Communication Using Encryption

5.5 E-Banking 5.6 Smartcards and Plastic Money 5.7 Summary 5.8 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 5.9 Questions and Exercises

UNIT 6 ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE (EDI) 265-317

6.0 Introduction 6.1 Unit Objectives 6.2 Electronic Data Interchange and Enterprise Resource Planning System 6.3 Emergence of Data Mining and Data Warehousing

6.3.1 Evolution of Data Mining and Data Warehousing 6.4 Data Mining 6.5 Data Warehousing (DWH) 6.6 Developing a Data Mining and Warehousing Framework

6.6.1 Data Mining and Warehousing Challenges 6.6.2 Impact of Data Mining and Warehousing

6.7 Online Office Suites and Paperless Office 6.8 Telecommunications

6.8.1 Components and Functions of a Telecommunications System 6.9 Teleconferencing

6.10 Telecommuting or Telework 6.11 Virtual Team 6.12 Virtual Business 6.13 Summary 6.14 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 6.15 Question and Exercises

Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Computers have brought about major cY inges in all spheres of life :in fact, it is extremely difficult to imagine the world without cmiputers. Compute-rs help us communicate

using modems, telephones and Wi-Fi faclities. Through +Lae Internet and e-mail, we

now have the ability to communicate with anybody in any part of the world in a matter of minutes. E-mail facilities of the Inteniet have been .a boon to society, especially in terms of time saved. The fact that computers have made a big impact on many aspects

be questioned. They have opetaed up an entire world of knowledge of our lives can hardly and information that is readily accessible. The computers need software to do specialized tasks. The software used in a computer system is grouped into applications software, system software and utility software:. Toay, we use computer systems in the organizations to automate the work with r,he li;lp of specific software. Office automation is the attempt to use new technology to improve a working environment. The term òffice automation' refers to all tools and methods that are applied to office activities which make it possible to process written, visual and audio data in a computer aided manner. It is intended to provide elements which make it possible to simplify, improve and automate the organization of the activities of a company or a group of people, such as management of administrative data, synchronization of meetings, etc.

Communication, as a process, is as old as human civilization itself. People belonging to different civilizations relied on different modes of communication dependingy upon the level of scientific and technological advancement made during the era the rt lived in. Prior to the invention of computer networks, which we of telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines

on some so and initial

computers was performed by people by taking instructions back and forth between these machines. Computer networks form the core of the present-day modern communication. The scope and importance of communication has increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the progressively advancing computer network. Computer networking is concerned with communication between computer systems or devices. Computer networking is treated by many as a sub-discipline of telecommunications, computer science, information technology and/or computer engineering.

Besides, the advances in teleconununication technologies have made it possible

for computers to interact with each other to provide services to all

ial to know lines of business.

more The study of computer networks and the Internet becomes essent about computing techniques and communication technologies. It is now inevitable for

h-tech company professionals to beginners, to have a good insight everybody, fromhig of the principles of computer networks to become aware of how it can be used in the growth of networking and thereafter the Internet which has influenced almost every aspect of life. Conveniences like ATM services, the Internet, wireless telephony and electronic mail could not have been possible without computer networks. Communication facilities available with an organization or with an individual measure

the level of standard for them.

NOTES

Self-Instructional Material 1

Introduction Considering the requirements of organizations increased comr,:iunication, today office automation is not only limited to simply capturing handwritten notes but it also includes the following activities:

• Exchange of information

• Management of administrative dc•cuments

• Handling of numerical data

• Buying and Selling through the Internet

• Creating PowerPoint Presentatiolis

• Meeting planning and nanagenkmt of work schedules using Microsoft Word and Microsoft Exal

This book, Office Automation, Pas been. written in the self-instructional mode or the SIM format wherein each Unit bees, wit '; an 'Introduction' to the topic, followed by an outline of the 'Unit Objectives'. ibe detailed content is then presented in a simple and structured form interspersed with 'Check Your Progress' questions to facilitate a better understanding of the topics discussed. The 'Key Terms' are given on respective pages to help the student revise what he/she has learnt. A 'Summary' along with a set of 'Questions and Exercises' is also provided at the end of each unit for effective recapitulation.

Ow-

NOTES

-

2 Self-Instructional Material

Computer System: An Introduction

NOTES

UNIT 1 COMPUTER SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION

Structure 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Unit Objectives 1.2 Basics and Evolution of Computing

1.2.1 History and Generation of Computer 1.3 Hardware and Software Aspects

1.3.1 Types of Software 1.4 Modern IT Accessories 1.5 Operating Systems and Application Software 1.6 Introduction to Network Setting 1.7 The Internet and Intranet 1.8 Information Needs of Business and IT Support 1.9 Impact of IT on Business Excellence

1.10 Summary 1.11 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 1.12 Question and Exercises

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about fundamentals of working with computers. A computer is a programmable machine designed to automatically process a sequence of various arithmetic or logical operations. The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface. A computer consists of memory which stores information and data in the form of text, images and graphics, and audio and video files. CPU performs the arithmetic and logic operations with the help of a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on the information that has been stored in memory. In this unit, you will also learn about the basics of networking and the Internet. A network is a connection of independent computers which communicate with one another over a shared network medium. A channel may be defined as a path between a transmitter and receiver. This unit discusses the channel characteristics with respect to data transmission. A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information and also demodulates that carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The function of modem is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data in case of message failure. Finally, you will learn about the impact of IT on todays business technologies.

1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• Learn about the basics and evolution of computing

• Explain the hardware and software aspects

• Discuss the modern IT accessories

• Explain the significance of operating systems and application software


Computer: A computer is a programmable machine designed to automatically process a sequence of various arithmetic or logical operations

NOTES



• Understand the network settings • Discuss about the significance of the Internet and Intranet • Analyse needs of business and IT support

• Explain the impact of IT on business excellence

1.2 BASICS AND EVOLUTION OF COMPUTING

A computer is a programmable machine designed to automatically process a sequence of various arithmetic or logical operations. The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface. A computer consists of memory which stores information and data in the form of text, images and graphics, and audio and video files. CPU or Central Processing Unit performs the arithmetic and logic operations with the help of a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on the information that has been stored in memory. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from an external source and allow the results of operations to be sent out. A Central Processing Unit or CPU executes a series of instructions to read, manipulate and store the data. The control unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit or ALU, memory registers and basic Input/Output or 1/0 devices are collectively known as a Central Processing Unit or CPU. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are known as peripherals. On a Personal Computer or PC, peripherals include input devices, such as the keyboard and mouse, and output devices, such as visual display unit or monitor and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disk drives serve, memory devices. A graphicsprocessiffraffit is used to display 3-Dimensional or 3-D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain various smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/0 operations. Memory refers to the physical devices which are used to store programs, i.e., sequences of instructions or data, in a computer system. Data is stored either in hard disk or in secondary memory devices, such as tape, magnetic disks, optical disks, Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) and Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD-ROM). Memory is associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e., integrated circuits consisting of silicon based transistors, used for example as primary memory but also other purposes in computers and other electronics devices.

Basic Functions of a Computer

There are three basic functions of a computer are as follows:

• Data Processing: A computer must be able to process data.

• Data Storage: A computer must be able to store data. Even if data is supplied to a computer on the fly, for processing and producing the result immediately, the computer must be able to store that data temporarily. Apart from short term data storage, it is equally important for a computer to perform a long term storage function to store different files.

• Data Movement: A computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world. The computer operating environment consists of devices that serve as data sources or destinations. When data is received from or delivered to a machine that is directly linked to a computer, the process is known as input/ output and the devieetrusedfor this purpose are referred as input/output devices. When data moves over longer distances, to or from a remote machine, the process is known as data communication.

Computer System:

An Introduction Functional Units of a Computer

In its simplest form, a computer consists of five functionally independent components, namely, input, output, memory, arithmetic logic unit and control unit as shown in Figure 1.1.

A computer accepts information in the form of a program and data through its input unit, which can be an electromechanical device, such as a keyboard or from other computers over digital communication lines. The information received by the computer is either stored in the memory for later reference or used immediately by the ALU or Arithmetic Logic Unit for performing the desired operations. Finally, the processed information in the form of results is displayed through an output unit. The control unit controls all the activities taking place inside the computer. The ALU along with the control unit are collectively known as the CPU or processor, and the input and output units are collectively known as the Input/Output (I/O) unit.

Input Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit

Output Unit Memory Control Unit

I/O

Central Processing Unit

Fig. 1.1 Functional Units of a Computer

• Input Unit: Acomputer accepts input in coded form through an input unit. The keyboard is an input device. Whenever a key is pressed, the binary code of the corresponding letter or digit is transferred to the memory unit or processor. Other types of input devices are mouse, punch card, joysticks, etc.

• Memory Unit: The task of the memory unit is to safely store programs as well as input, output and intermediate data. The two different classes of memory are primary and secondary storage. The primary memory or the main memory is part of main computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it. Primary storage contains a large number of semiconductor cells capable of storing one bit of information. A group (of fixed size) of these cells is referred as words and the number of bits in each word is referred as word length which typically ranges from 16 to 64 bits. When the memory is accessed, usually one word of data is read or written. Secondary memory is not directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks lice hard drives and floppy disks; optical disks, such as CD-ROMS and magnetic tapes.

NOTES



• Processor Unit: The processor unit performs arithmetic and other data processing tasks as specified by a program.

• Control Unit: It oversees the flow of data among the other units. The control unit retrieves the instructions from a program (one by one) which are safely kept in the memory. For each instruction, the control unit tells the processor to execute the operation marked by the instruction. The control unit supervises the program instructions and the processor manipulates the data specified by the programs.

• Output Unit: The output unit receives the result of the computation which is displayed on the screen or printed on paper using a printer.

1.2.1 History and Generation of Computer

The first mechanical adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Later, in 1671, Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany invented the first calculator for multiplication. Around this time, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards, which were extensively used as an input medium in mechanical adding machines.

Charles Babbage, a 19th century professor at Cambridge University, is considered the father of the modern digital computer. During this period, mathematical and statistical tables were prepared by a group of clerks. However, utmost care and precautions could not eliminate human errors.

In 1842, Babbage came up with his new idea of the Analytical Engine which was intended to be completely automatic. This machine was capable of performing basic arithmetic functions. But, these machines were difficult to manufacture because the precision engineering required to manufacture them was not available at that time.

The following is a brief description of the evolution of computers over the years.

• Mark I Computer (1937-44): This was the first fully automatic calculating machine designed by Howard A. Aiken and the design of this computer was based on the technique of punching card machinery. In this technique, both mechanical and electronic components were used.

• Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42): This computer was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff to solve certain mathematical equations. It used forty five vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage.

• ENIAC (1943-46): The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was the first electronic computer developed for military requirements and was used for many years to solve ballistic problems.

• EDVAC (1946-52): One of the drawbacks of ENIAC was that its programs were wired on boards which made it difficult to change them. To overcome the drawbacks of ENIAC, the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed. The basic idea behind this concept was to store sequences of imtructions in the memory of the computer for automatically directing the flow of operations.

• EDSAC (1947-49): Professor Maurice Wilkes developed the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) by which addition and multiplication operations could be accomplished.

• UNIVAC I (1951): The UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer to be installed in the Census Bureau in 1951 and was used for a decade.

NOTES

6 serf-Instructional Material

In 1952, International Business Machines (IBM) introduced the 701 commercial computers. These computers were used for scientific and business purposes.

The size, shape, cost and performance of computers have changed over the years, but the basic logical structure has not. Any computer system essentially consists of three important parts, namely, input device, CPU and output device. The CPU itself consists of the main memory, the arithmetic logic unit and the control unit.

In addition to the three basic parts mentioned above, computers also employ secondary storage devices (also referred to as auxiliary storage or backing storage) which are used for storing data and instructions on a long term basis.

Any computer system can perform the following five basic tasks:

• Inputting: The process when the user feeds in the set of commands or instructions into the computer system to process data.

• Storing: The process of recording data and information so that it can be retrieved for use whenever required.

• Processing: Performing arithmetic or logical operations on data to convert them into useful information. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and logical operations include comparisons, such as equal to, less than and greater than, etc.

• Outputting: This is the process of providing results to the user. These can be in the form of visual display and/or printed reports.

• Controlling: This refers to directing the sequence and the manner in which all these previous tasks are carried out.

Capabilities and Limitations of Computers

The increasing popularity of the computer has proved that it is a powerful and useful tool. Its usefulness is due to its following features:

• Speed: Computers are very fast. They can process millions of instructions per second. The speed is related to the amount of data it processes and the time it takes to complete the processing task.

• Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of information in the form of files which can be recalled at any time. These files help in easy and speedy retrieval of information. This type of storage is known as electronic storage system.

• Accuracy: In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. The degree of accuracy fora particular computer depends upon its design. Most errors in computers are non-technical. Generally, programmers are responsible for these errors.

• Diligence: Computers are diligent as they can perform any complicated task accurately without making any error. Computers do not suffer from carelessness, boredom or tiredness. Moreover, their efficiency does not decrease with age.

• Versatility: Computers perform various tasks depending upon the instructions fed into them and their hardware characteristics. They are capable of performing any task, provided the task is reduced to a series of logical steps. A computer can be used to prepare a Word document and in between called to search for another document that is stored in its memory. It can perform both tasks simultaneously.

• No Intelligence Quotient or IQ: Computers do not have their own intelligence and their IQ is zero. Hence, the user can and has to decide what tasks a computer should perform.


NOTES

Storing: The process of recording data and information so that it can be retrieved for use whenever required



• No Feelings: Computers have no feelings because they are machines. They cannot make judgements as they process on the basis of a set of instructions, called programs provided by the users.

Though computers can do better than human beings in terms of accuracy, speed and memory, but even then there are certain limitations of computer systems because they depend on human beings for their operations and functions. The following are some of the limitations of computers:

• Human beings program them for efficient, accurate and fast functioning.

• Computers cannot think intelligently and work independently like huttran beings. • They follow instructions given by programs or by users.

• They can neither take decisions nor can correct wrong instructions.

• Programmers or users maintain and update them.

• As with many other modern appliances, computers also need electric power to run.

Table 1.1 will help you understand the generation of computers.

Table 1.1 Generatiot of Computers

Generation Time Hardware Software Features Examples

I 1942- Vacuum Tubes Machine High speed electronic switching ENIAC, 1955 Language

(Binary Language)

device; memory type was electromagnetic; bulky in size; generated a large amount of heat; frequent technical faults; required constant maintenance; used for scientific purposes; air conditioning required

EDVAC. EDSAC. UNIVAC I

11 1955- Transistors High level Better electronic switching devices Livermore 1964 languages

FORTRAN,

COBOL.

ALGOL,

SNOBOL

than vacuum tubes; made of germanium semiconductors; memory type was magnetic cores; powerful and more reliable; easy to handle; much smaller than vacuum tubes; generated less heat as compared to vacuum tubes; used for business and industries for commercial data processing; air conditioning required

Atomic Research Computer (LARC).

IBM

III 1964- Integrated High level ICs were smaller than transistors; Mainframe, 1975 Circuits (ICs)

made up of transistors, resistors and capacitors fixed on single silicon chip

languages

Pl./1,

PASCAL.

BASIC, VISUAL BASIC, C, C++, C#, Java

consumed less power; dissipated less heat as compared to transistors; more reliable and faster than earlier generations; capable of performing about I million instructions per second; large storage capacity; used for both scientific and commercial purposes; air conditioning required

Minicomputers

IV 1975- Microprocessor Advanced Java Microprocessor had control on Personal 1989 made up of Large

Scale Integration (LSI) Circuits and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Circuits

(J2EE, HX), JavaBeans). PHP. HTML. XML SQL

logical instructions and memory; semiconductor memories; personal computers were assembled; used in LAN and WAN to connect multiple computers at a time: used graphical user interface; smaller, more reliable and cheaper than third generation computers; larger primary and secondary storage memories; had

Computers (PCs),

LAN,

WAN.

CSCW

Computer Supported Cooperative Working (CSCW); air conditioning not required

V 1989- Ultra Scale Large Artificial PCs were assembled; portable and Portable PCs,

Present integration (USU), Optical Disks

Intelligence,

PROLOG,

OPS5,

non-portable, powerful desktop PCs and workstations; less prone to hardware failure: user-friendly features - Internet. c-mailing; air

Palmtop Computers.

Laptop

Mercury conditioning not required

NOTES


Fig. 1.2 Computer System

Fig. 1.3 Motherboard

Motherboard: A motherboard is the main PCB (Printed Circuit Board). It is basically a flat fibreglass platform which hosts the CPU (Central Processing Unit), the main electronic components, device controller chips, main memory slots, slots for attaching the storage devices and other subsystems

NOTFS

1.3 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ASPECTS

The physical components which you can see, touch and feel in computer system are called hardware (refer Figure 1.2).

Motherboard

A motherboard is the main PCB (Printed Circuit Board), sometimes alternatively known as a logical board or a main board of a Personal Computer or in fact any complex electronic system. It is basically a flat fibreglass platform which hosts the CPU (Central Processing Unit), the main electronic components, device controller chips, main memory slots, slots for attaching the storage devices and other subsystems (refer Figure 1.3). Sockets and Ports

The following are some important sockets and ports that are used in a computer system.

Main Power Socket: On the top part of the rear of your computer system, you will find the main power cable socket which supplies power from the electric mains to the computer system. This socket is the part of the main power supply unit of your computer (refer Figure 1.4).

Fig. 1.4 Main Power Socket

Monitor Power Socket: Right below the main power cable socket is the socket that supplies the power from the computer system to the computer monitor. In some computers where you might not find this socket, you can plug in the monitor directly in main power supply.

PS/2 Mouse Port: Next you will find a small round green colored port with six pin connector and a small logo of the mouse printed next to it. This is where your PS/2 Mouse will be plugged in.



:10

Socket

Socket Mouse cable

Cable

Socket Cable

Fig. 1.5 CPU Power Cables

'14C=1; Keyboard Cable Cable 0

Socket

VGA port: It is a 15-pin

connector that connects the

signal cable of the monitor

to the computer

NOTES



PS/2 Keyboard Port: Right next to it you will find another similar purple colored port with the keyboard logo printed next to it. This is where your PS/2 keyboard will be plugged in.

Fan Housings: You will notice two fan housings at the back of your computer. One fan housing is a part of the power supply unit and the other will be somewhere below it to cool off the heat generated by the CPU.

Serial Ports: It is a 9-pin connector normally used to attach the old serial port mouse, hand-held scanners, modems, joysticks, game pads and other such devices.

Parallel Port: It is a 25-pin connector used to attach parallel port printers, modems, external hard disk drives, etc.

Audio Jacks: There are three audio jacks in your computer system. One jack is used for connecting your speakers or headphones, the second is used to connect the microphone and the third to connect to another audio device, such as a music system.

Local Area Network or LAN Port: The LAN port is where the Registered Jack or RJ-45 connector of your LAN cable is plugged in to connect your computer to other computers or the Internet.

Universal Serial Bus or USB Ports: The USB port is designed to connect multiple peripheral devices in a single standardized interface and has a plug and play option that allows devices to be connected or disconnected without restarting or turning off the computer. It can be used for many serial and parallel port devices, such as mouse, printers, modems, joysticks, game pads, scanners, digital cameras and other such devices.

VGA Port: It is a 15-pin connector that connects the signal cable of the monitor to the computer.

Figure 1.5 illustrates the CPU power cables. A CPU socket also known as CPU slot is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and electrical connections between a microprocessor and a PCB. This allows the CPU to be replaced without soldering. Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. LAN cable is used to connect a massive number of personal computers, printers, file servers and workstations in the modem office of business and manufacturing facilities (refer Figure 1.5). Printer cable refers to the cable that carries data between a computer and a printer and is shown in Figure 1.6.

LAN Cable Printer Cable and Socket

Fig. 1.6 LAN and Printer Cables and their Sockets

Unit (AL

11

(AC)

nstruction To/ To/ From

Main Memory or Input/Output

Devices

cs_Lainstt that

Control Signals

Control unit: The control unit not only plays a major role in transmitting data from a device to the CPU and vice versa but also plays a significant role in the functioning of the CPU

NOTES

Self-instructional Material 11

Execution of programs is the main function of the computer. The programs or the set of instructions are stored in the computer's main memory and are executed by the CPU. The CPU processes the set of instructions along with any calculations and comparisons that are required to complete the task. Additionally, the CPU controls and activates various other functions of the computer system. It also activates the peripherals to perform input and output functions.

The CPU consists of three major components as shown in Figure 1.7. The register set (associated with the main memory)

that stores the transitional data while processing .the programs and commands, ALU which performs the necessary microoperations for processing the programs and commands and the control unit that controls the transmitting of information amongst the registers and directs the ALU on the instructions to follow.

Fig. 1.7 Major Components of CPU Control Unit

The control unit not only plays a major role in transmitting data from a device to the CPU and vice versa but also plays a significant role in the functioning of the CPU. It actually does not process the data but manages and coordinates the entire computer system including the input and the output devices. It retrieves and interprets the commands of the programs stored in the main memory and sends signals to other units of the system for execution. It does this through some special purpose registers and a decoder. The special purpose register called the instruction register holds the current instruction to be executed and the program control register holds the next instruction to be executed. The decoder interprets the meaning of each instruction supported by the CPU. Each instruction is also accompanied by a microcode, i.e., the basic directions to tell the CPU how to execute the instruction.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit or ALU

The ALU is responsible for arithmetic and logic operations. This means that when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves an arithmetic operation (add, subtract, multiply, divide) or a logic operation (equal to, less than, greater than), it passes control to the ALU which has the necessary circuitry to carry out these arithmetic and logic operations.

Figure 1.8 represents the basic structure of a CPU. Data Processing Unit

Program Control Unit

Fig. 1.8 Basic Structure of a CPU

'LAW,


NOTES

Memory: It is used for storage and retrieval of instructions and data in a computer system

Instruction set: The list of specific instructions supported by the CPU is termed as its Instruction set


Computer System:

An Introduction As an example, a comparison of two numbers (a logical operation) may require

the control unit to load the two numbers in the requisite registers and then pass on the execution of the 'compare' function to the ALU.

Memory

Memory is used for storage and retrieval of instructions and data in a computer system. The CPU contains several registers for storing data and instructions. But these can store only a few bytes. If all the instructions and data being executed by the CPU were to reside in secondary storage, such as magnetic tapes and disks, and loaded into the registers of the CPU as the program execution proceeded, it would lead to the CPU being idle for most of the time, since the speed at which the CPU processes data is much higher than the speed at which data can be transferred from disks to registers. Every computer thus requires storage space where instructions and data of a program can reside temporarily when the program is being executed. This temporary storage area is built into the computer hardware and is known as the primary storage or main memory. Devices that provide backup storage, such as magnetic tapes and disks are called secondary storage or auxiliary memory. A memory system is mainly classified into the following categories.

Internal Processor Memory

This is a small set of high speed registers placed inside a processor and used for storing temporary data while processing.

Primary Storage Memory

This is the main memory of the computer which communicates directly with the processor. This memory is large in size and fast, but not as fast as the internal memory of the processor. It comprises a couple of integrated chips mounted on a printed circuit board plugged directly on the motherboard. RAM is an example of primary storage memory.

Secondary Storage Memory

This stores all the system software and application programs and is basically used for data backups. It is much larger in size and slower than primary storage memory. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and flash drives are few examples of secondary storage memory.

Memory Capacity

Capacity, in a computer system, is defined in terms of the number of bytes that it can store in its main memory. This is usually stated in terms of KiloBytes (KB) which is 1024 bytes or MegaBytes (MB) which is equal to 1024 KB (10,48,576 bytes). The rapidly increasing memory capacity of computer systems has resulted in defining the capacity in terms of GigaBytes (GB) which is 1024 MB (1,07,37,41,824 bytes). Thus a computer system having a memory of 256 MB is capable of storing (256 x 1024 x 1024) 26,84,35,456 bytes or characters.

Instruction Set

The primary function of the processing unit in the computer is to interpret the instructions given in a program and carry out the instructions. Processors are designed to interpret a specified number of instruction codes. Each instruction code is a string of binary digits. All processors have input/output instructions, arithmetic instructions, logic instructions, branch instructions and instructions to manipulate characters. The number

NOTES

Registers: The primary task that the CPU performs is the execution of instructions


Computer System: An Introduction and type of instructions differ from processor to processor. The list of specific instructions

supported by the CPU is termed as its Instruction set.

An instruction in the computer should specify the following:

• The task or operation to be carried out by the processor. This is termed as the opcode.

• The address(s) in memory of the operand(s) on which the data processing is to be performed.

• The address in the memory that may store the results of the data processing operation performed by the instruction.

• The address in the memory for the next instruction to be fetched and executed.

The next instruction, which is executed, is normally the next instruction following the current instruction in the memory. Therefore, no explicit reference to the next instruction is provided.

Instruction Representation An instruction is divided into a number of fields and is represented as a sequence of bits. Each of the fields constitutes an element of the instruction. A layout of an instruction

is termed as the instruction format (refer Figure 1.9).

14-- 4 Bits ►1

12 Bits

Fig. 1.9 A Sample Instruction Format

In most instruction sets, many instruction formats are used. An instruction is first read into an Instruction Register (IR) and then it is decoded by the CPU which extracts the required operands on the basis of references made on the instruction fields, and processes it. Since the binary representation of the instruction is difficult to comprehend, it is seldom used for representation. Instead, a symbolic representation is used. Table 1.2 summarizes the examples of typical instructions.

Table 1.2 Examples of Typical Instructions

ADD A,B,C Operation A = B + C is executed.

A = A + B. In this case the original content of operand location A is lost.

3

ADD A,B

ADD A

2

AC = AC + A. Here A is added to the accumulator.

1

Typically, CPUs manufactured by different manufacturers have different instruction sets. This is why machine language programs developed for a particular CPU do not run on a computer with a different CPU (having a different instruction set).

Registers The primary task that the CPU performs is the execution of instructions. It executes every instruction by means of a number of small operations known as microoperations. Thus, it can be seen that:

• The CPU needs an extremely large main memory.

• The speed of the CPU must be as fast as possible.

Computer System:

An Introduction

To understand further, let us define two relevant terms:

• Memory Cycle Time: Time taken by the CPU to access the memory • Cycle Time of the CPU: The time that the CPU takes for executing the shortest

well defined microoperation

It has been observed that the time taken by the CPU to access the memory is about 1-10 times higher than the time that the CPU takes for executing the shortest well-defined microoperation. Therefore, CPU registers serve as temporary storage areas within the CPU. CPU registers, are termed as fast memory and can be accessed almost instantaneously.

Further, tlibliiiiitld'ofbits a register can store at a time is called the length of the register. Most CPUs sold today have 32-bit or 64-bit registers. The size of the register is also called the word size and it indicates the amount of data that a CPU can process at a time. Thus, the bigger the word size, the faster the computer can process data.

The number of registers varies among computers but typical registers found in most computers include:

• Memory Buffer Register: When data is received from the memory it is temporary held in the Memory Buffer Register or MBR.

• Memory Address Register: The memory location's address where data is to be stored (in case of write operations) and the location from where data is to be accessed (in case of read operations) is specified by Memory Address Register or MAR.

• Accumulator: Interactions with the ALU are carried out by the Accumulator or AC, in which the output and input operands are stored. This register, therefore, holds the initial data to be operated upon, the intermediate results and the final results of processing operations.

• Program Counter: The next instruction to be executed subsequent to the execution of current instruction is tracked by the Program Counter or PC.

• Instruction Register: Instructions are loaded in the instruction register prior to being executed, i.e., the instruction register holds the current instruction that is being executed.

Instruction processing, in its simplest form, can be defined as a two step process:

• Codes or instructions are read (fetched) from the CPU one by one.

• The operation indicated by that particular instruction is performed or executed.

The PC fetches the instruction and tracks which instruction to fetch next. Since the execution of a program is in a sequential manner, the PC usually fetches the next instruction in the sequence. This instruction appears in the binary code form and is loaded into an IR. It is then interpreted by the CPU and the desired action is carried out. Generally, the following categories can be identified for these actions:

• Data Transfer: Data can be transferred from I/0 to CPU, from CPU to I/0, from memory to CPU or from CPU to memory.

• Data Processing: A logic or an arithmetic operation may be carried out on the data by the CPU.

• Sequence Control: This action is typically required for altering the sequence in which the instructions are executed. For instance, if an instruction from location 50 specifies that the next instruction to be fetched should be from

NOTES

Data processing: A logic or an arithmetic operation may be carried out on the data by the CPU


NOTES

Microprocessor: The processor in a personal computer that is embedded in small devices


Computer System:

An Introduction location 100, then the program counter will need to be modified to contain the location 100 (which otherwise would have contained 51).

Instructions can be executed involving many combinations of these actions.

Processors used in PCs

The Central Processing Unit or the CPU is the most important component of the computer. The CPU itself is an internal part of the computer system and is usually a microprocessor based chip housed on single or at times multiple printed circuit boards. The CPU is directly inserted on the motherboard and each motherboard is compatible with a specific series of CPUs only. The CPU generates a lot of heat and has a heat sink, and a cooling fan attached on the top which helps it to disperse heat.

The market of microprocessors is dominated primarily by Intel and AMD, both of which manufacture International Business Machines or IBM compatible CPUs. Motorola also manufactures CPUs for Macintosh based PCs. Cyrix, another IBM compatible CPU manufacturer is next in line after Motorola in the market, in terms of global sales.

Processor Speed

The term processor has replaced the term central processing unit. The processor in a personal computer that is embedded in small devices is often called a microprocessor.

The speed at which the processor executes commands is called the processor speed or clock speed. Every computer contains an internal clock known as the system clock that regulates the rate at which the instructions are executed and synchronizes the various computer components. The processor requires a fixed number of clock cycles (electric pulses per second) to execute each instruction. Clock cycles are required to fetch, decode and execute a single program instruction. Thus, the shorter the clock cycle, the faster the processor.

In a computer, clock speed therefore, refers to the number of pulses per second generated by an oscillator that sets the tempo for the processor. It is usually measured in MHz (Megahertz - Million pulses per second) or GHz (Gigahertz - Billion pulses per second).

Computer clock speed has been roughly doubling every year. The Intel 8088, common in computers around the year 1990, ran at 4.77 MHz: Today's personal computers run at clock speeds of a 100-1000MHz and some even exceed one Gigahertz.

Although the processing speed in personal computers is measured in terms of Megahertz, the processing speed of mini computers and mainframe systems is measured in terms ofMIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second) or BIPS (Billions of Instructions Per Second). This is because personal computers generally employ a single microprocessor chip as their CPU while other classes of computers employ multiple processors to speed up their overall performance. Thus, a minicomputer having a speed of 500 MIPS is capable of executing 500 million instructions per second.

Clock speed is a measure of computer 'power,' but it is not always directly proportional to the performance level. If you double the speed of the clock, leaving all other hardware unchanged, you will not necessarily double the processing speed. The type of microprocessor, the bus architecture and the nature of the instruction set, all collectively make a difference. In some applications the amount of Random Access Memory (RAM) is important too.

Computer System:

An Introduction Types of Processors

The brands of CPUs listed are not the only differentiating factors between different processors. There are various technical aspects to these processors which allow us to differentiate between CPUs of different power, speed and processing capability. Accordingly, each of these manufacturers sells numerous product lines offering CPUs of different architecture, speed, price range, etc. The following are the most common aspects of modern CPUs that enable us to judge their quality or performance:

• 32 or 64-bit Architecture: A bit is the smallest unit of data that a computer processes. 32 or 64-bit architecture refers to the number of bits that the CPU can process at a time.

• Clock Rate: The speed at which the CPU performs basic operations, measured in Hertz (Hz) or in modern computers MHz or GHz.

• Number of Cores: CPUs with more than one core are essentially multiple CPUs running in parallel to enable more than one operation to be performed simultaneously. Current ranges of CPUs offer up to eighs. Currently, the Dual core (i.e.; two cores) CPU is most comOtylliWor standard desktops and laptoritirMad core (i.e., four cores) islittrffreierry level servers.

• Additional Technology or Instruction Sets: These refer to unique features that a particular CPU or range of CPUs offer to provide additional processing power or reduced running temperature. These range from Intel's MMX, Streaming Single Instruction Multiple Data Extension or SSE3, and HT to AMD's 3DNOW and Cool n Quiet.

These technical factors are the basic way to judge how a CPU will perform. It is important to consider multiple factors when looking at a CPU rather than just the clock speed or any one specification on its own. For example, a 64-bit 3GHz processor with one core may perform poorly in comparison to a 32-bit 2GHz processor with two cores. Similarly, different processors are better suited for different tasks. For instance, Motorola processors are always rated higher for graphic applications than Intel or AMD processors (which perhaps explains why Macintosh uses them for their computers). It is very easy for a single-core processor to run music videos, the Internet applications or games individually, but when multiple applications are run together, it starts to slow down. A system running on a dual-core processor would be able to multitask better then a single-core processor, while it is very easy for an 8-core processor to run all these applications plus a lot more without showing any signs of slowing down. However, Intel's 4-core processors are actually two dual-core processors combined in a single processor, whereas AMD's 4-core processors are actually four processors built in a single chip.

It is not true that more the number of processors, the faster it gets, but it is true that more the numhiesiont7deesors, the higher is the processing capability.

Therefore, a combination of the above mentioned specifications along with the operating systems thatihe psoaessor supports and the specific purpose for which the computer is to be used, are the factors that can be considered when deciding which CPU is the most suitable for your needs.

The various types of popular, high performing and cost efficient CPUs ranging from the last decade to the present are given as follows:

Intel Processors • Intel 8086, 80286, 80386 & 80486 (Discontinued Line).

NOTES

Clock rate: The speed at which the CPU performs basic operations. measured in Hertz (Hz) or in modern computers MHz plNz..



• Intel Pentium 1, 2, 3 & 4 (Single Core, 32-Bit ).

• Intel Celeron and Celeron D (Single Core).

• Intel Celeron D and Pentium 4 (Pentium D — Dual Core, 2 Sets of Ll and L2 Caches).

• Intel Xeon, Xeon MP and Itanium (Dual/Quad-Core, 64-Bit and L1, L2, L3 Cache. Xeons currently come in two flavours: DP and MP. DP means 'Dual Processing', up to 2 processors in symmetric multiprocessing. MP means `MultiProcessof , as in more than 2, up to 8.

Advanced Micro Devices or AMD Processors

• AMD Socket-7 & K6 (Single Core, 32-Bit).

• Duron and Sempron (462/754 Socket, up to 1.8 GHz, Single Core, 32-Bit, L2 Cache).

• Athlon XP/XP-M Processors.

• Athlon MP Processors.

• Athlon64 (Single/ Dual-Core, 64-Bit, Socket 754, L2 Cache).

• Athlon64 & AthlonFX (Speeds up to 4 GHz, Socket 939, Dual Channel Memory controller).

• Opteron, OpteronMP, Early AthlonFX (Socket 940).

• Phenom (AMD Socket AM2+ Quad-Core Processor, 64-Bit, LI, L2 & L3 Cache).

• Phenom (Socket AM3).

The eight-core, 64-bit processor that can run as fast as 3-4GHz is the most advanced processor available today. Quad-core 64-bit chips have been released by AMD and Intel.

Computer Software A computer cannot do any work on its own. It depends on the logical sequence of instructions to perform any function. This logical sequence of instructions is termed as a 'computer program' and it is a part of the computer software. Basically, the sequences of instructions are the algorithms that step wise instruct the computer what to do. Hence, a computer cannot work without software. The term 'software' was first used in print by John W. Ilikey in 1958.

There are various types of software designed to perform specific tasks. The different types of computer software are interpreter, assembler, compiler, operating systems, networking, word processing, accounting, presentation, graphics, computer games and so on. The computer software converts the instructions in a program into a machine language so that the computer can execute it.

Computer software is developed and designed by computer software engineers on the principles of basic mathematical analysis and logical reasoning. The software once developed is evaluated and tested before it is implemented. Thus, the programming software allows you to develop the desired instruction sequences, whereas in the application software the instruction sequences are predefined. Computer software can function from only a few instructions to millions of instructions, for example, a word processor or a Web browser. Figure 1.10 shows how software interacts between user and computer system.

NOTES


System software: It helps in the proper functioning of computer hardware and includes device "itritersia, operating systems, servers and utilities

NOTES



Fig. 1.10 Interaction of Software between User and a Computer System

On the functional basis, software is categorized as follows:

• System Software: It helps in the proper functioning of computer hardware. It includes device drivers, operating systems, servers and utilities.

• Programming Software: It provides tools to help a programmer in writing computer programs and software using various programming languages. It includes mailers, debuggers, interpretemtintrgiat editors and an Integrated Development Environment (IDE).

• Application Software: It helps the end users to complete one or more specific tasks. The specific applications include industrial automation, business software, computer games, telecommunications, databases, educational software, medical software and military software.

1.3.1 Types of Software

Software can be applied in countless situations, such as in business, education, social sector and in other fields. The only thing that is required is a defined set of procedural steps. In other words, software can be engaged in any field which can be described in logical and related steps. Each software is designed to suit some specific goals. These goals are data processing, information sharing, promoting communication, and so on. Software is classified according to the range of potential applications. These classifications are listed below:

• System Software: This class of software is responsible for managing and controlling operations of a computer system. System software is a group of programs rather than one program and is responsible for using computer resources efficiently and effectively. Operating system, for example, is system software which controls the hardware, manages memory and multitasking functions, and acts as an interface between applications programs and the computer.

• Real Time Software: This class of software observes, analyzes and controls real world events as they occur. Generally, a real time system guarantees a response to an external event within a specified period of time. The real time software, for example, is used for navigation in which the computer must react to a steady ,flo.A.of mew information without interruption. Most defence organizations all over the world use real time software to control their military hardware.

• Business Software: This class of software is widely used in areas where the management and control of financial activities is of utmost importance. The

fundamental component of a business system comprises payroll, inventory, accounting and software that permits user to access relevant data from the database. These activities are usually performed with the help of specialized business software that facilitates efficient framework in the business operation and in management decisions.

• Engineering and Scientific Software: This class of software has emerged as

the research and development ofnext generation Oka 1001101I0ileirp .dde.t:urifideacnt

technology. ApplicationS, Well as , 111 activities and programming of orbital

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precise calculations on complex numerical data that are obtained during real

time environment. Artificial Intelligence Software: This class of software is used where such

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• problem solving technique is non-algorithmic in nature. The solutions of

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of heuristics. The role of artificial intelligence software is to add certain degrc.„ of intelligence into the mechanical hardware to do the desired work in an agile manner.

• Web Based Software: This class of software acts as an interface between the user and the Internet. Data on the Internet can be in the form of text, audio or video format linked with hyperlinks. Web browser is Web Based software that retrieves Web pages from the Internet. The software incorporates executable instructions written in special scripting languages, such as Common Gateway Interface (CGI) or Active Server Page (ASP). Apart from providing navigation on the Web, this software also supports additional features that are useful while surfing the Internet.

• Personal Computer Software: This class of software is used for official and personal use on daily basis. The personal computer software market has grown over the last two decades from normal text editor to word processor and from simple paint brush to advance image editing software. This software is used predominantly in almost every field, whether it is database management system, financial accounting package or a multimedia based software. It has emerged as a versatile tool for daily life applications. Software can be also classified in terms of how closely software users or software

purchasers are associated with the software development.

• Commercial Off-The-Shelf or COTS: In this category comes the software for which there is no committed user before it is put up for sale. The software users have less or no contact with the vendor during development. It is sold through retail stores or distributed electronically. This software includes commonly used programs, such as word processors, spreadsheets, games, income tax programs, as well as software development tools, such as software testing tools and object modelling tools.

• Customized or Bespoke: In this classification, software is developed for a specific user who is bound by some kind of formal contract. Software developed for an aircraft, for example, is usually done for a particular aircraft making company. They are not purchased 'off-the-shelf like any word processing software.


NOTES

Web based software: This class of software acts as an interface between the user and the Internet


Network software: In this class of software, software and its components interact across a network

NOTES

20 Self-InstructionalMateriaI

(C)

(d) Network

Fig. 1.11 Types of Customized COTS 1


• Customized COTS: In this classification, a user can enter into a contract with the software vendor to develop a COTS product for a special purpose, that is, software can be customized according to the needs of the user. Another growing trend is the development of COTS software components—the components that are purchased and used to develop new applications. The COTS software component vendors are essentially parts stores. These are classified according to their application types. These types are listed as follows and shown in Figure 1.11.

o Standalone Software: This class of software resides on a single computer and does not interact with any other software installed in a different computer.

o Embedded Software: This class of software refers to the part of unique application involving hardware like automobile controller.

o Real Time Software: Operations in this class of software are executed within very short time limits, often microseconds e.g., radar software in air traffic control system.

o Network Software: In this class of software, software and its components interact across a network.

System Software

They consists of all the programs, languages and documentation supplied by the manufacturer with the computer. These programs allow the user to communicate with the computer and write or develop his own programs. This software makes the machine easier to use and makes an efficient use of the resources of the hardware. Systems software are programs held permanently on a machine which relieve the programmer from mundane tasks and improve resource utilization. MS DOS or Microsoft Disk Operating System was one of tie most widely used systems software for IBM compatible microcomputers. Windows and its various versions are popular examples of systems software today. System software are installed permanently on a computer system used for daily routine work.

Operating System and its Types

An Operating System (OS) is the primary control program for managing all other programs in a computer. The other programs, commonly referred as 'application

1

Booting process: Booting comes from the term 'pull yourself up from your boot straps' which means self starting

NOTES


Computer System:

An Introduction programs', use the services provided by the OS through a well defined Application Program Interface (API). Every computer necessarily requires some type of operating system that tells the computer how to operate and utilize other programs installed in the computer. The role of an OS in a computer is similar to the role of a principal in a college who is responsible for the overall management of the college.

Any computer system can be broadly classified in terms of four component

dimensions: • Hardware

• Operating system

• Application programs (like Microsoft Word, Games, Calculator)

• Users (people who work on the computer)

Figure 1.12 illustrates an abstract view showing above mentioned components of the computer system.

User-1 User-2

Calculator Games MS Word

Application Programs

OPERATING SYSTEM

Hardware

Fig. 1.12 Components of a Computer System

Components of an Operating System

An operating system has three main components:

• Control Programs: These control and maintain the operations of a computer. There is an Initial Program Loader (IPL) which is in the form of firmware and is stored in the ROM section of the Memory Unit or MU. When the computer is switched on, the electronic chip is automatically activated and the IPL (Initial Program Loader) reads the Boot Sector Routine (BSR) which resides in the primary memory of the computer.

• System Service Programs: These support the control programs. Each of these is divided into three portions, namely, Linkage Editor, Librarian and Input/ Output control system. A Linkage Editor is an editor program that creates one module from several by resolving cross references among the modules.

• Utility Programs: These programs run on the operating system in order to carry out various user related commands to manage the software by linking the user and the operating system. In MS DOS, for example, the utility programs are FDISK, FORMAT, AaRIB, BACKUP, FIND and others.

Booting Process: Booting comes from the term 'pull yourself up from your boot straps' which means self starting. A computer is assembled to fetch the very first instruction from ROM when power is turned on. When you start up the computer the first instruction known as bootstrap loader is started. It is a simple program to direct the CPU to search the specific system file, i.e., operating system file. The two types of booting processes are warm booting and cold booting. Warm booting is started by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del keys combination while the computer is switched on whereas cold booting is started with the power switching on process. In cold booting, Power-On Self-Test or POST is performed, whereas in warm booting, POST is not performed which decreases the boot up time and the Personal Computer or PC boots faster.


Common Terminology

The following are some of the common terminologies used with operating systenz: • Multitasking: A type of OS that permits multiple programs to run simultaneously

on the same computer. For example, a user of the computer can simultaneously play games while a Word document is being printed. The user is simultaneously working with two different applications, i.e., Word and Games. Operating systems supporting multitasking include UNIX and the Windows range.

• Multithreading: A form of multitasking that permits multiple parts of a software program to be run simultaneously. For example, a user can perform a spell check on a Word document and simultaneously print another Word document. User can work with two different components (Spell Check) and printing of the same application (Word). Operating systems supporting multithreading include UNIX and Windows.

• Multiprocessing: This involves the use of multiple processors (more than one CPU) to simultaneously execute multiple programs. The inclusion of multiple CPUs in a single computer system improves the performance to a large extent. Multiprocessing involves simultaneous processing by a computer system having multiple CPUs whereas multitasking involves simultaneous processing by a computer system with single CPU. Operating systems supporting multiprocessing include UNIX and Windows NT.

• Single User This type of OS does not permit multiple users to use the computer and run programs at the same time. This assumes that at any given time only one user uses the system and runs only one program, i.e., it does not allow two users to concurrently work on the same program. MS DOS is an example.

• Multiuser: This type of OS permits multiple users to use the computer and run programs at the same time, for example, UNIX, Linux and Windows NT.

Functions of an Operating System

The following are the functions of an operating system:

Resource Management: Computer resources include main memory (RAM), storage devices (floppy disk and hard disk drives), and input and output devices (keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer). The Operating System or OS is responsible for:

• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed by various application programs.

• Functioning as a secondary storage management. All application programs, compilers and loaders are stored in the secondary storage (hard disk).

• Dealing with input and output to and from other connected hardware devices, such as printers, hard disks, modems and scanners.

File Management: The OS is responsible for the creation and deletion of files/ directories and the mapping of these files/directories on to the secondary storage. Security Management: The OS is responsible for protecting the resources and information of a computer system from destruction and misuse.

Operating System Services: The OS is responsible for providing a set of services to programs and users of those programs. The main services include:

• Program Execution: It loads the program requested by the user into the memory.

NOTES

Program execution: It loads the program requested by the user into the memory


• Error Detection: It generates messages to each application or user about the status of the operations that have been performed. It constantly detects and corrects errors generated by the system.

• Resource Utilization: It ensures efficient utilization of the computer's resources.

Types of Operating Systems

Types of operating systems are discussed below:

Computer System:

An Introduction

NOTES

1. UNIX

UNIX is an operating system originally developed in 1969 by the employees of AT&T. The most significant stage in the early development of UNIX was in 1973 when it was rewritten in the C programming language (also an AT&T development). This was significant because C is a high level programming language, meaning it was written in a form that is closer to human language than machine code. The philosophy among the IT community at the time dictated that since operating systems dealt primarily with low level and basic computer instructions, they should be written in low level languages that were hardware specific, such as assembly language. The advantages that developing in C gave UNIX were portability and the need to make very little changes for the operating system to run on other computing platforms. Due to this portability UNIX is widely used among the IT community which consisted predominantly ofhigher education institutions, government agencies, and the IT and telecommunication industries.

Currently the main use of UNIX systems is for the Internet or network servers. Commercial organizations also use UNIX for workstations and data servers. UNIX has been used as bases for other operating systems, for example, the Mac OSX is based on a UNIX kernel. An operating system that conforms to industry standards of specifications can be called a UNIX system that means operating systems that are modelled on UNIX but do not conform strictly to these standards by fault or design are known as UNIX-like systems. Initially UNIX systems used Command Line Interface (CLI) for user interaction but now many distributions come with a Graphical User Interface (GUI).

2. Linux

Linux is a UNIX-like operating system originally developed by Linus Torvalds, a student at the University of Helsinki. Since the complete source code for Linux is open and available to everyone, it is referred to as Open Source. The user has the freedom to copy and change the program or distribute it between friends and colleagues.

Technically, Linux is strictly an OS kernel (the kernel is the core of an operating system). The first Linux kernel was released to the public in 1991. It had no networking, ran on limited PC hardware and had little device driver support. Later versions of Linux come with a collection of software including GUI, server programs, networking suites and other utilities to make it a more complete OS. Typically an organization will integrate software with the Linux kernel and release a Linux Distribution. Examples of popular Linux distributions are Red Hat, Mandriva and SUSE. These organizations are commercial ventures, selling their distributions and developing software for profit.

Linux is primarily used as an OS for network and the Internet servers. Of late, it has gained popularity as a desktop OS for general use since the wider inclusion of GUIs and office suite software in distributions. The general features of Linux are:

• Multitasking/Multiuser: Linux allows multiple users to run multiple programs on the same system at the same time.


MS DOS: Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS) is a single user task operating system built by Microsoft

NOTES


• Reliable: A highly reliable and stable OS, it can run for months, even years without rebooting.

• TCP/IP Networking Support: Linux supports most Internet protocols. TCP/IP is built into the kernel itself. TCP/IP is the communication protocol that binds the Internet.

• High Level Security: It has many built-in security features to protect the system from unauthorized access. It stores passwords in encrypted form which cannot be decrypted.

3. Mac OS

Mac OS is the operating system designed for the Apple range of personal computers, the Macintosh. It was first released in 1984 with the original Macintosh computer and was the first OS to incorporate GUI. In fact, in contrast to the other operating systems available at the time which used CLI, Mac OS was a pure GUI as it had no CLI at all. The philosophy behind this approach to operating system design was to make a system that was user friendly and intuitive where MS DOS and UNIX appeared complicated and challenging to use in comparison.

Mac OS was originally very hardware specific, only miming on Apple computers using Motorola 68,000 processors. When Apple started building computers using PowerPC processors and hardware, Mac OS was updated to run on these machines. This was the case since the original Mac OS, until Mac OS version 9 was released in 2000. All these versions of Mac OS were pure GUIs. The release of OSX (or Mac OS 10) was a significant change in the development of Apple operating systems. OSX was built on UNIX technology and introduced better memory management and multitasking capabilities in the OS. It also introduced a CLI for the first time. Previous Mac OS versions had problems with multiple applications causing them to crash while running simultaneously. OSX was originally developed to only run on PowerPC hardware, but since 2006 it has been able to run on Intel or x86 processors. Following are some features of Mac OS:

• First GUI with focus on usability and simplicity in an operating system.

• The intuitive interface and development of publishing and creative software since the first release of Mac OS has made Macintosh computers a favourite in the design and publishing industries.

4. MS DOS

Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS) is a single user task operating system built by Microsoft. It was the most commonly used operating system for PC in the 1980s and Microsoft's first commercialized operating system offering. It was the same operating system that Microsoft developed for IBM's personal computer as a Personal

of microprocessors. MS DOS uses CLI that requires knowledge of a large number of Computer Disk Operating System (PC DOS) and was based on the Intel 8086 family ij

commands. With GUI based operating system becoming popular, MS DOS lost its appeal quickly though it was the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of GUI based Windows operating system ran. Even today you will find that Windows Operating Systems continue to use and support MS DOS within a Windows environment. MS DOS was initially released in 1981 and till now eight versions of it have been released. Today, Microsoft have stopped paying much attention to it and is focusing primarily on the GUI based Windows Operating Systems.


Computer System: An Introduction 5. IBM OS/2

Operating System 2 or OS/2 was a joint effort by IBM and Microsoft for developing a successor to MS DOS and early versions of Microsoft Windows. However, after the huge success of Windows 3.1, Microsoft decided to part ways with IBM which decided to develop the OS/2 operating system itself. Introduced in 1987, this operating system for personal computers was intended to provide an alternative to Microsoft Wmdows for both enterprise and personal users. Though OS/2 looks like Wmdows 3.1, it has features that are similar to UNIX, particularly the multitasking feature and the ability to support multiple users. IBM released OS/2 version 3.0 in 1994 and named it OS/2 WARP in order to highlight its new features as well as to strengthen the brand value which was lost due to IBM and Microsoft's rivalry. OS/2 was the preferred operating system of various banks for their ATM and railways for their Automatic Ticket Vending Machines (ATVM).

6. Windows 3.X The first version of Wmdows 3.0 was released by Microsoft in 1990. It was a graphical interface based package and not a complete operating system, because it required DOS to be installed first on the computer and only after that could it be loaded and used. With the launch of Wmdows 3.11, huge improvements in terms of usability and performance were seen because the user did not have to remember complex DOS commands, work on a single application at a time or suffer from the limited use of input devices, such as a mouse or trackball.

Some of the prominent features of Wmdows 3.0 and 3.11 are a supported GUI where programs could be executed just by double clicking on them and most of the system settings could be modified from one point called the Control Panel; it could perform most of the DOS housekeeping commands, such as creating, renaming and deleting directories, copying, moving, renaming, deleting files, formatting disks, etc.; multiple programs in different windows; interchange of data within different applications using a utility called Clipboard; support for more options, such as fax, drawings, graphical internet browsing; mixed text and graphical documents, etc. Most of the DOS applications could be executed from within the Windows environment and graphical interface was extended to those applications which were designed according to Wmdows.

7. Windows 95 Wmdows 95 was a graphical user interface released by Microsoft Corporation in 1995. It had significant improvements over the earlier version of an operating system distributed by Microsoft under the name of Windows 3.11. In addition to the complete change in the user interface, there were a number of important internal modifications made to the core of the operating system. Wmdows 95, also known as Windows version 4.0 during its development phase, was one of the most successful operating systems of that time. Wmdows 95 operated independently of MS DOS rather than in conjunction with it and reduced the use of MS DOS to only a boot loader for Wmdows 95. Internet Explorer 4.0 was included in the Original Equipment Manufacturer or OEM service release 1 along with Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP support for connecting to the Internet. The final service pack for Wmdows 95 also included Internet Explorer 5.5, which facilitates easy installation of hardware peripherals and software applications through plug 'n' play capabilities under which most devices did not require drivers for using them or can be plugged in without rebooting the system. It supports hybrid compatibility, i.e., in terms of support to

NOTES



previous versions of applications and drivers based upon the 16-bit Windows 3.11 file system, Windows 95 was able to support 16-bit programs and 100 per cent native support to DOS programs while managing 32-bit applications simultaneously.

8. Windows 98

Microsoft released the next version of Windows in 1998. Lie its predecessor, Windows 98 supported a hybrid 16/32-bit file access system and better graphical user interface. It is often referred as an operating system that 'Works Better, Plays Better'. Windows 98 (initially using the codename 'Memphis') integrated Internet Explorer into the user's desktop to allow its users get a global view of technologies over the World Wide Web (WWW) and enable easy access to it.

Multiple displays supported using several Visual Display Units (VDUs) simultaneously to increase the capacity of the desktop and support running of different programs on separate monitors. Help on an extensive and easy to use self help system was provided in its interface. In Windows 98, new interfaces, such as USB and DVD, and Advanced Configuration and Power Interface were also supported.

9. Windows 98 SE

The Wmdows 98 SE (Second Edition) is an improved and enhanced version of Wmdows 98. It includes new versions of Microsoft applications as compared to Windows 98, to improve user experience and stability of the operating system. Some of the new or improved elements of this operating system are: Inclusion of the Internet connection sharing, Windows Driver Model (WDM) for Modems, Wake on LAN, Internet Explorer 5.0, Integrated support for DVD ROM drivers, bug free Windows, Microsoft Plus!, support for Web TV and updates for other Microsoft programs, such as NetMeeting, Microsoft Network or MSN, Microsoft Wallet, Windows media player, etc. -to kW,

10. Windows Millennium Edition

Windows ME (Millennium Edition) was released on 14 September, 2000, targeted especially at home PC users. This OS was in continuation to Windows 98 with restricted access to real mode MS DOS shell to improve functionality. Among other changes Windows ME incorporated was an improved look and feel to the user interface and a system restore option of going back to a previous state of the machine. The key features of this operating system were that it had upgraded version of Microsoft products, such as Internet Explorer 5.5, Windows media player 7, System restore options, applications to easily connect with digital cameras and scanners, Wmdows Movie, Improved Generic support for USB interface and shell extension of ZIP files into the Wmdows Explorer.

11. Windows NT

Microsoft released this version of Windows in 1993. It increased ease of use and simplified management. It used the Windows 95 interface and included advanced network support, trouble free and better access to the Internet and corporate intranets. With the intent of designing it as an operating system capable of supporting high level language and at the same time processor independent, and support a multiuser and multiprocessing environment, Wmdows NT had high acceptance in both the home user and professional user markets. Some of its main features were as follows:

• It became the first Windows OS that combined support for high end client-server business applications.

NOTES


Computer System: An Introduction • It included new features for performance. security, power of operating system,

desktop scalability and dependability.

• It included support for multiprocessor (more than one CPU) architecture.

• Windows NT was geared towards business users and had a rich Application Programming Interface (API) which made it easier to run high end engineering and scientific applications.

• It also supported full 32-bit system of processors and memory addressing (technique of transferring data from Memory) unlike the previous versions of Wmdows which were 16/32-bit hybrids.

Various versions of Windows NT were released over the years, starting from Wmdows NT 3.1 in 1993 to Wmdows NT 4.0 in 1996, after which product development was stopped by Microsoft.

12. Windows 2000 Microsoft released this version ofWmdows in 2000. It was an upgrade from Windows NT 4.0 and was designed with the aim of replacing Windows 95, Wmdows 98 and Windows NT on all business desktops and laptops. This version was easy to use, Internet compatible, and supported mobile computing. It made hardware installation much easier by including support for a range of new plug and play devices, including advanced networking and wireless products, infrared and USB devices. The main features of Microsoft Wmdows 2000 were: Dump capabilities, wherein the operating system gave its users the option of dumping either a part of the memory or the entire contents into a file on the hard drive which helped in saving critical information in case of a system failure; Microsoft Management Control to control the access to administrative tools and system settings, and Recovery Console to support the distributed file system.

13. Windows 2003 Windows 2003 was released by Microsoft on 24 April, 2003. This OS was designed and developed over various functional parts of Windows 2000 and Windows XP. It boasted better stability, compatibility and security than Wmdows 2000 and XP. It improved performance of the system by taking advantage of the recent hardware developments, redesigning the system interface and developing better services. Major updates of Microsoft in-house applications and services, such as Networking, Web Server, Compatibility with Windows NT, etc., were released with this OS.

The main features of this OS are: support for 64-bit processors, Internet Information Services V6.0, a separate Web Edition of Windows 2003 specially designed as a Web Server, tighter security measures over previous versions of Windows using built-in firewall, support of a hardware-based monitoring system called 'watchdog timer' which could monitor the server for hangups and freezes, Virtual disk services for offsite storage and support for multiple roles, such as that of a Web server, print server and storage server.

14. Windows XP Windows XP was first released on 25 October, 2001 and since then over 600 million copies have sold worldwide. It is a successor to both Windows 2000 and Windows ME, and the first OS aimed at home users built on the Windows NT kernel and architecture. Due to the integration of multiple technologies from various operating systems, it gained wide popularity among home and business desktop, notebooks and media centre users. As acknowledged by most Wmdows XP users as well as Microsoft

NOTES



Corporation, this version of Wmdows is the most stable and efficient OS released by Microsoft yet.

15. Windows Vista

The most recent in the line of Microsoft Wmdows personal computer operating system, Wmdows Vistam, codenamed 'Longhorn' was developed to succeed Wmdows XP. Microsoft started the development of Wmdows Vista five months after releasing Wmdows XP and work continued till November, 2006 when Microsoft announced its completion, ending the longest development cycle of an operating system. Since the original idea of building Longhorn from Windows XP's code was scrapped, it was built on Wmdows 2003 SP 1 with several developments including all new graphical interface named Wmdows Aero, refined and faster search capabilities, an array of new tools, such as Windows DVD Maker, integrated Wmdows Media Centre in the Vista Home Premium and Vista Ultimate Editions, print, audio, display subsystems and redesigned networking.

The key features of Wmdows Vista (all versions) are stated below: • Increased level of communication by the use of peer-to-peer technology

between computers on a home network for simplifying the process of sharing files and digital media between the computers and the attached devices.

• It includes the 3.0 version of the .NET Framework with the aim of making application writing significantly easier for software developers than with Wmdows API.

• Wmdows Aero, the new graphical interface of Wmdows Vista OS, is an aesthetically driven GUI with transparencies, live thumbnails and icons. The overall look and feel of the GUI is eye catchy and easy to work.

• Instant Search is a new feature of Wmdows Vista whichis significantly faster and returns better in-depth results for files and folders on desktop.

• Wmdows Sidebar is a panel where selected Wmdows gadgets are located. These gadgets update the user on various topics, such as stock indexes, sports score, currency exchange rate, etc., and can be customized according to user requirements.

• Wmdows Internet Explorer 7 incorporates tabbed browsing, Anti Phishing filtering and works in isolation from other applications using a protected mode.

• It supports Backup and Restore Centre. This Microsoft application provides the user with the ability to backup and restore application at schedule periodic intervals of files and folders present on their computers. Backups are stored on the basis of changes made to the data and incremented automatically to the existing backup. The option to completely backup all data on the PC is also available in selected editions of Wmdows Vista, wherein an image can be created on hard drives or DVDs. In case of a hardware or software failure, complete PC Restore can be easily performed and data loss can be prevented.

• Wmdows DVD Maker brings native support to Wmdows Movie Maker for creating custom DVDs based on user's content. Operations like designing title, menu, soundtrack, video, zoom and pan motion effects on slides or pictures can be easily performed.

• Wmdows Media Centre which used to be a separate edition of Wmdows XP is known as Wmdows XPMedia Centre. Edition now comes integrated with Wmdows Vista in the Home Premium and Ultimate edition.

NOTES


Computer iystem: An Introluction • Windows Mobility Centre is a panel for controlling that integrates the most

appropriate information pertaining to mobile computing (sound, brightness, power scheme selection/battery level, wireless network, presentation settings, screen orientation, etc.).

• Wmdows Meeting Space has replaced NetMeeting. It can be used to share data or entire desktop with others users of this application connected over the Intranet, LAN or the Internet using a peer-to-peer technology.

16. Windows CE The Windows Embedded Compact (CE) is an operating system optimized for devices with minimum hardware resources, such as embedded devices and handhelds. It integrates advance and reliable real time capabilities with Windows technology. The kernel of this OS is not just a trimmed down version of desktop Wmdows, but in fact it is a brand new kernel which can run on less than a megabyte of memory. Besides the advantage of performing on a minimum specification, it is also an OS which satisfies the prerequisites of a real time operating system. Another distinct feature of Windows CE is that it was made available in a source code form to several hardware manufactures so that they could modify the OS to adjust with their hardware and also to the general public. Since Windows CE was developed as a component based and embedded operating system, it has been used as a basis in the development of several mobile operating systems, such as AutoPC, PocketPC, Wmdows Mobile, Smartphone, etc., and also embedded into games consoles, such as Microsoft Xbox.

Some of the key features of Windows CE are given below:

• Connectivity with a wide array of options, such as wireless communication, infrared, dial-up networking or Ethernet network connections. With advance security encryption and continuous synchronization with personal computers and other handheld devices.

• Availability of business applications, such as Excel, Word, Outlook, Power Point, etc., on the move is a great advantage towards improving productivity and easier access to information.

• The option to connect to different types of printers and support for multiple modes of connection, such as serial port or infrared.

• New support for programming languages withActiveX, DirectX, HyperText Markup Language (HTML), Java Virtual Machines (JVM), Visual Basic Script (VBS), etc.

• Easy to use GUI with a cascading start menu, color and greyscale screens, customization of command bars, support for international character set, ability to display VGA (Video Graphics Array) graphics using an external display, true type fonts, etc.

• Starting from Windows CE 5.0 onwards, the support for Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) was also added.

• Besides smooth browsing using the integrated Internet Explorer, other features, such as Remote Desktop, Web Services on Devices API (WSDAPI), Windows media player updates, etc., are also available in Windows CE.

Application Software These are software programs installed by users to perform tasks according to their specific requirements, such as an accounting system used in a business organization or a designing program used by engineers. They also include all the programs, languages

NOTES


Software license: A legal instrument governing the usage or redistribution of copyright protected software

NOTES

and other utility programs. These programs enable the user to communicate with the computer and develop other customized packages. They also enable maximum and efficient usage of the computer hardware and other available resources.

Computer System:

An Introduction

Licensed Software

While there is a large availability of open source or free software online, not all software available in the market is free for use. Some software falls under the category of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS). COTS is a term used for software and hardware technology which is available to the general public for sale, license or lease. In other words, to use COTS software, you must pay its developer in one way or another. Most of the application software available in the market need a software license for use.

À software license is a legal instrument governing the usage or redistribution of copyright protected software. A typical software license grants a permission to end user to use one or more copies of software in ways where such a use would otherwise constitute infringement of the software publisher's exclusive rights under copyright law. In effect, the software license acts as a promise from the software publisher to not sue the end user for engaging in activities that would normally be considered exclusive.'

Software is licensed in different categories. Some of these licenses are based on the number of unique users of the software while other licenses are based on the number of computers on which the software can be installed. A specific distinction between licenses would be an Organizational Software License which grants an organization the right to distribute the software or application to a certain number of users or computers within the organization and a Personal Software License which allows the purchaser of the application to use the software on his or her computer only.

Free Domain Software

To understand this let us distinguish between the commonly used terms Freeware and Free Domain software. The term `freeware' has no clear accepted definition, but is commonly used for packages that permit redistribution but not modification. This means that their source code is not available. Free Domain software is a software that comes with permission for anyone to use, copy and distribute, either verbatim or with modifications, either free or for a fee. In particular, this means that the source code must be available. Free Domain software can be freely used, modified and redistributed but with one restriction: the redistributed software must be distributed with the original terms of free use, modification and distribution. This is known as `copylefe. Free software is a matter of freedom, not price. Free software may be packaged and distributed for a fee. The 'Free' here refers to the ability of reusing it — modified or unmodified, as a part of another software package. The concept of free software is the brainchild of Richard Stallman, head of the GNU project. The best known example of free software is Linux, an operating system that is proposed as an alternative to Windows or other proprietary operating systems. Debian is an example of a distributor of a Linux package.

Free software should therefore not be confused with freeware which is a term used for describing software that can be freely downloaded and used but which may contain restrictions for modification and reuse.

Word Processing

A Word processor is an application program used for the production of any type of printable text document including composition, editing, formatting and printing. It takes


Computer System:

An Introduction the advantage of a GUI to present data in a required format. It can produce any arbitrary combination of images, graphics and text. Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing system.

Microsoft Word can be used for the simplest to the most complex word processing applications. Using Word, you can write letters and reports, prepare bills and invoices, prepare office stationery, such as letterheads, envelopes and forms, design brochures, pamphlets, newsletters and magazines, etc.

Features and Advantages of Word Processing

Following are the features and advantages of word processing:

• Any Word document can be viewed in four different ways—Normal, Web Layout, Print Layout and Outline. Normal view is the default view. In Web Layout you can preview your page as it will appear in a Web browser. In Print Layout you can preview your page as it will appear when printed. In Outline you can specify up to seven levels of headings. You can rearrange both the headings as well as its content to revise the structure of the document.

• Title bar, menu bar, standard toolbar, formatting toolbar, scroll bars and status bar are the key elements of a Word window. Standard toolbar contains icons that help you quickly alter the appearance and arrangement of documents by executing a variety of commands. Formatting toolbar contains icons for changing the formatting of your text. Status bar displays information like current page, section number, current/total pages in the document, current line number, and so on.

• One of the basic features of Word is Word Wrap. This feature allows you to type without bothering about your line running out of the right margin of your page.

• The process of changing the appearance of text by changing the font type, font size, alignment of text, applying shades and colors, etc., is called formatting. All formatting features offered by Word require preselection of a piece of text.

• Different types of fonts are available for the user and some of them are in handwriting scripts. Just as different people write the same alphabets differently, the font facility of Microsoft Word enables you to choose the way in which your alphabet script is displayed and printed.

• The last four files that have been used recently are displayed in the list of recent documents at the bottom of the File menu.

• Paragraph spacing is used to create spaces between paragraphs. It is also possible to create additional spacing between the lines of a paragraph. This is known as line spacing.

• Page formatting involves setting the page margins, page size, page orientation and other options. By default, whenever you create a new document, the document is created with predefined page settings.

• Headers and Footers allow you to print a standard piece of text and/or image at the top or bottom of each page of your document. Headers appear at the top of each page and footers appear at the bottom.

• By default a new document contains only one section. Word allows inserting multiple sections into the same document. This feature allows the user to apply different formatting styles within the same document.

• Word allows you to preview on screen what you wish to print.

NOTES


Computer System:

An Introduction

• Spelling and grammar is one of the important features of Word. It helps you to check the spelling and grammar of the text. Word contains an inbuilt dictionary, but it does not always include proper names, technical terms and acronyms.

• Microsoft Word displays a tooltip text when you type the first few characters of a date or an autotext entry, at which point you can insert the entry by pressing the Enter key, or ignore it and continue typing.

• Microsoft Word allows you to track the changes made to your document. It makes use of revision marks to show the tracked changes to the user. A revision mark shows where an insertion, deletion or any other editing change has been made in the document.

• Creating and formatting tables are other important features of Word. They help to organize and present information using colorful borders and text.

• There are two basic types of graphics in Microsoft Word — drawing objects and pictures. Drawing objects include TextBoxes, curves, lines and other objects. These objects can be accessed from the drawing toolbar. Pictures are graphics that have been created using any graphics software. They include bitmaps, scanned pictures and photographs, and Microsoft Word's in-built ClipArt gallery. You can enhance these objects with colors, patterns, borders and other effects.

1

NOTES

1.4 MODERN IT ACCESSORIES

Check Your Progress

I. What is user interface?

2. What are input/output devices?

3. Write the task of memory unit.

4. What does output unit receive?

5. What is motherboard?

6. What is serial port?

7. What is primary storage or main memory?

8. What is clock speed?

9. Name the different types of computer software.

10. What is system software?

Nowadays, various software and hardware are used by users to perform specific tasks. Computer software, or just software, is any set of machine readable instructions that directs a computer's processor to perform specific operations. Computer hardware equals the collection of physical elements that comprise a computer system. Hardware and software require each other; neither has any value without the other. The following are the types of software and hardware that are used to perform specified tasks.

Application software, also termed as an application or an app, is computer software specifically designed to help the user to perform specific tasks. Examples include office suites, graphics software, statistical software, enterprise software, accounting software, project software, etc. Basically, many application programs only work with documents. Applications are either 'bundled' with the computer and its system software or can be published separately. Currently, the abbreviation 'app' refers to application software specifically written for mobile devices. Typically, 'apps' for mobile devices are an important method to deliver advertising to the user. Many Websites encourage mobile users to download a free app version of the Website so that they can receive cut down advertising.

Application software includes two general categories; horizontal applications and vertical applications. Horizontal applications are the most popular and are extensively used in departments or companies. Vertical applications are niche products, specifically designed for a particular type of business or division in a company.

The following are the types of application software: Application Suite: It consists of multiple applications bundled together. Typically

it includes related functions, features and user interfaces, and can interact with each other, for example opening each other's files on a network.

BusinessApplications: It comes in suites, such as MS Office, Open Office.org and iWork, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, etc.


Enterprise Software: It addresses the needs of organization processes and data flow, often in a large distributed environment, for example Financial Systems (FS), Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems and Supply Chain Management Software (SCMS).

Enterprise Infrastructure Software: It provides common capabilities needed to support enterprise software systems, for example databases, e-mail servers and systems for managing networks and security.

Information Worker Software: It helps users to create and manage information, often for individual projects within a department, quite the reverse to enterprise management. Examples include time management, resource management, documentation tools - analytical and collaborative. Word processors, spreadsheets, e-mail and blog clients, personal information system and individual media editors also help in multiple information worker tasks.

Content Access Software: It is used primarily to access content without editing, but may include software that allows for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume digital entertainment and published digital content, for example media players, Web browsers and help browsers.

Education Software: It refers to content access software, but has the content and/or features adapted for use in by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress through material or include collaborative capabilities.

Simulation Software: It simulates physical or abstract systems for research, training or entertainment purposes.

Media Development Software: It generates print and electronic media for various usages mostly in a commercial or educational setting. This includes graphic art software, desktop publishing software, multimedia development software, HTML editors, digital animation editors, digital audio and video composition, etc.

Product Engineering Software: It is specifically used in developing hardware and software products and includes CAD (Computer Aided Design), CAE (Computer Aided Engineering), computer language editing and compiling tools, and application programmer interfaces.

Software applications can also be classified by computing platform, such as a particular operating system, delivery network as in 'cloud computing' and Web 2.0 applications or delivery devices, such as 'mobile apps' for mobile devices.

The operating system is also sometimes considered as application software when it performs simple calculation, measurement, rendering and word processing tasks that are not used to control hardware. This does not include application software bundled within operating systems, such as a software calculator or text editor.

USB Flash Drives

A USB flash drive is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. They are removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk. Also fake USB flash drives are sometimes sold, claiming to have higher capacities than they actually have. These are low capacity USB drives which are modified so that they appear to be larger capacity drives. When plugged into a computer and data is written to them, either the write up fails or the drive freezes up. Software tools exist to check and detect fake USB drives. Compared to hard drives, flash drives use little power.


NOTES


Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): Known as a palmtop computer is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager

NOTES


External Hard Disk

External removable HDDs typically connect via USB. Some hard drives support alternative and faster interfaces than USB 2.0 (for example, IEEE 1394 and eSATA). In terms of overall mass, hard drives are usually larger and heavier than flash drives. External HDDs are available in 2.5" and 3.5" sizes. Common sizes are 160GB, 250GB, 320GB, 500GB, 640GB, 750GB, 1TB, and 2TB.

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), also known as a palmtop computer is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. PDAs are largely considered obsolete with the widespread adoption of smart phones. They have the ability to connect to the Internet.

A PDA comes with an electronic visual display, and also includes a Web browser. Its audio capabilities enable it to be used as a portable media player.

The most common operating systems pminstalled on PDAs are:

• Palm OS • Microsoft Windows Mobile (Pocket PC) • Android • iOS

Smartphone

A smartphone is a mobile phone built on a mobile operating system, with more advanced computing capability and connectivity than a feature phone. The first smartphone came with the functions of a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) with a mobile phone. Later models added the functionality of portable media players, low-end compact digital cameras, pocket video cameras, and GPS navigation units to form one multi-use device.

Many modern smartphones also include high-resolution touchscreens and Web browsers that display standard Web pages as well as mobile-optimized sites.,

1.5 OPERATING SYSTEMS AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE

An operating system is a set of instructions stored on a storage device, such as hard disk, Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) or floppy disk. When you switch on a computer, a set of power-on routine activities is performed. These power-on routine activities verify the devices attached to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), such as keyboard, hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM and printers for their proper functioning. The instructions for these power-on routine activities are stored in the Read Only Memory (ROM). ROM is permanent in nature and stores the data even 34 Self-Instructional Material

Computer System:

• An Introduction when the power is switched off. However, ROM stores only a few kilobytes of instructions due to its limited size. As a result, the power on routine activities are stored permanently in the hard disk as operating system and are transformed from the hard disk into the Random Access Memory (RAM) on booting the computer.

RAM also called main memory, which is volatile in nature and as a result, the programs and instructions are temporarily stored in it and are lost on power failure. Secondary memory, such as hard disk is non-volatile and thus retains information even in case of power failure. For example, you are working in Microsoft Word and not saving your content in the main memory, the content will be erased from the main memory if the computer is switched off. When the contents are saved in a file, they are transferred into secondary memory.

An operating system is loaded into the computer memory in the following two ways:

• Loaded from Boot ROM.

• Loaded from the hard disk when the computer is switched on.

If an operating system is already present in ROM, the computer is booted up immediately when the CPU is switched on. These operating systems are best suited for hand-held devices, such as laptop and briefcase computers. However, these operating systems are difficult to update as ROM is a permanent memory and contents stored in it cannot be erased.

If the operating system is loaded from the hard disk when the computer is switched on, then it stores the booting instructions in the RAM. The CPU starts executing your instructions when the operating system gets loaded into the RAM of your computer. Figure 1.13 shows the booting process of an operating system from the hard disk.

Switching on the Executing ROM Boot Executing Primary Executing Secondary Computer and Running POST Boot Boot

Fig. 1.13 Booting Process of an Operating System

When the computer is switched on, ROM starts executing Power On Self Test (POST). POST checks the hardware devices attached to the computer before the booting process starts. The primary boot executes the first physical sector from the disk called the boot sector. The secondary boot verifies the drivers installed in the computer. A driver is a software that is used for communicating with various devices attached to the computer. There are two kinds of operating systems: Character User Interface (CUI) and Graphical User Interface (GUI). CUI is not user friendly and allows you to type each and every command for interacting with the operating system. For example, DOS is a CUI operating system. GUI is a user friendly interface that eliminates the need of typing commands on the computer. For example, Windows is a GUI operating system.

Services of an Operating System

An operating system acts as a platform for developing the application programs. The major services provided by an operating system are as follows:

• It acts as an extended machine. • It acts as a resource manager.

• It acts as a constant application program interface.

NOTES


Time multiplexing: Defines the sharing of resources based on fixed time slices

NOTES

An operating system acts as an extended machine by translating your commands into machine language instructions. The CPU executes these machine language instructions and the operating system retranslates the output back into a user understandable language. Figure 1.14 shows the extended machine view of an operating system.


User 1 User 2 User 3 User N

System Calls Shell

Computer Hardware

Fig. 1.14 The Extended Machine View of an Operating System

The n number of users are busy in developing and compiling their application programs or are working in the text editor. These users interact with the operating system through system calls or shell and the operating system interacts with the computer hardware to execute the users jobs.

An operating system acts as a resource manager by controlling and allocating various hardware and software resources to different users in an optimal and efficient mode. The task of resource management becomes essential in multiuser operating systems where different users compete for the same resources. An operating system manages the resources in the following two ways:

• Time multiplexing. • Space multiplexing.

Time multiplexing defines the sharing of resources based on fixed time slices. For example, the operating system allocates a resource, such as CPU to program A for a fixed time slice. When the time slice is over, the CPU is allocated to another program B. If program A needs more CPU attention, then the CPU is again allocated to program A after the time slice allocated to program B is over.

Space multiplexing defines the concurrent sharing of resources among different programs. Sharing of a hard disk and main memory are examples of space multiplexing.

An operating system acts as a constant application program interface that allows you to develop an application on a computer and execute it on another computer. It does not produce any dissimilarity if the configuration of the two computers is different, as the application remains the same. For example, the Windows 98 operating system provides such kind of flexibility. It can hold different disk drives, printers and peripherals produced by different vendors. There are some other functions of an operating system which are as follows:

36 SettInstructional Material


It controls the device drivers attached to the computer.

• It acts as a command interpreter. • It decides the priority of various jobs. • It performs the allocation and reallocation of memory.

• It performs the Input/Output (I/0) operations.

• It provides security by ensuring controlled access to resources.

• It controls the local and remote files placed on a computer.

• It monitors various jobs running on a computer for their security.

• It allows different processes to communicate with each other through message passing techniques.

• It performs system accounting that monitors the use of system resources.

Figure 1.15 shows the functions of an operating system.

Keyboard

Disk Drive

Fig. 1.15 The Functions of Operating System

An operating system manages files, resources and CPU utilization that a user needs to perform various tasks. An operating system performs the following functions:

• Process Management: It is a process that helps in managing processes. A process is a set of sequential steps for performing a task. In other words, for an operating system, a process is an instance of a program. Process management is necessary for proper execution of any program.

• Memory Management: It is a process which manages storage system of a computer. The organization and management of a computer storage system is important for an operating system. An operating system allocates memory to the various processes.

• Resource Management: The I/O subsystem is required to monitor and manage wide variety of I/O devices. These I/O devices vary with respect to their functionality, data rate, speed and software support.

Process Management A process goes through various states for performing several tasks The transition of a process from one state to another occurs depending on the flow of the execution of the process. It is not necessary for a process to undergo all the states. The various process states are as follows:

• New: It indicates that the process has just been created.

• Ready: It indicates that the process is waiting for a chance to be allocated the CPU time for execution.

NOTES


Computer System:

An Introduction

• Running: It indicates that the process has been allocated the CPU time and is executing the tasks.

• Waiting: It indicates that the process is waiting for the completion of either another process or for an 110 task, such as reading a file.

• Terminated: It indicates that the process has finished its execution and all the tasks in the process are complete.

Memory Management Strategies

To improve utilization of the CPU and the speed of the computer's response to its users, the system keeps several processes in memory, that is, several processes share memory. Due to the sharing of memory, there is need of memory management. There are various strategies that are used to manage memory. All these strategies allocate memory to the processes using either of following two approaches.

• Contiguous memory allocation. • Noncontiguous memory allocation.

Contiguous Memory Allocation

In contiguous memory allocation, each process is allocated a single contiguous part of the memory. The memory management scheme that is based on this approach is memory partitioning.

Memory Partitioning

Main memory is divided into certain fixed size or variable sized partitions. In fixed partitioning scheme, each part or slot can be of equal or unequal size. In variable size partitioning, the memory is partitioned on runtime depending upon the requirement of the programs running on the computer. In variable size partitioning which is also known as dynamic partitioning, no fixed partition of memory exists. The operating system occupies only a certain part of memory when it is loaded on a computer and the rest of the memory is used by the user applications.

In equal size partitioning, an application is loaded into one or more slots. The applications occupy a certain number of memory space slots according to their requirement. For example, the memory space of capacity 128 MB is divided into 8 equal size slots of size 16 MB each. Two applications, X and Y require 32 and 50 MB, respectively. In this case, application X requires 2 slots of memory and application Y requires 4 slots of memory. 14 MB out of the 16 MB memory space ((4 * 16) — 50) which is allocated to an application Y, will remain unused. This unused space is called fragment and the concept is called fragmentation.

In unequal size partitioning, an application is loaded into a slot whose capacity is greater than or equal to the memory requirement of the application. For example, a 64 MB memory is divided into 4 slots of the capacity 8 MB, 8 MB, 16 MB and 32 MB. The two applications, X and Y require 8 and 10 MB memory space, respectively. Application, X is loaded into one of the 8 MB memory space. Application Y is loaded into the 16MB slot and 6 MB memory space will remain unused. Application Y could also be allocated the 32 MB space but in that case, 22 MB memory space will remain unused. An operating system aims to optimize memory utilization.

Noncontiguous Memory Allocation

In noncontiguous allocation approach, parts of a single process can occupy noncontiguous physical addresses. In this section, we will discuss memory management schemes based on noncontiguous allocation.

NOTES

Running: It indicates that the process has been allocated the CPU time and is executing the tasks


12K- I6K

8K- 12K

4K-8K

OK-4K 8K-I 2K

4K- 8K ••K8K8 K 0-4K

Process B of Size 12K

Logical memory (12K-16K

t

8K-12K

4K- 8K ••K8K8 K 0-4K

Process A of Size 16K

Page frames

28K-32K

24K-28K

20K-24K

I6K-20K

Logical memory

NOTES

Virtual memory: A procedure that permits the running of processes that may not be entirely in memory



Paging

In paging, the physical memory is divided into fixed sized blocks called page frames and logical memory is also divided into fixed size blocks called pages which are of same size as that of page frames. When a process is to be executed, its pages can be loaded into any unallocated frames (not necessarily contiguous) from the disk. Figure 1.16 shows two processes A and B with all their pages loaded into the memory. In this figure, the page size is of 4KB. However, some systems support even larger page sizes, such as 8KB, 4MB, and so on. Nowadays, the page size between 4KB and 8KB are used.

Fig. 1.16 Concept of Paging

Note: In real systems, the page size can vary from 512 bytes to 64 KB.

When the CPU generates a logical address, it is divided into two parts: a page number (p) [high order bits] and a page offset (d) [low order bits] where d specifies the address of the instruction within the page p. Since the logical address is a power of 2, the page size is always chosen as a power of 2 so that the logical address can be converted easily into page number and page offset. To understand this, consider the size of logical address space is 21". Now, if we choose a page size of 2" (bytes or words), then n bits will specify the page offset and m-n bits will specify the page number.

Segmentation

A user views a program as a collection of segments, such as main program, routines, variables, and so on. All of these segments are variable in size and their size varies during execution. Each segment is identified by a name (or segment number) and the elements within a segment are identified by their offset from the starting of the segment.

Segmentation is a memory management scheme that implements the user view of a program. In this scheme, the entire logical address space is considered as a collection of segments with each segment having a number and a length. The length of a segment may range from 0 to some maximum value as specified by the hardware and may also change during the execution. The user specifies each logical address consisting of a segment number (s) and an offset (d). This differentiates segmentation from paging in which the division of logical address into page number and page offset is performed by the hardware.

Virtual Memory

A procedure that permits the running of processes that may not be entirely in memory is called a virtual memory. In other words, virtual memory is a technique that allows

Physical memory

Operating systems: All operating systems consist of similar components and perform almost similar functions, but the methods and procedures for performing these functions are different


NOTES


Application Program User

Operating System

Hardware

execution of a program that is bigger than the physical memory of the computer system. In this technique, the operating system loads only those parts of program in memory that are currently needed for the execution of the process. The rest is kept on the disk and is loaded into the memory only when needed. Virtual memory can be understood as the division of the user logical memory from the physical memory. This division permits an exceedingly large virtual memory to be available to programmers when only a smaller physical memory is available. Virtual memory helps a programmer, as there is no need for the programmer to be concerned about the size of the physical memory available. It gives an illusion to the programmers that they have a very large memory available, even as the computer may actually have a small main memory.

Classification of Operating System

All operating systems consist of similar components and perform almost similar functions, but the methods and procedures for performing these functions are different. Operating systems are classified into following different categories based on their distinguishing features:

• Single user operating systems. • Multiuser operating systems. • Batch processing or job scheduling operating systems. • Multiprogramming operating systems. • Multitasking operating systems. • Parallel operating systems. • Distnbuted operating systems. • Real time operating systems.

Single User Operating Systems

It allows a single user to access a computer at a time. These computers have single processor and execute single program. The resources, such as CPU and I/O devices are constantly available to the user in a single user operating system for operating the system. As a result, the CPU sits idle for most of the time and is not utilized to its maximum. A single user operating system is divided into two categories:

• Single user, single tasking operating system. • Single user, multitasking operating system.

The single user, single tasking operating system allows a single user to execute one program at a time. MS DOS and Palm OS for Palm handheld computers are examples of single user, single tasking operating system.

Single user, multitasking operating system allows a single user to operate multiple programs at the same time. For example, you can perform • calculations in Excel sheet, print a Word document and download a file from the Internet concurrently. Mac OS, Windows 95, Windows 98, Fig. 1.17 Single User Operating System

Windows NT Workstation and Windows 2000 Professional operating systems for desktop and laptop computers are the examples of single user, multitasking operating system. Figure 1.17 shows the working of single user operating system.

Personal Computer

Personal Computer

Personal Computer

Network


A single user operating system executes an application program of a user through hardware interaction and gives the result back to the user.

Multiuser Operating Systems

It allows various users to access the different resources of a computer simultaneously. The access is provided using a network that consists of various personal computers attached to a mainframe computer. These computers send and receive information to a multiuser mainframe computer. Therefore, the mainframe computer acts as a server and the other personal computers act as clients for that server. UNIX, Virtual Memory System or VMS, Multiple Virtual Storage or MVS, Windows 2000 and Novell NetWare are the examples of multiuser operating systems.

The advantage of using multiuser operating system is that it facilitates the sharing of data and information among different users. Hardware resources, such as printers and modems are also shared using the multiuser operating system.

The limitation of using a multiuser operating system is the expensive hardware required for mainframe computer. Another limitation is that it reduces the performance of the computer as multiple users work on it. Figure 1.18 shows the working of a multiuser operating system.

NOTES

Mainframe Computer

Fig. 1.18 Multiuser Operating System

Batch Processing or Job Scheduling Operating Systems

The batch processing operating system places the user's jobs on an input queue and these jobs are stored as a batch. The batch monitor executes these batches at a definite interval of time. The batch monitor accepts the commands for initializing, processing and terminating a batch. These jobs are executed through interaction with the hardware and the operating system and gives the output back to different users. The batch processing operating system automatically executes the next job in the batch and reduces user intervention during the processing of jobs.

It has high turn around time. The turn around time is the time taken between submitting the job and getting the output which includes the information related to the jobs included in a batch. The turn around time is reduced using high speed storage access devices, such as magnetic disk.

The batch monitor executes the batches based on the process of job scheduling that sequences different jobs on First Come First Served (FCFS) basis. You can also set the priorities for different batches and the highest priority job is executed before the other batches. Figure 1.19 shows the working of a batch processing operating system.


NOTES

Multiprogramming: Allows multiple users to execute multiple programs using a single CPU

1

Fig. 1.20 Multiprogramming Operating System

Computer System:

An Introduction Jobs

Jobs

Jobs

Jobs •

• Batch Monitor

Operating System

Hardware

Fig. 1.19 The Batch Processing Operating System

Multiprogramming

Multiprogramming allows multiple users to execute multiple programs using a single CPU. The multiprogramming operating system executes different processes concurrently using a time multiplexed CPU by implementing the concept of CPU slicing between them. CPU time slicing enables operating systems to execute multiple jobs concurrently. The CPU switching between the programs is so fast that the response time for users is fractions of seconds. The operating system uses an interactive computer system that provides shared access to different resources. The operating system stores multiple jobs in main memory and CPU immediately switches to the next job in sequence, when the previous executing process comes in wait stage. The previous executing process comes in wait stage due to an interrupt or requirement of I/O operations. Therefore, a multiprogramming operating system increases the utilization of CPU by reducing its idle time. UNIX, Windows 95, Windows NT, OS/2 and Amiga are examples of multiprogramming operating systems. Figure 1.20 shows the working of a multiprogramming operating system.

Multitasking Operating Systems

Multitasking operating systems support the concept of multitasking. Multitasking is the ability of a system to handle number of tasks or jobs simultaneously. A multitasking operating system is also called time sharing system with the multiprogramming feature. A time sharing system contains multiple user terminals that are connected to the same system to work simultaneously. The multiprogramming feature of the time sharing system allows multiple programs to reside in main memory and various scheduling algorithms are used to allocate CPU time to the processes. The time interval during which a user process gets the CPU allocation is known as time slice, time slot or quantum. The CPU executes a process until the allotted time slice expires. Figure 1.21 shows the working of time sharing system.


Process A Processing Complete

Waiting for I/0 data

110 complete

Parallel operating systems: It consists of multiple processors sharing the clock, bus, memory and peripheral devices

NOTES



Process A allocated for execution

Fig. 1.21 Time Sharing System

Parallel Operating Systems

It consists of multiple processors sharing the clock, bus, memory and peripheral devices. Parallel operating systems are also known as multiprocessor or tightly coupled operating systems. Multiprocessor systems are divided into following categories:

• Symmetric multiprocessing

• Asymmetric multiprocessing

In symmetric multiprocessing, each processor runs a shared copy of operating system. The processors can communicate with each other and execute these copies concurrently. Thus, in a symmetric system all the processors share an equal amount of load. Encore's version of UNIX for the Multimax computer is an example of symmetric multiprocessing system. In this system, various processors execute copies of UNIX operating system, thereby executing m processes if there are m processors.

In short, the term symmetric multiprocessing depicts the architecture of a multiprocessor system where two or more similar processors are connected via a high bandwidth link or simply a bus. These types of systems are run by operating system and each processor of the multiprocessor system has equal access right to all the I/O devices connected to the system.

Asymmetric multiprocessing is based on the principle of master-slave relationship. One of the processors runs the operating system and that processor is called the master processor. The other processors run user processes which are known as slave processors. In other words, the master processor controls, schedules and allocates the task to the slave processors. Asymmetric multiprocessing is more common in extremely large systems where one of the most time consuming activities is processing I/O requests. In asymmetric system, the processors do not share equal load. For example, the processor which supports the math coprocessor to handle floating point calculations is based on asymmetric multiprocessing system.

Distributed Operating Systems

In this type of operating system, user requests are processed independently at more than one location, but with shared and controlled access to some common facilities. A system which consists of multiple parts located at or embedded in geographically dispersed physical locations is called a distributed system. In other words, in a distributed system the workload is spread between two or more computers linked together by a communication network.

44 Self Instructional Material

Computer System:

An Introduction

NOTES

Network

Fig. 1.23 The Peer-to-Peer Model

Different computers communicate with each other using communication links, such as telephone lines and buses. Heterogeneous computers include computers with different configurations, such as workstations, microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframe computers. These computers are referred to as nodes. The processors in distributed operating system do not share clock, memory and peripheral devices. Each processor has its own resources. Distributed operating systems are also known as loosely coupled systems. Amoeba is an example of distributed operating system which is a collection of workstations in a transparent distributed system. Amoeba is being widely used in the field of academia, industry and government for the last five years. It runs on the Scalable Processor ARChitecture or SPARC, Sun 3/50 and Sun 3/60 operating systems.

Server The design of distributed

operating systems is based on following two models:

• Client-Server model • Peer-to-Peer model

Network

Client Client Client In client-server model, the client sends a resource request to the server and the Fig. 1.22 The Client—Server Model

server, in turn, provides the requested resource as the response, back to client. Figure 1.22 shows the client-server model.

In peer-to-peer model, all the computers behave as peers as well as clients. These clients communicate with each other for exchange of their resources. Figure 1.23 shows the Client 1 Client Client

peer-to-peer model.

Real Time Operating Systems

It defines the completion of job within the rigid time constraints otherwise the job loses its meaning. The human brain works on the principle of real time operating system. Real time operating systems are used in medical imaging systems, airline reservation systems, home appliances controller systems and nuclear weapon systems. Examples of real time operating systems are VxWorks and QNX. Real time operating systems are divided into following two categories:

• Hard real time systems • Soft real time systems

Hard real time systems ensure the completion of critical tasks within the well defined constraints. These systems are considered as failure, if the critical tasks are not completed within the defined constraints.

An example of a hard real time system is a flight controller system. If the end user fails to respond an action within the allotted time, it could lead to an unstable aircraft, which could cause a crash.

In soft real time systems, a single failure of any type does not lead to critical failure. For example, if a Digital VersatileNideo Disc (DV D) player cannot process a frame that is the playback stutters, you can still continue watching the video.

XXXXXXXX YYYY YYYY

X X Y Y Y Y Y Y Y X Packets at Swit

Source

hing node Packets at Switching node

Destination

Switching nodes

Fig. 1.24 Simplified Network Model

Timesharing: A multiprogrammed batch system does not permit real time interaction between users and computer

Network: A network is designed to provide reliable transmission of packets from one end of the network to other remote parts of the network. A network consists of several components including the hardware and software devices

Computer System: An Introduction 'Timesharing

A multiprogrammed batch system does not permit real time interaction between users and computer as the user commands needed for executing jobs are prepared as scripts of Job Control Language (JCL) and submitted to the batch system. As users are not permitted to submit the job script input and observe or take output directly, it took many days to debug and correct the mistakes in program development. The solution to the above problem was the introduction of Interactive Time Shared

Multiprogramming techniques. This enabled many users to interact with the computer system simultaneously, each one using a separate terminal keyboard and monitor connected to the system. Actually, each user is given a small time quantum (say, 100 milliseconds) to apply commands and receive responses from the computer system in a round robin fashion. If there are 10 users, each will be served 100 milliseconds in every one second. Because of this fast switching of execution among users, each one felt that the entire computer system time is available for his own use. This drastically improved the ease of use of computers and reduced the job processing time and program development time. With this interactive time sharing technology, a single computer system is made available for many people simultaneously, for doing many different types of tasks.

The hardware of computer system is normally very costly. In a multiuser system, as many users are sharing this costly hardware and the cost is shared among many users, and the resource utilization is also high. However, as the operating system has to switch between many users in a short time, there are some unproductive computations, called overheads computations, done for job switching and associated work.

1.6 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK SETTING

A network is designed to provide reliable transmission of packets from one end of the network to other remote parts of the network. A network consists of several components including the hardware and software devices. However, a simplified network model may be considered as having switching nodes, and source and destination ends. At the source end of the switching nodes, packets of different messages reach at the switching node at different times and they are queued up according to their time of arrival at the switching node. After their traversal through the network, it becomes the responsibility of the switching node at the destination end to put back all packets of the same message in sequence to reconstruct the original message. Figure 1.24 shows a simplified network modeL

NOTES


Local Area Network (LAN): This technology connects machines and people within a restricted small area

Computer System:

An Introduction

NOTES

Classification of Networks: LAN, MAN and WAN

Computers are connected by many different technologies. An interconnection between more than one computer, over a virtual and shared connection, in a client-to-server or peer-to-peer manner, is called a network. It means that the flow of information is accommodated and computer resources are connected using networks. This is just the opposite of the old terminal-to-host hardwired connection. Although a network can support terminal-to-host connections through terminal emulators or a terminal server, it offers a lot more flexibility in switching connections. The disadvantage of this explosion in terms of sharing information arises when one computer wishes to share its information system with another which has different network protocols and different network technology. As a result, even if you could agree on a type of network technology to physically interconnect the two computers at different locations, your applications still would not be able to communicate with each other because of the different protocols.

A very basic question arises about the requirement of networks. This may be justified with the help of the following points describing network requirements:

• Sharing of resources can be easily done. • Reliability — There is no central computer, so if one breaks down you can

use others. • Networks allow you to be mobile.

The term networking applies to: • The exchange of information among institutions, groups or individuals. • The process of data communications or electronic voice.

Communication networks are broadly categorized into three categories as follows:

Local Area Network The Local Area Network (LAN) technology connects machines and people within a site. LAN is a network that is restricted to a relatively small area as shown in Figure 1.25. LANs can be defined as privately owned networks offering reliable high speed communication channels that are optimized to connect information processing equipment in a small and restricted geographical area, namely, an office, a building, a complex of buildings, a school or a campus.

A LAN is a form of local (limited distance), shared packet network for computer communications. LANs interconnect peripherals and computers over a common medium so that users are able to share access to peripherals, files, databases, applications and host computers. They can also provide a connection to other networks either through a computer which is attached to both networks or through a dedicated device called a gateway.

1

Ethernet Ring Network


Fig. 1.25 Local Area Network (LAN)

The components used by LANs can be categorized into hardware, cabling protocols and standards. Various LAN protocols are Ethernet, Token Ring,

NOTES

Check Your Progress

11. What does embedded software refer?

12. Define the term booting.

13. What is Windows 98 SE?

14. What are windows embedded compact?

15. Why COTS is used?

16. What is free domain software?

17. Write one of the basic features of Word.

18. Write one of the features of RAM.

19. What is a driver?


Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), NetBIOS and NetBeui, TCP/IP, Fibre Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI), SMB (Server Message Block) and IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/Squenced Packet Exchange).

Metropolitan Area Network

Large geographic areas, such as districts, towns and cities are covered by a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). By linking or interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic area, information is conveniently distributed throughout the network. Local libraries and government agencies often use a MAN to establish a link with private industries and citizens. It may also connect MANs together within a larger area than a LAN. The geographical limit of a MAN may span a city. Figure 1.26 depicts how a MAN may be available within a city.

Router

Local Telephone Exchange

• • fl

Router Ethernet Ring Network

Fig. 1.26 Metropolitan Area Network

In a MAN, different LANs are connected through a local telephone exchange. Some of the widely used protocols for MAN are ATM RS-232, OC-3 lines, X.25, Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), Frame Relay, Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and 155 Mbps, etc. These protocols are quite different from those used for LANs.

Wide Area Network

This technology connects sites that are in diverse locations. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect such large geographic areas, as the world, India or New Delhi. There is no geographical limit of WAN. This kind of network can be connected by using satellite uplinks or dedicated transoceanic. Hence, a WAN may be defined as a data conununications network covering a relatively broad geographical area to connect LANs together between different cities with the help of transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies operate at the lower three layers of the Open System Interconnection or OSI reference model. These are the physical, data link and network layers.

Figure 1.27 explains the WAN, which connects many LAN together. It also uses switching technology provided by local exchange and long distance carrier.

Ethernet

Ring Network

Fig. 1.27 Wide Area Network

IC_J1


1.7 THE INTERNET AND INTRANET

There are various ways to connect to the Internet. Some of the common options are described here:

Direct Connection

Through a direct connection, a machine is directly connected to the Internet backbone and acts as a gateway. Though a direct connection provides complete access to all Internet services, it is very expensive to implement and maintain. Direct connections are suitable only for very large organizations or companies.

Through the Internet Service Provider

You can also connect, to the Internet through the gateways provided by the Internet Service Providers or ISPs. The range of the Internet services varies depending on the ISPs. Therefore, you should use the Internet services of the ISP that is best suitable for your requirements. You can connect to your ISP using the following two methods:

Remote Dial-Up Connection

A dial-up connection illustrated in Figure 1.28, enables you to connect to your ISP using a modem. A modem converts the computer bits or digital signals to modulated or analog signals that the phone lines can transmit and vice versa. Dial-Up connections use either SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) for transferring information over the Internet.

User's Computer

Internet Backbone

Fig. 1.28 Remote Dial-Up Connection

For dial-up connections, regular telephone lines are used. Therefore, the quality of the connection may not always be very good.

Until the end of 1995, the conventional wisdom was that 28.8 Kbps was about the fastest speed you could squeeze out of a regular copper telephone line. Today, data transmission for a dial-up connection is typically 56 Kbps. The key information here is to know which speed modem is supported by your ISP. If your ISP supports only a 28.8 Kbps modem on its end of the line, you would be able to connect to the Internet only at 28.8 Kbps, even if you had the faster modem.

Permanent Dedicated Connection

You can also have a dedicated Internet connection that connects you to ISP through a dedicated phone line. A dedicated Internet connection is a permanent telephone connection between two points. Computer networks that are physically separated are

Packet switching technologies, such as Frame Relay, Switched Multimegabit Data Service or SMDS, ATM and X.25, are used to implement WAN along with statistical multiplexing to allow devices to use and share these circuits.

Computer System:

An Introduction

NOTES

Direct connection: Through a direct connection, a machine is directly connected to the Internet backbone and acts as a gateway


DSL: High speed technology that has recently gained popularity


often connected using leased or dedicated lines. These lines are preferred because they are always open for communication traffic unlike the regular telephone lines that require a dialling sequence to be activated. Often, this line is an ISDN line that allows transmission of data, voice, video and graphics at very high speeds. ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network applications have revolutionized the way businesses communicate. ISDN lines support upward scalability, which means that you can transparently add more lines to get faster speeds, going up to 1.28 Mbps (Million bits per second).

Ti and T3 are the two other types of commonly used dedicated line types for Internet connections. Dedicated lines are becoming popular because of their faster data transfer rates. Dedicated lines are cost effective for businesses that use the Internet services extensively.

Digital Subscriber Line or DSL

DSL is a high speed technology that has recently gained popularity. It can carry both data and voice over telephone lines. It is possible for a DSL line to stay connected to the Internet which means that you do not have to dial up every time you wish to go online. Usually with DSL, data can be downloaded at rates that can go up to 1.544 Mbps and data can be sent at 128 Kbps. Because DSL lines carry both data and voice, a separate phone line does not have to be installed. DSL services can be established using your existing lines, as long as the service is offered in your locality and your system lies within the appropriate distance from the central switching office of the telephone company.

DSL services require special modems and network cards to be installed on your computer. The cost of equipment, the monthly service and DSL installation charges may vary considerably, but still the ISP is recommended. It may be noted here that prices are now declining due to the increasing competition.

Cable Modems

You can also connect to the Internet at high speeds through cable TV. Since their speeds go up to 36 Mbps, cable modems make it possible for data to be downloaded in a matter of seconds, where they might take fifty times longer with dial-up connections. Since they work over TV cables, they do not tie up telephone lines and also do not require you to specifically connect as in the case of dial-up connections.

Integrated Services Digital Network or ISDN

ISDN services are an older, but nevertheless viable technology, provided by telephone companies. ISDN lines transfer data at rates that range between 57 Kbps and 128 Kbps. These leased lines can have two configurations, namely, T1 and T3. T1 (the commonly used connection option) is a dedicated connection that allows data to be transferred at a speed of 1.54 Mbps or Million bits per second. This proves to be beneficial for computers and Web servers that remain connected to the Internet at all times. Portions of a Ti line can also be leased using either the Fractional Ti or the Frame Relay systems. They can be leased in blocks that range between 128 Kbps and 1.5 Mbps.

Since leased lines cost more, they are usually used only.by those companies whose businesses revolve around the Internet or who engage extensively in large data transfers.

NOTES

Prerequisites for the Internet

Following are the prerequisites for the Internet: Self-Instructional Material 49

imr• I Om.. 11...

- .• if=

and. Deng & Poison&

••• P.D. two.

Computer System:

An Introduction Hardware

The hardware requirement varies from case to case. • Like in case of a dial-up connection, a computer with a serial port for connecting

an external modern or a spare expansion slot for connecting an internal modem card is needed. In the case of Broadband or DSL connections a spare USB port and a LAN card are needed.

• A modem (internal or external), ideally a faster one (with a speed of 56 Kbps or more), is required. A modem converts electronic signals from your computer into analog signals (sound), which can then be sent over telephone lines.

• Cables are required with jacks and sockets to connect your modem with the computer and telephone.

Software

Following are the software requirements for the Internet: • Windows: Although you can use earlier versions, Windows 98 or a higher

version is preferable because it has inbuilt components to support the Internet connectivity.

• Web Browser: A Web browser, such as the Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. Abrowser is a client software program that allows the user to navigate the Web.

Others

• A telephone connection in case of a dial-up modem.

• An Internet account. If you want to have Internet access at your home, you will need to sign up with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and have an Internet account. Some common ISPs are Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited or MTNL, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited or VSNL, Airtel, Sify, etc.

Factors Affecting the Internet Connectivity

The following are some of the factors that affect the Internet connectivity.

• Speed of the Modem: A modem with a minimum speed of 56 Kbps or higher is recommended.

• Quality of Phone Line: In the case of dial-up networks, the Internet connections with modems can get disrupted by the level of noise on the phone line that runs into your home.

NOTES

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• Internet Traffic: The traffic on the Web generally expands throughout the day, reaching its peak during early evening. Therefore, it is advisable to schedule your downloading activity and faster surfing at off peak hours.

The following are the factors associated with your computer affecting the Internet speed:

1. A faster processor (2-3 GHz or higher) allows faster surfing on the Web.

2. A computer system with a better memory (RAM) enables faster surfing. You can prevent slowdowns by refraining from working with other software applications while you are surfing.

3. Web surfing is also adversely affected by an exceedingly fragmented hard disk. So it is advisable to defragment the hard drive at reasonably frequent intervals and keep it optimized.

4. The Web browser's Cache refers to a storage area on the computer's hard disk. While you are surfing, the Web pages you visit are stored in the cache upto the disk space limit set by you. As a result, the Web browser displays the cached pages faster, since they may be retrieved from the hard disk and not from the Internet. You can increase the cache limit of your browser.

5. The surfing speed can be further enhanced by using two or more browser windows simultaneously. This facilitates reading the contents on one page even as another page gets loaded in the other window. It is also advisable to turn off Java and image loading in your browser. To do so, go to the Advanced tab of Internet Options in the Tools menu. This does not affect the content on a Web page.

Configuring the Modem

As mentioned earlier, your hardware and software settings have to be properly configured for logging on to the Internet. Following steps are taken in order to configure your hardware and software settings:

O Choose Control Panel from the Settings option on the Start menu.

O Click on Printers and Other Hardware.

3 Click on Phone and Modem Options.

In the screen displayed: ® Type the name of your country and country code, choose from the Tone or

Pulse settings depending on your service provider and click on the OK button.

O Click on the Modems option in the Phone and Modems Options menu that pops up.

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Computer System:

An Introduction

NOTES

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NOTES



Common Terminology

World Wide Web (WWW)

Commonly known as 'WWW', 'Web' or W3', it consists of a number of distributed servers that are connected through hypermedia documents. These documents are created using HyperText Markup Language (HTML). Related text organized into units can be accessed by using a link called hyperlink. These links or hyperlinks allow the user to navigate from one document to another without having to worry about the actual physical location of the documents. WWW makes it possible to share information between disparate users, computers and operating systems. It is, therefore, the fastest growing application of the Internet.

Website

The Web can be understood as a collection of thousands of information locations connected to each other. Each such location is called a Website and comprises of multiple Web pages. AWeb page is created using HTML and is like any other computer document. It consists of text, pictures, sound, video and hyperlinks. You can navigate from one Web page to another using hyperlinks. A Website can be created by an individual or a company. Websites are hosted on the Web servers which are accessible on the Internet. A URL defines the address of a Website and is used to point to the homepage of the Website. A homepage is the first page that is displayed when you access a Website. It serves as a reference point and contains links to additional HTML pages or links to other Websites. The screen below displays the homepage of the Website britannica.com that is displayed on typing the URL `http:// www.britannica.com'.

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Uniform Resource Locator or URL

A URL defines the address of a site on the Internet. It defines the global addresses of documents and other resources on WWW.

Typically, the first part of a URL indicates the protocol to be used, while the second part specifies the domain name or IP address where the resource is located. Some examples of URLs are shown below:

URL

Description

httpi/mysite.com/index.html Fetch a Web page (index.html) using the HTTP Protocol

ftp://www.sharware/myzip.exe Fetch an executable file (myzip.exe) using FTP Protocol

1.8 INFORMATION NEEDS OF BUSINESS AND IT SUPPORT


NOTES

Decision support information: The information which is required by middle and top management for decision-making

Information technology allows an enterprise to become more active within the internal and the external environment and is considered to be the cornerstone for achieving competitive advantage in any business.

Assessing the information needs of an organization for business execution is a complex task. This complexity can be handled if the information is classified on the basis of its user and application. The classification of information is as follows:

1. Organizational Information: It is the information, which is required by a number Df personnel, departments and divisions or the functions in an organization. It has many users at all levels; for example, different people in an organization need information on different aspects such as the total number of employees, the types of products and services, the type of businesses and overall business turnover.

2. Functional Information: It is a set of information required by the functional head in conducting the administration and management of a function. This information is purely local to that function and by definition does not have a use elsewhere; for example, purchases, sales, production, stocks, receivables, payables, outstanding, budget and statutory information.

Functional information is normally generated at equal time intervals, say weekly, monthly or quarterly for understanding the trends and making compressions against the time scale. Such information is used for planning, budgeting and controlling the operations of the function. Functional information is used for assessing particular aspects of business; for example, stocks of finished goods, receivables, etc. Functional information can be assessed on the basis of the following parameters: work design, responsibility and functional objectives.

3. Knowledge Information: It creates an awareness of those aspects of business, where the manager is forced to think, decide and act. Such information shows the trends of the activity or a result against the timescale; for example, the trends in scale production technology, the deviations for budgets, targets norms, etc., competitor's information industry and business information, plan performance and target and its analysis. Middle and top management uses this information.

4. Decision Support Information: It is the information which is required by middle and top management for decision-making. This information does not act as a direct input to the decision-making procedure or formula, but support the manager in his efforts in decision-making.

Information is used in a decision support system for model building and problem solving. The support may act in two ways: one for justifying the needs of a decision and the other as an aid to decision-making.

5. Operational Information: It is that which is required by the operational and lower level of management. The purpose of this information is fact finding and taking such decisions and actions, which will affect the operations at the micro level. The source of operational information is largely internal through transaction processing and the information relates to a small time span.


Computer System: Determining the Information Requirement An Introduction

The main purpose of a business information system is to produce such information, which will reduce uncertainty in a given situation. The difficulties determining a correct and complete set of information are as follows:

• The capability constraint of the human being as an information processor, a problem solver and a decision-maker

• The nature and variety of information • Reluctance of decision-makers to spell out the information for political and

behavioural reasons • The ability of the decision-makers to specify the information

Methods of Assessing Information Needs

The following four methods are used for assessing the information needs of an organization:

1. Asking or Interviewing: In this method, a designer of MIS puts some questions to the user of information and determines the information requirements.

2. Determining from an Existing System: In a number of cases, an existing system which has evolved after a number of years, and has been designed out of experience straight away gives the requirement of information. In many situations, systems from other companies can give additional information requirements. The abundance of knowledge available in textbooks, handbooks and research papers can be utilized for determining information requirements.

3. Analysing the Critical Success Factors: Every business Organization performs successfully on the basis of certain critical factors. Other factors are important and play a supporting role in the functioning of the organization. Many times, a function is singularly critical to the successful functioning of a business organization.

4. Experimentation and Modelling: In case of total uncertainty, the designer and the user of information resort to this method for determining the information requirement. The experimentation would decide the methodology for handling a complex situation. If the method is finalized, the information needs are determined, as they have been evolved through experimentation. Test marketing of a product is an approach of experimentation to decide the correct marketing strategy.

The information systems technologies usually gather information related to the value chain enabling business managers to systematically plan implement and critically evaluate better results. It provides information about suppliers, customers and competitors, thus giving business managers an opportunity to analyze every element of the business enterprise.

In the case of IT support, the need of information play an important role. For example, let us assume we take a company XYZ for a case study. In one state office, staff response was that the citizenship helpdesk supported them effectively, but in general, staff said there are concerns around inadequate assistance and limited attention to State needs for IT and general business helpdesks. Thus, we see this not only raises efficiency and effectiveness issues but also results in staff generally feeling isolated from the systems they use, and unable to obtain the support they need in the operational environment.

It should be understood that the department will undertake a review of its IT helpdesks and then will go some way to address these concerns. The department might also follow the process of undertaking an investigation of IT services through formal tender, which might includes market capabilities for service desk services.

NOTES


1.9 IMPACT OF IT ON BUSINESS EXCELLENCE


In addition to numerous new products, developments in science and technology have a huge impact on all marketing activities, including communications (by making available new media or new tools of advertising and selling); distribution (by opening new channels or modifying existing outlets); packaging (by allowing the use of new materials or designs); marketing research (by making feasible new data gathering and analysis techniques); and marketing decision-making (by offering sophisticated procedures and computerized models). The examples of the effects of telecommunications on marketing include the following:

• Fax, e-mail, voice mails response based inter-communications. • Use of computers in data processing. • Shopping by television: teleshopping. • The Internet and intranet communications. • Computer-based reorder system reducing inventories. • TV commercials, telephone interviews, supermarket scanners. • Increasing consumer information.

Technological Changes and Economic Growth

Modern economies have been shaped by technology. New technologies offer a main source of economic growth. Many businesses earn handsome profits from products that did not exist twenty-five years ago. The electronics industry is the best example of how new marketing opportunities are exploited. Computers and aeroplanes are entirely new industries. Digital watches ended the marketing prospects of traditional watches. Artificial fibre cloth has almost killed the pure cotton textile industry in many countries. Television has adversely affected radio and cinema industries. Every five years, machinery becomes obsolete and has to be discarded. About 80 per cent of food products, now available to a housewife, in highly industrialized countries were simply non-existent thirty years ago.

Every new technology may herald the coming of some major industry; for instance microprocessors, xerography, robotics, computers and biotechnology. Same new technology is a force for creative destruction, e.g., xerography damaged the carbon paper business. We shall experience, as per, Toffler, future shocks due to new inventions and diffusion of new technology. Modern, sophisticated means of telecommunications, i.e., fax, e-mail, mobile phones, videoconferen.ce, telephone meeting, etc., have revolutionized information. A computerized economy enables global management. It has enabled management to communicate and manage remote teams.

Technological Change and Lifestyles

Consumer purchases and the manner in which they are consumed reflect a society's lifestyle. Technological forces help to shape changes in the style of living of consumers. Marketing management with the help of technology can create and deliver standards and styles of life in many countries. It has the responsibility of relating changing lifestyle patterns, values and changing technology to market opportunities for profitable sales to particular market segments.

Technological Change and Work Patterns

Technology does more than reducing costs and opening up new ways to compete. It also changes the nature of work. This does not apply just to new jobs at dot-corn

NOTES


Computer System:

An Introduction

NOTES

Check Your Progress 20. Fill in the blanks with

appropriate words. (a) , in a

computer system, is defined in terms of the number of bytes that it can store in its main memory.

(b) The primary task that the performs is the execution of instructions.

(c) The term has replaced the term central processing unit.

(d) A is the primary control program for managing all other programs in a computer.

21. State whether the following statements are true or false. (a) Linux never allows

multiple users to run multiple programs on the same system at the same time.

(b) A highly reliable and stable OS, it can run for months, even years without rebooting.

(c) Mac OS is the operating system designed for the Apple range of personal computers, the Macintosh.

(d) A Word processor is an application program which is never used for the production of any type of printable text document including composition, editing, formatting and printing.


firms like Amazon. All factory jobs are becoming more technologically demanding. For one, knowledge-intensive high-tech manufacturing jobs in such industries as aerospace, computers, telecommunications, home electronics, pharmaceuticals, and medical instruments are replacing factory jobs in steel, auto, rubber and textiles. Even heavy manufacturing jobs are becoming more high-tech. At the Davenport, Iowa plant of Alcoa Aluminum, a computer stands at each work post to help every employee control his machines. As Fortune magazine says, 'practically every package delivery, bank teller, retail clerk, telephone operator, and bill collector in America works with computers' today.

Technology not only changes the nature of work, but also creates totally new types of jobs. Katie Carmichael, Content Specialist for a company called SurfControl in Scott's Valley, California, performs tasks that would have been unheard of a few years ago. She surfs the Web everyday to find Websites that employees (or parents) might want to restrict, and she maintains and updates lists of those where SurfControl's clierts feel their employees might spend unproductive time on the job. Carmichael finds job satisfaction in the feeling of being 'in touch with humanity' that Internet affords her.

1.10 SUMMARY

Some of the important concepts discussed in this unit are:

• A computer is a programmable machine designed to automatically process a sequence of various arithmetic or logical operations.

• The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface.

• The control unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit or ALU, memory registers and basic Input/output or I/O devices are collectively known as a Central Processing Unit or CPU.

• A computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world. The computer operating environment consists of devices that serve as data sources or destinations.

• The task of the memory unit is to safely store programs as well as input, output and intermediate data.

• Computers are very fast. They can process millions of instructions per second. The speed is related to the amount of data it processes and the time it takes to complete the processing task.

• Computers can store vast amounts of information in the form of files which can be recalled at any time.

• A motherboard is the main PCB (Printed Circuit Board), sometimes alternatively known as a logical board or a main board of a Personal Computer (PC) or in fact any complex electronic system.

• The control unit not only plays a major role in transmitting data from a device to the CPU and vice versa but also plays a significant role in the functioning of the CPU.

• Memory is used for storage and retrieval of instructions and data in a computer system.

• The CPU contains several registers for storing data and instructions. But these can store only a few bytes.

Computer System: An Introduction 1.11 ANSWERS TO 'CHECK YOUR PROGRESS'

1. The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface.

2. The USB port is designed to connect multiple peripheral devices in a single standardized interface and has a plug and play option that allows devices to be connected or disconnected without restarting or turning off the computer. It can be used for many serial and parallel port devices, such as mouse, printers, modems, joysticks, game pads, scanners, digital cameras and other such devices.

3. The task of the memory unit is to safely store programs as well as input, output and intermediate data.

4. The output unit receives the result of the computation which is displayed on the screen or printed on paper using a printer.

5. A motherboard is the main PCB (Printed Circuit Board) sometimes alternatively known as a logical board or a main board of a Personal Computer, or infact any complex electronic system.

6. A serial port is a 9-pin connector normally used to attach the oki serial port mouse, handheld scanners, modems, joysticks, game pads and other such devices.

7. Every computer requires storage space where instructions and data of a program can reside temporarily when the program is being executed. This temporary storage area is built into the computer hardware and is known as the primary storage or main memory.

8. The speed at which the processor executes commands is called the processor speed or clock speed.

9. The different types of computer software are interpreter, assembler, compiler, operating systems, networking, word processing, accounting, presentation, graphics, computer games, and so on.

10. System software is a group of programs rather than one program and is responsible for using computer resources efficiently and effectively.

11. Embedded software refers to the part of unique application involving hardware like automobile controller.

12. Booting comes from the term 'pull you up from your boot straps' which means self starting. A computer is assembled to fetch the very first instruction from ROM when power is turned on.

13. The Windows 98 SE (Second Edition) is an improved and enhanced version of Windows 98. It includes new versions of Microsoft applications as compared to Windows 98 to improve user experience and stability of the operating system.

14. The Windows Embedded Compact (CE) is an operating system optimized for devices with minimum hardware resources, such as embedded devices and handhelds. It integrates advance and reliable real time capabilities with Windows technology

15. COTS (Commercial Off -The-Shelf) is a term used for software and hardware technology which is available to the general public for sale, license or lease.

16. Free domain software is software that comes with permission for anyone to use copy and distribute, either verbatim or with modifications, either free or for a fee.

NOTES



17. One of the basic features of Word is Word Wrap. This feature allows you to type without bothering about your line running out of the right margin of your page.

18. RAM is also called main memory which is volatile in nature and as a result, the programs and instructions are temporarily stored in it, are lost on power failure.

19. A driver is software that is used for communicating with various devices attached to the computer.

20. (a) Capacity; (b) CPU; (c) processor; (d) OS

21. (a) False; (b) True; (c) True; (d) False

NOTES

1.12 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES


Short-Answer Questions

1. Name the functional units of a computer.

2. Write the five basic tasks performed by the computer.

3. What is the mother board in a computer system?

4. Write the significance of memory.

5. What is the primary function of the processing unit?

6. Define the term clock speed.

7. How software is classified on the basis of functionality?

8. What is operating system and write its role in computing?

9. What are the major services provided by the operating system?

10. What is network?

11. What are the information needs of business and IT support?

Long-Answer Questions

1. Explain the basic functions of a computer.

2. Discuss how the computers had been evolved over the years. List the features of computers of each generation.

3. Describe how instruction is represented in a computer system.

4. Describe the various types of processors and on what factors does microprocessor are differentiated.

5. Illustrate the various types of software.

6. Explain the components of operating system and the common terminologies related to it.

7. Discuss the significance of non contiguous memory allocation.

8. Descnbe how the communication networks are classified with the help of suitable diagrams.

9. Explain the various components required in connecting to the Internet.

10. Classify the information on the basis of information needs in business and IT support.

11. Discuss the methods used for assessing the information needs of an organization.

Fundamentals of Working with a Computer

NOTES

UNIT 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF WORKING WITH A COMPUTER

Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Unit Objectives 2.2 Working with Microsoft Word 2007 2.3 Working with Spreadsheets 2.4 Summary 2.5 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 2.6 Question and Exercises

2.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will also learn about the process of creating and editing document using Microsoft Word 2007. Microsoft Office Word, a Word processor, was designed by Microsoft. Microsoft Word 2007 supports 'Ribbon Interface' which provides GUI features for menu bar. The Ribbon is generally located at the top of the screen of the Word Window which displays seven tabs by default. The tabs are Home, Insert, Page Layout, References, Mailings, Review and View. A template is a style guide for documents. A Word template can contain formatting, styles, headers, footers and macros in addition to dictionaries, toolbars and AutoText entries. Creating and editing document features are very helpful in Microsoft Word and hence used frequently. Document formatting feature supports all the types of formatting which are applied to a selected document for making suitable presentation. Mail merge is a process to create personalized letters and preaddressed envelopes or mailing labels for mass mailings using a Word processor.

Also in this unit, you will learn about Microsoft Excel 2007 which is an electronic spreadsheet that runs on a personal computer. A worksheet, also known as a spreadsheet, is a collection of cells on a single sheet where you can actually keep and manipulate the data. You can use it to organize the data into rows and columns. You can also use it to perform mathematical calculations quickly. Working with formula is the prime feature of Microsoft Excel 2007. You can create graphs and charts in the worksheet by inserting specified Charts, Clip Art, SmartArt, Shapes and pictures to enhance your worksheet. OLE or Object Linking and Embedding allow a Windows application to format or calculate data. Finally, you will learn the significance of macro and advanced features of Microsoft Excel 2007.

2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the significance of Microsoft Word 2007

• Explain the process of creating and editing documents Self-Instructional Material 61

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NOTES


Fundamentals of Working

with a Computer • Discuss the significance of formatting documents

• Use tools, such as AutoCorrect, spell checking and thesaurus

• Understand the significance of Microsoft Excel 2007

• Explain selection process in a worksheet

• Work with formulae, database, charts and macro

• Discuss and use the advance features of Microsoft Excel 2007

2.2 WORKING WITH MICROSOFT WORD

The Start button in the lower-left corner of your screen gives you access to all the programs on your PC and also to MS Word. To start Microsoft Word, click on the Start button and select All Programs. To open this window, you will need to perform the following steps:

• Click on the Start button and select Microsoft Office from Programs.

• Select Microsoft Office Word 2007.

The user interface of Microsoft Word 2007 is shown in the screen below.

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NOTES

Ribbon: Positioned at the top of the screen of the Word window


Menus

When you explore Microsoft Word 2007, you will notice the new look of the menu bar. Three new features help you to work with Word 2007, namely the Microsoft Office Button, the Quick Access Toolbar and the Ribbon which contain various functions.

The Microsoft Office Button

The Microsoft Office button is located in the upper-left corner of the Word 2007 window. A menu appears when you click on this button. This menu helps in creating a new document or file, opening an existing document or file, saving a document or file, printing a document or file, sending the document or file via fax or e-mail, etc.

The Quick Access Toolbar

The Quick Access Toolbar is right next to the Microsoft Office button. This toolbar helps you to access the frequently used commands. The default commands which appear on this toolbar are Save, Undo and Redo. These commands help you to Save a document or file, Undo an action and Redo an action.

You can customize this toolbar as per your requirements by clicking on the expansion button as shown below.

More items can be added to the quick access toolbar by right ckking on the item which you want to add in the Office Button or the Ribbon and then clicking on Add to Quick Access Toolbar as shown below.

The Ribbon

The Ribbon is positioned at the top of the screen of the Word window. It includes seven tabs, namely Home, Insert, Page Layout, References, Mailings, Review, View and Add-Ins as shown in screen below. Each tab contains various new and advanced features of Word.


Title bar: The Title bar is next to the Quick Access Toolbar. It displays the title of the current document. which is in use

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Each tab specifically contains certain tools as follows:

• Home: Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, Styles and Editing.

• Insert: Pages, Tables, Illustrations, Links, Header & Footer, Text and Symbols.

• Page Layout: Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph and Arrange.

• References: Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography, Captions, Index and Table of Authorities.

• Mailings: Create, Start Mail Merge, Write & Insert Fields, Preview Results and Finish.

• Review: Proofing, Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare and Protect.

• View: Document Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window and Macros.

• Add-Ins: PDF Transformer or any new Add-In program.

The Title Bar

The Title bar is next to the Quick Access Toolbar. It displays the title of the current document which is in use. The first new document in Word is named as `Document 1' as shown below. When you open more new documents, Word automatically names them as Document2, Document3, Document4, etc. sequentially. The document can be saved by giving it a proper file name as per the user's choice.

Word provides various ways through which a user can create a new document, open an existing document and save a document in Word. To create a new document, click on the Microsoft Office Button 61 and then click on New or press CTRL+N on the keyboard.

You will see that when you click on the Microsoft Office Button and then click on New, Word provides number of choices about the types of documents you can create. Select and click on Blank from the list if you want to create a blank document.

You can create a document using the option Installed Templates. Select any one of the templates as per your requirement. You can also browse other options through the list of choices that appear on the left.

Saving a Document

To save a document, the following are the options available to opt from according to the user's choice:

• Click on the Microsoft Office Button 011 and click on the Save option.

• The alternate option is to press CTRL+S.

• Another option is to click on the File icon in the Quick Access Toolbar and click on the Save.

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Saving a Document using Save As

To save a document using the Save As option, click on the Microsoft Office Button

and click on Save As. The Save As option helps you to save a document as a Word Documents, Word Template, Word 97-2003 Document (earlier versions), Other

Formats, etc.

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Renaming a Document

To rename an existing document, you need to perform the following steps:

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• Click on the Office Button ai and locate the document you want to rename.

• Click on the Save As option and then right click on the document name with

the mouse and select Rename from the shortcut menu.

• Type the new name for the document and press the ENTER key.

Working on Multiple Documents

Multiple documents can be simultaneously opened when you need to type or edit multiple documents at once. All the documents as opened will be listed in the View tab of the Ribbon when you will click on Switch Windows. The current document has a checkmark beside the file name. You can select a different document as opened by

simply clicking on the tab.

Opening an Existing Document

To open an existing document, the following steps need to be performed:

• Click on the Microsoft Office Button and then click on Open.

• The alternate option is to press CTRL+0 on the keyboard.

• For recently used document, you can click on the Microsoft Office Button

and then click on the name of the document in the Recent Documents window.

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Closing a Document

To close a document, the following steps need to be performed:

• Click on the Office Button.

• Click on Close.

Quitting from Word

When you work with Word processing, you can either quit or minimize the Word document. If do not expect to return to it anytime soon, you may just want to quit the program If you want to stop work on one document to work on another, you can close the document and then open another. You can use the Minimize button to hide Word while you are off doing other things. Following steps are required to perform quit from Word:

• Choose Exit Word from the Office Button menu.

• Save any files when Word prompts you to do so.

• Click Yes to save your file. You maybe asked to give the file a name, if you have not yet done so.

• Click Cancel to quit Exit Word command and return to Word.

If you select quit, Word closes its Window. Then, you can return to Windows or some other program.

Text Editing

The process of editing a document involves the following steps:

Typing and Inserting Text

To enter text, just type the text in the Word window. The text will appear at the location of the blinking cursor. You can move the cursor using the arrow keys on the keyboard or by positioning the mouse and clicking the left button. The keyboard shortcuts used for this purpose are as follows:

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Typing Text: Put your cursor where you want to add/ insert the text and begin typing

Move Action Keystroke

Beginning of the line HOME End of the line END Top of the document CI'RL+HOME End of the document CTRL+END

To change the current attributes of the text as typed, it needs to be highlighted first. Select the text by dragging the mouse over the text to be modified while holding down the left mouse button. An alternate way is to hold down the SHIFT key on the keyboard and use the arrow buttons to highlight the text. Following are the shortcuts that are used to select a specific portion of the text:


Selection Technique

Whole word

Whole paragraph

Several words or lines

Entire document

Double click within the word.

Triple click within the paragraph.

Drag the mouse over the words or hold down the SHIFT key while using the arrow keys.

Choose Editing —> Select —+ Select All from the Ribbon or simply press CTRL+A.

Moving and Copying Text

Moving and copying data are common commands used in many computer programs. These commands allow us to take information from one document or location and place them in another without retyping everything. When you move data, you are actually taking it from the location in which it is currently placed and relocating it to another area in the document as shown in the given screen:

When you copy data, the original data remains intact and in addition a copy of that data is placed in another area in the document as shown in the given screen:

In Microsoft Word 2007, the commands you need to carry out any move or copy operation are located on the Home tab within the Clipboard. Following are the keyboard shortcuts that are also helpful when moving through the text of a document:

Move Action Keystroke Beginning of the line HOME End of the line END Top of the document CI'RL+HOME End of the document CTRL+END

Using Drag and Drop Technique

Text can be inserted in a document at any point using any of the following methods: • Type Text: Put your cursor where you want to add/insert the text and begin

typing.


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• Copy and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click to view options. Now click on Copy option. Put your cursor where you want the text to be inserted in the document and right click to view options. Select Paste to paste the copied text.

• Cut and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to cut and right click to view options. Now click on Cut option. Put your cursor where you want the text to be inserted in the document and right click to view the options. Select Paste to paste the cut text.

• Drag Text: Highlight the text you wish to move. Click on it and drag it to the place where you want the text to be inserted in the document.

Using Cut, Copy and Paste Options

To work with Cut, Copy and Paste operations in Word 2007, you need to first select the text which you want to copy and paste as shown in the following screen. Press right mouse button to get the shortcut key.

Copy the selected text. Select Paste option and place the mouse pointer where you want to paste the selected material. Click on Paste option. The copied and cut text will be stored in Clipboard application as shown in the following screen.

For cut operation, you need to select the text. Click on Cut option in shortcut key. Place the mouse pointer where you want to paste the cut text. Click on Paste option in shortcut key.

Finding and Replacing Text

The Find and Replace option can be accessed either by selecting CTRL+F or CTRL+H menu by pressing key combinations for Find and Replace. After choosing the Find or Replace option, you will get the following screen:

The special drop-down list drops a variety of options as follows:

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The match case provides you to find and replace the word as uppercase or lowercase. For example, if you check on Match case box and type the word in

capital as 'TOP', a dialog box appears with a message 'The search item was not

found'. If you remove the check box, the found word is replaced by defined word as

follows:

You can also search the items by using wild card (*) as shown in screen below:

Insert/Delete Text

In Microsoft Word 2007, you can create documents by typing them, for example, if you want to create a report, you open Microsoft Word 2007 and then start to type. You do not have to do anything when your text reaches the end of a line and you want to move to a new line, Microsoft Word 2007 automatically moves your text to a new line. If you want to start a new paragraph press ENTER key. Microsoft Word creates a blank line to indicate the start of a new paragraph. To capitalize, hold down the SHIFT key while typing the letter you want to capitalize. If you make a mistake, you can delete what you typed and then type your correction. You can use the Backspace

key to delete. Each time you press the Backspace key, Microsoft Word 2007 deletes

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the character that precedes the insertion point. The insertion point is the point at which your mouse pointer is located. You can also delete text by using the Delete [DEL] key. First, you select the text you want to delete and then you press the Delete key. Let us take an example, type the following sentence:

I am learning to use Microsoft Word 2007.

Delete the word Microsoft and 2007 from the given sentence. Place the cursor using either the arrow keys or the mouse at the end of the word Microsoft. Press the Backspace key until the word 'Microsoft' is deleted. Similarly delete '2007' from the sentence. The sentence will be as follows:

I am learning to use Word. .

Insert a word 'Processor' at the end of sentence. Place the cursor after the word `Word'. Start typing the word 'Processor' and save the changes. Similarly insert a word `how' in between 'learning' and `to' in the given sentence. The sentence will be follows:

I am learning how to use Word Processor.

Formatting Document

Document formatting represents all the types of formatting parts which are applied to a selected document for making suitable presentation. The page margins can be modified through the following steps:

• Click the Page Layout tab on the Ribbon.

• On the Page Setup group, click Margins.

• Click an Normal or Office 2003 Default.

• Or you can also click Custom Margins and complete the dialog box.

Following steps are required to change the Orientation, Size of the page or Columns:

• Click the Page Layout tab on the Ribbon. • On the Page Setup Group, Click the Orientation, Size or Columns drop-

down menus. • Click the appropriate choice.

Apply a Page Border and Color

To apply a page border or color, following steps are required:


• On the Page Background Group, click the Page Color or Page Borders drop-down menus.

Create or Insert a Page Break

To insert a page break, following steps are required:


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Insert a Cover Page

To insert a cover page, following steps are required:

• Click the Insert tab on the Ribbon.

• Click the Cover Page button on the Pages group.

• Choose a style for the cover page.

Insert a Blank Page

To insert a blank page, following steps are required:

• Click the Insert tab on the Ribbon.

• Click the Blank Page button on the Pages group.

Font Formatting

You can find Font toolbar on Home tab on the Ribbon.

To change the font typeface, Click on the arrow next to the font name and select a font.

You can preview how the new font will look by highlighting the text and then hovering over the new font typeface.

To change the font size, click on the arrow next to the font size and select the proper size or click on the increase or decrease font size buttons.

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Font styles: These are predefined formatting options which are used to emphasize specific text


Font Styles and Effects

Font styles are predefined formatting options which are used to emphasize specific text. They include bold, italics and underline. Following are the steps that need to be followed in order to add these effects:

• Select the text and click on Font Styles as included in the Font group of the Ribbon.

• The alternate way is to select the text and right click on it to display the font tools.

Border and Shading

You can add borders, shade paragraphs and even the entire pages. To create a border around a single paragraph or paragraphs, you need to do the following:

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• Select the area of text where you want the border or that which you want to shade.

• Click on the Borders button in the Paragraph group on the Home tab.

• Select the Borders and Shading option.

• Select the options as per your choice and requirement.

Inserting Symbols

Microsoft Word 2007 permits you to insert special characters, symbols, pictures, illustrations, etc. Special characters are punctuation, spacing or typographical characters that are generally not available on the standard keyboard. Following are the steps for inserting symbols and special characters:

• Move your cursor in the document where you want the symbol.

• Click on the Insert tab in the Ribbon.

• Click on the Symbol button in the symbols group.

• Select the symbol as required.

If you want more symbols then click on More Symbols to display the following dialog box for a list of various symbols in various fonts.

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Paragraph alignment: It helps in organizing the text according to the way you want it to appear



Changing Case

In Microsoft Word 2007, you can change the capitalization of words, sentences or paragraphs by doing the following:

• Select the text that you want to change the case of.

• On the Home tab, in the Font group, click Change Case 0 (as shown in the screenshot) and then click the capitalization option that you want.

• To capitalize the first letter of a sentence and leave all other letters as lowercase, click Sentence case.

• To exclude capital letters from your text, click lowercase.

• To capitalize all of the letters, click UPPERCASE.

• To capitalize the first letter of each word and leave the other letters lowercase, click Capitalize Each Word.

• To shift between two case views, for example, to shift between Capitalize Each Word and the opposite, cAPITALIZE eACH wORD, click tOGGLE cASE.

Text Alignment

Paragraph alignment helps in organizing the text according to the way you want it to appear. To change the alignment, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Home tab.

• Select the appropriate button for alignment in the Paragraph group. o Align Text Left: The text is aligned with the left margin. o Center: The text is centered within the margins. o Align Text Right: The text is aligned with the right margin. o Justify: It aligns the text to both the left and right margins.

Insertion of Current Date and Time in a Word Document

In Microsoft Word 2007, use the following shortcut keys to enter the current system date and time as shown in the screenshot, for example [ALT+ SHIFT+D] key combination is used to insert the current date and [ALT+SHIFT+T] key combination is used to insert the current time.

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Writing Header and Footer Content

To apply a page border or color, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Page Layout tab in the Ribbon.

• In the Page Background group, click on Page Color or Page Borders to generate the drop-down menus.

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To insert Header and Footer information, such as page numbers, date or title, first decide whether you want the information to be in the header, i.e., at the top of the page or in the Footer, i.e., at the bottom of the page and then follow the given steps:

• Click on the Insert tab in the Ribbon.

• Click on Header & Footer.

• Select a style.

• The Header & Footer Tools tab will be displayed in the Ribbon.

• Select or type the information that you want to have in the header or footer, such as date, time, page numbers, etc.

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Bullets and Numbering

Bulleted lists are represented using bullet points, numbered lists are represented using numbers and outline lists combine together the numbers and letters depending on the association of the list.

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Following are the required steps for adding a list to existing text: • Select the text for which you wish to make a list.

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Nested list: It is the list which has several levels of indented text

Fundamentals of Working with a Computer • From the Paragraph group on the Home tab, click on the Bullets or

Numbering or Multilevel List button as per requirement.

To create a new list following steps are required:

• Move your cursor where you want the list to appear in the document.

• Click the Bullets or Numbering button.

• Start typing.

• Bullets or Numbers will automatically appear when you will press the ENTER key and go to a new line.

Nested Lists

A nested list is the list which has several levels of indented text. To create a nested list, do the following steps:

• Create your list following the directions as given above.

• Click on the Increase or Decrease Indent button.

Formatting Lists

The bullet image and the numbering format can be modified using the Bullets or

Numbering dialog box. Following are the steps for formatting a bulleted or a numbered list:

• Select the entire list to change all the bullets or numbers, or just place the cursor on one line within the list to change a single bullet.

• Right click.

• Click on the arrow next to the bulleted or numbered list and choose the bullet or numbering style as required.

AutoText

Following steps are required to add AutoText:

• Click the Microsoft Office Button Ili) and then click Word Options.

• Click Customize.

• In the list under Choose commands from, click All Commands.

• Scroll through the list of commands until you see AutoText as shown in screen below.

• Click AutoText and then click Add. The AutoText button '44 now appears

in the Quick Access Toolbar.

• In your Word document, select the text that you want to add to your gallery of AutoText entries.

• In the Quick Access Toolbar, click AutoText and then click Save Selection to AutoText Gallery.

Insert the following information in the Create New Building Block dialog box:

• Name: Type a unique name for the building block.

• Gallery: Select the gallery that you want the building block to show up.

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• Category: Select a category, such as General or Built-In or Create New Category.

• Description: Type a description of the building block.

• Save in: Click the name of the template in the drop-down list. A template must be open to be displayed in the drop-down list of template names.

• Options: Choose one of the following options as described below: o Select Insert content in its own page to place the building block on a

separate page with page breaks before and after the building block. o Select Insert content in its own paragraph to make the content into its

own paragraph even if the user's cursor is in the middle of a paragraph. o Select Insert content only for all other content.

AutoCorrect

AutoCorrect option is used to correct the common typing or spelling errors. You can set up the AutoCorrect tool in Word to keep some text ask is. The following steps have to be followed to customize AutoCorrect:

• Click on the Microsoft Office button.

• Click on the Word Options button.

• Click on the Proofing tab.

• Click on the AutoCorrect Options button.

• In the AutoCorrect Tab, specify the words which you want to replace whenever you type.

Spelling and Grammar Tool

To check the spelling and grammar of a document, follow the given steps:

• Move the cursor to the beginning of the document or to the beginning of the section that you want to check.

• Click on the Review tab in the Ribbon.

• Click on the Spelling & Grammar option in the Proofing group.

• Any error as encountered will be displayed in a dialog box which would permit you to select a more proper spelling or phrasing as shown below.

If you wish to check the spelling of an individual word, you can right click on any word that has been underlined by Word and select a proper substitution.

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Fundamentals of Working with a Computer Thesaurus

Thesaurus allows you to view synonyms. To use the thesaurus, follows the given

steps: • Click on the Review tab of the Ribbon. • • Click on the Thesaurus button on the Proofing group.

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Mail Merge

Mail merge is used when a group of documents are required to be created, such as formal letter, to be sent to multiple personnel. Each letter contains the basic content of same sort yet some information need to be distinctive. For example, address in letters to customers is generally required. Using mail merge, each letter can be personalized to address each customer with their respective name and address. This distinctive information in each letter is retrieved using data source. The mail merge process entails the following overall steps:

• Set up the Main Document: The main document is the official document containing the central content, such as textual and graphical content, that are the same for each merging document, for example, the return address.

• Connect the Document to a Data Source: File that contains the information that is merged into a document is called a data source, for example, the names and addresses of the recipients of a letter.

• Refine the List of Recipients or Items: Office Word 2007 can be used to create a number of copies of the main document for each record in your data source. If the data source file is a mailing list, these records may be recipients of your mailing. Records can be selected from the data source., file to generate each copy of the main document.

For applying mail merge, placeholders also known as mail merge fields are added to the main document. When mail merge is performed, these mail merge fields are replaced with the information from your data source. Before printing each document with their respective addressing, you can preview the final copies. Mailings tab consist of commands that are used to perform a mail merge. You can also use custom contact fields with the list of Contacts available in Microsoft Office Outlook. For this, you need to start the mail merge process in Outlook. Mail merge can also be performed using Mail Merge task pane which directs you through the process' tep by step. To use the Mail Merge task pane, select Start Mail Merge group from the Mailings tab, click Start Mail Merge and then click Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard.

Creating a Master Document

Following steps are required to create the main document: Start Mail Select Edit

Merge - Recipients - Recipient List

• Start Microsgft Word 2007. A blank soil 'MI merge • document is opened by default. Leave it open.


with a Computer If you close it, the commands in the next step are not available. In the Start Mail Merge group, click Start Mail Merge.

• You can create a catalog or directory which has the same kind of information, such as name and description is shown for each item but the name and description in each item is unique. Click Directory to create this type of document.

• You can create a set of envelopes. The return address is the same on all the envelopes but the destination address is unique on each one.

• You can create a set of mailing labels. Each label shows a person's name and address but the name and address on each label is unique.

• You can create a set of e-mail messages. The basic content is the same in all the messages but each message goes to the individual recipient and each message contains information that is specific to that recipient, such as the recipient's name or some other information.

Creating Data Source

Data source must be connected to the main document to merge information into the document. Ifa data source has not been created, it can be formed during the process of mail merge. If an existing record data source is being used, it should be checked for all valid information including all the columns and rows before merging the data source with the main document. Note that changes can be made to the data source file during the mail merge process but the file itself cannot be opened separately during the process. Mail merge will be much easier and faster to implement if your data source is ready before it is connected. On the Mailings tab in the Start Mail Merge group, click on Select Recipients and choose the data source file.

Do one of the following tasks: • If you want to use your Contacts list in Outlook, click Select from Outlook

Express Contacts. • If you have a Microsoft Office Excel worksheet, a Microsoft Office Access

database or another type of data file, click Use Existing List and then locate the file in the Select Data Source dialog box.

In Excel, data from any worksheet or specified range within a workbook can be selected and in Access, data from any table or query can be selected. For searching all the qualified records stored in the data source that satisfy the criteria yo-u select, a query is used. For defined search in the database, queries can use operators, special characters, such as quotation marks, wildcard characters and parentheses. Select the appropriate file type or select Data Source dialog box if the data source you are browsing is not listed. In a Mail Merge, you can use the following types of data files:

• Single tier files support file-based database programs associated with OLE DB. OLE DB is a component database architecture that implements efficient network and the Internet access to many types of data sources, including relational data, mail files, flat files and spreadsheets provider or Open Database Connectivity (ODBC).

• For sharing data between database and programs, a standard method is used. Access to external data source can be achieved by using standard Structured Query Language (SQL) provided by ODBC drivers.

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For example, an HTML file has a single table. The first row of the table must contain column names and the other rows must contain data. Any similar address lists that have been created with a Messaging Application Program Interface or (MAPI) allows different messaging and workgroup applications including e-mail, voice mail and fax to work through a single client, such as compatible messaging system via as Microsoft Outlook or Microsoft Word document. The document should contain a single table. The first row of the table must contain headings and the other rows must contain the records that you want to merge. You can also use a header source. Adocument that contains the header row or header record to be used with the data source specified for a mail merge main document as a data source. Data fields represent a category of information that corresponds to one column of information in a data source. The name of each data field is listed in the first row (header row) of the data source, such as `PostalCode' and `LastName' are examples of data field names which are separated or delimited by tab characters or commas and data records. A complete set of related information that corresponds to one row of information in the data source represents

r data records. All information about one client in a client mailing list is an example of a data record which is separated by paragraph marks. Create a new data file in Word 2007. If you do not have a data file then click Type New List and then use the form that opens to create your list. The list is saved as a database (.mdb) file that you can reuse, for example a Microsoft Excel list or a Microsoft Access database. If you are

I ready to continue, go to the next step.

To add a contact to your Address Book, following steps are required: • On the Outlook Express toolbar, click Tools, and then click Address

Book... as shown in screen below. You can also get this option by pressing `CTRL+SITIFT+B' key combination.

• In the Address Book, select the folder to which you want to add a contact. • On the Address Book toolbar, click New and then click New Contact.

On the Name tab, type at least the first and last name of the contact. This is the display name. A display name is required for each contact. If you enter a first, middle, or last name, it will automatically appear in the Display box. You can change the display name by typing in a different name or by selecting from the drop-down list. The drop-down list will contain variations of the first, middle and last name as well as anything you typed in the Nickname box or the Company box on the Business tab. On 'ach of the other tabs, add any information you would like to include, for example e-mail ID and address.

Notes: Be sure.to include an e-mail address for your contact. While your Address Book can be used for many purposes, its most immediate benefit is in providing e-mail addresses when you are composing mail.


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with a Computer If you include a contact's street

address on the Home tab or the Business tab, you can click View Map located on each of these tabs to display a printable street map showing the contact's address. Screen below displays 'Address Book — Main Identity' tab which contains a database of Name and E-Mail Address details and can be added for source data.

To include the e-mail address in the address book, make sure that the e-mail Address Book check box is marked on the Outlook book tab. An Outlook user profile is a collection profile of all the e-mail accounts and address books stored in the data source. Although a single profile is sufficient, you may need multiple profiles if you are sharing your computer system with other people or using different multiple address books for different reasons. While using mail merge, if you are using a profile that do not consist the contact folder you require, you can switch to a different contact profile using Outlook. Mier starting Outlook, you will-be prciMpttd for choosing a profile, select the user profile you need to use in the mail merge process. In case, you are not prompted for choosing a user profile and you are certain that more than one user profiles exists, you may need to setup Outlook to prompt for selecting a user profile. For this purpose, close Outlook and follow the steps given below.

• Switch to Classic View from the Control Panel and then click Mail.

• Click Show Profiles. • To be prompted to select a profile each time

you start Outlook, click Prompt for a profile to be used and then click OK.

If your data file is an Excel worksheet that includes percentages, currency values or postal codes, you can preserve the numeric formatting of the data by using Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) to connect to the Excel worksheet from Word 2007. For example, you can make sure a five digit postal code of 07865 from your data file is not displayed as the number 7865 (without the leading zero). Before you connect to the worksheet, do the following in Word 2007:

• Click the Microsoft Office Button and then click Word Options.

• Click Advanced. • Scroll to the General section and select the Confirm file format conversion

on open check box. • Click OK. • With the mail merge main document open, in the Start Mail Merge group of

the Mailings tab, click Select Recipients and then click Use Existing List.

• Locate the Excel worksheet in the Select Data Source dialog box and double click it.

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• In the Confirm Data Source dialog box, click Microsoft Excel Worksheets via DDE (*.xls) and then click OK.

• In the New Address List dialog box, type the information for the first address or record that you want to include in your label merge. If you want to add or remove columns, click Customize Columns, and then make the changes that

you want.

• After you type all the information for your first record, click New Entry and

then type the information for the next record. Continue until you have typed information for all the records that you want to include.

• When you connect to a certain data file, you might not want to merge information from all the records in that data file into your main document. If you plan to use your entire list, you can skip ahead to the next step. To arrange the list of recipients or use a subset of the items in your data file, do the following:

• On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group. click Edit Recipient

List.

In the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, you need to select the names of recipients to whom you want to send the mail. To filter records, do the following:

• Under Refine recipient list, click Filter.

• On the Filter Records tab of the Filter and Sort dialog box, choose the criteria you want to use for the filter. For example, to generate copies of your main document only for addresses that list India as the country/region, you would click Country or Region in the Field list, Equal to in the Comparison

list and India in the Compare to list.

The placeholders, such as address and greeting, are called mail merge fields. Fields in Word correspond to the column headings in the data file that you select.

g Name Last None Street Address Natasha Vij N 11, Golf Unk, Delhi

INeha Ray 111 22, A. Mbar, Delhi

Lisa Lambs I 33, P. Vihar, Delhi

A related collection of information represents columns in a data source file. Fields that are added to main document are called as placeholders. The rows in a data source file represent records of the mailing information. Word 2007 generates a copy for each record of the main document when performing the process of mail merge. By placing placeholders in your main document, you designate that the position is a holder for a certain kind of specific information, such as name or mailing address that would appear in that location after mail merge, as shown in the given screenshot.

When the mail merge fields are added in the main document, they are enclosed within chevrons (0 »). These chevrons do not show up in the merged documents. They are just used to indicate where data source information will be added and also help in distinguishing between placeholders and regular text. When merging is executed,

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information from the data source's first row replaces its respective placeholder location, producing the first merging file. Same happens with second row in the data source replacing its respective placeholder, and so on.

Placing a «PersonalNote» field in your main document lets you to include some notes at the bottom for a specific message. You can also combine or separate fields with suitable punctuation marks. For example, to create an address, you can place the fields in your main document in the following way:

«First Name» «Last Name» «Street Address»

«City», «State» «Postal code»

For elements that are used frequently, such as name address blocks and greeting lines, Word 2007 offers composite fields that can be used to group a

I number of fields together.

For example, the Address Block field is a combination of several fields, including First Name, Last Name, Street Address, State, City and Postal code as shown in the screen.

Inserting Field Names into Master Document

You may wish to delete or add fields types to your mail merge document. You can do that easily. Just click the Customize Columns button. The Customize Columns dialog box opens. Then click Add, Delete or Rename to alter the field types. You can also use the Move Up and Move Down buttons to rearrange the order of the fields. When you do, click OK. Once you have added all your recipients, click OK on the New Address List dialog box. Name the data source and click Save. To insert a field into your document, click Insert Merge Field on the Mailings Ribbon tab. Select the field you would like to insert. The field name appears where you have the cursor located in your document. You can edit and format the text surrounding the field. Formats applied to the field will carry over to your finished document. You can continue to add fields to your document. You can also insert the field with the help of tool.

Using Address Books

You can use the Insert Address button to select an address from your contacts list. To add an address to your contacts list, you must add it to the address book in your e-mail program. On the Tools menu, point to Letters and Mailings and follow the steps given below:

• Click the Envelopes or Labels tab.

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• In the Show Names from the box, list.

• In the Type Name or Select from the list.

click the desired address book or contact

list box, enter a name; or click a name in

Creating a Mail Merge Document

Click Start Mail Merge on the Mailings Ribbon and select the type of document you would like to create. For example, you can select letters, envelopes or labels. Select `Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard' for more help creating your document.

Click Select Recipients on the Mailings Ribbon to add recipients to the mailing. You can opt to create a new database of recipients. You can also opt to use an existing list or Outlook contacts.

In the New Address List box, begin entering your contacts. You can use the TAB key to move between fields. Each set of fields is referred as an entry. To add additional recipients, click the New Entry Button. To delete an entry, select it and click Delete Entry. Click Yes to confirm the deletion.

Merge the Information onto One File

Once the data source is prepared and the data merge fields are inserted in the main document, mail merge can be performed. You can save the merged files a new file which will contain customized version copies of the main document for each data record or you can directly give the merged document to a printer or sent via e-mail message.

Sending the Merged Document to the Printer

The final step is to perform the merge operation. This process will merge results in a separate document including all the letters with respective records from the data source. Merged document can be sent to print or can be saved in the disk for further use or modifications. If the suitable software is installed, you can also send the merged document to a fax or e-mail application. Select a destination from the dialog box accessed via the Merge button as shown in the screen.

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Print the Merged Letters

One of the most popular uses of the Mail Merge feature is to prepare form letters. A main function is used to make the basic set up of the letter that needs to be merged with variant customers. Using data from a table or external database to insert mailing information into the main document makes required copies; you can also print these letters with different information for each record in the database or table. Let us go through the entire process of mail merge in one go, printing the hardcopy result. Following steps are required to print the merged letters:

• Open a Blank Word document.

• From the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Start Mail

Merge 61.

The Start Mail Merge sub menu appears. • From the Start Mail Merge sub menu, select

Letters. • In the Start Mail Merge group, click Select Recipients and select Use

Existing List...

The Select Data Source dialog box appears. • From the Look in pull down list, locate and select the file you will use for your

list. • Click Open.

Following steps are required to select the recipients, you want to include in your mail merge.

• In the Start Mail Merge group, click Edit Recipient List.

• Select the recipients.

• A recipient is selected if the checkbox beside their entry is selected.

• Click OK.

To edit the recipient information, following steps are required: • If you have not already done so in your document, type

the text of your letters • To insert merge fields,

o Position the insertion point at the proper place in your document

o In the Write and Insert Fields group, click Insert Merge Field and select the desired field.

• When finished, click Preview Results.

A preview of your first recipient's letter appears. To preview your document with other recipients' information in the Preview Results section, click the arrows. To print the letters,

• Click Finish & Merge and select Print Documents... •

NOTES


Print: Used to send the merged document directly to the printer for printing the hard copies

Check Your Progress

1. How Quick Access Toolbar help while working with Microsoft Window?

2. Where is the Ribbon positioned in Word Window?

3. How a Word document is used?

4. How can you select the entire document?

5. What are special characters?

6. Why AutoCorrect option is used?

7. Define mail merge.

8. Write one popular use of the mail merge feature.


Fundamentals of Working with a Computer • The Merge to Printer dialog box appears.

o To print letters for all of your records, select All.

o To print a letter for only the record displayed, select Current record.

o To print letters for only certain records, type a range in the text boxes.

• Click OK.

• The Print dialog box appears.

• You can make any necessary adjustment and click OK.

Using Tools

Following are tools that help you to output the merged result:

• Print: Print option is used to send the merged document directly to the printer for printing the hard copies. When you click Print, the Merge to Printer dialog box appears. In the Merge to Printer dialog box, you can choose which records to merge. When you click OK, the Print dialog box appears. Click Print to

print the merged document.

• Edit Individual Letters: This option is used to output the merged document on your screen before doing anything else or printing. When you click Edit

individual letters, the Merge to New Document dialog box appears. In the Merge to New Document dialog box, you can choose which records to merge. When you click OK, the documents are merged to a new Word document. To print the file, go to the Microsoft Office Button menu and click Print.

Protecting File

Following steps are required to encrypt your file and set a password to open it:

• Click the Microsoft Office Buttons, point to Prepare and then click

Encrypt Document.

• In the Encrypt Doeument dialog box, in the Password box, type a password

and then click OK.

Notes: You can type up to 255 characters. By default, this feature uses AES 128-bit advanced

encryption.

In the Confirm Password dialog box, in the Reenter password box, type the

password again and then click OK.

To save the password, save the file.

NOTES


2.3 WORKING WITH SPREADSHEETS

Microsoft Excel 2007 is the newest version of spreadsheet software in the Microsoft 2007 Office Suite. This spreadsheet application is specifically developed by Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Technically speaking, Excel files are referred as spreadsheets. This is a generic term, which sometimes means a workbook (file) and sometimes means a worksheet (a page within the file). Data files created with Microsoft Excel are called workbooks. Excel files by default contain three blank worksheets. This gives you the flexibility to store related data in different locations within the same file. More worksheets can be added and unwanted worksheets can be deleted as per the user requirement. Thus Microsoft Office Excel is a powerful and most extensively used tool as spreadsheet application which allows you to store, organize and analyse numerical, graphic and text data. Spreadsheets allow information to be organized in rows and tables, and can be analysed using various mathematical, trigonometric, text, logical, date and time functions. The number of rows is now 1,048,576 (220) and columns is 16,384 (2'4). Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets, using a grid of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter named columns to organize data manipulations. Further with Microsoft Excel 2007 you can analyse, manage and share information quickly and easily to formulate more knowledgeable decisions. With the new user interface, rich data isualization and PivotTable views, professional looking charts can be created easily.

The advanced features in Microsoft Excel 2007 include Office themes, more styles, rich conditional formatting, easy formula writing, Sort & Filter, data validation, worksheet and workbook protection, Goal Seek, Scenario, PivotTable and PivotChart. Goal Seek and Scenario are part of 'What-If Analysis' tools. Excel supports charts, graphs or histograms generated from specified groups of cells. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate object. OLE or Object Linking and Embedding allow a Windows application to format or calculate data. This may acquire the form of 'embedding' where an application uses another to handle the task, for example a PowerPoint presentation can be embedded in an Excel spreadsheet or vice versa. You can create a spreadsheet using various formatting and editing features given in the Ribbon panel. Thus, you can perform calculations using the functions given in Excel and can sort and filter data as per your requirement. You can create graphs in the worksheet, insert illustrations, Clip Art, SmartArt, Shapes and pictures to enhance your worksheet. You can freeze and unfreeze rows and columns and can also hide and unhide any worksheet.

Spreadsheet Packages and their Usefulness

A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet used to organize and manipulate numbers and display options for what-if analysis. Popular electronic spreadsheet packages include Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pr,: and Excel. The electronic spreadsheet has rows and columns stored in the computer's memory and displayed on its screen. Electronic spreadsheets allow users to tryout various what-if kinds of possibilities, very significant and dominant feature. Users can manipulate numbers by using stored formulas and calculate different outcomes. A spreadsheet has several parts. The worksheet area of the spreadsheet has column headings across the top and mw headings down the left hand side. The intersection of a column and row is called a cell. The cell holds a unit of information. The position of a cell is called the cell address. Acell pointer (spreadsheet

NOTES

Workbooks: Data files created with Microsoft Excel are called workbooks

Spreadsheet: It is an electronic worksheet used to organize and manipulate numbers and display options for what-if analysis


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cursor) indicates where data is to be entered or changed in the spreadsheet. Technically, a spreadsheet is an electronic document which saves various types of data in columns and rows. An Excel spreadsheet can contain a number of workbooks and worksheets. A workbook contains the related worksheets. When you open a new worksheet in Excel 2007, the following screen appears:


NOTES

Worksheet, Workbook and Workspace

A Microsoft Excel file in which you can enter and store related data is known as a workbook. A workbook is also identified as a spreadsheet that is a group of cells on a single sheet where you in fact keep and operate data. Every worksheet consists of columns and rows. The columns are lettered A to Z and then continue with AA, AB, AC, and so on. The rows are numbered from 1 to 1,048,576. The number of rows and columns that you can hold in your worksheet is restricted by computer memory and your system resource.

Cell address is the combination of a column letter and a row number. For example, if a cell is located in the upper left corner of the worksheet, which is Al , this means that it is located in column A and row 1. Similarly, cell El0 is situated in column E on row 10. The data can be entered into the cells present on the worksheet. N-number of worksheets can be present in a workbook. To work with workspace you have to perform the following steps:

• Click the Office button. Click Open. • Click the Files of type: list arrow. Click Workspace.

• Select the workspace file. Click Open.


Ribbon: The Ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the spreadsheet. It includes seven tabs namely, Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review and View

Ribbon

The Ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the spreadsheet. It includes seven tabs namely, Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review and View. Add-ins is another option which is automatically displayed on the Ribbon when you add any new application to the program. Each tab is a collection of features designed to perform specific functions that you require while creating or editing Excel spreadsheets.

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The frequently used features are displayed on the Ribbon. To- view additional features of each group, click on the arrow at the bottom right corner of each group.

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• Insert: Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links, Text

• Page Layouts: Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options, Arrange

• Formulas: Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Auditing, Calculation

• Data: Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools, Outline

• Review: Proofing, Comments, Changes

• View: Workbook Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros

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Getting Started

As soon as you start Excel 2007, you will see that its features are similar to the previous versions. You will also see that there are many additional features which help you to work with special effects. Three new features that are included in Excel 2007 are the Microsoft Office Button, the Quick Access Toolbar and the Ribbon.


NOTES

Microsoft Office Button

The Microsoft Office Button performs various functions that were found in the File menu of older versions of Excel. This button permits you to create a new workbook, open an existing workbook, save a workbook using Save and Save As, Print, Send or Close a workbook.


Quick Access Toolbar

The Quick Access Toolbar can be customized as per the user need and contains commands that you use most frequently. You can place the Quick Access Toolbar above or below the Ribbon. To change the location of the Quick Access Toolbar, click on the arrow at the end of the toolbar and click Show Below the Ribbon.

You can also add more items to the Quick Access toolbar. To do this, right click on any item

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NOTES

Popular: Helps you to personalize your work environment using the mini toolbar, color schemes, default options when creating new workbooks and creating lists for sort and fill sequences


in the Office Button or the Ribbon and then click on Add to Quick Access Toolbar. A shortcut will be added there.

Mini Toolbar

Mini Toolbar is a new feature in Office 2007. This is a floating toolbar and is displayed when you select text or right click any text. It displays the common formatting tools, such as Bold, Italic, Fonts, Font Size and Font Color.

Excel Options

Excel 2007 provides a wide range of customizable options that help you to create an Excel workbook of required specifications. To access these customizable options, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Office Button.

• Click on Excel Options which you will get from Quick Access Toolbar.

Popular

The Popular features helps you to personalize your work environment using the Mini Toolbar, Color schemes, default options when creating new workbooks and creating lists for sort and fill sequences. It also helps you to access the Live Preview feature to preview how a feature affects the document as you hover over different choices. The choices provide new font size, table style or cell style which can be applied on a workbook as per requirement.

Formulas

The Formulas feature permits you to modify the calculation options, to work with formulas, error checking and error checking rules. Working with formulas provide four check boxes which are R1C1 reference style, Formula AutoComplete, Use table names in formulas and Use GetPivotData functions for PivotTable references.

Proofing

The Proofing feature permits you to personalize the options for correcting words and formats of your text. You will get AutoCorrect option in Proofing feature. You can customize auto correction settings so that it will ignore certain words or errors in a document via the Custom Dictionaries...

Save

The Save feature permits you to personalize your workbook when saved. You can also specify how often you want auto save to run and where to save the workbooks.


Advanced feature: The Advanced feature permits you to specify the options for editing, copying, pasting, printing as well as displaying formulas, calculations and other general settings

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The Advanced feature permits you to specify the options for editing, copying, pasting, printing as well as displaying formulas, calculations and other general settings.

Customize

Customize permits you to add specific features to the Quick Access Toolbar. It adds the tools which you frequently use.

Opening Excel Application

To open Excel application, following steps are required:

• Click the Office Button, then press right to select Customize Quick Access Toolbar which provides Excel Options tab.

• Click the Advanced category and scroll down up to the General section.

• In the box for 'At startup, open all files in', you might see the name of a folder and its path. Clear the folder information from that box or go to that folder and remove the unwanted files. Click OK to close the Excel Options dialog box.

Entering Information in a Worksheet

To enter information in a worksheet, you need to open an empty workbook and enter the data as shown in the screen.

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Moving Around Worksheet and Workbook

The arrow keys give you the option to move around your worksheet. With the help of down arrow key you can move downward one cell at a time. Similarly, the up arrow key can be used to move upward one cell at a time. You can even move across the page to the right, one cell at a time by using the Tab key. By holding hold the SHIFT key and then pressing the Tab key, you can move to the left, one cell at a time. You even have the right and left arrow keys available by which you can also move right and left respectively, one cell at a time. The Page Up (Pg Up) and Page Down (Pg Dn) keys move up and down one page at a time. By pressing down the CTRL key and simultaneously pressing the Home key, you can move to the beginning of the worksheet.


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It is convenient to either move or copy the whole worksheet. The term worksheet refers to the main document that you use in Excel 2007 to store and work with data. There might be a chance that calculations or charts that are based on worksheet data might turn out to be inaccurate if you shift the worksheet. You can move or copy worksheet by inserting between sheets that are referred by a 3-D reference. This reference refers to a range that spans two or more worksheets in a workbook. Data on that worksheet might be unexpectedly included in the calculation. Select the worksheets that you want to move or copy as shown in the screen.

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To move to the next or previous sheet tab, you can also press CTRL + Pg Up or CTRL + Pg Dn. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click Format and then under Organize Sheets, click Move or Copy Sheet.

You can also right click a selected sheet tab and then click Move or Copy. In the

Move or Copy dialog box, in the Before Sheet list, do one of the following:

• Click the sheet before which you want to insert the moved or copied sheets.

• Click move to end to insert the moved or copied sheets after the last sheet in the workbook and before the Insert Worksheet tab.

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Closing a Workbook File

To close a workbook file, you need to press CTRL+F4 key combination. You can close all open workbooks without closing Excel 2007. For this, you need to open file menu and select Close All option.

• Click on Save.

You can also use the Save As feature to save the workbook with a different name or to save it as earlier versions of Excel. The newer versions of Excel cannot be opened in an Excel 2007 worksheet unless you save it as an Excel 97-2003 Format. To use the Save As feature, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Microsoft Office button.

• Click on Save As. • Give a name for the workbook.

• In the Save as Type box, select Excel 97-2003 workbook.

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To open an existing workbook, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Microsoft Office button. • Click on Open. • Browse to the workbook. • Click on the title of the workbook.

• Click on Open.

Quitting From Excel

To quit from Excel 2007, click on Microsoft Office Button and then select Exit Excel button.

You will quit from Excel.

Creating and Editing Worksheet

You can create a new worksheet and can edit any existing worksheet as per your requirements. To create a worksheet, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Office Button and select New option. It will open the New Workbook dialog box as shown below. From the Templates group select 'Blank and recent' option.

• Now click on 'Blank Workbook' and select Create button. A new blank spreadsheet will be displayed on the screen. Give a name to this worksheet and save the file with `.xlsx' file name extension.

You can edit a worksheet if any incorrect information has been entered into a cell. To do so, click on the cell and enter the correct information. Typing replaces whatever is in the cell. Editing a spreadsheet includes copy, cut, paste, move, changing column width/row height, cell alignment and formatting, font and number formatting, inserting and deleting cell(s)/row(s)/column(s), insert/copy/move/rename/delete a worksheet.

Copy and Past

To copy and paste data, follow the given steps: • Select the cell(s) that you want to copy. • On the Clipboard group of the Home tab, click on Copy. • Select the cell(s) where you want to copy the data. • On the Clipboard group of the Home tab, click on Paste.


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Cut and Paste

To cut and paste data, follow the given steps:

• Select the cell(s) that you want to copy.

• On the Clipboard group of the Home tab, click on Cut.

• Select the cell(s) where you want to copy the data.

• On the Clipboard group of the Home tab, click on Paste.

Undo and Redo

To undo or redo the most recent actions, click on Undo or Redo on the Quick

Access Toolbar.

Changing Column Width/Row Height

In Excel 2007, you have the option to modify any column width or row height in your worksheets so that the readability and look of the data can be changed. For example, if your worksheet contains large numbers, you can enlarge the columns to make the worksheet less cluttered. It is much more advisable to expand the width of the columns that contain cells with truncated text entries or numbers that Excel 2007 shows as 414t#4#414t.

To change the width of a column or the height of a row, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Format button on the Cells group of the Home tab.

• Manually adjust the height and width by clicking on Row Height or Column Width.

• To use AutoFit, click on AutoFit Row Height or AutoFit Column Width.

Cell Formatting—Font, Alignment and Number

Convert Text to Columns: Sometimes, you may have to split data of one cell and place them in two or more cells. You can do this by utilizing the Convert Text to Columns Wizard.

• Highlight the column in which you wish to split the data.

• Click on the Text to Columns button on the Data tab.

• Click on Delimited radio button if you have a comma or tab separating the data or click fixed widths to set the data separation at a specific size.


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with a Computer Modify Fonts: Modifying fonts in Excel helps you to emphasize titles and headings. To modify a font, follow the given steps:

• Select the cell or cells where you want to apply the font.

• On the Font group on the Home tab, select the font type, size, bold, italics, underline or color.

Format Cells Dialog Box: In Excel 2007, you can apply specific formatting to any cell. To apply formatting to a cell or group of cells, follow the given steps:

• Select the cell or cells to change the formatting. • Click on the Dialog Box arrow on the Alignment group of the Home tab.

There are various tabs on this dialog box that permit you to modify the properties of the cell or cells.

• Number: Allows the display of different number types and decimal places. • Alignment: Allows the horizontal and vertical alignment of text, wrap text,

shrink text, merge cells and the direction of the text. • Font: Allows control of font, font style, size, color and additional features. • Border: Changes border styles and colors. • Fill: Fill colors and styles.

• Protection: Locking cells and hiding formulas.

Adding Borders and Colors to Cells

Borders and colors can be added to cells manually or using the styles. To add borders manually, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Borders drop-down menu on the Font group of the Home tab.

• Select the suitable border.

To apply colors manually, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Fill drop-down menu on the Font group of the Home tab.

• Select the proper color.

For applying borders and colors using styles, follow the given steps:

• Click on Cell Styles on the Home tab. • Select a style or click on New Cell Style.

Hide or Unhide Rows or Columns: To hide or unhide rows or columns, follow the given steps:

• Select the row or column you want to hide or unhide.

• Click on the Format button on the Cells group of the Home tab.

• Click on Hide & Unhide.

Inserting and Deleting Cell(s)/Row(s), Column(s)

Inserting Cells, Rows and Columns

To insert cells, rows and columns in Microsoft Excel 2007, follow the given steps:

• Place the cursor in the row below where you want the new row or in the column to the left of where you want to have the new column.

• Click on the Insert button on the Cells group of the Home tab.

• Click on the proper option Cell, Row or Column.

Delete Cells, Rows and Columns

To delete cells, rows and columns, follow the given steps:

• Place the cursor in the cell, row or column that you want to delete.

• Click on the Delete button on the Cells group of the Home tab.

• Click on the appropriate option Cell, Row or Column.

Insert/Copy/Move/Rename/Delete Worksheet

To insert a new worksheet, do any one of the following steps:

• To quickly insert a new worksheet at the end of the existing worksheets, click the Insert Worksheet tab at the bottom of the screen.

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• To insert a new worksheet in front of an existing worksheet, select that worksheet and then, on the Home tab, in the Cells group, click Insert and then click Insert Sheet.

You can also right click the tab of an existing worksheet and then click Insert. On the General tab, click Worksheet, and then click OK.


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Insert Multiple Worksheets at the Same Time

Hold down SHIFT and then select the same number of existing sheet tabs of the worksheets that you want to insert in the open workbook. For example, if you want to add three new worksheets, select three sheet tabs of existing worksheets. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click Insert, and then click Insert Sheet.

You can also right click the selected spreadsheet tabs and then click Insert. On the General tab, click Worksheet and then click OK.

To move to the next or previous sheet tab, press CTRL+Pg Up or CTRL+Pg Dn. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click Format and then under Organize Sheets, click Move or Copy Sheet.

You can also right click a selected sheet tab and then click Move or Copy. In the Move or Copy dialog box, in the Before Sheet list, do one of the following:

• Click the sheet before which you want to insert the moved or copied sheets.

• Click move to end to insert the moved or copied sheets after the last sheet in the workbook and before the Insert Worksheet tab.

To copy the sheets instead of moving them in the Move or Copy dialog box, select the Create a copy check box. When you create a copy of the worksheet, the worksheet is duplicated in the workbook and the sheet name indicates that it is a copy, for example the first copy that you make of Sheet 1 is named Sheet 1(2).

To rename the active sheet, one of the following steps can be performed: • On the Format menu, point to Sheet and then click Rename. • On the Sheet tab bar, right click the tab you want

to rename and then click Rename. • Type the new name over the current name. Sheet2

To delete a worksheet, follow the given steps: ire sr

• Open the workbook. • Click on the Delete button on the Cells group of the Home tab. • Click on Delete Sheet.

Selection in a Worksheet

To select contiguous columns in the worksheet, do the following task: • Click to select the first column heading in the desired range and then drag the

pointer to the last column in the desired range. Release the mouse button to select the columns.

• You can also click to select the first column heading in the desired range. Scroll the worksheet using the scroll bars at the bottom of the worksheet as needed to display the last column in the desired range.

• Hold down the SHIFT key and click on the last column heading.

To select the entire worksheet, you need to select the first column heading and then drag the pointer across all remaining column headings in the worksheet.

• Click to select the first column heading, scroll the worksheet until the last column is visible.

• Press the SHIFT key and click on the last column heading.

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Cell Selection

To select a cell or data to be copied or cut, follow the given steps:

• Click on the cell.

• Click and drag the cursor to select many cells in a range.

Selecting Data Range

Once you have entered your data in Microsoft Office Excel 2007, you should be aware of how to select cells in a worksheet. The cell cursor is made up of black border that surrounds the active cell and is called the current cell in a worksheet. In Excel 2007, following steps are required to select multiple cells in a worksheet:

• To select a single entire column, click a column heading, i.e., the letter or letters that indicate the column. To select multiple columns, drag across multiple column headings.

• To select a single entire row, click the row number. To select multiple rows, drag across multiple row numbers.

• To select sequential cells, click the first cell, hold down the SHIFT key and click the last cell you want. Optionally, click and drag the mouse over a group of cells to select a sequential area.

• To select non-sequential cells, click the first cell, hold down the CTRL key and click each additional cell or row or column you want to select.

Row(s)/Column(s) Selection

To select a row or column, click on the row or column header.

Entire Worksheet Selection

To select the entire worksheet, click the small box located to the left of column A and above row 1. You can select all cells in a worksheet by pressing CTRL+A key combination

Formulas and Functions

Formulas, also called functions, are a powerful feature of Excel 2007. Formulas available in Excel 2007 are grouped into the following categories:

NOTES


Date & Time: Formulas for calculating the number of days between two dates, the current date and day of the week for a given date

NOTES



• Financial: Formulas for calculating depreciation, interest, return on an investment, loan, payment and mortgage.

• Logical: The logical operators of And, True, False, If, Not and Or.

• Text: Formulas for combining text from various cells with the concatenate formula, converting text to upper case, lower case or proper case and trimming extra spaces from text.

• Date & Time: Formulas for calculating the number of days between two dates, the current date and day of the week for a given date.

• Lookup & Reference: Formulas for horizontal or vertical lookup, a hyperlink or getting data from a Pivot Table.

• Math & Trig: Formulas for calculating trigonometric functions, logs, random numbers, Roman numerals, rounding and truncating.

• Statistical: Formulas for calculating averages, frequency, percentile, quartile and standard deviation.

• Engineering: Formulas for Bessel functions and conversions between numbering systems, such as octal to binary.

• Cube: Formulas for working with three dimensional sets.

• Information: Includes formulas which return a true or a false response in determining if a cell is blank or if the content of the cell is a number or text.

Cell Address

In Excel 2007 spreadsheet, the purpose of the cell address is to identify the position of the cell. The cell address is formed by the combination of column letter and row number of a cell, such as C4 or D8. Therefore, the column letter followed by the row number can identify a cell number. Active cell can also be known as current cell. The active cell is covered with a black border and data can be entered only in the active cell. In Excel 2007, the cell location of cell or group of cells is indicated by a cell reference. A cell reference consists of a column letter and row number that intersects at the cell's location. The cell reference of any active cell is displayed by the Name Box. Cell references are used in formulas, functions, charts and other Excel 2007 commands.

Operators: Arithmetic, Logical, Relational, String and Reference

Operators specify the type of calculation that you want to perform on the elements of a formula. There is a default order in which calculations occur, but you can change this order by using parentheses. There are four different types of calculation operators which are named as arithmetic, comparison, text concatenation and reference. To perform basic mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction or multiplication and to combine numbers and to produce numeric results, use the arithmetic operators summarized as follows:

Arithmetic Operator Example

+ (plus sign)

— (minus sign)

* (asterisk)

/ (forward slash)

% (percent sign)

(caret)

Addition (3+3)

Subtraction ( 3— 1 )Negation (-1)

Multiplication (3*3)

Division (3/3)

Percent (20%)

Exponentiation (3A2)

Relational Operator Example

= (equal sign) > (greater than sign) < (less than sign) >. (greater than or equal to sign) <= (less than or equal to sign) <> (not equal to sign)

Equal to (A1=B1) Greater than (A1>B1) Less than (Al<B1) Greater than or equal to (Al>=B1) Less than or equal to (A 1 <=B1) Not equal to (A l<>B1)

Use the string operator ampersand (&) to join or concatenate, one or more text strings to produce a single piece of text. The features of string operator is summarized as follows:

String Operator Example

& (ampersand) It concatenates two values to produce one continuous text value, such as 'Information' & 'Technology' produces the result as Information Technology.

Reference operators are used to combine ranges of cells for calculations. The following operators are the features of reference:

Reference Operator Example

: (colon)

, (comma)

(space)

Range operator which produces one reference to all the cells between two references including the two references (B5:B 15). Union operator which combines multiple references into one reference (SUM(B5: B 1 5,D5:D15)). Intersection operator which produces on reference to cells common to the two references (B7:D7 C6:C8).

Operator Precedence

In Microsoft Excel 2007, you can combine several operators in a single formula to perform the operations in the order shown in the Table 2.1. If a formula contains operators with the same precedence, for example, if a formula contains both a multiplication and division operator then Excel evaluates the operators from left to right.

Table 2.1 Otrler of Operators

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P: (colon)

(single space)

, (comma)

Reference operators

Ne :ation (as in -1)

1% (Percent IA lExixmentiation

1" and / (Multiplication and Division

1+ and - jAddition and Subtraction

I8E §Connects two strings of text (concatenation)

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Comparison

Fundamentals of Working with a Computer You can compare two values using the following operators. When two values are

compared by using these operators, the result is a logical value either TRUE or FALSE as follows:

NOTES


Fundamentals of Working Use of Parentheses with a Computer

To change the order of evaluation, enclose in parentheses the part of the formula to be calculated first. For example, the following formula produces 11 because Excel calculates multiplication before addition. The formula multiplies 2 by 3 and then adds 5 to the result.

=5+2'9

On the contrary, you can use parentheses to change the syntax as =(5+2)*3. Now the order of evaluation is changed and Excel will first add 5 and 2 and then multiplies the result by 3 to produce 21. In the example below, the cell addresses are used instead of numbers. The parentheses around the first part of the formula force Excel to calculate B4+25 first and then divide the result by the sum of the values in cells D5, E5 and F5.

.(B4+25)/SUM(D5:F5)

Writing Simple Formulas

A formula is referred as an equation which performs operations on a worksheet data. In Excel 2007, the use of formulas is to basically perform mathematical operations, namely, addition, subtraction and multiplication. They also have the ability to compare the worksheet values, taking out the average of a student's test result, join text, etc. Formulas can refer to other cells on the same worksheet, cells on other worksheets in the same workbook or cells on worksheets in other workbooks. The Excel can automatically recalculate the answer in case you change the data in your spreadsheet, without even re-entering or changing the formula.

A basic formula format starts with an v =A54C5 eqi IA sign (.) which is followed by one or more

operands, which are separated by one or more operators. Operands can be values, text, cell references, ranges, defined names or function names. The various symbols that represent the arithmetic and comparison operations are known as operands.

To enter a formula, follows the given steps:

• Place the cursor in the cell where the formula will appear, i.e., E5.

• Enter an = sign. All Excel 2007 formulas start with the equal sign.

• Enter the expression that will produce the result you want. This can consist of operands, values, variables, and symbols which represent mathematical procedures, such as + or — to add and subtract respectively, for example A5+C5.

• When the formula is complete press ENTER key. The result of the formula will be calculated and displayed in the cell E5.

• You can see the formula in the Formula bar at the top of the screen by placing the cell pointer on the cell E5.

If there is an error in a formula, an error message is displayed which will begin with a # sign.

Excel 2007 Formula Error Messages

Sometimes the formulas are not written correctly. It happens unknowingly while writing formulas. Some common error messages are shown in Table 2.2:

NOTES


Table 2.2 Common Error Messages Fundamentals of Working with a Computer

Error

NW* The contents of the cell cannot be displayed correctly as the cell column is too narrow.

#REP. Indicates that a cell reference is invalid. This message is displayed when you delete cells which involved a formula.

#NAME? Excel cannot recognize text contained within a formula.

NOTES


Copying Formula

One of the big advantages of a spreadsheet is to copy a formula or a text as often as you need. It is easier and faster to copy a formula than to rewrite it every time you need it. When you copy a formula by copying and pasting it you must be aware of cell references, whether they are absolute or relative. When you move a formula, the cell references within the formula do not change no matter what type of cell reference that you use. When you copy a formula, the cell references may change based on the type of cell reference that you use.

Select the cell that contains the formula that you want to copy. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Copy. Do one of the following steps:

• To paste the formula and any formatting, on the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste.

• To paste the formula only, on the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste, click Paste Special and then click Formulas.

You can paste only the formula results. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste, click Paste Special and then click Values. Verify that the cell references

in the formula produce the result that you want. If necessary, switch the type of reference by doing the following:

• Select the cell that contains the formula. • In the formula bar, you can enter or edit values or formulas in cells. It displays

the constant value or formula stored in the active cell, select the reference that you want to change.

• Press F4 to switch between the combinations.

Cell Referencing

As already discussed, each box on the Excel screen is a cell and each cell can be located in a spreadsheet by means of its reference termed as cell reference. Cell on other worksheets in the same workbook and to other workbook can also be referred by cell references. References to cells in other workbooks are called links or external references. When cell references are used in formulas, Excel will calculate the answer using the data located in the referenced cells. If that data should later change, Excel will automatically recalculate the formula and update the answer.

Calling the cells by just their column and row labels, such as Àl' is called relative referencing. When a formula contains relative referencing you copy it from one cell to another, Excel will not create an exact copy of the formula. It will only change the cell addresses relative to the row and column to which it is moved. For example, for a simple addition the formula in cell D1 .(Al+B1) will be copied to cell D2 as =(A2+B2). It will reflect the new row. This is called absolute referencing and

SUMO: Automatically adds up all the values provided either in a range or as individual values

NOTES



is accomplished by placing dollar signs `$' within the cell addresses in the formula. Now, the formula in cell D1 will look like =($A$1+$B$1). Mixed referencing can also be used when only the row and column is to be fixed. For example, in the formula =(A$1+$B2) the row of cell Al is fixed and the column of cell B2 is fixed.

Relative Referencing, Absolute Referencing and Mixed Referencing

A reference is a connection to something, that is to say when you type in the formula =SUM (Al ;B1) you refer to the sum of the content ofAl and the content of B 1. The various types of references are discussed below:

Relative Reference: Reference to rows and columns changes when we copy the formula in another cell. The formula adapts to its environment because references relate to the distance between the formula and the cells that form the formula. This is the option Excel offers by default. Consider the following example:

If we copy cell A2 in B3, because you can move one column to the right and one row down, the formula will change to: =B2+2. What varies is the reference to the cell Al because you have copied the formula in a cell that is in the column to the right, the name of the column will change from A to B and because we have gone one row down, 1 will become 2, the result will be =B2+2. This maintains the formula that adds two to the content of the cell above.

Absolute Reference: References to rows and columns do not change when you copy the formula to another cell, the formula's reference to cells are fixed.

If you copy now the cell A2 in B3 even though you have copied it one column to the right and one row down, the formula will not change. The sign $ before the column and the row indicates that. So, B3 will show =$A$1+2.

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Mixed Reference: This is a combination of both references. You may have relative referencesfor the rows and absolute for the columns or vice versa. Consider the example given below:

A B

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2 =$A1 +2 30

3

If you copy the cell A2 in B3, the sign $ before the column will mean that the formula will not change although you move to the right. But not having the sign before the row when you copy the formula one row down it will change to 2 instead of 1 and the result will be =$A2+2. See the example given below:

Using Functions in Formulas

A function computes the values provided and shows you the desired results, for example, a simple function SUMO automatically adds up all the values provided either in a range or as individual values. Some functions can even check values and take actions based on what they find. For example, by using IF() function, you can check whether the current value in a particular cell is greater or less than 100 and based upon the answer it gets, you can ask the function to multiply or divide this value by a different amount. Some functions can convert numbers or text to another measure or format, for example, the function LOWER() converts the text entry in another cell into lower case.

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• Write the address of first cell in the range that you want to calculate in the Number 1 text box.

• Write the address of last cell in the range that you want to calculate in the Number 2 text box.

• Click OK.

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Typically, a function consists of two parts—function name and arguments. Arguments (or values) may in some cases be mandatory and in some cases optional. Even within a function, one of the arguments may be mandatory and another optional.

A function is a built-in formula in Excel. A function has a name and arguments (the mathematical function) in parentheses. The following is a list of common functions used in Excel 2007.

• Sum(): Adds all cells in the argument. • Average(): Calculates the average of the cells in the argument. • Min(): Finds the minimum value. • Max(): Finds the maximum value. • Count(): Fmds the number of cells that contain a numerical value within a

range of the argument.

To calculate a function, follow the given steps: • Click the cell where you want to apply the function. • Click the Insert Function button from Formulas tab. • Choose the function. • Click OK.

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Mathematical Functions

In Excel's 2007 mathematical functions can be used to perform common mathematical operations, such as addition (SUM() function), multiplication (product function) and rounding numbers (ROUND() function). Other mathematical functions are discussed as follows:

SQRTO

In Excel, the SQRTO function returns the square root of a given number. The syntax for the SQRT() function is as follows:

=SQRT(Number)

In the above statement, number is a positive number that you wish to return the square root for. If a negative number is entered in the number parameter, the SQRT() function will return the #NUM! error.


NOTES


Fundamentals of Working ROUND() with a Computer

The ROUND() function in Excel 2007 can be used when rounding integers and decimal numbers to make them easier to work within your spreadsheets. The syntax for the ROUND() function is as follows:

=ROUND( Number, Num_digits )

SUM()

The SUM() function in Excel 2007 provides a quick way to add numbers together in an Excel 2007. The syntax for the SUM() function is as follows:

=SUM (Number!, Number2, Number255)

Up to 255 numbers can be entered into the function.

FACTO

In Excel 2007, the FACT() function returns the factorial of a given number. The syntax for the FACT() function is as follows:

=FACT() (Number)

In the above statement, number is a numeric value.

INTO

The INTO function is used to round a number downwards towards the next lowest number. INTO is similar to the ROUNDDOWN() function except that it always rounds a number down to the nearest whole number completely removing the decimal portion. The ROUNDDOWN() function will round a number down to a desired number of decimal places. The syntax for the INT function is as follows:

= INT ( Number)

In the above statement, N r is the value to be rounded.

MOD()

The MOD() function can be),Ised to divide numbers in Excel 2007. Unlike regular division, however, the MOD() function only gives you the remainder as an answer. The syntax for the MOD() function is as follows:

= MODO (Number, Divisor)

PI()

In Excel, the PI() function returns the mathematical constant which is equal to 3.14159265358979. The syntax for the PI() function is as follows:

=PI( )

POWER()

Although you can use the caret (^) operator to build a formula that raises a number to any power, the POWER() function() accomplishes the same thing. For example, to build a formula that raises 5.9 to the third power, i.e., cubes the number you can use the exponentiation operator as follows:

=5.9A3

You can have Excel perform the same calculation with the POWER() function by ' entering this formula:

=POWER(5.9,3)

NOTES


NOTES

NOW(): Used to add the current time and date to a spreadsheet.

YEAR()

In Excel 2007, the YEAR() function returns a four digit year (a number from 1900 to 9999) given a date value. The syntax for the YEAR() function is as follows:

In either case, Excel 2007 returns the same result as 205.379. Fundamentals of Working with a Computer

PRODUCT()

The PRODUCT() function provides a quick way to multiple numbers in a Excel 2007. The advantage of using this function becomes apparent if you have several numbers to multiply together. It is easier than building a long formula. The syntax for the PRODUCT() function is as follows:

=PRODUCT( Numberl, Number2, Number255 )

In the above statement, up to 255 numbers can be entered into the function.

Date Functions

There are a number of date functions available in Excel 2007. Depending on your needs, you can use a date function in Excel to return the current date, the current time or the day of the week. Like all functions in Excel 2007, entering date functions is very straightforward. Just type in the function in the cell where you want the date or time to appear. The various date functions are discussed below:

NOW()

The NOW() function, one of Excel's date and time functions, is used to add the current time and date to a spreadsheet. The syntax for the NOW() function is as follows:

= NOW ( )

The NOW() function takes no arguments.

DATE()

The DATE() function, one of Excel's date and time functions has several uses for adding dates to a spreadsheet. It can be used to combine date elements from different locations. It can also be used to convert dates to the computer's serial date. It can be used to ensure that imported dates are formatted correctly in a spreadsheet, such as a date or a number instead of text. The syntax for the DATE() function is as follows:

= DATE( Year, Month, Day)

TODAY()

The TODAY() function, one of the Excel's date and time functions, is used to add today's date to a spreadsheet. The syntax for the TODAY() function is as follows:

=TODAY( )

The TODAY() function takes no arguments.

DAYO

The DAY() function returns the day of the month.

MONTH()

The function MONTH() takes one argument as MONTH(start_date) where start_date is the date for which you are trying to find the month. For example,

=MONTH( DATE(2011,3,12)

Above statement will return the value 3.


NOTES

IF() Function: used to test whether a certain condition is TRUE or FALSE.



YEAR() (Date_value)

In the above statement, date_value is a valid date.

Logical Functions—IFO, AND(), OR(), NOTO

Excel 2007 uses seven logical functions, such as AND(), FALSE(), IFERRORO, NOT(), OR() and TRUE() which appear on the Logical command button's drop-down menu on the Formulas tab of the Ribbon. All the logical functions return either the logical TRUE or logical FALSE when their functions are evaluated. Here are the names of the logical functions along with their argument syntax:

• AND(logicall,logical2,...) tests whether the logical arguments are TRUE or FALSE. If they are all TRUE, the AND function returns TRUE to the cell. If any are FALSE, the AND function returns FALSE.

• IF(logical_test,value_if true,value_if false) tests whether the logical_test expression is TRUE or FALSE. IfTRUE, the IF function returns the value_if true argument. If FALSE, the IF function returns the value_if false argument.

• IFERROR(value,value_if error) tests whether the value expression is an error. IFERROR returns value_if error if the expression is an error or value of the expression if it is not an error.

• NOT(logical) tests whether the logical argument is TRUE or FALSE. If TRUE, the NOT function returns FALSE. If FALSE, the NOT function returns TRUE.

• OR(logicall Jogical2,...) tests whether the logical arguments are TRUE or FALSE. If any are TRUE, the OR function returns TRUE. If all are FALSE, the OR function returns FALSE.

• FALSE() takes no argument and simply enters logical FALSE in its cell.

• TRUE() takes no argument and simply enters logical TRUE in its cell.

IF() Function

The IF() function is used to test whether a certain condition is TRUE or FALSE. Following steps help to get the result of IF() function:

• Enter 36 into cell DI.

• Select D2 cell and type the statement as `=IF(26,100,200)' .

• After pressing ENTER key, value 100 will appear on D2 because 26 is less than 36 therefore `value if true' condition will be executed.

• Changing the IF() function's results. Click on cell F5 which is the location of the result. Click on the Formulas tab. Choose Logical from the Ribbon to open the drop-down list as shown in screen. Click on IF in the list to bring up the function's dialog box. 1

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• If you click on cell F5, the complete function IF(D l<26,100,200)' appears in the formula bar as shown below:

Let us take another example to explain the concept of IF() function.

Type a word "Text" in Al cell. Keep cursor on cell D5. Type the formula =IF(A l="Text", "String", "Integer") in cell D5. Press ENTER key. Word 'String' will appear in resulted cell D5.

• If you change the word 'Word' instead of 'Text' then the value of resulted cell will contain 'Integer'.

Nested IF() Function

A nested IF() function is worked when a second IF() function is placed inside the first in order to test additional conditions. It is possible to nest multiple IF() functions within one Excel formula. You can nest up to seven IF() functions to create a complex IF() statement. The syntax for the nested IF() function is as follows:

IF(condition I, value_if_truel, IF(condition2, value_if_true2, value_if false2))

NOTES

Above statement displays how to nest two IF() functions in which 'condition!' or `condition2' is the value that you want to test, `value if true' is the value that is returned if condition evaluates to True and `value_if false' returns if condition evaluates to False. Consider an example where using the nested IF() function the following grades will be displayed:



• A-If the student scores 80 or above. • B-If the student scores 60 to 79. • C-If the student scores 45 to 59. • D-If the student scores 30 to 44. • FAIL-If the student scores below 30.

Use the following nested IF() function to compute and display the result:

=IF(B2>=80, "A", IF(B2>=60, "B", IF(B2>=45, "C", IF(B2 >=30, "D", "Fain ) ) )

In the above statement, if the answer to the first question is False then control will go to next IF statement. If it is True then it will display Grade 'A' as shown in result of 'Student Examination Grade' spreadsheet.

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The approach of nesting IF() function increases the flexibility of the function by a number of possible results. For example, the deductions from an employee's income will follow the approach 'the higher the income, the higher the deduction rate'.

Text Functions

Following are the text functions in Excel 2007.

LOWER()

In Excel 2007, the LOWER() function converts all letters in the specified string to lowercase.

If there are characters in the string that are not letters, they are unaffected by this function. The syntax for the LOWER() function is as follows:

=LOWER( Text )

In the above statement, text is the string to convert to lowercase.

UPPER()

In Excel 2007, the UPPER() function allows you to convert text to all uppercase. The syntax for the UPPER function is as follows:

=UPPER( Text )

In the above statement, text is the string that you wish to convert to uppercase.

PROPER()

In Excel 2007, the PROPER() function sets the first character in each word to uppercase and the rest to lowercase. The syntax for the PROPER() function is as follows:

=PROPER( Text )

In the above statement, text is the string argument whose first character in each word will be converted to uppercase and all remaining characters converted to lowercase.

NOTES


LEN()

In Excel 2007, the LEN() function returns the length of the specified string. The syntax for the LEN() function is as follows:

=LEN( Text )

In the above statement, text is the string to return the length for.

LEFT()

In Excel 2007, the LEFT() function allows you to extract a substring from a string, starting from the left most character. The syntax for the LEFT() function is as follows:

=LEFT( Text, number of characters )

In the above statement, text is the string that you wish to extract from and the number_of characters indicates the number of characters that you wish to extract starting from the left most character.

RIGHT()

In Excel 2007, the RIGHT() function extracts a substring from a string starting from the right most character. The syntax for the RIGHT() function is as follows:

=RIGHT( Text, number_of characters )

In the above statement, text is the string that you wish to extract from and number_of characters indicates the number of characters that you wish to extract starting from the right most character.

MID()

In Excel 2007, the MID() function extracts a substring from a string (starting at any position). The syntax for the MID() function is as follows:

=MID( Text, start_position, number_of characters )

In the above statement, text is the string that you wish to extract from and start_position indicates the position in the string that you will begin extracting from. The first position in the string is 1 and number_of characters indicates the number of characters that you wish to extract.

REPT()

In Excel 2007, the REPT() function returns a repeated text value a specified number of times. The syntax for the REPT() function is as follows:

=REPT( Text, Number )

In the above statement, text is the text value to repeat and number is the number of times to repeat the text value.

TRIM()

In Excel 2007, the TRIM() function returns a text value with the leading and trailing spaces removed. The syntax for the TRIM() function is as follows:

=TRIM( Text ) In the above statement, text is the text value to remove the leading and trailing spaces from.

Financial Functions (PMT(), PVO, FVO, RATEO, IPMTO, NPERO)


NOTES

LENO: Returns the length of the specified string

Selflnstructional Material 109

I

IPMT: This function returns the interest payment for an investment for a given period

Description

This function returns the future value of an investment. This function returns the interest payment for an investment for a given period •

This function returns the number of periods for an investment. This function returns the periodic payment for an annuity. This function returns the present value of an investment.

This function returns the interest rate per period of an annuity.


Table 2.3 shows the list of financial functions.

Table 2.3 List of Financial Functions

Function

FV IPMT

NPER PMT PV

RATE


Managing Database

An Excel spreadsheet can contain a huge volume of data with its hundreds of rows and columns. In an Excel database file, you can save information and can keep track of it. Excel spreadsheet can store a list of phone numbers and contact details for an organization or for personal use, a list of books with their book ID and author details, a list of products with their details, etc. Excel worksheet makes an efficient, user friendly and organized database which helps in storing and finding information easier. Microsoft Excel provides in-built tools to find some requested information and to keep track of data in the worksheet. An Excel 2007 PivotTable is considered as a versatile reporting tool that helps in extracting information from a large table of data without the use of formulas. Various operations, such as creating Excel database, sorting database using single/multiple files, filtering records using autofilter and advanced filter, adding/deleting/searching records with the data from validating data entry and generating subtotals are performed to manage the database.

Creating Excel Database

An organized gathering of information in a tabular form structured for easy access is called as a database. Excel spreadsheet differs from a standard spreadsheet because it divides information into sections, each comprising related data. An Excel database can be used to keep track of data from simple contact lists to detailed scientific observations. A standard database manager permits you to change your desktop screen to look like a form. A form consists of fields that define the table properties and once completed, that form is referred to as record.

Table is the basic storing format in Excel database. In a table, data is inserted in rows while each row holds the information of one object and is called as record. Excel provides built-in tools that are used for searching, sorting and filtering records on some given criteria to find specific information. There are many ways to use data tools in Excel but the easiest way is to create a list from the data in a table. Tables are created in Excel 2007 to manage and analyse related data efficiently. The goal of an Excel table is to calculate values and store large amount of information in a consistent manner, making data handling easier to format, sort and filter. Basically, an Excel table has only column headings.

An entire row of data in a database is referred to as a record. While entering records in a database, remember the following points:

• Leave no blank rows in the table that you are creating. • A record can only hold data about one specific object.

NOTES


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• A record row must also hold all the related data about a particular object in the database, which means that no more than one row can hold the information about a single object.

Sorting Excel Database

Sorting data is an essential part of data analysis. For example, you might need to list names in alphabetical order or need an overview of product inventory levels from highest to lowest or °need to find book in order to the latest publishing dates and versions. For all the mentioned scenarios sorting data can prove as a useful feature as it allows you to quickly view and understand the data better, maintain and search the data according to your need.

Data can be sorted by text (in alphabetical order), numbers (smallest to largest and vice versa), and dates and times (oldest to newest and vice versa) in one or multiple columns. Sorting can also be implemented via a custom list that can be small, medium or large, or by format features, such as cell color, text color or cell icon. Usually sorting operations are implemented as column sorts but, if required, row sort can also be used. The various sort functions are as follows:

Sorting Text: To sort a text data, follow the given steps:

1. Select a column of alphanumeric data in a range of cells.

2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, do one of the following:

• To sort in ascending alphanumeric order, click liTsort A to Z.

• To sort in descending alphanumeric order, click Fasort Z to A.

3. Optionally, you can do a case-sensitive sort.

4. To reapply a sort after you change the data, click a cell in the range or table and then on the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, click Reapply.

If the column that you want to sort contains numbers stored as numbers and numbers stored as text, then first you have to format them all as text. To format all of the selected data as text, on the Home tab in the Font group, click on the Format Cell Font button, then click on the Number tab and then under Category, click on Text. If the data have leading spaces inserted before data then remove the leading spaces before sorting the data.

Sorting Numbers: To sort a number data, follow the given steps:

1. Select a column of numeric data in a range of cells.

2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, do one of the following:

• To sort from low numbers to high numbers, click I j sort smallest to largest.

• To sort from high numbers to low numbers, clicklij sort largest to smallest.

If unexpected result is displayed, make sure the column contain all the number elements, it may be possible that one or more column element are stored as text and not as numbers. Negative numbers extracted from some accounting file or a number inserted with a leading ' (apostrophe) are by default stored as text. Modify it by restoring the text as numbered data and removing the leading ' (apostrophe) and then perform sorting.

NOTES

Self Instructional Material 111


Sorting Dates or Times: To sort a date or time data, follow the given steps: 1. Select a column of dates or times in a range of cells or table. 2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, do one of the following:

• To sort from an earlier to a later date or time, click E sort oldest to newest.

• To sort from a later to an earlier date or time, click Fa sort newest to oldest.

3. To reapply a sort after you change the data, click a cell in the range or table and then on the Data tab in the Sort & Filter group, click Reapply.

If the results are not what you expected, the column might contain dates or times stored as text and not as dates or times. For Excel to sort dates and times correctly, check that all dates and times in a column must be stored as a date or time serial number, because Excel cannot recognize a value as a date or time if the date or time is stored as text.

Sorting by Cell Color, Font Color or Icon: To sort a cell color, font color or icon, follow the steps discussed below.

1. Select a column of data in a range of cells. 2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, click Sort.

The following Sort dialog box is displayed.

3. Under Column, in the Sort by box, select the column that you want to sort.

4. Under Sort On, select the type of sort. Do one of the following: • To sort by cell color, select Cell Color. • To sort by font color, select Font Color. • To sort by an icon set, select Cell Icon.

5. Under Order, click the arrow next to the button and then depending on the type of format, select a cell color, font color or cell icon.

6. Under Order, select how you want to sort. Do one of the following: • To move the cell color, font color or icon to the top or left, select On Top

for a column sort and On Left for a row sort. • To move the cell color, font color or icon to the bottom or right, select On

Bottom for a column sort and On Right for a row sort. There is no default cell color, font color or icon sort order. You must define the order that you want for each sort operation.

7. To specify the next cell color, font color or icon to sort, click on Add Level and then repeat Steps 3 to 5.

Make sure that you select the same column in the Then by box and you have made the same selection under Order. Repeat the same for each additional cell color, font color or icon that you want to include in the sort.

NOTES



8. To reapply a sort after you change the data, click a cell in the range or table and then on the Data tab in the Sort & Filter group, click Reapply.

Filtering Records

The data filter option in Microsoft Excel 2007 enables you to filter the data of the selected cells. The Filter tool helps you to filter the data. Filter tool is used to display only the rows of filtered data that meet certain condition specified by the user and also to hide rows that do not meet the condition. Operation can be implemented on data after it is filtered, such as copy, edit, format, search and print, to the subset view of the filtered data without reordering or moving it. More than one column can also be filtered. It must be noted that each additional filter is retrieved from the existing filter and therefore further reduce the size of the subset of data. When you use the Find dialog box to search filtered data, only the data that is displayed is searched; data that is not displayed is not searched. To search all the data, clear all filters. To perform Filter operation, select the data in the worksheet as shown below:

The shortcut key combination CTRL+SHIFT+L can also be used to filter the data.

Filtering Text

To filter text, follow the steps discussed below.

Range of Cells: Select a range of cells containing alphanumeric data. On the Data tab in the Sort & Filter group, click on Filter.

Table: Make sure that the active cell in a table column that contains alphanumeric data.

• Click the arrow a in the column header.

Do one of the following:

• Select from a List of Text Values: In the list of text values, select or clear one or more text values to be filtered. The list of text values can be up to 10,000. If the list is large, clear (Select All) at the top and then select the specific text values to be filtered. To make the AutoFilter menu wider or longer, click and drag the grip handle at the bottom. •

• Create Criteria: Point to Text Filters and then click one of the comparison operator commands or click Custom Filter. For example, to filter by text that begins with a specific character, select Begins With or to filter by text that has specific characters anywhere in the text, select Contains. In the Custom AutoFilter dialog box, in the box on the right, enter text or select the text value from the list. For example, to filter by text that begins with the letter 'V', enter

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the letter V and to filter by text that has Nikas' anywhere in the text, enter the word Vikas. If you need to find text that shares some characters but not others, use a wildcard character. The wildcard characters which can be used as comparison criteria for text filters are shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Wildcard Characters

Wildcard Character Function

? (question mark) To find any single character. For example, ji?a finds "jiya' and 'jiva'.

* (asterisk) To find any number of characters. For example, *east finds 'Northeast' and 'Southeast'.

- (tilde) followed by ?, * or - To find a question mark, asterisk or tilde, For example, fy06-? finds 'fy06?'

Filtering Numbers

To filter text, follow the steps discussed below. Range of Cells: Select a range of cells containing numeric data. On the Data

tab in the Sort & Filter group, click on Filter. Table: Make sure that the active cell is in a table column that contains numeric

data. • Click the arrow E in the column header.

Do one of the following: • Select from a List of Numbers; In the list of numbers, select or clear one or

more numbers to be filtered. The list of numbers can be up to 10,000. If the list is large, clear (Select All) at the top and then select the specific numbers to be filtered. To make the AutoFilter menu wider or longer, click and drag the grip handle at the bottom.

•. Create Criteria: Pqint to Number Filters and then click one of the comparison operator commands or click Custom Filter. For example, to filter by a lower and upper number limit select Between. In the Custom AutoFilter dialog box, in the box oroxes on the right, enter numbers or select numbers from the list. For example, to filter by a lower number of 45 and an upper number of 90, enter 45 and 90.

Using AutoFilter

Using AutoFilter to filter data is a quick and easy way to find and work with a subset of data in a range of cells or table. You can either re-apply a filter to get up to date results or even clear a filter to redisplay all of the data. It is possible to Auto Filter the data by choosing using the Data tab. If you click the toola, you can get many options in which data is to be filtered.

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Valid Criteria

The valid criteria can be set with the filter as follows when you select the tool:

This option filters the data according to set criteria. The filtered data comes as follows by

NOTES



clicking Filter button a. This button shows that a filter is applied. The result comes as follows as per criteria:

Invalid Criteria This option does not filter the data if an invalid criterion is being specified.

Since And operator is used to filter the data therefore, criteria is to be invalid because no data is available for the specified criteria.

Adding/Deleting/Searching Records with the Data Form

When a row of data in a worksheet is very wide and requires repeated horizontal scrolling then a data form is used to add, edit, find and delete rows. A data form provides a convenient means to enter or display one complete row of information in a range or table without scrolling horizontally. Using a data form can make data entry easier than moving from column to column when you have more columns of data than. can be viewed on the screen. Microsoft Excel can automatically generate a built-in data form for your range or table. The data form displays all column headers as labels in a single dialog box. Each label has an adjacent blank text box in which you can enter data for each column, up to a maximum of 32 columns. In a data form, you can enter new rows, find rows by navigating or based on cell contents, update rows and delete rows. If a cell contains a formula, the formula result is displayed in the data form, but you cannot change the formula by using the data form.

To Create a Data Form: You can add a column header to each column in the data range or table, if required. Excel uses these column headers to create labels for each field on the form. Make sure that there are no blank lines in the range of data. To create a data form, follow the given steps:

1. Click a cell in the range or table to which you want to add the form.

2. To add the Form button to the Quick Access Toolbar, do the following:

• Click the arrow next to the Quick Access Toolbar and then click More Commands.

• In the Choose commands from box, click All Commands and then select

the Form button in the list.

• Click Add and then click on OK.

The Form icon will appear on the Quick Access

Toolbar. Click on Form to add a data form as

shown below:

To add a new row of data, follow the given steps:

• In the data form, click New.

• Type the data for the new row.

NOTES

To move to the next field in the row, press TAB. To move to the previous field, press SHIFT+TAB. After you have finished typing data, press ENTER to add the row to the bottom of the range or table. In the data form, find the row that you want to delete. To search record, following can be performed:

• To move through rows one at a time, use the scroll bar arrows in the data form. Self-Instructional Material 115

Data Validation: It is used to control the type of data or the values that users enter into a cell

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You can configure data validation in the Data Validation dialog box as shown.

To use data validation, follow the given steps:

• Select the cell or cell range to which you wish to apply data validation.

• Click the Data tab on the Ribbon.

• Click the Data Validation button on the Data Tools group.

• On the Settings Tab, select the data type you wish to allow from the Allow drop-down list.

• Define the specified ranges and other settings as per your requirement.

• To disable the data validation rules for blank cells, select Ignore Blank.

• To activate an Input message, click the Input Message tab and then enter the Title and the Input Message text to be displayed to the user.

• To display an error message when the data validation rule is violated, click the Error Alert tab and then enter the Title and the Error Message to be displayed. Ensure that the 'Show error alert after invalid data is entered' check box is checked.


• To move through 10 rows at a time, click the scroll bar in the area between the arrows.

• To move to the next row in the range or table, click Find Next.

• To move to the previous row in the range or table, click Find Prey. NOTES Data Validation

In Microsoft Excel 2007, data validation is used to control the type of data or the values that users enter into a cell. Using the validation feature you can define restrictions on what data can or should be entered in a cell. You can configure data validation to prevent users from entering data that is not valid. You can also provide messages to define what input you expect for the cell and instructions to help users correct any errors. For example, you can restrict data entry to a certain range of dates, limit choices by using a list to ensure that only positive whole numbers are entered. Thus, data validation option controls the type and range of data to be entered into cells. For example, you can assign a cell to allow only numerical entries between 15 and 500. By doing so the accuracy of the data that is entered into your worksheet is controlled. You can define acceptable criteria to ensure data validation. After you assign acceptable criteria, you can customize the error message the user receives when the entered data does not meet the specified criteria. You can also specify an informational input message that appears when the cell containing a validation rule is activated. Data Validation options are located in the Data Tools group as shown in the screenshot.

• To clear all data validation rules, click the Data Validation button and On the Settings tab, click the ClearAll button.

• Click OK. 116 Self-Instructional Material

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Check Your Progress 9. What is a spreadsheet?

10. What does advanced feature permit in Excel 2007?

11. In Excel can you edit a worksheet? How?

12. In Excel 2007, what does a cell address identifies?

13. What are the keyboard shortcuts to move up and down one screen Excel 2007?

14. What is a cell cursor?

15. Which key combination is used to select all cells in a worksheet?

16. Define cell address.

17. What does Excel function compute?

18. What does FACT ( ) function return?

19. What does LEN ( ) function return?



with a Computer Generating Subtotals

In Excel 2007, totals and subtotals can be calculated for some specific sections of your data spreadsheet. For example, consider a sales worksheet with data of three new product categories, you can implement sorting of these products by category and then you can select all the data cells and open the Subtotal dialog box from Data menu and select Subtotals command.

In the Subtotal dialog box, you can choose the column on which to base your subtotals, such as every change of value in the Week column, the summary calculation that you want to perform and the column or columns with values to be summarized. For example, as shown in screen you could calculate subtotals for the number of units sold in each category by selecting 'Sales' check box in 'Add subtotal to:' field. After you define your subtotals, they appear in your worksheet as shown in the screen here.

When 'Add subtotal to:' is selected to an Excel worksheet, Excel 2007 also makes groups based on the rows used for calculating the subtotals. The groups made form a layout for your worksheet on the basis of specified criteria that is used to create the subtotals, in currency notation are also inserted.

Following are three types of controls in the outline section:

• Hide Detail Buttons: When the rows in a group are visible, a hide detail button iappears next to the group.

• Show Detail Buttons: When you hide a group of rows, the button next to the group changes to a show detail button.. Clicking a show detail button restores the rows in that group to the worksheet.

• Level Buttons: Each of the numbered level buttons 0.1 represents a level of organization in a worksheet and clicking a level button hides all levels of detail below the button you clicked.

Freeze Panes

A particular portion of a worksheet can be selected to stay static while you are working on other parts of the sheet. This is done using the Freeze Rows and Columns Function. To Freeze a row or column, follow the given steps:

• Click on the Freeze Panes button on the View tab.

• Either select the section to be frozen or click on the defaults of top row or left column.

• To unfreeze, click on the Freeze Panes button.

• Click on Unfreeze.

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Charts

Charts help you to present the information of the worksheet in a graphic format. Excel 2007 provides various types of charts which includes Column, Line, Pie, Bar, Area, Scatter and Other charts. To view the charts click on the Insert tab on the Ribbon.

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Creating a Chart: To create a chart, follow the given steps: • Select the cells that contain the data you would like to use in the chart. • Click on the Insert tab on the Ribbon. • Click on the Charts, choose the type of chart you want to create.

Moving a Chart: You can modify and move a created chart. To move the chart, follow the given steps:

• Click on the chart and drag it to the location, you want the chart to insert in the same worksheet.

• Click on the Move Chart button on the Design tab. • Select the desired location in the same or another worksheet.

To change the data included in the chart, follow the given steps: • Click on the chart.

• Click on the Select Data button on the Design tab.

To reverse the data displayed in the rows and columns, follow the given steps: • Click on the chart. • Click on the Switch Row/Column button on the Design tab.

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Layout tab: Controls inserting pictures, shapes and text boxes, labels, axes, background and analysis


To modify the labels and titles, follow the given steps:

• Click on the chart.

• On the Layout tab, click on the Chart Title or the Data Labels button.

• Modify the title and Press ENTER key. NOTES

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Chart Tools: The Chart Tools appear on the Ribbon when you click on the chart. The tools are located on three different tabs that are Design, Layout and Format. Within the Design tab you can control the chart type data, layout, styles and location.

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The Layout tab controls inserting pictures, shapes and text boxes, labels, axes, background and analysis.

Within the Format tab you can modify shape styles, word styles, chart arrangement and alignment, and size of the chart.

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Copy a Chart to Word

• Select the chart.

• Click on Copy on the Home tab.

• Go to the Word document where you want the chart to be located.

• Click on Paste on the Home tab.

Creating an Embedded Chart

An embedded chart is referred as a chart that appears right within the worksheet so that when you save or print the worksheet, you save or print the chart along with it. By default, the chart is placed on the worksheet as an embedded chart. You can also choose to create a chart in its own chart sheet in the workbook at the time you create it. Embed a chart on worksheet when you want to print the chart along with its supporting worksheet data. Place a chart on its own sheet when you intend to print the charts of the worksheet data separately. The steps for creating an embedded chart are exactly same as for creating a simple chart.

Creating Chart Sheet

By default, when you create a chart, Excel embeds the chart in the active worksheet. You can move a chart to another worksheet or to a chart sheet. A chart sheet is a sheet Self-Instructional Material 119

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dedicated to a particular chart. By default, Excel 2007 names each chart sheet sequentially starting with Chart 1. You can change the name of the chart sheet as per your choice.

Formatting Chart: Title, Gridlines, Legends and Resizing

To add chart, you need to type suitable title for the prepared chart. Suitable title is provided to the prepared chart when it is inserted in the worksheet. Subject names can be displayed on your chart by selecting the tab marked as Data Labels. Chart's appearance can be viewed by seeing the previews of the changes you make when you check or uncheck the property boxes.

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and understand. Gridlines extend from any horizontal and vertical axes across the plot area. In a 2-D chart, the area is bounded by the axes including all data series. In a 3-D chart, the area is bounded by the axes, including the data series, category names, tick mark labels and axis titles of the chart. Depth gridlines can also be displayed in 3-D charts. Note that gridlines cannot be displayed for those kind of chart types that • do not have any axes, such as pie charts and doughnut charts.

You can choose the axis along which you want to distinguish your data by setting the chart legend on that axis. This is a significant way to view values on the selected axis without rearranging the values 2

I. Horizontal Cindline 2. Venical Gridline 3. Depth Gridline in the Outliner. A chart legend can be set on the X-, Y- or Z-axis. You can also reposition or resize a legend to take advantage of either the horizontal or vertical space within the chart area.

The following three examples show how the legend are placed on different axes to alter the appearance and data shown by the same chart. In the first example, the legend has been set on the X (categories) Axis. In the second example, the legend has been set on the Y (facts) Axis. In the third example, the legend has been set on the Z (clusters) Axis:

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To set the axis used for a chart legend from the Format menu, I follow the given steps:

• Choose Format —) Set Legend On.

• The Set Legend On dialog box appears. • Select the axis on which you want to set the legend and click OK.

To resize a chart, do one of the following: • To change the size manually, click the chart and then drag the (11

sizing handles to the size that you want. tt, • To use specific height and width measurements,ixttlie Format

tab, in the Size group, enter the size in the Shape Height and Shape Width box.

Changing Chart Types

Any change you can make to a chart that is embedded in a worksheet, you can also make to a chart sheet. For example, you can change the chart type from a column chart to a bar chart and for this following steps are required:

• Start Microsoft Excel 2007 and open a workbook from your documents that contains a chart or you can create a chart from data in an existing workbook.

• Right click on top of the chart that you want to change to a different type of chart and click 'Change Chart Type'. The 'Change Chart Type' dialog box will open in the middle of the screen.

• Click the type of chart you would like to change to on the left side of the `Change Chart Type' dialog box.

• Select the specific chart you would like to change your existing chart to by clicking it in the right portion of the 'Change Chart Type' dialog box. The chart you have chosen will be highlighted.

• Click the 'OK' button to close the 'Change Chart Type' dialog box and to change the selected chart type to the new chart type that you have specified.

Creating and Using Macros

Macros are advanced features which speed up editing or formatting in an Excel worksheet. They record the sequences of menu selections selected by you so that a series of actions can be successfully performed in one step.

Recording a Macro: To record a Macro, follows the given steps: • Click on the View tab on the Ribbon. • Click on Macros. • Click on Record Macro... • Enter a name for Macro (without spaces).

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• Enter a Shortcut Key. • Enter a Description and click OK. • Record the Macro. • Click on Marcos. • Click on Stop Recording to stop macro recording.

Assigning a Keyboard Shortcut to a Macro

Macro in Excel is used to record each command and action that is required to perform task. The created and recorded macro can further be used to carry out the similar task in a worksheet. You can run the specified Macro for performing desired action. The simplest way to create a Macro in Excel is to use the Macro recorder. The required steps are as follows:

• Open the workbook where you want to use the Macro.

• Click on View --> Record Macro and then select Recorp New Macro from the menu.

You Will now see the Record Macro dialog box as shown:

Aftir setting the shortcut key for creating Macro as CTRL+SHIFT+H and Macro name as Macrol, the given screen will appear which shows the recording Macro button. This button records all the activities which will be issued by user. Type the valuable data in the worksheet. Save the file name as `Student.xls'.

Running Macro

To run a Macro from the Keyboard shortcut, simply press the keys that you have assigned to run the Macro.

• Click on Macros. • Click on View Macros. • Select the Macro and click on Run.

PivotTable and PivotChart

The PivotTables are interactive tables that allow the user to group and summarize large amounts of in a concise, tabular format for easier reporting and ysis. APivotChart is the graphical representation of PivotTables. When you cre a PivotTable or PivotChart report and can use several different types of source data. The source data refers to the list or table that is used to create a PivotTable or PivotChart report. Source data can be taken from an Excel list or range, an external database or another PivotTable report. A PivotTable report is used to summarize, analyse, explore and present summary data. This report is visualized in the summary data in a PivotTable report and to easily see

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comparisons, patterns and trends. Both a PivotTable report and a PivotChart report enable you to make informed decisions about critical data in your enterprise.

Creating a PivotTable

To create a PivotTable, following steps are required: • Prepare a suitable data on which you want to create a PivotTable and select the

range in Table/Range: bar as shown in the screen below.


with a Computer

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• After clicking on OK button, TivotTable Field List' appears where you can choose the selected fields on which you want to prepare the PivotChart.

• Once you select the desired fields, the PivotTable is prepared as shown in screen.

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Chart' option where you can create a suitable chart to depict the selected data. Self-Instructional Material 123


with a Computer

NOTES


appropriate words. (a) The button

in the lower-left corner of your screen gives you access to all the programs on your PC and also to MS Word.

(b) The find and replace option can be accessed either by selecting CTRL + F or menu by pressing key combinations for find and replace.

(c) The bullet image and the numbering format can be modified using the Bullets or dialog box.

(d) tab consist of commands that are used to perform a mail merge.

21. State whether the following statements are true or false. (a) Data source must be

connected to the secondary document to merge information into the document.

(b) In the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, you need to select the names of recipients to whom you want to send the mail.

(c) A related collection of information represents columns in any other file. Fields that are added to main document are called as placeholders.

(d) The advanced features in Microsoft Excel 2007 include Office themes, more styles, rich conditional formatting, easy formula writing, Sort & Filter, data validation, worksheet and workbook protection, Goal Seek, Scenario, PivotTable and PivotChart.


• Once you select the chart, for example 'Pie' chart then the result appears as follows:

2.4 SUMMARY


• When you explore Microsoft Word 2007, you will notice the new look of the menu bar. Three new features help you to work with Word 2007, namely the Microsoft Office Button, the Quick Access Toolbar and the Ribbon which contain various functions.

• The Ribbon is positioned at the top of the screen of the Word window. It includes seven tabs, namely Home, Insert, Page Layout, References, Mailings, Review, View and Add-Ins.

• Document formatting represents all the types of formatting parts which are applied to a selected document for making suitable presentation.

• Bulleted lists are represented using bullet points, numbered lists are represented using numbers and outline lists combine together the numbers and letters depending on the association of the list.

• Mail merge is used when a group of documents are required to be created, such as formal letter, to be sent to multiple personnel. Each letter contains the basic content of same sort yet some information need to be distinctive.

• In Excel 2007, the columns are lettered A to Z and then continuing with AA, AB, AC, and so on, and the rows are numbered from 1 to 1,048,576.

• Excel 2007 provides a wide range of customizable options that help you to create an Excel workbook of required specifications.

• If you hold down the CTRL key and then press the Home key, you move to the beginning of the worksheet.

• If there is an error in a formula, an error message is displayed which will begin with a # sign.

• The ROUND() function in Excel 2007 can be used when rounding integers and decimal numbers to make them easier to work within your spreadsheets.

• In Excel 2007, you can change any column width or row height in your worksheets to improve the readability and appearance of data.

• To run a Macro from the keyboard shortcut, simply press the keys that you have assigned to run the Macro.

• With the Excel Table or Excel 2007 AutoFilter, you can start filtering the individual columns.

• The advanced features in Microsoft Excel 2007 include Office themes, more styles, rich conditional formatting, easy formula writing, Sort & Filter, data validation, worksheet and workbook protection, Goal Seek, Scenario, PivotTable and PivotChart.

• The Ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the spreadsheet. It includes seven tabs namely, Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review and View.

• The Quick Access Toolbar can be customized as per the user need and contains commands that you use most frequently.

• The arrow keys give you the option to move around your worksheet. With the help of down arrow key you can move downward one cell at a time.

• The PivotTables are interactive tables that allow the user to group and summarize large amounts of data in a concise, tabular format for easier reporting and analysis. A PivotChart is the graphical representation of PivotTables.


with a Computer

NOTES

2.5 ANSWERS TO 'CHECK YOUR PROGRESS'

1. The Quick Access Toolbar helps to access the frequently used commands.

2. The Ribbon is positioned at the top of the screen of the Word window.

3. Saving document is done either by pressing CTRL+S or by selecting Office button 'Save As' option.

4. The entire document can be selected by pressing CTRL+A key combination.

5. Special characters are punctuation, spacing or typographical characters that are generally not available on the standard keyboard.

6. AutoCorrect option is used to correct the common typing or spelling errors.

7. Mail merge is used when a group of documents are required to be created, such as formal letter, to be sent to multiple personnel.

8. One of the most popular usages of the mail merge feature is to prepare form letters. Amain function is used to make the basic set up of the letter that needs to be merged with variant customers. Using data from a table or external database to insert mailing information into the main document makes required copies; you can also print these letters with different information for each record in the database or table.

9. A spreadsheet is an electronic document which saves various types of data in columns and rows.

10. The advanced feature permits you to specify the options for editing, copying, pasting, printing as well as displaying formulas, calculations and other general settings.



11. You can edit a worksheet if any incorrect information has been entered into a cell. To do so, click on the cell and enter the correct information. Typing replaces whatever is in the cell. Editing a spreadsheet includes copy, cut, paste, move, changing column width/row height, cell alignment and formatting, font and number formatting, inserting and deleting cell(s)/row(s)/column(s),insert/copy/move/ rename/delete a worksheet.

12. In Excel 2007 spreadsheet, a cell address identifies the location of the cell. 13. In Excel 2007, to move up or down one screen the keyboard shortcuts used

are Pg Up and Pg Dn keys.

14. The cell cursor is a black border that surrounds the active cell sometimes called the current cell in a worksheet.

15. CTRL+A key combination is used to select all cells in a worksheet.

16. The cell address is a combination of column letter and row number of a cell, such as C4 or D8.

17. A function computes the values provided and shows you the desired results; e.g., a simple function SUM() automatically adds up all the values provided either in a range or as individual values.

18. In Excel 2007, the FACT ( ) function returns the factorial of a number. 19. In Excel 2007, the LEN ( ) function returns the length of the specified string. 20. (a) Start; (b) CTRL+H; (c) Numbering; (d) Mailings.

21. (a) False; (b) True; (c) False; (d) True.

NOTES




1. How a blank page is inserted in a document? 2. What is document dictionary?

3. Why 'Print' option is selected in mail merge operation? 4. Write the steps to select data range.

5. What happens when you consolidate data?


1. Explain the process to create and edit document with the help of examples. 2. Explain the steps required in formatting a document. 3. Explain the steps required in creating a custom dictionary with the help of

examples. 4. Discuss the features of spelling and grammar tool, and thesaurus with the help

. of examples. 5. How mail merge operations are helpful in Word 2007? Explain. 6. Describe the difference between worksheet, workbook and workspace with

the help of suitable examples. 7. Discuss the categories of formulas in Excel 2007. 8. Explain the syntax of text functions LOWER ( ) , UPPER 0 , PROPER ( )

LEN ( ) , LEFT ( ) RIGHT ( ) MID ( ) , REPT ( ) and TRIM ( ) .

9. Discuss the process to make the consolidation update automatically

MS PowerPoint, MS Access

and MS Project

NOTES

UNIT 3 MS POWERPOINT, MS ACCESS AND MS PROJECT

Structure

3.0 Introduction 3.1 Unit Objectives 3.2 MS PowerPoint 3.3 MS Access 3.4 MS Project 3.5 Summary 3.6 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 3.7 Questions and Exercises

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about the basics of Microsoft PowerPoint 2007. PowerPoint presentations in Office 2007 are a way of attracting audience towards your views and arguments. This software package provides various options for creating learning guidelines, corporate training session and marketing strategy. You will also learn to create a variety of slides using different layouts, such as slide master layout, chart slide layout, subtitle slide layout, table slide layout, picture slide layout, etc. The presentations in PowerPoint 2007 can be saved both with a .ppt or the .pptx extension. Slide formatting allows you to format the master slide for the AutoLayout area. You can change the font type and size in PowerPoint 2007 slides. You will also learn the concept of slide master which is one of several master slides and is used in PowerPoint to make global changes to all your slides at one time. Slide Show view is the view used for presenting the presentation to an audience.

Further in this unit you will learn about MS Access 2007. It is a database software package provided by Microsoft. Database refers to a set of organized data or a collection of records; for example, employee's records, student's records, etc. Many tables can be created in one database. Once you have prepared the database, you can add, delete, modify and manipulate the database, tables or even records.

You will learn to use the new features provided by Microsoft Access 2007 such as the Ribbon interface. Ribbon is a region at the top of the screen that presents an easy-to-browse main set of commands for a particular program.

You will learn that the main window pn, vides a tabbed functional area in which all the open files can be viewed. Moreover, there are no windows hidden behind the other windows; hence, it is easy to know the documents and applications which are currently open or in use. You will learn to create a single database, multi-table database, and to add new records, delete, modify and manipulate the database, tables or even records.

3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the utility of PowerPoint presentation

• Explain the significance of Ribbon and Quick Access Toolbar in PowerPoint


MS PowerPoint, MS Access and MS Project

NOTES

• Create presentation using texts, objects, graphics, Clip Arts, tables, charts, photo albums, organizational charts, etc.

• Discuss the advanced features of PowerPoint presentation

• Understand the significant features of Microsoft Access 2007

• Work with various database tools and commands to create a specific database

• Use auto calendar, primary key, foreign key and add description to a table

• Use various features of query wizard

3.2 MS POWERPOINT

PowerPoint presentations in Office 2007 are a way of attracting audience towards your views and arguments. It is one of the most helping factors behind success of every meeting. There are various uses of PowerPoint presentations, some of them are integrated. The prime utility of PowerPoint presentations in modern days are learning, corporate training sessions, business and marketing meetings and sales gatherings. They are as follows: •

Learning Solutions

Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 thus allows for creation of professional, effective and creative business presentations that can be used for corporate or sales presentations and trainings. Each page in the presentation, termed as a slide in PowerPoint can be customized according to business requirements. PowerPoint contains several easy-to-use features, such as design templates, the capability to insert graphics and charts, and various printing options that allow the user to create a business presentation. Companies can develop their specific design theme containing their logo and design template to give a uniform look to all their presentations.

Corporate Training Session

Companies often utilize PowerPoint to create a visual simplified platform to conduct the training session for their employees. PowerPoint 2007 is considered as an essential element of every corporate training session. Hence PowerPoint is frequently used to develop training materials, such as orientations, computer system lessons, customer service trainings and specific concept trainings. Top executives and managers (marketing and sales) utilize this powerful tool to train their juniors or associates to bestow them better, interactive and more proficient training. The PowerPoint slides highlight key points on each slide by accommodating titles, buffeted text, photos and graphics making the presentation easy to read and understandable.

Marketing Strategy

Powerful tools and options present in Microsoft PowerPoint makes it easier for people in marketing, advertising and sales to make presentations for motivation of their subordinates. Inclusion of different types of charts, images, Clip Arts and other graphical structures makes PowerPoint 2007 presentation eye catchy. Animation and sound effects add extra emphasis on these presentations making them more interactive.


Ribbon: Refers to the strip of buttons that resides on top of the main Window


Getting Started with Microsoft PowerPoint

PowerPoint helps in using charts, diagrams, pictures and animations for the purpose of creating effective presentation slides. The main feature that separates PowerPoint 2007 from PowerPoint 2003 is that in PowerPoint 2007 file is saved with a .ppt and .pptx extension. When the PowerPoint slides are saved as .pptx, Windows

2003 is unable to open the file.


The Microsoft Office Button performs all the functions of the 'File' menu of the older versions of PowerPoint. It helps you to create a new presentation, open an existing presentation, save a presentation, save a presentation with a new name using the 'Save As' option, print a presentation, send a presentation and close a presentation.

Ribbon

Ribbon refers to the strip of buttons that resides on top of the main Window. The standard Ribbon includes the Home tab, the Insert tab, the Design tab, the Animation tab, the Slide Show tab, the Review tab and the View tab.

Design

The Design option is accessed on the Ribbon. This option facilitates the choice of colors, background styles, fonts, page setup, slide orientation, etc.

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Home

The Home option is the most commonly used option which by users. It helps in creating new slides. The 'slides' option provides you to insert new slides. You can adjust the layout of slides, reset and set default slides. The paragraphs can be aligned and specified in form of bulleted or numbered lists. The drawing and editing tools help in editing the text and figures.

NOTES


MS PowerPoint. MS Access and MS Project

NOTES

Insert

The insert option is available for the purpose of adding tables, illustrations, links, text and media clips. WordArt, header, footer, text, movie and sound can also be inserted in the slides. The tables can be inserted or imported from MS ExceL Illustrations can be in form of Clip Art files; photo albums, pictures, Smart Art, shapes and charts. You can insert a link using the hyperlink tool to navigate the corkesponding presentations. The 'insert text box' option provides the orientation and location of the words along with the insertion adate, time, symbols, slide numbths and embedded objects.

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Animation

The animation option contains preview, custom animation and various transition settings that can be applied to the specified or all slides in the presentation. The slide show transition can be set at mouse clicks or 'automatically-after -seconds' options. You can preview the slide show to view the proper effect and the mode of presentations. Various objects, such as images, text and embedded objects can be added on the slides. The various transitions available for slide shows are wipes, fades and dissolve, random, strips and bars, push and cover, etc.

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Slide Show

The slide show option helps in setting up the start slide show (either from the starting or from-and-to specific slide numbers) and to record narration. It also has the option to monitor the screen resolution by providing separate views of the slide show.

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Review

The content of the slides can be reviewed and modified by using the spell check, research, adding comments, etc. This makes the presentation flawless. Proofing provides the facility of text proofing by scanning the online research references, finding synonyms and converting the text to other languages in totality. This option provides the comment facility-that enables the addition or modification of a comment for a particular slide or the content of a slide. The protect option restricts usage by unauthorized users. This option is helpful for slide show share with a network drive if you collaborate with other users.

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View The view option enables the presentation to be viewed in different ways, such as normal view, notes view, handout view, printout view and screen view, show/hide grid lines, rulers and tools, zoom in and zoom out facility and also includes the color/ grayscale view whether the slides should appear in color or black and white. The window tab arranges the windows of the current working slides and macros includes complex tasks that get activated after clicking on the slides.

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The format tab includes drawing tools and picture tools. The picture tool is a context sensitive tab that appears on the Ribbon and allows the user to work with inserted images, photos, Clip Art and pictures. It sets the brightness of images, crops the

picture, etc.

Navigation through the slides can be accomplished using the L'INA,

Slide Navigation menu on the left side of the screen. An outline of slides appear on the left side that have been entered in the presentation. You need to click the outline tab to access the

outline of the presentation.

Mini Toolbar A new feature in Office 2007 is the Mini Toolbar. This is a floating toolbar that is displayed when you select text or right click on the text. It displays the common formatting tools, such as bold, italics, fonts; font size and font color.

Table This option includes adding borders, rows and columns, formatting of individual cell, etc., to a table. It helps in deciding the number of rows and columns that would appear on the screen. The merge option combines the cells into a larger one and the alignment option sets the alignment of the cell so that the text may fit better.

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The quick access toolbar holds the commands which are issued by the user again and again. The quick access toolbar can be easily customized using the command button available on the Ribbon. This tool is displayed on the top most left corner of the screen.

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The drop-down list is customized on the quick access toolbar by selecting the Customize Quick Access Toolbar--)More Commands-Customize.

You can add or remove the commands from the list. Once you make changes and save them, the quick access toolbar gets updated. This toolbar is also known as a customizable toolbar. You can add or delete the toolbar from the menu.

Customize

Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 facilitates customizable options. For this, click on the File menu. It generates the option called TowerPoint Options' as follows:


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Proofing: Provides auto correction settings and also helps in finding errors through custom dictionaries.

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By clicking on the PowerPoint Options leads to the Customize option.

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The Popular option helps you to initialize the work environment, color schemes and user name along with initials and accessing the Live Preview feature which is useful for applying designs and changes.

The Proofing option provides auto correction settings and also helps in finding errors through custom dictionaries.

The save option allows you to personalize the process of saving the workbook.

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The Advance feature option provides the options to edit, copy, paste, print, display slide show and for general settings.

The Customize option allows you to add or delete the toolbars in the quick access toolbar. This option is very useful from the point of view of setting the toolbars as per the user requirement.

Creating, Manipulating and Enhancing Slides

In Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 you can create, manipulate and enhance slides. The presentation can be created by blank presentation, templates, from existing presentations and word outline. The presentation slides can be manipulated by office themes, duplicate selected slides or reuse slides. Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 provides various tools to enhance slides. These all features are discussed as follows:

Creating Slides

The presentations can be created as follows:

New Presentation

You can create a new presentation from a blank slide, a template, existing presentations or a Word outline. To create a new presentation from a blank slide, the following steps need to be performed:


• Click on New. • Click on Blank Presentation.

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To Create a New Presentation from a Template

To create a new presentation from a template, the following steps must be performed:


• Click on New.

• Click on Installed Templates or Browse through Microsoft Office Online Templates.

• Click on the template you want.

To Create a New Presentation from an Existing Presentation

To create a new presentation from an existing presentation, the following steps need to be performed:

• Click on the Microsoft Office Button. • Click on New. • Click on New from Existing. • Browse and click to open the presentation.

To Create a New Presentation from a Word Outline

To create a new presentation from a Word outline, the following steps need to be performed:

• Click on the slide where you would like the outline to begin. • Click on New Slide on the Home tab. • Click on Slides from Outline. • Browse and click on the Word document that contains the outline.

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Saving a Presentation

You can save a presentation using the Save or the Save As command. To save a document with Save command follow these steps:

• Click on the Microsoft Office Button. • Click on Save.

You can also use the Save As command to save a presentation with a different name or to save it as an earlier version of PowerPoint. The older versions of PowerPoint will not open the PowerPoint 2007 presentation unless you save it in the PowerPoint 97-2003 format. To use the Save As command, follow these steps:

• Click on the Microsoft Office Button. • Click on Save As. • In the Save as box, choose PowerPoint

97-2003 Presentation. • Type the name for the presentation.

Manipulating Slides

Adding Slides

There are various options available to add new slides to the presentation, such as Office Themes, Duplicate Selected Slide or Reuse Slides.

To create a new slide from Office Themes, the steps that need to be performed are as follows:

• Select the slide that is just BEFORE where you have to insert the new slide.

• Click on the Home tab and then on the New Slide Button.

• Click on the slide format of your choice.


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To create a duplicate slide of a particular slide in the presentation, following are the steps that need to be performed:

• Select the slide which you want to duplicate.

• Click on the Home tab and then click on the New Slide Button.

• Click on Duplicate Selected Slides.

To insert a slide from another presentation, the steps that need to be performed are as follows:

• Select the slide that is just BEFORE where you have to insert the new slide

• Click on the New Slide Button on the Home Tab.

• Click on Reuse Slides.

• Click on Browse.

• Click on Browse File.

• Find the slide and click on the specific slide to import.

Enhancing Slides

Microsoft PowerPoint offers tool to enhance slides by creating informative, interesting and dynamic' presentation. You can create high-impact presentation by adding tables, charts, etc. Adding visual components to your slides can enhance your presentation. Clip Art images, Word Art, Internet images or scanned images can be added to your PowerPoint slides. You can also add visual components by using Smart Art, Charts, Photo Album, etc.

Entering Text

Following are the steps that must be performed to enter text in a slide:

• Select the slide where the text needs to be added.

• Click on the Text Box to add text.

Following are the steps that must be performed to add a text box:

• Select the slide in which you want to insert the text box. • Click on the Insert Tab, then click on Text Box. • Click on the slide and drag the cursor to enlarge the text box. • Type the text in the text box.

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Copy and Paste

Following are the steps for copying and pasting any object or text in a slide:

• Select the object or text that you want to copy.

• On the Clipboard Group of the Home Tab, click on Copy.

• Select the location where you want to copy the object or text.

• On the Clipboard Group of the Home Tab, click on Paste.

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Following are the steps to cut and paste any text or object in a slide:

• Select the text or object that you want to copy.

• On the Clipboard Group ofthe Home Tab, click on Cut.

• Select the location where you want to copy the text or object.

• On the Clipboard Group of the Home Tab, click on Paste.

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Spell Check

The spell check option is useful if a text based PowerPoint presentation is to be prepared. It underlines every wrong spelling by a red wavy line.


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The spelling dialog box provides a variety of buttons—Ignore, Change, Options, AutoCorrect, etc., to the users. If you do not wish to make any changes in the spelling,

click on the Ignore button.

Once the spellings have been changed as required, it provides a dialog box which says, 'The spelling check is complete.'

Change Font Typeface and Size

The font typeface and size can be changed by selecting the specific tool in the Home

Tab of the Ribbon.

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generates a shortcut menu. You can correct the spelling by either using the Review option or by pressing the function key [F7].

For this, you first select the text which needs to be changed to the desired font size, color and style.

WordArt

WordArt is a gallery of text styles that you can add to your 2007 Microsoft Office system documents to create decorative effects, such as shadowed or mirrored (reflected) text. In Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007, you can also convert existing text into WordArt. You can use WordArt to add special text effects to your document. For example, you can stretch a title, skew text, make text fit a preset shape or apply a gradient fill. On the Insert Tab, in the Text

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group, click WordArt and then click the WordArt style that you want to add in your presentation.

You can use any of the styles of WordArt by choosing any one option from the list to get the desired effect. NOTES Paragraph Alignment

This option provides the various alignment options to change the indent setting of text as Align Left (it aligns text to the left margin [CTRL+L]), Center (it centers text [CTRL+E]), Align Right (it aligns text to the right margin [CTRL+R]) and Justify (it justifies the text on left and right margins).

To see the effect, select the paragraph for which you have to set the indent. The paragraph is indented when you click on the indent button to control the indent style.

Text Direction

The text direction option is used to change the direction of the text. The options available are Horizontal, Rotate all text 90°, Rotate all text 270°, Stacked and More Options.

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You can resize a text box by clicking on the Text Box Tool. You can resize the text box by dragging the handles that appear around the typed text.

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Nested Lists

A nested list also known as a sublist that represents a list in another list. It has two tools—Increase List Level (increases the indent level) and Decrease List Level (decreases the indent level). For this, the tools `401401' are used. The resultant effect of Increase List Level would be as follows:

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Formatting Texts

This option allows the text to be formatted by using Font option in the Home Tab. It helps you to make changes in the font size, style type and effects.

To change text attributes, open a presentation, select the text on a slide by dragging the cursor over it. Right click on your selection and select Format Text Effects as shown below.

Formatting Lists (Bulleted and Numbered)

Bulleted and numbered lists are useful for the purpose of highlighting the important elements or key features of the specified heading. This can be done with the help of Bullets and Numbering tool. For example, if you want to show the MS Office 2007 group/package in form of a numbered or bulleted list, you can add bullets as follows:

The dialog box for the Bullets and Numbering option appears as follows:

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Tables can be inserted along with text to show the statistical data on the slide. You can insert a table by clicking on Insert —*fable option.

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Enter Data

The data is entered in a tabular format. For example, if marks obtained by students ilia specific course module have to be displayed on the slide, you can add them as shown in the screen.

Format Table

The table that has to be appeared on the slide can be formatted by using the Design menu. You can also format the border and shading of the table as per your requirement.

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Tables can be embedded from other applications too, such as Microsoft Excel 2007 and Microsoft Word 2007. For this, you have to first open Microsoft Excel 2007 and prepare a table. Then click on PowerPoint 2007 to add the required chart/ table.

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Chart

Microsoft Excel 2007 charts and tables can also be embedded to Microsoft PowerPoint 2007. For this, you need to select Insert —>Chart option.


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After copying and pasting the chart on slide, you can get the desired chart from Microsoft Excel 2007.

Adding Organizational Chart using SmartArt

Information can be communicated visually by using the SmartArt option. It provides graphics, ranging from graphical list and process diagrams to more complex graphics. For example, Venn diagrams and organization charts. The options available for the purpose are List, Process, Cycle, Hierarchy, Relationship, Matrix and Pyramids. The SmartArt picture is added by clicking on Insert-*SmartArt option.

If you select the Pyramid option, it generates various options as shown in screen.

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You can add a picture to your PowerPoint slide by selecting Insert—Picture option.

Once you get a picture on your slide, you can move the picture around the slide by dragging it with your mouse. You can also resize the photo by dragging the corner handles and rotating using the little circles located at each corner.

Adding Clip Art

The Clip Art picture option helps in adding Clip Art to the slide. For this, select Insert—>Clip Art tool

Adding Photo Album

To create a photo album, click on 'Insert' menu and click on 'Photo Album' and then select 'New Photo Album'. A pop up Window then opens, select the photos that you want to insert in the album. After adding the photos, you can rotate them or even change their brightness/contrast. You can even add your own Photo Album and can create it in form of a presentation.

Adding Shapes

The Adding shapes option is available to the user by clicking on the Shapes tool which generates a drop-down list.

You can add various types of shapes as per the text or presentation requirement.

Layering Art Objects

PowerPoint 2007 gives you the option of layering your images by controlling their order and how they appear on the slide. As you add objects to your slides, you may find that one object overlaps another or causes another object to disappear completely. For instance, you may add a Clip Art graphic to your slide and can draw a rectangle around the graphic. However, when you draw the rectangle, you find that the graphic has disappeared from the screen. PowerPoint layers objects in a stack that is, the first object drawn or inserted is on the bottom of the stack, and the next object appears on top of the previous object, and so on. You can order the images on the slide so they appear behind the text or above it. PowerPoint's formatting tool allows you to organize the image objects on the slide by keeping track of the image's hierarchy.

NOTES


Slide master: Special slides that allow you to format basic information and apply it to every slide in a presentation


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Changing the Layering Order of Objects

• Select the graphical object that you wish to move.

• Click the Format Tab.

• To send an object backward or to the back of the stack, click the Send to Back arrow on the Arrange group and choose either Send to Back or Send Backward. .7z.zw----

• To bring an object forward or to the front of the stack, click the Bring to Front arrow on the Arrange group and choose either Bring to Front or Bring Forward.

Slide Formatting

The slide master controls the formatting for all slides with the specified layout. Changes made to the slide master will affect all slides with that layout. Slide masters rp.* are special slides that allow you to format basic information and apply it to every slide in a presentation. Masters let you format the title, background, color, date, time and slide number. By using the slide masters, you can add consistency to a presentation, making it easier to follow and understand. Entering a title or other text is easy in PowerPoint. Simply click in the appropriate text box and

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type your text. Click a slide in the Slides tab where you want to change some text formatting.

To format the Master Title you started on the previous page, highlight the text that says `Click to edit Master title style'.

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parts in black in the image above), click Format from the menu bar at the top of PowerPoint. From the Format menu, select Font... where you can right click the highlighted text and select Font from the context menu that appears.

You should now see the Font dialog box appear. Select Arial for the font and 44 for the size. Click the color drop-down list and select the color as per your choice.

Click OK. Your Master title should now look like as shown in screen.

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With the Master title set up, you can format the AutoLayout area (the one with the bullets in it). You only need one slide with bullets in our presentation, so it makes sense to delete these and just add some text instead. So, click inside the AutoLayout area and select all the text. Self-Instructional Material 145

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NOTES

With the text highlighted, locate the bullet tool on the PowerPoint toolbar at the top. When you deactivate the bullets, your AutoLayout area look as shown in screen.

Press the delete key on your keyboard to get rid of this text and type out a word or two of default text in its place.

Format the text like you did for the Master title. Choose Arial for the font and keep the size 16. Leave it on black for the color.

Format the Footer

You can also enter defaults in the Footer area. Click on the word <footer>, as shown in the screen.

Then type the text you want to appear on every slide. Or just leave it, if you want this area blank. Leave the Date Area and Number Area as they are. Screen below displays the footer.

If Arial for the font is chosen as size is 12 and the color is white then screen above appears.

Formatting Text in a Slide: Font, Alignment and Line Spacing

To change the font in PowerPoint 2007, you need to select the slide on which you have to format the text. Select the text that you want to format. Select the font type as shown in the screen.

You can align the selected text as shown in the screen.

The line spacing is set with the tool as shown in the following screen.

You can adjust the line spacing in Paragraph Tab where options are given as Single, 1.5 lines, Double, Exactly and Multiple as shown in the screen.

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The background is the area that covers the whole slide in PowerPoint 2007. It is referred to as background because it stays in the back and it is positioned behind anything else in the slide. If you assign or change a presentation's design, a nicely formatted background is applied to the slides. You can change and design a slide's background anytime or change the presentation's design manually if none of the designs suits your particular needs. To design a particular slides background, you should be in the Slides tab of the Normal view.

• Click Background Styles, and then select Format Background, from the

Design Tab, in the Background group. The Format Background dialog box

will appear. • Select the desired options from the Fill section.

• To apply the changes only to the current slide and close the dialog box, click Close.

• To apply the changes to all slides, click Apply to all.

Applying Themes

This option comprises certain buttons that help in the customization of colors, fonts and effects. For this, you have to select the Design option.

If you click on Color drop • - down list, you can get the available color scheme and be able to see the preview by hovering the cursor over the color scheme.

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The color schemes as specified are applied to all the slides in the presentation. For example, the 'Aspect' option gives the following effect to the slides.

The new color theme option is created by selecting the Create New Theme Colors option. You can save the color theme as MyCustomColor which in turn would affect the current slide color.

The new font theme option is created by selecting the Create New Theme Font option. You can save the custom font as MyCustomFont which would change the current slide font.

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The Undo command [CTRL+Z] reverses the last performed or the preceding task, whereas the 'Redo Button' is used for repeating the task. The Undo command is useful if the text or figure is deleted accidentally. For example, `Modify Theme Colour' can be undone as shown in screen.

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ways, such as Normal view, Notes Page view, Handout Master view, Slide Sorter view, Slide show view and Notes Master view, show/hide grid lines, rulers and tools, zoom in and zoom out facility and also includes Color, Grayscale view and Pure Black and White. The Window Tab arranges the Windows of the current working slides and macros includes complex tasks that get activated after clicking on the slides.

The Format Tab includes drawing tools and picture tools too. The picture tool is a context sensitive tab that appears on the ribbon and allows one to work with inserted images, photos and Clip Art pictures. It sets the brightness of images, crops the picture, etc.

Normal View

Normal view in Microsoft PowerPoint is the main working Window in the presentation. The slide is shown in full size on the screen. This view is more commonly known as Slide view.

Outline View Outline view shows all the text of all slides in a list. No graphics are shown in Outline view. This view is useful for editing purposes and can be exported out as a Word document and used as a summary handout.

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Slide View

The Slide view does not differ much from the Normal view, except in that the Slide view does not display the presentation outline. The Slide view displays each slide on the screen and is helpful for adding images, formatting text and adding background styles.

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Slide Sorter View

Slide Sorter view in PowerPoint 2007 is a Window that displays thumbnail versions of all your slides, arranged in horizontal rows. This view is useful to make global changes to several slides at a time. Rearranging or deleting slides is easy to do in Slide Sorter view. In order to apply the same transition to all of the PowerPoint slides at one time, users switch their presentation to Slide Sorter view. Slide Sorter view shows miniature versions of all the slides in horizontal rows. These miniature versions of the slides are called thumbnails. A thumbnail is the term used to describe a miniature version of a slide or picture. Slides can be easily deleted or rearranged quickly in this view. Effects, such as transitions and sounds can be added to several slides at the same time in Slide Sorter view.

Notes Page View

PowerPoint lets you create speaker notes to help you through your presentation. You can write a complete script for your PowerPoint presentation or just jot down a few key points to refresh your memory. Each slide can be created with its own notes page. The user can print these pages and use as a reference while making the presentation. NoteS Page show the added notes at the bottom of the slide as shown in the screenshot. These notes are not visible on the screen during the slide show or presentation. The Notes pane is located just below the Slide pane. You can type notes that you want to apply to the current slide. When you present your presentation, you may need to refer to notes to elaborate on a slide's material or to remind you to point out some detail. In PowerPoint, you can write your speaker's notes while creating your slides. Simply go to the text box below the slide in the main window area that says 'Click to add notes' and start writing. To work with Notes Page, click on the View Tab. Under Presentation


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Views select the Notes Page Button. Type your notes in the space that appears in the notes area in your slide.

Animations and Sounds

The animation option contains preview, custom animation and various transition settings that can be applied to the specified slides. The Slide Show transition can be set at mouse clicks or 'automatically-after-seconds' options. You can preview the slide show to view the proper effect and the mode of presentations. Various objects, such as images, text and embedded objects can be added on the slides. The various transitions available for slide shows are wipes, fades and dissolve, random, strips and bars, push and cover, etc.

Slide Transition

Transition effects add movement to changes between the slides. The slides appear as thumbnail diagrams on the Ribbon's Animations Tab. The Normal view is generated when the mouse is rolled over a thumbnail. PowerPoint 2007 applies the transition effect to the slide when we click on the thumbnail. Clicking on the slide in Normal or Slide Sorter view highlights the thumbnail to which the slide transition effect needs to be applied. To apply the transition effect to multiple slides, hold down the CTRL key as you click on several slides and choose an animation. To insert a transition between every slide in a presentation, click Apply to All button in the Animations Tab. The transition effect comes after clicking on the Animations Tab. You can even set the transition speed and transition sound-as per requirement.

After setting the slide transition set, click on the Slide Show option as follows:

The slide speed option can be set as fast, medium or slow.

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NOTES


Voice Narration: The recorded narration can be added to play with your presentation

NOTES


Automation of Slide Presentation

PowerPoint 2007 presents an effect of slide presentation. You can include wipes, zooms, pans, spins, reveals or hundreds of visually special effects at the time of preparing presentation. Automation of slide presentation leads the concept of self running presentations. It is a great way to communicate information without having someone available to run a Slide Show presentation. For example, you might want to set up a presentation to run unattended in a trade show or convention or send a Compact Disk (CD) with a self running slide show to a client. You can make most controls unavailable so that users cannot make changes to the presentation. A self running presentation restarts when it has finished and also when it has been idle on a manually advanced slide for longer than five minutes. When a self run presentation is designed, the corresponding environment is kept in the mind, such as elements you add to your presentation, how much control you give users and what steps you need to take to prevent misuse. Options you might want to consider when designing a self running presentation include:

• Automatic or Manual Timings: You can set up a presentation to run by itself with automatic timings or you can set it so that users can move through it at their own pace by using the mouse to click action buttons for navigation. If you set up a slide show to be browsed at a kiosk, mouse clicks are ignored unless they are on objects with hyperlinks or action buttons.

• Hyperlinks and Action buttons: You can use hyperlinks to move through the presentation or to jump to other slides and programs. Action buttons are predefined navigation buttons which can give your presentation the look and familiarity of a Web page with buttons for Home, Help, Back, Next, and so on.

• Voice Narration: The recorded narration can be added to play with your presentation.

• Capture User Input: You can use the ActiveX controls that come with PowerPoint to create a response slide in your presentation. For example, you can add a text box in which people can enter their names and addresses to receive further information.

You can set timings for your slides manually or you can set them automatically while you rehearse. You can set the exact amount of time each slide is viewed, for example you can have the title slide appear for 10 seconds, the second slide for two minutes, the third for 45 seconds, and so on. You may find it easiest to work with the Slides Tab selected in Normal view so you can see miniatures of each slide in your presentation. To set timings automatically while you rehearse, you can use the buttons in the Rehearsal dialog box to pause between slides, restart a slide and advance to the next slide. As you rehearse the presentation, PowerPoint tracks how long each slide appears and sets the timing accordingly. If you display the same slide more than once, for example in a custom show the last timing will be recorded by the PowerPoint.

Inserting Animated Pictures

You can use animation to focus on important points, to control the flow of information and to increase viewer interest in your presentation. You can use the built-in animation effects in Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007 or you can create your own custom effects. You can apply animation effects to individual slides, to the slide master or to custom slide layouts.


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Applying a Pre-built Animation Effect to Text or Objects

For applying animation effects to objects in Office PowerPoint 2007, do the following:

• Select the text or object that you want to animate.

• On the Animations Tab, in the Animations group, select the animation effect that you want from the Animate list.

Applying a Custom Animation Effect to Text or Objects

You create custom animations in the Custom Animation. The Custom Animation task pane shows important information about an animation effect, including the type of effect, the order of multiple effects in relation to each other and a portion of the text of the effect.

• Select the text or object that you want to animate.

• On the Animations Tab, in the Animations group, click Custom Animation.

• In the Custom Animation task pane, click Add Effect and then do one or more of the following:

• To make the text or object • enter with an effect, point

to Entrance and then click an effect.

• To add an effect, such as a spin effect, to text or an object that is already visible on the slide, point to Emphasis and then click an effect.

• To add an effect that makes text or an object leave the slide at some point, point to Exit and then click an effect.

• To add an effect that makes text or an object move in a specified pattern, point to Motion Paths and then click a path.

• To specify how the effect is applied to your text or object, right click the custom animation effect in the Custom Animation list and then click Effect Options on the shortcut menu.

Inserting GIF Files

• Click on the slide where you want the GIF video file to appear. Click on the Insert Tab and then click on the Movie option from the Media Clips group.

• For inserting image from file, click on the Movie from File option and then locate the folder on your computer where the GIF video file is stored. Click on the video file and then click on the Open Button.

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• The video is automatically inserted and a dialog box appears.

• Click on the Automatically option if you want the video to play automatically when the slide is shown or click on the When Clicked option to have the animation play when you click on it.


and MS Project

NOTES

You can animate the slide transitions. You can also set up text boxes, objects, images, etc. Custom animation buttons control the effect on mouse clicks.

PowerPoint 2007 includes triangles, spirals, bounces, etc. This option also helps in customizing the animation, for example move, size and close.

Animation Preview

Click on the Slide Show menu and then click on the Custom Animation Button. To preview animations in the slides, click on the Play Button in the custom animation task pane. The slide show can also be viewed with the help of the Slide Show tool.

The Animation Preview option is a very useful feature in Slide Show.

Slide Show Options

The Slide Show option can be accessed by clicking on the slide show tool. You can set the slide show according to the requirement, that is either for All option or the From: and To: drop-down list. From the Set*Up Show dialog box as displayed, under the Show type section, choose any of the following show type options:


MS PowerPoint, MS Access and MS Project • Presented by a speaker: To run a full screen slide show.

•• Browsed by an individual: To run a slide show in a window and allow access to some PowerPoint commands.

• Browsed at a kiosk: To create a self running, unattended slide show for a booth or kiosk.

Under the Set-Up Show options section, check or clear the following check boxes:

• Loop continuously until 'Esc': Check to replay the slide show again until you stop it.

• Show without narration: Select if you do not want the narration to play.

• Show without animation: Select if you do not want the animation to play.

Under the Show slides section, select any one of the following options:

• All: All the slides will show during the slide show.

• From: Enter the first and last slide numbers of the range that you want to show.

Under the Advanced slides section, select the Manually or Using timings, if present option, which would you use to advance the slides manually or automatically.

• Slide Show Resolution: The drop-down list allows you to select the display resolution that you want.

• Click on the OK button.

Inserting Recorded and In-built Sound Effects

Incorporating sound clips into PowerPoint is an aide way to capture your audience's attention and communicate information in diverse ways. Sound clips are not restricted to pre-installed sound effects. They may also include music and voice recordings.

To insert recorded and inbuilt sound effects to PowerPoint slide do the following:

• Select the slide to which you wish to add a sound.

• In the Insert Tab, under the Media Clips group, click the arrow on the Sound button.

• For adding in-built sound, choose Sound From Clip Organizer... to bring up the Clip Art task pane for built-in sound effects. Click the sound to insert it or hover your mouse over it first, click on the menu arrow that appears and choose Insert.

• For adding recorded sound file, choose Sound From File... to bring up the Insert Sound dialog box. Find the sound file on your computer using the "Look in" drop-down list. Select the file and click OK.

• A pop-up box will appear asking you how you would like the sound to start in the presentation. Choose automatically if you want the video to play automatically when the slide is shown or click on the When Clicked option to have the animation play when you click on it.

• A sound icon 4- appears on your slide.

NOTES



NOTES

Utility of Master Slide

The slide master is one of several master slides that are used in PowerPoint to make global changes to all your slides at one time. Using the slide master allows you to.

• Change font colors and styles for every slide.

• Add a Clip Art or picture to every slide. • Add a footer or date to every slide.

Following steps are required to access the Slide Master: • Click on the View Tab of the Ribbon. • Click on the Slide Master Button as shown in the screen.

Inserting Date/Time/Slide Number into Master Slide

On the slide, position the insertion point in the placeholder. The placeholders are boxes with dotted or hatch marked borders that are part of most slide layouts. These boxes hold title and body text or objects, such as charts, tables and pictures or text box. A text box is a movable and resizable container for text or graphics. Use text boxes to position several blocks of text on a page or to give text a different orientation from other text in the document that you want to add the date and time or slide number to. On the Insert menu, click either Slide Number or Date and Time.

Inserting Common Objects to All Slides

You can insert the standard objects, text caption, rollover caption, rollover image and highlight box to a master slide. All other standard objects are disabled. You can also insert the text animation, widget, image, animation and Flash Video (FLV)/F4V You cannot add audio to a master slide. To add objects to a Master Slide, following steps are required:

• Select the Master Slide in the Master Slide strip. • Add objects in the same way as you do in the slides in your project.

Applying Common Title/Text Format to All Slides

A PowerPoint Slide Master is an element of the design template that stores information about the template including font styles, placeholder sizes and positions, background

• design and color scheme information. They also allow you to insert common elements on every slide, such as a common footer, slide number, copyright line, logo or even pictures. If you want all of the slides in your presentation to use similar fonts, formatting, colors and graphics then this is the best way to do this. You can create a new Master instead of editing the existing one if you want to apply the master changes only to selected slides or if you only plan to use it temporarily. You can also create a new Slide Master and then apply it to the Main Slide Master once you are sure of how you want it to look.

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Some Advanced Features of PowerPoint Presentation

Following are the advanced features of PowerPoint 2007:

• It provides to achieve consistency with Master Slides.

• It supports background, such as the plain white background on all slides is something your clients will insist that you change. You can set backgrounds individually on every slide.

• Office 2007 provides about 25 preset textures to use.

• You can use a bitmap as a background as well as gradient fills.

• PowerPoint 2007 allows you to select the gradient fills interactively.

• It supports animations which are special effects, such as visual and audio that highlight important elements in a slide. Some animation effects that PowerPoint supports are objects flying in from the edge (choose your edge), text appearing letter-by-letter and sound files playing. These animations can be timed to happen sequentially or all at once. They can happen automatically or in response to mouse clicks.

• PowerPoint 2007 allows specific actions to be taken when the mouse is moved over or clicked on a shape. Actions include jumping to a specific slide in the Slide Show, running another slide show, running a separate program, playing a sound, as well as a few others.

• In this world of high tech movies and video games, multimedia in business presentations is almost expected. Multimedia has the power to enhance a presentation, making it more interesting to watch and easier for the viewer to retain what was presented. While you are developing automated presentations, be sure that your program can handle scaling to the wide variety of hardware available for presentations.

Hide/Unhide in Slide Show

A good way to hide and unhide slides is in Slide Sorter view because an indicator appears below each slide to show whether it is hidden. This way, you can easily determine which slides is part of the main presentation. In the slide thumbnail pane in Normal view, hidden slides appear ghosted out. Follow these steps to hide a slide:

• Switch to Slide Sorter view.

• Select the slide or slides that you want to hide. Remember, to select more than one slide, hold down the CTRL key as you click the ones that you want.

• Click the Hide Slide Button on the Slide Show toolbar. A gray box appears around the slide number and a diagonal line crosses through it, indicating that it is hidden.

To unhide a slide, select the slide and click the Hide Slide Button again. The slide's number returns to normal. You can also right click a slide and choose Hide Slide or Unhide Slide to toggle the hidden attribute on and off.

Customizing Slide Show

There are two kinds of custom shows known as basic and hyperlinked. Abasic custom show is a separate presentation or a presentation that includes some of the slides of the original. A hyperlinked custom show is a quick way'to navigate to one or more separate presentations.

MS PowerPoint, MS-Access and MS Project

NOTES



Basic Custom Shows — 0 — Use a basic custom show to give separate presentations to different

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custom show named 'Site 2' that includes slides 1,2,4 and 5. When you create a custom show from a presentation, you can always run the entire presentation in its original sequential order.

In the above screen 1 represents the slides for Site 1 and 2 represents the slides for Site 2.

Hyperlinked Custom Shows

Use a hyperlinked custom show to organize content in a presentation. For example, if you create a primary custom show about your company's new overall organization, you can then create a custom show for each department within the organization and link to these shows from the primary presentation.

In the shown screen, 1 represents slide with hyperlinlcs, 2 and 3 represents the custom shows. On the Slide Show Tab, in the Start Slide Show group, click the arrow next to Custom Slide Show and then click Custom Shows.

• In the Custom Shows dialog box, click New. • Under Slides in presentation, click the slides that you want to include in the

custom show and then click Add.

To select multiple sequential slides, click the first slide and then hold down SHIFT while you click the last slide that you want to select. To select multiple non-sequential slides, hold down CTRL while you click each slide that you want to select. To change the order in which slides appear, under Slides in custom show, click a slide and then click one of the arrows to move the slide up or down in the list. Type a name in the Slide Show name box and then click OK. To create additional custom shows with any slides in your presentation, repeat above steps. To preview a custom show, click the name of the show in the Custom Shows dialog box and then click Show.

Applying Rehearse Timings for Slide Show

The Rehearse Timing option provides you the option to make the presentation within a certain time frame. It is also used to present the slides with audio.

iiihe Rehearsal tool presents the following options for Setting the toolbar:

Once the Rehearsal toolbar appears, the Slide Time box begins to time the presentation.

The Rehearsal toolbar's five labels can be described as follows: 0 Next (advance to next slide) O Pause 0 Slide Time 0 Repeat

O Total time for presentation

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After completing the rehearse timing of the slides as set, following dialog box appears. Click on Yes to save the changes.

Saving Presentation

By default a presentation is saved with a .pptx file extension name. To save the first time of the presentation, you need to perform the following tasks:

• Choose File—>Save As from File menu. The following dialog box will be appeared. Type the name of the presentation in 'File name:' bar. You can select the folder name in 'Save in' drop-down list where you want to save the file.

Click the Save Button. In case you wish to save the file into another directory, specify the correct path and directory. Once you save the file by a name, you need to click on Save as option. The modification and further changes can be saved either by pressing CTRL+S keys together or by choosing File—)Save menu. If you choose

Save as option again, the following dialog box will appear on the screen.

Printing Presentation

Printing a PowerPoint presentation provides three options to the user—Print, Quick Print and Print Preview.

The Print option selects a printer, the number of copies to be printed and the other options for printing, whereas Quick Print sends the presentation direct to the default printer without making changes. The Print Preview option previews and provides options to make changes to the pages before they are printed.

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Tab dialog box, click on the Microsoft Office Button click on PowerPoint

Options, click on Advanced and then scroll down to Print. The Printer Name option

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Check Your Progress 1. Name the prime utility of

PowerPoint presentation.

2. Write the main feature of PowerPoint which separates PowerPoint 2007 from PowerPoint 2003.

3. What is the use of bulleted and numbered lists?

4. What is layering of objects?

5. Write the extension of theme when saved.

6. Define Normal View in context of PowerPoint 2007.

7. What does animation option contain?

8. What is slide master?.

9. Write one of the features of Rehearse Timing option in PowerPoint 2007.

NOTES


can also be accessed through this dialog box. If you click on the Print option, you can access a lot of options, for example, All, Current slide or Slides number as per your requirement.

3.3 MS ACCESS

Getting started with MS Access leads you to work with database as well as tables, fields and records; for example, Emp_Table table is maintained under My_Database.accdb database.

Yeregallt Lrtet

Getting Started with Microsoft Office Acceiiri


MS Office button's! is available in the top upper left corner. When you click on this button, the following menu appears:

The new database file can be created, opened and saved after modification. This menu is considered as the most significant of all menus due to its basics features. Without creating a file no operation can be done.

Understanding Security

Access 2007 database sometimes contain malicious code, viruses, etc. This application has security that disables the code. The security feature always warns when you open a corrupted database.


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Navigation Pane

MS Access 2007 creates database for processing the various objects, such as tables, queries, reports, forms, macros, modules, and so on. The navigation pane is useful to display the objects based on database.

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Tabbed Document Window Viewing

This tool also provides a tabbed viewing option for tables, forms, queries and reports in the current and another window. You can easily navigate betWeen available windows with this tab.

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You can organize the objects by type.

Ribbon

Ribbon is placed in Access 2007 below the Quick Access toolbar. The various tabs provide menus and dialog boxes to perform the tasks. The options Home, Create, External Data, Database Tools and Datasheet are the features provided by Ribbon.

Home

Home option enables you various operations such as Views, Font types and sizes, Records , Sort & Filter, Find and Replace.

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Create In Create option, Table Design, Table Templates, PivotChart, Form, Report, Macro and Query Wizard operations can be performed.

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External Data External data option provides you the features to save Imports, add Excel sheet, SharePoint List, create E-mail, Manage Replies, move to SharePoint.

Database Tools The database option can create Relationships, Encrypt database with password, create Visual Basic applications using macro, make ACCDE, etc. ACCDE file is executed only in Visual Basic that takes the place of MDE file extension. It takes you to Visual Basic environment and enable you to interact with SQL server.

Datasheet The Datasheet option provides various views, enable you to add existing fields, rename, delete and insert the fields or records, lookup columns, maintain the data types, etc. The object dependencies can be determined with the help of the tool provided by this ribbon.

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If it is required you can hide or view the objects in the navigation pane.

The tool!. double down arrow is used to view the objects, whereas the tool* double up arrow is used to hide the objects. Objects are displayed along with icons in the tab. The icons are gm table, 3 form, cp query, 2 macro,

report and at module. The following table shows the various objects and their details:

NOTES


Recent Documents

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Table 3.1 Objects and their Functions

Objects Function

Table In Access 2007, data is processed as table. A table is a set of rows and columns. Various fields are required to make a record. Row of the table is referred to as

a record.

Query Outputs are used to retrieve data as per queries. For example, a query can be generated as the number of employees whose salary is less than 30,000.

Form Forms enable you to choose the arrangement of fields and suitable format. The form is used to enter, edit and display data.

Report Data can be summarized or organized as reports to be viewed or to be taken as printout. The report is generated after analysing the data to know the trend of

the organization.

Macro A task is automated with macro. It is used to add functionality for form, report

or control.

Module Modules are able to automate the tasks but it is written for applications of

Visual Basic.

MS PoivdMS Access

MS Project

Exit Access Closing a database is possible by clicking the tesd.A.41 Exit Access tool.

Quick Access Toolbar

The quick access toolbar facilitates accessing the frequently used commands. The default. save. redo and undo options appear on the toolbar The action can be rolled back after clicking on the undo button. The object can be saved and reapplied by the redo button.

Customize

Customize tool can be easily accessed in Office button.

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E-mail

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MS PowerPoint, MS Access After clicking on Access Options. the ft) flowing Customize tool appears on the screen: and MS Project

NOTES

The options are Popular, Current Database, Datasheet, Object Designers, Proofing., Advanced, Customize, Add-ins, Trust Center, Resources.

Popular

This option provides a user-friendly environment where the user or programmer can use the features of Top options for working with Access, Creating databases and Personalize a copy of Microsoft Office. You can specify User Name and Initials as default setting.


Language Settings...

Access Options

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Current Database

This option is used to set the features of Application Options, Document Window Options and Navigation, Navigation Options.

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This option sets the Default colors, Gridlines and cell effects and Default font.

NOTES

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In Proofing option, you can set AutoCorrect, Spell check and Custom Dictionaries, etc.

Advanced

The advanced option facilitates you editing features, such as Move after enter, Arrow key behavior, confirmation setting; for example, Record changes, Document deletions and Action queries.

NOTES


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NOTES



Database Terms

The database terms include the following options so that a user can navigate easily with database as well as tables. They can create tables, generate queries, work with Recordset, generate a form and produce the report as per queries.

Table

A table is a set of rows and columns, in which rows represent records and columns refer to various fields. For example, a table Emp_Table has been created to keep the records of various employees in an organization.

To view a table you can double click on the table named as Emp_Table. In the following table, the columns representing Emp_ID, E_Name, DOB, Designation and Salary refer to the fields as follows:

Format a Table A table can be formatted by the features of font group provided in the Home tab. The following table shows the various tools and their functions:

Buttons and Their Function

Button Function

Applies various fonts given in the drop down list.

Provides various options for font sizes.

Makes bold the text or data.

Italicize the text or data.

Underline the text or data.

Aligns data in the left side.

Aligns data in the right side.

Aligns data in the centre.

Changes the font colour.

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NOTES

Changes the background colour. By default the

background colour is white.

Changes the format of gridlines. Gridline basically

represents rows and columns.

6111 Changes alternating colour. For example, in

datasheet rows are in new colour and columns are in new colour appearing in alternate colour format.

The text or data in an MS Access 2007 table can be made to appear in the desired format by performing the following steps:

(i) Keep the cursor at the starting point of the font or text in the given table. (ii) Select Home tab and click on the required button. (iii) Select the format from the available buttons. (iv) Then apply the format. You will get the desired format for a given table.

The font type, gridlines and size tools appear with the drop-down list. The above steps are also required for changing the font colour, background colour and alternating the colour for table format.

Query

A query based on table can be generated without SQL (Structured Query Language). A query can be updated if the original table is updated. You can type the query for Salary field as follows:

Now, it displays the result which shows the salaries less than or equal to 18000.

You can see here that the output produced by the generated query gives you a new tab where the result is kept. The result is known as Recordset.

Form

MS Access 2007 provides an environment to insert and modify records in the table within the database.

Report

Reports are generated after processing a query based on a table where you can add various features; for example, groups or totals. A blank form creates the available fields on the tables. You can add fields to the table.


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Creating a New Database

With the help of MS Access, you can create a new database as My_Database.accdb. The extension name .accdb was automatically added by MS Access.


New Database To create a new database, first select Microsoft Office Button —> New New Blank Database.

Type the file name and click on Create button.

Database Template

To create a new database from database templates, select Local Templates -3 Students.

You can change the name of the template also. Click on Create button that gives the following template to design the database:

Create a Table

Two types of views are available: Design view and Datasheet view.

Design View

A table is created after selecting the Design view. You can design a rough layout of the specified database. For example, My_Database.accdb contains Emp_Table in which the structure of the database is designed in the design view. For this, select the Design ribbon View —> Design View.

You can create a new table as Èmp_table' inside the database. The various fields are taken as Emp_ID, E_Name, DOB, Designation and Salary of different data types. Emp_ID is taken as AutoNumber type because this field is indexed. Sometimes, this field is reserved for a private key due to assigning a unique number for each record. The E_Name and Designation fields are kept as text type, whereas DOB refers to Employee's date of birth. Salary is taken as number data type.

NOTES



NOTES

I

The following options are set in Design View:

Table 3.2 Design View Options

Field Property Data Type Functions


Field Size Text Stores a text field with 0 to 255 characters. Default setting is taken as 255.

Number Selects various number data types.

Number Types Values stored Byte From 0 to 255 (No fractions) Decimal From —9.999 x 1027 to +9.999 x

1027 Integer From —32768 to +32767 (No

fractions) Long Integer From —2147483648 to +

2147483647 Single From —3.4 x 1038 to-3.4 x 1038

numeric floating point values. It contains up to seven digits.

Double From —1.797 x 10308 to +1.797 x 10308 numeric floating point values. It contains up to fifteen digits.

Replication ID Represents a globally unique identifier (GUID) establishing a unique identifier for replication.

Format Number Sets the format to display the number values, such as in currency, per cent, standard or fixed format.

Currency Number General Number Displays the currency, such as Dollars, INR and Pounds.

Currency Follows regional settings. Euro Uses currency formats along

with Euro symbol. Fixed Displays one digit as per

regional setting. Standard Follows regional settings. Per cent Converts a number entry in to

percentage.

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Datasheet View: Used to keep records in the tables as well as to maintain the standard structure.

Scientific General Date

Long Date

Medium Date Short Date Long Time Medium Time Short Time

Yes/No

True/False

On/Off

Determines the number of decimal

places displayed. Special characters used to control the values the user input. Field name displayed on forms. Sets the value that appears in the field by default when a record is created. Sets the requirements for user input. Text for error messages that are sent when validation rules are broken. Specifies whether the field is required or not. Determines whether a zero-length field is a valid entry. Specifies whether an index should be created in a field. Indexes speed up queries.

Uses scientific notation. Displays date and time; for example, 10/8/2009 12:55:00 PM. Displays in the format: Thursday October 8, 2009. 08-Oct-2009 10/8/2009 12:55:00 PM 12:55 PM 12:55 Requires text characters Text character not required. Changes all characters to lowercase. Changes all characters to uppercase. If the Lookup Display Control is a text box, displays Yes/No. If the Lookup Display Control is a text box, displays True/False. If the Lookup Display Control is a text box, displays On/Off. Auto. Number of decimals displayed depends on the format setting.

Yes: RequiredNo: Not Required

Yes: Is validNo: Not valid

Yes: Create index.No: Do not create index.

Date/Time

Text and Memo

Yes/No

Decimal Places

Input Mask

Caption Default Value

Validation Rule Validation Text

Required Allow Zero Length

Index


NOTES

Datasheet View

Datasheet View is used to keep records in the tables as well as to maintain the standard structure. A datasheet maintains rows and columns where rows represent records and columns represent fields. Datasheet is used to create a table, retrieve data from table, insert the data, modify the data and also delete the data. For example, new employees are appointed in an organization. This data is to be added in the Emp_Table table. For this, Datasheet View is used. For this, you need to select View —> Datasheet View.

Before moving from Design View to Datasheet View, you need to save the table.

Adding New Fields •

New fields can be added in the Datasheet View or in the

Design View.


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Data Types

Once a new field is created in the table it is necessary to check the relevant data type; for example, a DOB field carries Date/Time type and no text. MS Access 2007 introduces new data types as follows:

Table 3.3 Data Types used in MS Access 2007

Data Type Functions

AutoNumber Automatically creates unique values. This data type is set for primary keys.

Text This text field keeps text and numeric values, the maximum length of which can be 255.

Memo This data type keeps 2GB of data.

Number This field stores numeric values up to 16 data bytes.

Date/Time This field provides calendar facility to insert date and year.

Currency Used to keep 8 byte numbers with precision up to four decimal places.

Yes/No Provides Boolean features such as Yes/No or True/false options.

OLE Object OLE object stores images, documents, graphs, etc., from other MS office applications.

Hyperlink The hyperlink field stores web addresses having a maximum size limit of 1Gb of data.

Attachment The attachment field stores images, spreadsheet files, documents and charts.

Rich Text Memo Field

The Rich text memo field allows better formatting options for tables, forms and reports. In datasheet view, the field must be taken as memo type that provides Rich Text. The text works with different word processors and different operating systems.

1

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Auto Calendar

Auto Calendar icon is displayed if the field is taken as data/time data type. It automatically displays the calendar in which you can set the employees' dates of birth. The dates and years are available to set the data. The date of the present day (today) is also applicable if it is needed in the field.

,A11 Tabkis Takla/

3 Tablet Table

Emp_Table • Eas0_7*ble Table

• Ernp_latne Quer)

Salary • Address

25000 I112, Lodhi RO.

18000 411, Laipat N:

50000 005, Rohnsi,D.

30000 0045,6011

15000 023,O.Gam,

Editing Data Type in Fields

You can edit data types of specified fields too. For example, Attachment field requires attachment data type which was earlier taken as Text type. It can be modified as follows:

NOTES


At1-. DetabasiStecec, 2P', _ Milk* -es

Defier '

;mks*, Rays " if

46 Miele Rows

111— lookup Column PrsenPeeertYi

N Ilse database has bandisabled Options.

Text

Memo

Number

Date/Time

Currency

AutoNumber

Yes/No

OLE Object ta type OeteimmeS the kind or values Hyperlink seri Can Stan ,l, the Preis fl tor

help on date types.

lAttachemist Ices

Lookup Wizard...

• _ Nub to* in

_

,( MI1.1 US1.111 l..1111LC

i You can't rename the database object *Table1' while it's open.

'NMI° Close the database object, and then rename it

All Tables Teblel

M Tebbe* Tar-

top_Table

• Emp. Table /14

• Emp_Table'

arl

r_ Rams

dole m thn Group

Delete

x Cut

• soar a Paste

cAed ToWe MAISOget

• Takle Properties

Qpen

2esign View

Import

t.xport

Collect and Update Data via E-mall


Select Attachment data type from the drop down list and set Caption and Required for attachment. For this, you need to be in Design View.

Manage Table

Manage Table allows you to delete, rename or add description to a table.

Delete a Table

You can delete a table by using the shortcut key. For this, click on the right button and then select Delete option.

The selected table would be deleted.

Rename a table

You can rename a table with the help of the shortcut key.

Make sure that rename operation is possible even if the selected database table is closed; otherwise, the following dialog box would appear that prompts you to close the table.

Description to a table

Description can be added to a table by clicking on Table Properties.

NOTES


-Z-3r

ErrpTable

Type: Desaipbon:

Table

'Ms table keeps the records of various arryloyees.

Created: 1012009 4:51:07 PM Mocified: 10/612009 1:39:43 AM Owner: Mein

Attrbutes: DNdden Repkatie

Row Level Tratibg

Emp_Table Properties

OK Cancel ) AP*

2..,.bsert Paws 11 g

40, Deftte Paws Vif. B., Ides Test Validation Property Indores

tegky *1 loot up Colu, Sheet

Views ..,:lergrPOWArAt" Shoodbide

1 Field Name

1 EmoiD AutoNumbe

E Name Text . - DOS Date/Time

Field Ptrope

Field Size long Integer

New Values Increment

Format Caption Indexed Yes (No Diapacatesi

Smart Tags Ted Align General

Primary Key

Designate the selected held or ftelth as the primary key.

[

General Lookup

lQ

Aft T

Tabbil

a Tablet Table

Ifiesp_Table

Emp Table Table

Ernp_Table Query

live Alllattet

'fable Tools My Database : Datbbs

DegabaaikTogibk, , , Design

NOTES

Primary key: It is used for showing the relationships


After clicking on the Ok button, it provides a small edit area where the description can be added.

You can also set attributes as Hidden, Row Level Tracking or Replicate.

Primary Keys

Three types of keys—Primary key, composite key and foreign key—are available to make relationships among tables.

Primary key is tagged with a set of fields having unique value for each record that is stored in the table. The primary key is used for showing the relationships. The field is designed for primary key which is auto-numbered. For example, Emp_ID field has been taken to designate the primary key. For this, you can use the primary

key tool . The navigation pane facilitates allotting the primary key to a

field in the table. Click on the right button, where Design View is available as shortcut menu. The field Emp_11) is available in AutoNumber data type column. It is taken as auto-numbered. In Data Type under field property, New Values refer to increment values for primary key and Random refers to random value.

Home Create txtemakData

Press [Ctrl+S] to save your table design changes.


Many-to-many Relationship:

Occurs if each record in various tables might have many linked records in other tables

NOTES


EName

DOS

Designation

Salary

Address

Email _ED

Emp_TableRflation 57 Emp iD

Ac jNumber

Amount

16*Altuilli.? • Tot m)•,mtsb,09: Catgut* lAccc.1 20— M

' ';'-1141U014::4411.*4101!-'144411Ptiri NO.

• r PRPNt D., nv.,1 ..w ilOte T., @ am Acimemnel

1.10ft •

Samar Cairn content An tha aritalitu ft* brae Ituage•

•rn


and MS Project Table Relationships

Ms Access 2007 facilitates creating three types of relationships among tables. For this, at least two tables are created to maintain the relationships in which one table

keeps the foreign key for the other table. You can use the relationships tool to perform this operation. Foreign key is considered as the primary key of the other table. The values of foreign key must be matched with that of the other table. This tool basically helps you to define how data in tables is related and matched. For example, Emp_ID field is taken for both Emp_Table and Emp_Table_Relation tables.

One-to-one Relationship

One-to-one relationship occurs if one record of the table exactly corresponds with that of the other table.

One-to-many Relationship

One-to-many relationship occurs if each record in one table is linked with the other tables but it is not necessary that each record of the other tables correspond to the records of the main table to which the relationship is being created. It deals with the relationship between one-to-many tables.

Many-to-many Relationship

Many-to-many relationship occurs if each record in various tables might have many linked records in other tables.

Creating Table Relationship

Table relationship can be created between two tables by performing the following steps: First select Database Tools tab and click on Relationships button. Then select the design tab, where all other relationship tools are available. Click on Show Table button and select the tables on which you want to create a relationship. The following table appears on the screen:

Vii, Ord),Ineue• to. awe< Oat joined Mid, ftom Wing we

02: fndude reardi Fun Inp_Table and anty dose num.* flan taviablajtatabori Myra the lalwA Wets av ow*

Or Indiata ALL 'weeds frun tAPiabia-Pahem. and v*, rem& fn. tag _Tabid* Ogre tho salad tabs are awal.

Env Table ì? EmpID

E_Name

DOB Designation Salary Address

Email_ID yr 1 4asistataRamsesadsmaamaimis4

Emp _Table Reflition EmpID Ac_Number Amount ti

St Emp_ID .+.c Number

M 0 Lint

ErcTable Emp10 E_Name 006 Desigbation Salary Address Emall_10

Emp_Table : Table

2111 Emp_Table Query

Emp_Table_New

1:11 Emp_Tablel

Prins

Printer

Name: 'iCJM Afro NIP 3500 RPCS

? iX .

V Properties

Status: Ready

Type; RIC01-1 Moo MP 3500 RPCS

Where: IIP_192.168.0.102

Comment: ElPant to Fie

Print Range Copies

Ag

()Pages From:

Number of Copies: 1 7_,

1 22_ 2.12_

F-5ett47-7 L

OK Cancet

MS PowerPoint, MS Access and MS Project In Edit Relationships, you can select Emp_ID from

Emp_Table and Amount field from Emp_Table_Relation table, respectively.

Now you can add Join Types also in the relationships.

Here, the relationship that has been created shows both the fields. Since, Emp_ID fields are common and taken as primary key for both tables, relationship is possible. Click on the Create button. The following relationship between two tables will be shown on the screen:

You can also create a direct relationship by selecting different fields such as E_Name

from Emp_Table and Ac_Number field from Emp_'Pable_Relation table.

Click on the Ok button. The following relationship is created:

Print a Table Relationship

For printing a table relationship, click on Relationship Report button

a Relationship Report I.

Click on Print Tool # to get the printout of the relationship report as follows:

NOTES


5 Natasha

6 Richa

7 Gul Awasthi

8 Natasha VIJ 9 Nisha

tiLvy4 (New)!

DOB - Designation •



7/7/1968 Senior Mgr



Address •

15000 #12, Lodhe To.

18000 #11, l.ajpat Na

50000 845, Rohirsi,D.

30000 #45,Golf Link,

15000 n23,P.Ganj, D

45,

s

Table Tools My_Database • Database %scCeSS 2007) • X

view

Home Create External Data

Datas3ic Tools

A Cal.bri

on!

i All Tables

Tablet

Refresh isf Ernlajableir. Emp_Table_Re Au -

E,Is; Nusitser

I Totals

spelling

Delete - More -

Re,:ords

Datasheel

ara - Find 4

Find

',Mar Itelt •T1 0,1 istaua, Ues, New

4. Save

Ac_Number

2 1212

3 3434

4 5656

5 6888

6 7171

7 2323

8 1212

9 4252

(New)

Total

4601694W

None

Sum

Average

Count

Maximum

Minimum

Standard Deviation

Variance


Managing Data

This includes the following options: Add Records to a table, Find and Replace, Totals, Sort Records and Filter.

Add records to a Table

New records can be added to a table by placing the mouse in a new cell as follows.

All Tables

iablel

1,7 Tables Table

Emp_Taisle

• Emp_Table :Table

• Emp_Tabie Query

I Emp_Table_New

Estp_Tejsret

Total

The Hour ribbon provides you Total button which enables you to compute the sum, count, find the average, minimum, maximum or variation, standard deviation of the number field. The total value can be calculated by the following steps:

• Open a table and activate Home ribbon.

• Select Total button in Records group.

• Select the number values for which you have to calculate the total value.

• The result will be displayed in the corresponding column of the total rows.

With the help of Total tool, you can get the total value of employees' salary as fpllows:

Click on Totals, you will get the following screen:

NOTES


2 1212

3 3434

4 5656

5 6888

6 7171

7 2323

8 1212

9 4252

(New)

Total

,Ac_Number • aktgavnt,niq 23000.

26000

45000

80000

45600

83450

90000

70000

1.

44041,1,)

tablet

bap. IA*

easkrase Wit

5 tnp. taw Qaan

Natasha WV Gael

1 .Gal Aµ ant

Natasha 813

aloha

3/4/1876 Business Exec

7114966 Sernot Mgr

4/10/1978 Software Env 1/7/1973 Off tce Asstt

• 0.43.11151 • . inusa_U)

15005 112. 400, go.): nataS•14 egrn.

MOO NU, Uwe not critipphoo. 50000 +45, Rohing,0e. g awasthtfir

30003 elS.C.,01t Unk, C n.wiErfahoo.

1.5000 or23,e5an1. Del nsineheeyal,


and MS Project Click on Sum. The sum value will be displayed as Total:

Find and Replace

You can find a text with the help of Find tool 4 , or by pressing [Ctrl+F] key

combination. Type the text which is specified inside the field as follows:

11=121.11111.111.1111111 11 5dI110 • Skims.

3 +V •.

imp rabic

3 us.y.b. Tat*

toe Neu PI

reerrear:

z ,veKe 15000 112. LOON do.

14000 N112 teasel Ni 50000 a45. Rohm i..1> 30000 .45,Gen 15000 ail.. Garn. ;is

Phi red

wok lee

Medd *wow si

Sealed i AI A'

At tat/

Inejaikitabril Env_ latair.P

Elferxh Cam F215.4a, Pills A. hemmed

Click on Find Next button; it shows the found record:

to

• • And

4

iNd

Tablet

• 1+11.1 1.04

Imp Table

• fido.Tadlt . table

• Eep,tont Qven

• fed.TesieNew •—•

_ Salary • Address

5 Natasha 5/2/1972 Office Asstt 15000 all, Locals Ro.

6 MI 3/4/1976 Business Exec 18000 e11, Lajpat NI

7 GO Awasthi 7/7/1968 Senior Mgr 50000 dal, flohini,D.

8 Natasha VI) 4/10/1978 Software Engr 30000 A4S,Golf link,

9 NIsha 1/211973 Office Asstt 15000 A23,D Garth 0.

10 ()Wye

If you want to replace the employee name, type the desired text that you have to

replace with.

Click the Replace button; the change will be displayed as follows:

NOTES


twou !NOVA Werismin, alsoms.a.

:awn

Yarn Ochey0

• ‘runty IN among niwa wag *tom hat awn dowiNal j °Ohm.

Otugnation •

4/10/1978,5cftware Emig, 314/197 Business Exec

1/2//973i Cr4f Ke t

5121 Office Asstt

7,/ Santo: mer

Salary • Mick_,,.

30)00 s Gottelo*. Isom *11. lairet 14

13006 ante 443. 13006 NIX todhlaw MOOD mis •

a Natasha VIJ

6 6AC6•666K1 9 Nish.

Natasha 7 GuI Awasthi

Olvys

Sort Records

Sorting can be done on a given data in any of the following three ways: alphabetical, numerical or date order sorting. Data can be sorted in the ascending order (A to Z) using m button and in the descending order (Z to A) using III tool. You can sort Emp_ilible employees' data as per designation and as per department.


NOTES

Sables -9991191.,

6nWp • L_Narne OesAgnation

S Natasha 5/2/ 14 fon 01,4441t•Newsol

6 Akita Galati 3/4/ i4 5stt tievetit to 01011 7 6311 AwaSttil 7/7/7.9

MUM& VII 4/10/19 Date biter:

36 t of 6 ► Na #4 141.4oh4

9 Nisha 1/2/19

W Olvyl

(Neve) . ElWanks:

© 7/74968

521977

13/1973

E 3411976 6104976

Data can also be sorted from the newest to oldest. For example, DOB field is sorted from the newest to oldest.

Sort effect can be removed from Home ribbon. This ribbon facilitates Clear All Sorts W button that is found in Sort and Filter group. All applied sorts are cleared with the help of this button.

Filter

Filter option provides you the tools by which data is filtered as per conditions. Filters can be applied to multiple columns within a table. The following steps are required:

• Select the column that has to be filtered.

• Select Home ribbon.

• Or select a field that drops the list of filter operations.

• Select the option from dropdown menu. For example, here E_Name field is filtered with Text Filters -* Begins With.


4

Cd Cancel

ENarrie begins virth

OK Cancel )

TabId

31 Tablet. Table

finljabiee

3 taktirme:Theik

• Ednktoble Query

• topjololt_Ntim

• topjoblel

e_Rototido

• t/ap Jable_Peletlon Table

Oats tot tom

,A66104 Opt+ Not Ilepen .Vbe .

CoMaini

Qoec NOt ConNon

ends wen _

Doti Not End WM..

DOB • DeslAnanon

El eddds1A4 0 !Stank

El D.). El Gui awe% IN Ei taus..

tiatasn• Vo El Naha

Ox-nd „Wan

Salary • Address •

15000 412, Lodht

1.8080 411, lanoat Na

50000 445, RohIni,D.

30000 1045,Gotf link.

15000 423.6.Gani. 0

Type 'r' shows the E_Name field result of custom filter.

You will see that there is only one record for the filtered result. This option shows the filtered data for employee names starting with `r' as follows:

Tifrf

n Table! Table

heap I stake • Imp_DION Test

• Eiso_tatNe tlurry

• Emo_tabieNew

• Efoo_TOO:el

Exidt_EableRelodon Table

DOB • Designation . Salary • Address

3/4/1976 Business Exec. 18000 611, IA pat Na

;Tubed le •l Of 1 • PI • 1114/1111111,111 Stitch Akio Mt AIN* dia.77-116,16

To remove the filtered data, click on Clear All Filters tool. You can select a particular field in the drop-down list; for example, Clear filter from E_Name.


NOTES

Custom Filter

Tables Tablel n Tablet . Table

Emp_Table

▪ Emp_Table Table

5 Emu. Table Quer,

▪ Emp_Table_New

• Emp_Tablel

Emp_Table_Relatton A

Ernp_TableRelation. Table

ltaiftt0411

EmpiD DOB - Designation •

Rldia Guist(ion to 2

Son Z to

..44 CON. MN Nom Eideswiffaile

V' Text Eater, ►

❑ !Select All)

❑ letanks)

❑ Dtvya

0 Gut Awastru

0 Natasha

0 Natasha Ve

❑ Naha

0 Riche Gulatt

OK

Record: el l of t ► N

I Cancel I



The following are lists of specific filters.

Text Filters

Equals Finds every record in the table where the field's value equals the value you enter.

Does Not Equal Finds every record in the table where the field's value does not equal the value you enter.

Begins With Finds every record in the table where the field's value begins with the value you enter.

Does Not Begin With Finds every record in the table where the field's value does not begin with the value you enter.

Contains Finds every record in the table where the field's value contains the value you enter.

Does Not Contain Finds every record in the table where the field's value does not contain the value you enter.

Ends With Finds every record in the table where the field's value ends with the value you enter.

Does Not End With Finds every record in the table where the field's value does not end with the value you enter.

1 Number Filters

Equals Finds every record in the table where the field's value equals the value you enter.

Does Not Equal Finds every record in the table where the field's value does not equal the value you enter.

Less Than Finds every record in the table where the field's value is less than the value you enter.

Greater Than Finds every record in the table where the field's value is greater than the value you enter.

Between Finds every record in the table where the field's value is between the values you enter.

Date Filters

Equals Finds every record in the table where the field's value equals the date you enter.

Does Not Equal Finds every record in the table where the field's value does not equal the date you enter.

Before Finds every record in the table where the field's value is before the date you enter.

Greater Than Finds every record in the table where the field's value is greater than (comes after) the date you enter.

Between Finds every record in the table where the field's date is between the dates you enter.

All Dates in a Period Finds every record in the table where the field's date is in the period you enter.

NOTES

Note: The Toggle filter button is used to navigate the application of filter on or off.

Querying a Database

Querying a Database includes Query Wizard, Query Design and Query Criteria options. You can generate a query to filter the result. For example, you want to check the number of employees whose salary is less than 7 30000.

182 SelfInstntctional Material

13. Indent Emo_Tabe

San Otder

Emp b Ascending

ranwowi

Amory Unique The Win tot ttos inoeo Esti.. worn con ott of,

re:

*Iv! NtAl. _ _ _ to !d Wes.

Mic fosoff Office Access

You must save the table 'Emp_table* before you can create a new object based on it.

Do you want to save the table V.rry_Table' end auto a new obrct,

Yes

No

Cancel

Emp_ID - E_Name 008 Designation

5 Natasha Office Asstt

6 Bicha Business Exec 11000

6 Natasha V Software Eng, 30000

9 Nisha Office Asstt 15000

(New)

7"7771!E

1.11...111111111=1


NOTES

Click on the drop-down list and select Number Filters —) Less Than option.

Set the salary value that gives the output of the generated query as custom filter.

It is also important to generate a query where one field is auto numbered or indexed; for example, here Emp_ID is indexed. You can check in Design View, to find which field is indexed. For example, here Emp_ID is indexed.

Click on Ok button; the possible result of the query will be shown as follows:

Ati TaPies

tabk,1 TIDY! 'ante

kap..14,ke

am 110100.01e:Uak

Query Wizard

You can create a query with the help of query wizard tools . These tools

launch the Query Wizard that helps you to create a simple query, a Cross tab query and find Duplicates and Unmatched query. Click on Query Wizard tool; the following dialog box that creates a new object based on Emp_Table will be displayed.

Click on Ok button; it gives a new dialog box where you can create a new query based on table.

This prompts you to select the field you want to keep in your query. Suppose you select Salary field and click on Next button. It prompts you to take a detail or summary query.

Click on Next button that prompts you to type a suitable title for the query; for example, Emp_Tlible Query.


Env Table

I Emp_ID

ENarne

COS Debgnation Salar,

addiess

0

NE React Table Emp_Tab I e

]

Mae so a ittl 1111


Click on Finish button; it shows the salary field details as follows:

Aft Tables Tablet MI Tablel Table

taspTabk

3 Elmo-able Taw EMp _Table QueY

10000

5-0000

30000

15000

Query Design feature

Query design option enables you to add the number of tables through which you have to generate the query:

After clicking on Add button, select a field you need and click on Run button. For example, here you have selected Salary field.

The queried result will be shown as follows:

:1171.1 Relationships tot ity.Databast

18000

50000

30000

15000

crmyLl",

NOTES


Datasbeet Yew

Pm$Table V'orof

Plyelfikwl Ara

11% Sig 810v

1R-1 CC I

Expression Builder

lErr.p _I aPlejl[SaletY] > 18000

And Or Not Lite I 1.11 Paste

O Query' C:I Tables

— EtrIP_Tabiefieleti - 6111111101MI — Ej Table'

al (metes

al FMK

Cij Peports

EttlO_ID E_Name 008

Ackiress Ernai_ID Description Attachment

11111111111111111111•11

Criteria Function

<18000 and >15000 Applies to a number field, such as Salary. It includes only those records where Salary field contains a value greater than 15000 and less than 18000.

Is NULL Applies to any type of field to show records where the field value is NULL

Calculated Fields

Calculated fields option creates Expressions and Zoom. A calculated field keeps the information on other fields using query screen as addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication(*) and division(/).

• Select Design view. Click on .•.•.

A_ I Build tool. Set the query in Expression Builder

as follows:

It displays the result as follows:

Zoom

The zoom dialog box enables you to view the entire expression at a time. For this, you go to Design View and click on Zoom. Press the [Shift + F2] button to zoom the record and view as follows:


Query Criteria

The following table shows the criteria involved in query and result:

NOTES

Zoom: Enables you to view the entire expression at a time



âtasna Con& cx

Camel

41000111.1,0121,1"lerM

t.D.I.bk QUK)


NOTES

Create a Form

You can create a form from a table or query. Select Create2Form Design.

PI toot 015.4 S i3 Alt' ...1111.11•••••••

Designing Forms /

Forms provide a griphical environment where the user can easily navigate to add details of new employees of an organization. The new form lets you create a form where you can enter information aboutone record at a time.

Glick on Form tool 11E that provides you to view the records as follows:

A

Porrt s % -•11

.• • MOE

.-__]E.p.I.N.7 s.....40,eraue,w1

Emp Table

-a"T d • "9' d •• '1,erad,"

71_7j PivotChart

Blank Form Form Split Multiple

Form Item s -a MO re Forms -

Forms

Form Design

Zoom

;

Ernp_tfl:

E Hamm 'Pasha i

F. •ia • • •

1/2/1973

Table Tools

(base Tools Datasheet

Cdcwotchart

n Blank Fotm Form

Design

Modes Dialog

Pwotiable

[Form Wizard

— 7

• lableanwines

EVQ_-tbe V

0Wlahk Fielder **Ord Fields=

Eril l=1111

113

I 1 1

Wh.ch fields do you wait on vox fcrai7

rat can choose from more than one table or query.


The Split Form tool provides you two options: to view data in the form and edit or modify the records. Basically, it shows datasheet in the upper section and a form in the lower section for entering information about the selected record in the table.

Emp_Table

6 Erop_113 - , E_Morne • igialik_.,....,, Dowition • Salary

6 Richa 31411.976 Bullttess Exec. 18000

7 Gul A w asth I 7/711.968 Senior Mgr 50000

i:41

Natasha VI) 4004978 Software Engr 30000 Nisha [1/2/194___ _ *ea Asstt 15000

R.F9,* 111 4 1.4,11.. A 14 N fr7'1---f( /4 FM, : 5.11001

The inserted and modified records are ready because DOB field was not filled in the

employee's record.

Form Wizard

You can create a form via Form Wizard as follows:

Click on Form Wizard tool. The following screen appears. Now select E_Name and Salary field.

NOTES


1


NOTES

Click on Next button; you will get the various layouts of the required form.

Suppose you select Tabular layout. Click on next button which gives styles.

Click on Next button that prompts you for the -title of the form; type Emp_Table_Form.

Click on Finish button; The following form will be displayed:

;7W krnpranir Query Ti kinfiA*: 1 Fana36M1 FriapJabie7-111111111.1111.Foun

Emp_Table_Form

r

150C

'Nisha 15000

Search • Record la • 1 01 6 6 0. I 4:7 V

areaeraiwwiFaawialitAe. Nuns fork 14.44

General Reports

Reports option provides the following options: report views, create a report, Report Wizard and custom calculated fields.

Report Views

It displays four types of views as Design View, Report View, Layout View and Print Preview.

&Dart View I I

Prim Piewew

ME layout View

W. Design View

Create a Report

Reports are generated on a query or table. It shows a report form that can be generated to know the trends in business or details of employees of an organization.

All Tables t.' ifm-sotado the Tablet

Tablet Table 3; 1 ' , Swirl .-, E_Name

5 Natasha Emp I able 6 Richa

FraikToble: TOW 7 Gul AwaSthi

Emp :rabic Query 11 Natasha vii 9 Nisha

* Ili

Create a basic report of the data 11, cutlet *moat tat*, la

which's:luta* aildteatures such es groups or totals - Ado New Fie*

15000 11 Pres& Fl ha more hen. 18000

7/7/1968 Senior Mgr 50000 4/10/1978 Software Engr 30000 1/2/1973 Of fice Asstt 15000

The report tools are able to create blank reports. You can also create a report with the help of report wizard.

=I A Labels

Li Blank Report Report Report

tuk Report Wizard Design

Reports


Finds Ghdt.ne, ail Logo t

GrUthries, Controls • _

A • £ Totals -

- Pent $

v. 4si Group * Hide Details

& Sort

affirm Grouping ectOtaiS

= • t...11 autoForrnat

Aul0Fatinat

1 it

II hap_ 47111111111111111M tit • fields AIM* lot Chit

Emp.Table ErnpID Esanie DOB Designation Solar,

Tan;

Emp_Table

Emp 10

6

7 fittkts.arellilable othitr _

Tablel 8

E_Name

Natasha

Richa

Caul Awasthi

Natasha Vii

Nisha 9

de• grow ably %Ms e, the esrentleterd scarce 4

5

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and MS Project A blank report can be generated as follows where edit table feature is also available:

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In report design, you can add the company's logo also.

Report Wizard

Report wizard is used to create a report. Click on the Report Wizard tool that provides

you the following screen:

NOTES


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This option is useful to create a report. Select the following screen which shows the property pane as follows:

Custom Calculated Field

Click on Finish button; it generates the following report:

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NOTES


and MS Project Click Next button to get the layout. Select Columnar.

Select the style; for example, Concourse.


Name Detail


NOTES

You can set the property sheet as follows:

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Print a Report •

Printing a report is possible after you generate a report. Select the Report tool that shows the following screen:

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Check Your Progress

10. What is Microsoft Access?

11. What is a database?

12. What role tables have in Access database?

13. What is a database query?

14. What are forms?

15. Why are reports required in Access database?

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3.4 MS PROJECT

Microsoft Project is a project management software program developed by Microsoft designed to assist a project manager in developing a plan for projects, assigning resources to tasks, tracking progress, managing the budget and analyzing workloads. Initially the MS Project was the company's third Microsoft Windows based application and within very short span of time since its introduction it became the dominant PC-based project management software. It is available currently in two editions, Standard and Professional. Microsoft Project's proprietary file format is .mpp. Microsoft Project 2010 also features the Ribbon user interface. It is simple enough that it can be used for small projects and deep enough to manage costly projects. Microsoft Project creates critical path schedules which can be resourced leveled and connected to other project plans and project managers using Microsoft Project Server.

To open the MS project follow the steps:

Start -5 Programs -4 Microsoft Office —s Microsoft Office Project 2007.

Project Interface

Microsoft Project has a unique interface that is somewhat similar to Microsoft Office, but there is one distinction in task list and how Project uses panes on the left hand side is distinctly different. The following screenshot shows the project interface of MS project 2007.

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Click on Print Preview from View drop-down list:

Click on Print to get the printout of the report.

3.4 MS PROJECT

Microsoft Project is a project management software program developed by Microsoft designed to assist a project manager in developing a plan for projects, assigning resources to tasks, tracking progress, managing the budget and analyzing workloads. Initially the MS Project was the company's third Microsoft Windows based application and within very short span of time since its introduction it became the dominant PC-based project management software. It is available currently in two editions, Standard and Professional. Microsoft Project's proprietary file format is .mpp. Microsoft Project 2010 also features the Ribbon user interface. It is simple enough that it can be used for small projects and deep enough to manage costly projects. Microsoft Project creates critical path schedules which can be resourced leveled and connected to other project plans and project managers using Microsoft Project Server.

To open the MS project follow the steps:

Start —> Programs —> Microsoft Office -3 Microsoft Office Project 2007.

Project Interface

Microsoft Project has a unique interface that is somewhat similar to Microsoft Office, but there is one distinction in task list and how Project uses panes on the left hand side is distinctly different. The following screenshot shows the project interface of MS project 2007.

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NOTES



• To schedule a project from the finish date, click Project Finish Date in the Schedule from box, and then type or select the date that you want your project to finish in the Finish date box.

flu E. • . •••• 11

Determining Critical Tasks

In every project there are tasks that can delay a project if they are not completed on time and tasks that can be completed after their original finish time without affecting the project finish date. Tasks that can delay a project are called critical tasks and the ones that do not delay are called non-critical tasks. Critical tasks make up a special path known as the critical path. The critical path is the sequence of tasks that ends on the latest finish date, i.e., the finish date of the last task in the critical path is the project finish date. As previously mentioned in the main body of this chapter, the critical path is the longest path through the network and the path that determines the duration of the total project. When you want to shorten the schedule, the critical path has to be shortened.

Identifying the Critical Path

There are several ways to get MS Project to exhibit the critical path in red. For one you can right click anywhere in the Gantt Chart, select Gantt Chart Wizard and select Critical Path off the list of options that it gives you.

Another way is to change the view as follows:

• On the view bar, click More views.

• On the view lists, select Detail Gantt or Tracking Gantt and then click

API*

NOTES



NOTES

Finding Slack In the Schedule

Free slack is the amount of time a task can be delayed without delaying the finish date of another task.

• On the View Bar, click more Views

• In the Views list, click Detail Gantt, and then click Apply. Slack on a task appears graphically as thin slack bars adjoining the regular Gantt bars.

• Drag the divider bar to the right to view the free slack and total slack fields

To change the default slack time for critical tasks:

• On the tools menu click Options, and then click the Calculation tab.

• In the Tasks are critical if slack is less than or equal to box , enter the amount of slack time.

Shortening your Schedule

The most effective way to shorten your schedule is to adjust tasks that lie on the critical path. Adjusting non-critical tasks will not shorten the schedule. The actions you can take to shorten your schedule fall into two categories.

• Shorten task duration: This can be done by decreasing the duration directly, by decreasing total work, assigning more resources to a task, by assigning overtime work and by increasing a resource's work schedule.

• Compress the schedule by making the tasks start sooner: This can be done by combining or deleting tasks, breaking down a task into non-critical subtasks, by adding lead time to a task, changing the task dependency, type of task etc.

Creating PERT Chart

The Network Diagram is a view in Project that allows users to show the dependencies between project tasks that are represented in nodes or boxes. The Network Chart is referred as the PERT Chart in earlier version of Microsoft Project.

• Open the Microsoft Project 2007 and then click on the Microsoft Office option. Click on the Open option.


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• Locate the Project file you want to work with and then click on the Open button. Allow for your project to load to the application.

• Click on the View menu from the top toolbar and then click on the Network Diagram option. The Network Diagram view will appear and your tasks will be

compared.

• Click on the Format menu and then click on the Layout option. Choose the way you want your boxes arranged in this view from the Arrangement list.

• Click on the Fixed option in the Height and Width boxes to space your boxes evenly. Make any other changes to the Network Diagram to your preferences.

3.5 SUMMARY


• PowerPoint Presentations in Office 2007 are a way of attracting audience

towards views and arguments.

• The Microsoft Office Button performs all the functions of the 'File' menu of the older versions of PowerPoint which helps you to create a new presentation, open an existing presentation, save a presentation, save a presentation with a new name using the 'Save As' option, print a presentation, send a presentation

and close a presentation.

• Task pane is a Window within an Office program that provides commonly used commands. Its location and small size allow you to use these commands while still working on your files.

• The options that are available for creating Organizational Chart are Process, Cycle, Hierarchy, Relationship, Matrix and Pyramids.

• The background is the area that covers the whole slide. It is referred to as background because it stays in the back and it is positioned behind anything else in the PowerPoint slide.


and MS Project

NOTES


appropriate words.

(a) The Undo and Redo Buttons are located at the of the interface.

h ) The enables the presentation to be viewed in different ways, such as Normal view, Notes Page view, Handout Master view, Slide Sorter view, Slide show view and Notes Master view, show/hide grid lines, rulers and tools, zoom in and zoom out facility and also includes Color, Grayscale view and Pure Black and White.

(c) shows all the text of all slides in a list. No graphics are shown in Outline view.

(d) are used to simplify data entry work or to display information in a specific manner.

17. State whether the following statements are true or false.

(a) A well-designed database ensures convenient and fast access to the infor-mation that you want.

(b) Relationship is created by linking the three tables, the Employees table with the Salary table, Address table.

(c) A Query is a filter through which data is evaluated. You can define filter criteria in • query and only those records that meet the! criteria are displayed.

(d) Reports are used to present data in a meaningful and attractive manner ar here you can combi data, charts, images even audio and vid

Self-Instructional Materi


• Applying a new theme changes the major details of your presentation. Word Art effects are applied to titles in Office PowerPoint 2007. Tables, charts, SmartArt graphics, shapes, and other objects are updated to complement one another.

• The transition effects are applied to the PowerPoint slide by clicking on the thumbnail of the slide.

• Automation of slide presentations with timings, hyperlinks, voice narration and user input leads the concept of self running presentation.

• The Animation option contains preview, custom animation and various transition settings that can be applied either to all or the specified slides in a presentation.

• The slide master is one of several master slides that are used in PowerPoint to make global changes to all your slides at one time.

• The Rehearse Timing option provides the option to make the presentation within a certain time frame.

• Microsoft Access is a relational database management system and is used to maintain a lot of information about any topic which can be accessed easily.

• It helps to create multiple tables, all linked to each other through a common field, each table containing a specific type of information.

• A systematic organization of data is called a database.

• A record is all the infonnation about one item whereas a field is a category of information.

• A Table is a fundamental building block of an Access database.

• Tables are grids of rows and columns.

• A Query is a filter through which data is evaluated..

• Forms are used to simplify data entry work or to display information in a specific manner. It helps to add, modify and delete database data. In Access six different types of forms can be created.

• A Report summarizes data in a format suitable for publishing, i.e., to view data on the screen or to print it on a printer or to publish it on the web.

• Reports are used to present data in a meaningful and attractive manner and for combining data, charts, images, and also audio and video.

NOTES

3.6 ANSWERS TO `CHECK YOUR PROGRESS'

I. The prime utility of PowerPoint presentations in modern days are learning, corporate training sessions, business and marketing meetings and sales gatherings.

2. The main feature that separates PowerPoint 2007 from PowerPoint 2003 is that in PowerPoint 2007 file is saved with a .ppt and .pptx extension.

3. Bulleted and numbered lists are useful for the purpose ofhighlighting the important elements or key features of the specified heading.

4. Layering of objects is controlling the appearance and order of objects on a slide.

sefIns tractional Material

5. The theme is saved with a .thmx file extension.

6. Normal View in Microsoft PowerPoint is the main working Window in the presentation.

7. The animation option contains preview, custom animation.

8. The slide master is one of several master slides that are used in PowerPoint to make global changes to all your slides at one time.

9. The Rehearse Timing option provides you the option to make the presentation within a certain time frame.

10. Microsoft Access is a relational database management system and is used to maintain a lot of information about any topic which can be accessed easily. It helps to create multiple tables, all linked to each other through a common field, each table containing a specific type of information.

11. A systematic organization of data is called a database. Traditionally, fields and records are used to organize databases. A record is all the information about one item whereas a field is a category of information.

12. ATable is a fundamental building block of an Access database. Tables are grids of rows and columns. Each column in a table is called a field. Each field contains a specific type of information such as .first name, last name, phone number, e-mail, date of joining and so on. Each row of many columns (fields) contains information about one specific item, person or transaction.

13. A Query is a filter through which data is evaluated. Filter criteria can be defined in a query and only those records which meet these criteria are displayed.

14. Forms are used to simplify data entry work or to display information in a specific manner. It helps to add, modify and delete database data. In Access six different types of forms can be created.

15. A Report summarizes data in a format suitable for publishing, i.e., to view data on the screen or to print it on a printer or to publish it on the web. Reports are used to present data in a meaningful and attractive manner and for combining data, charts, images, and also audio and video. There are six ways to create reports in Access.

16. (a) Top most left side; (b) View option; (c) Outline view; (d) Forms

17. (a) True; (b) False; (c) True; (d) True


NOTES



1. What are PowerPoint presentations?

2. What is Ribbon in PowerPoint 2007?

3. How to format the footer?

4. Write one use of picture tab.

5. Why transition effects are used?

6. What do you understand by slide view?



NOTES

7. How can you preview animations?

8. Name the file extension name in which a presentation is saved.

9. Compare the features of Microsoft Access 2007 with that of earlier versions.

10. What is Ribbon? Which functions can be accessed using Ribbon?

11. What are the various View options? Explain each with the help of screenshots.

12. Write the steps to create a database in different views.

13. When is rich text memo field used?


1. Describe the utility of PowerPoint presentation with the help of suitable examples.

2. Explain the steps to insert text, graphics, clip art, table, chart, organizational chart and photo album.

3. Describe the concept of formatting the AutoLayout area.

4. Discuss all types of views of slide presentation.

5. Explain the concept and option used in automation of slide presentation.

6. Discuss and write all the steps required in adding animated pictures in slides.

7. Briefly explain how to insert date, time, slide numbers and common objects into the slides.

8. Discuss and write all the steps required to add sound effects in slides.

9. Discuss the features of Home and Create options.

10. Explain the types of options available in Database Tools.

11. Explain the various database terms with the help of examples.

12. Explain the types of options available in `Datasheet View' and 'Design View'.


The Internet and E-Commerce

NOTES

UNIT 4 THE INTERNET AND E- COMMERCE

Structure

4.0 Introduction 4.1 Unit Objectives 4.2 The Internet: An Introduction

4.2.1 Internet Protocols 4.2.2 IP Address

4.3 Searching 4.4 E-Mailing 4.5 Wi-Fi Environment in Modern Offices 4.6 Electronic Advertising 4.7 Basic Models of E-Business 4.8 Mobile Commerce 4.9 Summary

4.10 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 4.11 Questions and Exercises

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about the basic features of the Internet and E-commerce. The Internet is a 'network of networks'. It can be visualized as a number of interconnected computers located at physically disparate locations around the world. It is considered as a global network of computers. It comprises of tens and thousands of computer networks linked to each other that help communicate and share information with people within your office and outside through e-mail, phone support, fax, etc.

You will also learn about the significance of E-advertisement. E-advertising is a form of advertising that uses the Internet and World Wide Web in order to deliver marketing messages and attract customers.

You will also learn about the significance of E-commerce and its basic models has also been discussed. Electronic commerce (e-commerce) or business is a type of industry for buying and selling the product/services with theuse of the Internet. The transaction of business is done between one organization and another; between individuals; between government and businesses, and so on.

Finally, you will learn about the mobile commerce. Mobile commerce (m-commerce) facilitates the use of smart phones, personal digital assistants and other mobile devices to conduct business transactions. The wider connection, a business can make to their target markets, the higher possible sales they can have.

4.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES


• Describe the significance.of Internet and its various features

• Understand the importance of the Internet


NOTES

Internet: A 'network of networks' that links computer systems around the world

The Internet and E-Commerce • Explain how to get connected to the Internet

• Explain the significance of World Wide Web

• Understand the meaning and function of a Website

• Explain how to manage an Internet e-mail account

• Perform an Internet search

• Learn about Wi-Fi environment in modern office

• Explain about different models of e-business

• Learn about the basics of mobile commerce

4.2 THE INTERNET: AN INTRODUCTION

The Internet is a 'network of networks' that links computer systems around the world. It allows communication across networks, i.e., communicate can take place between one network and another. This allows people to have access to information from different Websites, locations and machines. It virtually makes accessible a sea of information and a nearly worldwide audience at the click of a button.

It was the Sputnik's launch and the subsequent cold war, space race and the development of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) in 1950 that led to the establishment of the Internet. However, it actually gained momentum in the 1980s when ARPANET was used by the National Science Foundation to connect the five supercomputers at its regional centres. Thus, emerged a high-speed Internet service that enabled access to many universities, networks, bulletin board systems, commercial online services and institutions. The decade closed with the coming into being of the World Wide Web, which proclaimed the emergence of an independent platform of communication that was further augmented by a relatively easy-to-use and pleasant graphical interface.

Important Features

Some of the facilities that are available on the Internet are:

• World Wide Web: The Internet application that is currently drawing maximum attention is the World Wide Web. It has dramatically influenced the online world and continues to grow in popularity.

• Direct Communication: Through e-mail (electronic mail), messages can be sent to or received from any part of the world within a few minutes.

• Round-the-Clock Availability: Information on the Internet is available to users 24 hours a day.

• Central Repository of Data: The Internet is like a huge central warehouse of data that people from all over the world can access.

• Search Engines: These are like directories which help get any kind of information from the world over within a few seconds.

• Advertisement: A company can advertise its products / services through the Internet.


Modem Internet Backbone-

Modem 4

User's ('omputer

The Internet and E-Commerce • E-Commerce: The Internet is increasingly being used for conducting monetary

transactions. Through the Internet, you can shop and pay through your credit card or ask your bank to transfer your money to a different account, without even leaving your desk.

• Distance Learning: Several online distance learning courses are now being offered by Indian and foreign universities on the Internet.

• BBS and New Services: The Internet is perhaps the cheapest medium for online help. BBS services are available on the Internet through which you can ask questions and get immediate troubleshooting assistance.

• Wide Area Networks: Using the Internet, organizations can collect and compile information from offices spread over large geographical areas.

• Shareware Software: The Internet is also a great medium for downloading free software. You can get a truckload of free games, utilities and trial versions of software through the Net.

Types of Connections and Internet Protocols

You can use two options for connecting to the Internet.

Direct Connection

Through a direct connection, a machine is directly connected to the Internet backbone and acts as a gateway. Though a direct connection provides complete access to all Internet services, it is very expensive to implement and maintain. Direct connections are suitable only for very large organizations or companies.

Through Internet Service Provider (ISP)

You can also connect to the Internet through the gateways provided by ISPs. The range of Internet services varies depending on the ISPs. Therefore, you should use the Internet services of the ISP that is best suitable for your requirements. You can connect to your ISP using two methods:

Remote Dial-Up Connection

A dial-up connection (see Figure 4.1) enables you to connect to your ISP using a modem. A modem converts the computer bits or digital signals to modulated or analog signals that the phone lines can transmit and vice versa. Dial-up connection uses either SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or PPP (Point to Point Protocol) for transferring information over the Internet.

NOTES

Fig. 4.1 Dial-Up Connection Self Instructional Material 203

Network protocol: It defines a language that contains the rules and conventions that are necessary for reliable communication between different devices over a network

TCP: It forms the higher . layer of TCP/IP and divides a file or message into smaller packets, which are then transmitted over the Internet.

NOTES


The Internet and E-Commerce For dial-up connections, regular telephone lines are used. Therefore, the quality of the connection may not always be very good.

Permanent Dedicated Connection

You can also have a dedicated Internet connection that typically connects you to ISP through a dedicated phone line. Adedicated Internet connection is a permanent telephone connection between two points. Computer networks that are physically separated are often connected using leased or dedicated lines. These lines are preferred because they are always open for communication traffic unlike the regular telephone lines that require a dialling sequence to be activated. Often, this line is an ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) line that allows transmission of data, voice, video and graphics at very high speed. ISDN applications have revolutionized the way businesses communicate. ISDN lines support upward scalability, which means that you can transparently add more lines to get faster speeds, going up to 1.28 Mbps (Million bits per second).

Tl and T3 are the two other types of commonly used dedicated line types for Internet connections. Dedicated lines are becoming popular because of their faster data transfer rates. Dedicated lines are cost-effective for businesses that use Internet services extensively.

4.2.1 Internet Protocols

Internet protocols enable the transfer of data over networks and/or the Internet in an efficient manner. When various computers are connected through a computer network, it becomes necessary to use a protocol to efficiently use network bandwidth and avoid collisions.

A network protocol defines a language that contains the rules and conventions that are necessary for reliable communication between different devices over a network. For example, it includes rules that specify how to package data into messages, how to acknowledge messages and how to compress data.

There are a number of Internet protocols used. The most commonly used protocols are:

— Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

— HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

— File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

— Telnet.

(a) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

TCP/IP is a protocol suite that is used to transfer data over the Internet. The two main protocols in this protocol suite are:

TCP: It forms the higher layer of TCP/IP and divides a file or message into smaller packets, which are then transmitted over the Internet. following this, a TCP layer receives these packets on the other side and reassembles them into the original message.

When two computers seek a reliable communication between each other, they establish a connection. This is analogous to making a telephone call. If you want to

The Internet and E-Commerce speak to your uncle in New York, a connection is established when you dial his phone number and he answers. The TCP guarantees that data sent from one end of the connection actually reaches the other end in the same order it was sent. Otherwise, an

error is reported.

IP: It forms the lower layer of the protocol suite. The address part of all the packets are handled by it in such a manner that they reach the desirable destination. Usually, this address is checked by each gateway computer on the network to identify where the message is to be forwarded. This implies that all the packets of a message are delivered to the destination regardless of the route used for delivering the packets.

It is the basic protocol of the Internet. The task of the IP is to send a packet (in a network, information is transmitted in the form of 'packets') from Computer A to Computer B. The IP does not verify that the packet really reaches its destination, nor

is it the task of the IP to make sure it reached error-free, and in the correct order.

The working of TCP/IP can be compared to shifting your residence to a new location. It involves packing your belongings in smaller boxes for easy transportation, with the new address and a number written on each of them. You then load them on multiple vehicles. These vehicles may take different routes to reach the same destination. The delivery time of vehicles depends on the amount of traffic and the length of the route. Once the boxes are delivered to the destination, you check them to make sure that all of them have been delivered in good shape. After that, you unpack the boxes and reassemble your house.

(b) HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is a protocol that transfers files (image, text, video, sound and other multimedia files) using the Internet. It runs on top of the TCP/IP protocol suite and is an application protocol that forms the foundation protocol of the Internet. It assists in defining how messages are transmitted and formatted, and specifies the actions that Web browsers and Web servers must engage in while responding to the issued commands. HTTP is based on a client-server architecture where the Web browser acts as an HTTP client making requests to the Web server machines. In addition to Web pages, a server machine contains an HTTP daemon that handles the Web page requests. Typically, when a user clicks on a hypertext link or types a URL (Uniform Resource Locator), an HTTP request is built by the browser and sent to the IP address specified in the URL. This request is then received by the HTTP daemon on the destination server, which, in response, sends back the Web page that is requested.

HTTP is a stateless protocol, which means each request is processed independently without any knowledge of the previous request. This is why server side programming languages such as JSP, PHP and ASP .NET have gained popularity.

(c) File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is an application protocol that allows files to be exchanged between computers through the Internet .It is the simplest protocol for downloading /uploading a file from/ to a server, and is therefore also the most commonly used one. For example, downloading a document or an article from a Website. Like other protocols, FTP also uses the TCP/IP protocol suite for data transfer (see Figure 4.2).

NOTES


IP Address: A unique number associated with each computer, making it uniquely identifiable within all the computers connected to the Internet.

NOTES



1=1 FTP Client

FTP Server

Fig. 4.2 FTP Connection

1-1? also works on a client-server architecture where an FTP client program is used to make a request to an FTP server (files can be stored on computers referred to as FTP servers). Basic FTP support is usually offered along with the TCP/IP suite of programs. FTP can be used with a simple command line interface such as MS-DOS prompt or with a commercial program that comes with a graphical user interface. Using Fl}, you can update files on a server. FTP requests for downloading programs or documents can also be made through a Web browser. Typically, a login to an F1P server is needed for this purpose. However, anonymous FTP can be used to access files that are publicly available.

(d) Telnet

Telnet is a protocol that allows you to access a remote computer provided you have been given the permission to do so. It is typically referred to as 'remote login'. Telnet is based on a different concept from HTTP and FTP. HTTP and FTP enable requests for specific files to be made only from remote computers; with Telnet on the other hand, you can log in as a regular user on a remote machine with the privileges that may have been granted to you on that computer with regard to accessing specific data and applications. A request for a connection to a remote host, which may be a computer lying physically in a neighbouring room or miles away, results in an invitation to log on with a user id and a password. If the request is accepted, the user can enter commands through the Telnet program and these would be executed as if they were being entered directly from the host machine. Once connected, the user's computer emulates the remote computer. Telnet is typically used by program developers or by those who need to access data and/or applications located at a particular host computer.

4.2.2 IP Address

Since the Internet consists of a large number of computers connected to each other, it requires a proper addressing system to uniquely identify each computer on the network. Each computer connected to the Internet is associated with a unique number and/or a name called the computer address. Before you can access any Web page on a computer, you require the computer address.

IP Address An IP address is a unique number associated with each computer, making it uniquely identifiable within all the computers connected to the Internet. This is a 32 bit number and is divided into four octets such as 00001010 00000000 00000000 00000110. For human readability, it is represented in a decimal notation, separating each octet with a period. The above number would therefore be represented as: 10.0.0.6.

Each octet can range from 0 — 255, thus all IP addresses lie between 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 resulting in a total of 4294, 967,296 possible IP addresses. It may be worth noting that no two machines (or hosts) can have the same IP address.

The Internet and E-Commerce Domain Naming System (DNS): In a network, computers and devices can be grouped as a unit with common rules and procedures. Such a group is called a Domain. Each domain name therefore corresponds to a group of IP addresses. Some examples of domain names include Yahoo.com, Microsoft.com and abcuniv.edu. The last portion of the domain name provides information on the kind of organization to which the address belongs.

Some commonly used abbreviations in domain names are given in the Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Commonly used Abbreviations in Domain Names

Commercial organizations corn

org Non-profit organizations

edu Educational institutions

net Networking organizations

gov Government agencies

mil Military

A Domain Naming System (or DNS) is an Internet service that translates domain names to or from IP addresses, which is the actual basis of addressing on the Internet. A DNS is typically a database containing information about domain names and their corresponding IP addresses.

Common Terminology

World Wide Web (WWW)

Commonly known as `WWW', 'Web' or W3', it consists of a number of distributed servers that are connected through hypermedia documents. These documents are created using HyperText Markup Language (HTML). Related text organized into units can be accessed by using a link called hyperlink. These links (or hyperlinks) allow the user to navigate from one document to another without having to worry about the actual physical location of the documents. WWW makes it possible to share information between disparate users, computers and operating systems. It is therefore the fastest growing application of the Internet.

Website

The Web can be understood as a collection of thousands of information locations connected to each other. Each such location is called a Website and comprises of multiple Web pages. A Web page is created using HTML and is like any other computer document. It consists of text, pictures, sound, video and hyperlinks. You can navigate from one Web page to another using hyperlinks. A Website can be created by an individual or a company. Websites are hosted on the Web servers accessible on the Internet. A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) defines the address of a Website and is used to point to the homepage of the Website. A homepage is the first page that is displayed when you access a Website. It serves as a reference point and contains links to additional HTML pages or links to other Websites. The screenshot displays the homepage of the Website britannica.com that is displayed on typing the URL UV:// www.britannica.com'.

NOTES


Web browser: It is a computer application that creates requests for HTML pages or Web pages and displays the processed HTML page


NOTES hyperlink

1

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

A URL defines the address of a site on the Internet. It defines the global addresses of documents and other resources on WWW.

Typically, the first part of a URL indicates the protocol to be used, while the second part specifies the domain name or IP address where the resource is located. Some examples of URLs are shown below:

URL

http://mysite.com/index.html

ftp://www.sharware/myzip.exe

Description

Fetch a Web page (index.html) using the HTTP Protocol

Fetch an executable file (myzip.exe) using FTP Protocol


HyperText Markup Language (HTML)

HTML is the language for publishing hypertext or HTML pages on WWW. It is in a non-proprietary format. You can use a large number of tools for creating HTML pages, ranging from simple editors to sophisticated authoring tools that work on the WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) principle. HTML provided various tags to structure text in a HTML page. For example, you can use <p></p>, and <a></a> tags to structure text into paragraphs, lists and hypertext links.

Internet Browsing

Web Browser

A Web browser, commonly known as a browser, is a computer application that creates requests for HTML pages or Web pages and displays the processed HTML page. Web browsers use HTTP (HyperText Transfer protocol) to request for information from Web servers. The two most commonly used Web browsers are:

— Netscape Navigator.

— Microsoft Internet Explorer.

Other examples of Web browsers include Mosaic, Cello, and Lynx.

Having knowledge of the basic features of browsers can be helpful in using them easily.

Net Surfing: It is referred as Internet browsing or exploring a network on the World Wide Web associated with visiting different Websites on the Internet.

Searching is one of the most common uses of the Internet. You can search for any topic or information on the Internet. This is possible by using Websites that provide a search engine.

The Internet and E-Commerce Toolbar of the Internet Explorer

NOTES The toolbar consists of various icons that can be used to execute functions. In fact, most of the options available through the menu bar are also available through the icons in the toolbar. Some commonly used icons are:

Back: The back button allows you to navigate to the Web page you viewed

last.

Forward: The forward button on the toolbar navigates to the next Web page that was accessed previously. To view a list of the last few Web pages visited, you can click the down arrow button beside the Back and Forward buttons.

Stop: The stop button can be used to terminate the current Web page request. This is usually used when you type the wrong URL by mistake and want to stop the request for the Web page or if the Web page takes too long to download.

Refresh: The Refresh or the Reload button is used to load the current Web

page again.

In other words, it refreshes the contents of the current page by fetching a new copy of it.

Search: The Search button allows you to find information on the Web. You can find information by clicking on the Search button on the toolbar. This activates the search text box as shown. You can then type in a word or phrase and click the 'search' button to start the search.

Favorites: The Favorites button is used to record the addresses of frequently visited Websites. Once a Website or a Web page is added to the favorites list, it can be revisited by simply clicking on the link in the list. This saves the effort of typing the URL each time the user wishes to visit the same site.

History: The History button is used to view the list of all the Web pages visited in the last few days, hours or minutes. To revisit any one of them, simply click on the address.

Print: The Print button is used to print contents of the current Web page.

Net Surfing Net surfing, Internet browsing or exploring a network on the World Wide Web is associated with visiting different Websites on the Internet. It is typically finding places of interest at the click of a mouse. It is analogous to surfing TV channels with a remote control

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A search engine is a software system that enables users to search for information on the Web using keywords. It is designed to help Internet users locate Internet resources such as Web pages, documents, programs and images using a keyword search mechanism. Search engines typically use databases that contain references to a host of resources. They Users interact with a search engine using an interface. There are many search engines available with different appearances and search mechanisms. Some commonly used search engines are: Google, Yahoo, MSN, Altavista, AOL, Ask Jeeves, Lycos, Excite and HotBot.

Google (htto://www.eomle.com) Yahoo (http://www.vahoo.com)

Information is collected programs; called 'spiders' or `robots'; following which, the search engine index them. Similar services are provided by 'directories', which maintain ordered lists of Websites.

It is a program which acts as a card catalogue for the Internet. Search engines attempt to index and locate desired information by searching for keywords which a user specifies. The method for finding this information is usually done by maintaining indices of Web resources that can be queried for the keywords entered by the user.

How Search Engines Work?

Search engines are the key to finding specific information on the vast expanse of the World Wide Web. Without sophisticated search engines, it would be virtually impossible to locate anything on the Web without knowing a specific URL. But do you know how search engines work? And do you know what makes some search engines more effective than others?

When people use the term search engine in relation to the Web, they are usually referring to the actual search forms that search through databases of HTML documents, initially gathered by a robot.

There are basically three types of search engines: those powered by robots (called crawlers, ants or spiders); those powered by human submissions; and those that are a hybrid of the two.

Crawler-based search engines are those that use automated software agents (called crawlers) that visit a Website, read the information on the actual site, read the site's meta tags and also follow the links that the site connects to performing indexing on all linked Websites. The crawler then returns the information back to a central depository where the data is indexed. It also periodically returns to the sites to check

NOTES



NOTES

for any updation or change in information. The frequency with which this happens is determined by the administrators of the search engine.

Human-powered search engines rely on humans to submit information that is subsequently indexed and catalogued. Only information that is submitted is put into the index.

Useful Tips for Searching

— Select a search engine, directory or library in accordance with the kind of search you are doing and the kind of results you are seeking.

— Consider: Are you looking for a Website? Are you seeking information that might be contained within Usenet? Are you interested in academic articles that may only be retrievable with gopher?

— Determine your aims: Do you want a specific hard-to-find document on an esoteric subject, or general information on a broader topic? Do you need to search the entire Web, or is what you are seeking likely to be found on a number of sites, or only the most popular sites?

— In making your choice, determine whether the information you are looking for is likely to be in a page's title or first paragraph, or buried deeper within the document or site.

— Use a search engine's advanced features, if available, and read the help files in case the searching procedure needs to be understood more specifically.

— Type in the words such as Singapore in the seartii box to get the result pages

— You could also use multiple search terms that will produce more appropriate results. For example, if you are planning a vacation in Singapore, you may need to type both the terms in the search box, as shown:

"Vacation Singapore"

This will result in pages containing both the terms and will therefore be more specific to your search. You should therefore, choose your search terms carefully.

— To restrict a search further, include more terms in your search criteria.

— You could also search using phrases when you need the results to contain the exact phrases. If this is desired, include the search phrase in quotation marks as shown:

"Five star hotels in Singapore"

— Searches are usually not case sensitive.

Boolean Searching

The advanced search ofAltaVista differs from the basic search page primarily because it allows you to make Boolean searches. In the regular search form, which is on top of the advanced page, you must be sure to use a + (plus) before search terms which must appear and a— (minus) before terms which must NOT appear, and to put quotation marks around works which must appear together. If you choose to use the Boolean search option, you will instead type AND, OR, NOT (or AND NOT) and NEAR (for words which must occur within ten words of each other, or a parentheses for those which must occur together). Self-Instructional Material 211

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You will also want to list your most important keyword or keywords in the relevance ranking field within AltaVista's advanced form, in order to make sure that the results are listed in the order that is most relevant to you.

Popular Search Engines www.google.com www.yahoosearch.com www.altavista.com www.hotbot.com www.Webcrawler.com www.savvysearch.com www.metacrawler.com www.infoseek.com

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NOTES

E-mail: Short for electronic mail, enables you to send your correspondence instantaneously anywhere in the world via the Internet.

NOTES

The Internet and E-Commerce Meta Search Engines

Since different search engines use different search algorithms, you may often get different results for the same search criterion when using different search engines. The user must therefore know which search engine is best suited for his/her specific query. Meta-search engines make the search task easier by providing a central location to type the keyword or phrase and then obtaining results from multiple search engines. They enable the user to use different search engines simultaneously for searching without having to worry about which search engine to use for a specific query. Meta search engines do not have any databases to search from, and only provide services to route a single query to multiple search engines.

Examples of meta search engines include MetaCrawler, Mamma, DogPile and One Search.

4.4 E-MAILING

E-mail, short for electronic mail, enables you to send your correspondence instantaneously anywhere in the world via the Internet. E-mail has made the world a `smaller place'.

The popularity of e-mailing is because of its capability to send and receive messages anytime, anywhere without any cost. An e-mail allows you to send and receive a variety of file types such as text, image, video, sound and graphics to a single recipient or multiple recipients using broadcasting. To use the e-mail feature, you just need to create an e-mail account for yourself using a Website that offers such services. Various sites provide the e-mail facility. Some of them such as Yahoo.com, Rediff.com, hotmail.com and lycos.com provide it free of cost while others charge for it.

Since by now you would be quite keen to use the e-mail facility, let us run through creating and using an e-mail account on Yahoo.com.

Creating a User ID

Type the URL `http://www.yahoo.com' in the address bar of a Web browser, such as Internet Explorer to visit the Yahoo homepage:


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The page that is now displayed is the 'Sign In' page. If you are an existing user, you need to type in your user id and password to log on to your account. If you are a first time user, you need to first create an account for yourself

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Checking Your E-Mail

You can access your e-mail anytime by logging on to your mail. To do so, carry out the following steps

— Type the URL `http://vvww.yahoo.com' in the address bar of a Web browser. — Enter your user Id and password.


NOTES

User Id and Password

Sign In

Once you have signed in successfully, you can access your e-mail account. You can access your Ìnbox' to view any incoming mail, or write a new mail through the Compose Mail option.

Clicking the Inbox button displays all the received messages or mails.

Clicking the e-mail subject displays the contents of the e-mail that can be read to take necessary action.

An e-mail password is used for security reasons. A password is the personal code of a user and should not be disclosed to anyone. Hence, never give your password to anyone and do not write it down where someone else may find it. You can change your password in the following manner:

Click on Options on the top menu bar. Click on Password under Your Information. The Change Mail Password window should appear:


The Internet and E-Commerce F, d

Change your login password Please make It at least 6 tharatters long and Include at least one non-alphanumeric character

Enter your old password

Enter your new password

Re-enter your new password

In the Old Password box, type in your current password.

In both the New Password and Re-enter New Password boxes, enter what you want your new password to be.

Click on the Save Options button.

A password should be at least eight characters in length.

This will only change your e-mail account password, not the password you use to log on to the computer.

Composing and Sending E-Mails

The Compose option on the left corner of your screen allows you to write an e-mail message. You can also attach documents to your mail. When you select the Compose option, the following screen appears:

You can use the following option while composing or writing an e-mail message.

— To: Specifies the e-mail address of a recipient, such as recipient @domain.com and [email protected]. This should be a valid email id for the delivery of your message. You can specify multiple recipients' addresses separated by commas.

— Cc: Specifies the address of the recipient to whom you want to send the carbon copy (cc) of your message. You can specify multiple recipients' addresses separated by commas.

— Subject: Refers to the subject of the e-mail message. It provides a fair idea to the recipient about what the mail contains.

— Message Box: Provides a text area for composing e-mail content.

E-Mailing with Google

• Open the Web browser and type in the name of the e-mail site on which you would like to create an account. For example, gmail.com.

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Sending and Receiving E-Mails

C, Click on Compose Mail to create a new message.


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Receiving E-Mails

You can check the received mails by clicking on the Inbox tab.

Some Popular Websites

Given below are names of some popular free e-mail Websites:

1. www.gmaiLcom

2. www.mail.yahoo.com

3. www.hotmaiLcom • 4. www.rediffmail.com

5. www.indiatimes.com

E-Mail Etiquette

E-mail Etiquette in technology is the conduct that is socially acceptable in an online or digital situation. A company needs to implement etiquette rules for the following three

reasons:

• Professionalism: By using proper email language your company will convey a

professional image.

• Efficiency: E-mails that get to the point are much more effective than poorly

worded emails.

• Protection from liability: Employee awareness of email risks will protect your

company from costly law suits.

There are many etiquette rules. Some of these rules will differ according to the nature of your business and the corporate culture. This not only applies to a corporate business but also to an individual. Let us some most important email etiquette rules:

1. Be concise and to the point.

2. Use proper spelling, grammar and punctuation.

3. Answer all questions, and ask further questions (if applicable).

4. Make it personal.

5. Do not attach unnecessary files.

6. Use proper structure & layout. Self-Instructional Material 221

The Internet and E-Commerce 7. Do not write in CAPITALS. 8. Do not leave out the message thread. 9. Add disclaimers to your emails.

10. Do not use 'Reply to All' (if not required). 11. Take care with abbreviations and emoticons. 12. Do not forward chain letters. 13. Do not request delivery and read receipts. 14. Use a meaningful subject. 15. Avoid long sentences. 16. Do not send or forward emails containing libelous, defamatory, offensive, racist

or obscene remarks. 17. Do not forward virus hoaxes and chain letters. 18. Keep your language gender neutral.

NetMeeting

Microsoft NetMeeting was a VoIP and multi-point videoconferencing client included in many versions of Microsoft Windows (from Windows 95 OSR2 to Windows XP). It used the H.323 protocol for video and audio conferencing, and was interoperable with OpenH323-based clients such as Ekiga, and Internet Locator Service (ILS) as reflector. It also used a slightly modified version of the ITU T120 Protocol for white boarding, application sharing, desktop sharing, remote desktop sharing (RDS) and file transfers. The secondary Whiteboard in NetMeeting 2.1 and later utilized the H.324 protocol.

4.5 WI-FI ENVIRONMENT IN MODERN OFFICES

Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high speed Internet and network connections. A common misconception is that the term Wi-Fi is short for 'wireless fidelity', however this is not the case. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked term that refers IEEE 802.11x. The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi (registered trademark) term specifically defines Wi-Fi as, 'Any Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards'.

Wi-Fi works between sender and receiver by using Radio Frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. Hence, there is no physical wired connection. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate through space. The cornerstone of any wireless network is an Access Point (AP). The primary job of an access point is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and 'tune' into. In order to connect to an access point and join a wireless network, computers and devices must be equipped with wireless network adapters.

Wi-Fi, thus eliminates many of the cables that connect computers to various other devices, such as printer/copiers. It makes possible to connect to the Internet from any location and from a laptop, notebook or PC and can be useful in offices where staff have to do a certain amount of travelling either between different company offices or visiting clients in/out of the office/city. They might have to update company

NOTES


NOTES

Check Your Progress

1. Define Internet.

2. What do you mean by HTTP?

3. What is an IP address?

4. What is a Website?

5. What makes e-mail so popu lar?

6. What do you mean by email etiquette?

7. How can you define e-advertising?

8. How CPM works in advertising?

9. How e-Commerce functions?

10. What is a portal?

11. Who is an e-tailer?

12. Who are content providers?

13. Who is a transaction broker?

14. Differentiate between credit cards and debit cards.

15. What is mobile commerce?


The Internet and E-Commerce records and print documents. If the staff carries a laptop or notebook, it saves reconfiguring the equipment to access the Internet at each location. Many printer/ copiers are now equipped with latest technologies and are capable of using wireless technology so that they can be connected quickly with the office network. Therefore, using a notebook or laptop in combination with a Wi-Fi enabled multi-function printer/ copier can provide flexible and arguably more efficient working.

The decision on whether to install a multi-function printer or have separate devices for printing, fax, document scanning and photocopying depends on a company's activities, i.e., how often the various devices are going to be used and by how many people. However, to use a wireless multi-function printer that can be accessed by numerous additional staff reduces the cost of equipment that has to be installed in an office. Besides, many suppliers also offer additional software to permit a company to customize the workflow in the manner that best suits their operational procedures. The absence of cables is also helpful for complying with health and safety requirements in work places, since it reduces the cable installation and maintenance costs. Not only offices that benefit from the flexibility of a multi-function printer with wireless technology but the educational institutions/organizations also use this technology where there are always documents needed from lesson plans and reference materials for students, to print documents to be sent to parents and posters for notice boards. Hotels too enjoy the versatility of such systems to keep their costs down by printing menu cards, wine lists, banners, brochures, direction and information notices in-house to keep high standards and to cut down costs. There are some issues to be kept in mind while a business is using a Wi-Fi system, the most important of which is confidentiality. Since the system depends on radio frequencies it needs to be installed with password protected access to prevent any passer by outside being able to access the system. Other issues that have very occasionally been reported with Wi-Fi systems are that they can be affected by climate conditions, such as thunderstorms.

4.6 ELECTRONIC ADVERTISING

E-advertising is a form of advertising that uses the Internet and World Wide Web in order to deliver marketing messages and attract customers. Examples of e-advertising includes contextual ads on search engine results pages, banner ads, social network advertising, online classified advertising, e-mail marketing etc.

The most common types of e-advertising are:

• CPM (Cost Per Mile): Here advertisers pay for exposure of their message to a specific audience. CPM costs are priced per thousand impressions.

• CPV (Cost Per View): Here advertisers pay for the delivery of a Targeted Visitor to the advertisers Website.

• CPC (Cost Per Click) is also known as Pay Per Click (PPC). Advertisers pay every time a user clicks on their listing and/or is redirected to their Website. CPC differs from CPV as in that each click is paid for regardless of whether the user makes it to the target site.

Risk with E-Advertising The use of online advertising may affect the privacy and anonymity of users. The advertising company is able to track the browsing of users using third-party cookies. Thus, third-party cookies can be blocked by most browsers to increase privacy and

The Internet and E-Commerce reduce tracking by advertising and tracking companies without negatively affecting the user's Web experience.

There is also a class of advertising methods which are considered unethical and may even be illegal. These include external applications which alter system settings (such as a browser's home page), bring unwanted pop-ups etc. Such applications are usually labeled as spyware or adware. These programs are designed to dupe the user, acting effectively as Trojan horses. It is a big problem for the ever-increasing audiences of online users, many of whom are not computer-savvy, frequently lack the knowledge and technical ability to protect themselves from these programs.

4.7 BASIC MODELS OF E-BUSINESS

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) or business is the use of the Internet to transact businesses. This transaction of business is done between one organization and another; between individuals; between government and businesses, and so on. Lately, e-commerce has gained importance as there is more and more usage of the electronic medium. There are mainly five models to conduct e-commerce, which are (i) Business to Business, (ii) Business to Consumer, (iii) Consumer to Consumer, (iv) Peer to Peer and (v) Mobile Commerce. These models are discussed in the following sections:

(i) Business to Business (B2B): In this form of business, buyers and sellers are both business entities. It is the most popular form of e-commerce transacting crores of rupees. However, it does not involve individual customers. It happens when a manufacturer supplies goods to a retailer or a wholesaler, for example, Dell sells computers and related accessories online, however, it does not produce all the products.

(ii) Business to Consumer (B2C): This is the most common form of e-commerce that involves companies selling directly to individual consumers. In the beginning, its performance was sluggish but after the late 1990s, its growth became high.

The primary idea behind B2C is that marketers and retailers can sell their merchandise to consumers online. This is done through data that is made available via many online marketing tools, e.g., an online pharmacy giving free medical consultation and selling medicines to patients.

However, there are two basic problems faced by B2C e-commerce, which is how to: (i) Increase volume and (ii) sustain customer loyalty. As the B2C model is of winner-take-all nature, many smaller firms find it difficult to enter a market or remain competitive. At the same time, online consumers are very sensitive about price and can be easily lured away by others. So attracting and keeping new customers is difficult.

(iii) Consumer to Consumer (C2C): This model of e-commerce helps to transact businesses between two people. This is possible with the help of an intermediary, such as eBay, which provides a platform to help consumers to transact the business. Without the help of an intermediary, it would be difficult to conduct this type of business.

(iv) Peergo-Peer (P2P): This e-commerce model not only helps to do business; it is also a technology which helps people to share their computer files and resources and that too without the help of a central Web server. However, both sides

NOTES

224 Seff-Instructional Material

NOTES

Portal: Contains and presents information in a systematic manner which it receives from different sources.


The Internet and E-Commerce need to install the required software to facilitate communication on the common platform. However, P2P does not generate much revenue.

(v) Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce): M-commerce is the commerce transacted with the help of mobile phones. This is the latest entrant in e-commerce. Mobile phones owners can contact each other and conduct business, through direct contract, SMS and GPRS facilities. Companies doing business through the GPRS try to optimize Websites to be viewed properly on mobile devices. Apart from these models, there are other models of e-commerce, such as

Government to Business (G2B), Government to Citizen (G2C) and Business to Employee (B2E). These models are a general categorization and they need not be followed thoroughly while doing a business. It may happen that a business might follow one model or a part of other models, which might suit it.

Business to Consumer (B2C) Models

The e-business life cycle starts from the moment a customer buys a product on a Website to the moment the product is actually delivered to the customer. The following are the three major e-commerce applications used in the e-business life cycle:

(i) Business to Consumer (B2C), through the Internet. (h) Business to Business (B2B), through the Internet. (ink Business within business, through Intranet.

The use of the seller's Website by customers is the central focus of attention of e-commerce application. Consumers can order online from any place and at any time. This approach is the representation of the conventional shopping experience in stores. A shopping cart, for example, is used to hold items or goods until the customer is ready to sign out. Checkout is order and payment processing. B2C is similar to conventional mail order or telephone-based ordering system. Table 4.2 shows the main elements of the Internet, extranet and intranet.

Table 4.2 Main Elements of the Internet, Extranet and Intranet

Element Internet Extranet Intranet

E-Commerce

via the Web)

Business-to- consumer(e.g., mail order

Business-to- business(procurement and fulfilment)

Internal procurement and processing

Access Unrestricted (anyone can access a URL address)

Restricted to company employees, staff and business partners

Restricted to company customers, employees and staff

Security Generally minimum, expect for verifying credit cards and financial

transaction integrity

Firewalls and restricted access to data and applications

Firewalls to eliminate non-company employees

Payment Method

Credit card or electronic cash

Predefined credit agreement between business

Within business charges

Portal

A portal contains and presents information in a systematic manner which it receives from different sources. It also offers search engine feature and services, such as e-mail, news, information and entertainment. Portals provide a way through which organizations maintain a consistent look and feel with access control and various methods for several applications. Web portal examples are Yahoo, AOL, iGoogle etc. The different types of portals are discussed in the followings sections:

The Internet and E-Commerce (i) Horizontal vs Vertical Portal: There are two main categories of portals: (1) horizontal portals and (ii) vertical portals. Horizontal portals cover many areas and vertical portals focus on only one functional area. The horizontal portal is used as a platform to many organizations in similar economic sectors or to the same types of distributors or manufacturers. Thus, a vertical portal is a special entry point to a special industry or market niche, subject area or interest. It is also known as vortal.

Fundamentally, a portal is an extremely comprehensive Website which provides information and services about a specific topic. There are two types of portals, horizontal and vertical. The portals are called 'horizontal' because they list the Websites that cover a broad range of topics. Vertical portals on the other hand are narrow, covering only one topic or one type of topic.

Initially portals provide plenty of general information to a wide audience and was termed as 'Horizontal' portals, for example Yahoo providing Web searching, news, free e-mail, discussion groups, online shopping and links to other Websites. Nowadays, 'Vertical' portals are emerging which provide focused information on specific industries/interests, such as banking, computers, publishing. etc. In order to find a vertical portal the user can select a search engine, such as Google and then type a subject of his/her choice, for example 'car portal'. Several car portals will come up. Each one of them contains a list of car sales Websites to opt from. Additionally, the list is far more efficient than just searching for 'cars'. Similarly, the different portals can be searched as per the requirement. Vertical portals might be the only technique to find the preferred retailer to buy from.

(ii) Personal Portals: A personal portal gives personalized capabilities to its visitors by providing a pathway to other content. It is made to use distributed applications, various types and numbers of hardware and middleware; to provide services from a number of different sources. Personal portals help in social networking or giving links to other contents that might help others beyond its services reach.

Typically a personal portal is a site on the World Wide Web or WWW that provides personalized capabilities to its visitors. Additionally, personal portals are dependent on business portals that are specifically designed to share resources and collaboration in workplaces. It further requires a business-driven approach such that the content is adequate to work on multiple platforms, such as personal computers, personal digital assistants and cell phones/mobile phones. The content here specifies the information, news and updates that would be delivered through such a portal. Personal portals can be related to any specific topic, such as providing friend information on a social network or providing links to outside content that may help others beyond your reach of services. Portals are not limited to simply providing links. Information or content that is placed on the Web may create a portal in the sense of a path to new knowledge and capabilities.

Regional Web Portals: Regional Web portals provide information, such as local business data, street maps, weather forecasts and other information that is useful for the regional area. They have moved into areas, unthinkable a few years earlier. These 'local content — global reach' portals have developed in all countries, such as India, China, Vietman, Italy, Greece.

(iv) Government Web Portals: These days, almost all governments have created portals for their citizens, for example, the main portal of the Government of India is (India.gov.in), the US government has (USA.gov) in English and

NOTES


(GobiernoUSA.gov) in Spanish, the UK government (Gov.UK) has (Directgov) for citizens and (businesslink.gov.uk) for businesses. The European Union has its own Web portal, which links all EU agencies and institutions.

(v) Corporate Web Portals: During the 1990s, corporate intranets became popular, but as it became complex and its size grew, Webmasters (those who manage Websites) had to tackle the increased content and user management challenges. Users demanded personalized and customized view of company information. Efficient Webmasters offered some solutions but many users were not satisfied. Therefore, many companies began to offer tools to Webmasters to manage their applications, data and information. Collaboration between work groups, workflow management and policy-managed content publication are some of the portal solutions. Most portals permit external and internal access to specific corporate information with the help of secure authentication or single sign-on. Corporate portals also give customers and employees the opportunities of self-services. The coming few years will be significant because the idea of content aggregation is becoming popular. It is going to get a push and portal solution will continue in the next few years. Studies by Gartner, an information technology research firm, indicate that the Generation 8 portals will grow the idea of delivering a wide range of tools applications, information and access points through a single window or mechanism.

(vi) Hosted Web Portals: With corporate portals gaining popularity, many organizations have offered to provide hosted services. The market for hosted services have significantly changed the composition of the portals. Actually, these portals were simply a tool for publishing information instead of integrating legacy applications or presenting correlated data from distributed databases. Hosted portals automatically personalize the content generated from their modules to provide a personalized experience to their users.

The hosted portal market necessarily altered the composition of portals. At times they serve simply as a tool for publishing information as an alternative of the loftier goals of integrating legacy applications or presenting correlated data from distributed databases. Since hosted Web portals have grown in popularity hence their feature set has also grown to include hosted databases, document management, e-mail, discussion forums, and so on. Emerging new category of Internet portals called Cloud Portals are showcasing the power of API (Application Programming Interface) rich software systems leveraging SOA (Service Oriented Architecture), Web services and custom data exchange to accommodate machine to machine interaction that creates an additional liquefied user experience to connect users spanning multiple domains throughout a specified `session'. Leading cloud portals, such as Nubifer Cloud Portal platform uses Enterprise Mashup and Web Service integration approaches to build cloud portals.

(vii) Domain-Specific Portals: Many domain-specific portals have come up, which are specific to that particular domain. These portals provide access to related companies and services, such as property portals. The property specific portals give access to services, such as estate agents, house/office movers, and so on. There are even industry-specific news and information portals.

A number of portals have come about that are specific to the particular domain, offering access to related companies and services, a prime example of this


NOTES


The Internet and E-Commerce trend would be the growth in property portals that give access to services, such as estate agents, removal firm and solicitors that offer conveyancing. Along the same lines, industry-specific news and information portals have appeared, such as the clinical trials specific portal: IFPMA Clinical Trials Portal

(viii) Sports Portals: Many Web portals have diversified into the professional sports market. Supporters of sport teams gather all information about a professional team or sport and create sport portals.

Nowadays, sports Website is quite popular and different clubs and sports organization are using it to promote their games and sports events. Sports Website design should be inspiring, informative and should be able to capture the imagination of the fan as well as of the general people.

On the Internet, for example one can look for a football club fan site or an online shop from which the retailer can sell or buy golf clubs items as per the need. The examples of portals include Sports Portals, Sporting Organizations, Sports Clubs, Soccer Websites, Cricket Websites, Golf Course Web Portals, Tennis Websites, Marathon Websites and many more.

Electronic Retailer (E-Tailer)

An e-tailer is a person who mainly enables customers to shop for items or other services through the Internet.

Types of E-Tailers

The two major categories of e-tailers are as follows:

(i) Pure Plays (ii) Bricks and Clicks

(i) A pure play e-tailer functions by retailing items or goods with the help of the Internet. Examples of pure play e-tailers are various Websites.

A pure play is referred as an organization which originates and conducts their business purely through the Internet. They do not have physical stores from where the customers can shop. Amazon.com who was initially involved in retail products and Netffix.com are some of the examples of large pure play companies. The Internet with a much lower barrier to smaller companies allows them to compete with the larger brands. There are many opportunities of growth for pure play merchants.

(ii) A brick and click e-tailer uses the Internet facilities to sell his products or services. He also provides the conventional physical products which are obtainable to users.

In bricks and clicks type of business model a company amalgamates offline (bricks) as well as online (clicks). Sometimes it also provides ordering of services or products over telephone as well with telephone sales support. When a certain chain of stores allows the customer to order products either online or physically in one of their stores, also allowing them to either pick-up their order directly at a local branch of the store or get it delivered to their home is a popular example of this type of model. There are many alternative combinations of this model.

Advantages of E-Tailing

E-tailers have the chance to provide greater profit margins to those who participate in the pure play type business. Pure play allows the retailer to reach to consumers throughout the globe by keeping one site for each and every consumer to traverse at any time.

NOTES

Pure play: Referred as an organization which originates and conducts their business purely through the Internet.


Transaction broker: a middleware application—facilitates the flow of information from third-party application into access dimensions

NOTES


The Internet and E-Commerce Disadvantages of E-Tailing

E-tailers do not fulfil the requirements of online customers, and if they want their customers to return to them, then they normally require to give a good impression. Search, support and promotion are the three most essential things that e-tailers work nowadays in order to make sure gain.

Content Provider Content providers store and access data and make it available to all applications. However, there is no common area of storage that all the users can access.

If you want to make your data public, then you have two choices:

1. You can create your own content provider.

2. You can also add the data to a content provider, if the same type of data is controlled and you have written permission to it.

The Data Model Content providers define their data on a database model in the form of a simple table, where each row indicates record and each column represents data of a specific type and meaning, for example, customers' information and their phone numbers can be given as follows:

ID NUMBER LABEL NAME TYPE

1 100 AB apartment Ajay TYPE_HOME

2 200 Delhi office Raj TYPE_MOBILE

3 300 Ashirwad Kapil TYPE_HOME

A numeric ID field is required to uniquely identify the record within the table for every record. IDs are also used to match records in related tables, for example, to find a person's address in one table and the name of that person in another table.

A query returns a cursor object that can move from one record to another and one column to another, and also read the contents of each record. For reading each type of data it defines the methods. You must know what type of data the field contains to read a record.

Transaction Broker

The transaction broker—a middleware application—facilitates the flow of information from third-party application into access dimensions. It is a very good solution for businesses that seek to gather information on to a consolidated database or need a low-cost and maintenance approach for the whole company. Integration of data with the help of transaction broker is very extensive.

Making Integration Simple A transaction broker provides a low-cost solution to seamless integration. This type of integration does not need to customize programming or user intervention. If transactions are produced through any office application, then it can be automatically updated. This can be done in real time to access accounts. As data is collected in one database through extensive integration facilities, it could be collected at no time on to comprehensive management reports.


NOTES

Adapting to Your Business Systems

The biggest strength of transaction broker is its flexibility. It may be programmed to read broker transactional data from a large range of business applications. This may include—Websites, EPOS systems; ODBC complaint database; and applications specific to one's vertical market. The automated transfer of information has a great potential for savings, which can be obtained from it.

Faultless Data Transfer

In a transaction broker, data transfer is faultless, as there are many high quality safeguards built into it. Thus, it gives you complete confidence in the brokering routine. Before updating the accounts, it is necessary to maintain data integrity and generate a complete audit trail, so that every transaction gets complete validation. And to see that the process of integration is not undergone more than once, all brokered transactions are flagged down.

Reducing your E-Business Costs

Accounts system integration and the cost of e-commerce Website is drastically reduced by a transaction broker. The requirement for a regionally hosted Website and expensive telephone lines by trading Web orders straight into the order processing system is removed. Regardless of whether your business is big or small, this solution helps your trade to increase its profit on the Internet. The point of sale system has changed the way in which the information of retail sales is recorded. The other step is to broker this transactional data into accounts package. This integration does away with the requirement for re-keying of data and manual adjustments of the stock. Integration with EPOS solutions is also easy.

The main role of a transaction broker is to help both the purchaser and the vendor with the required official procedure, and rules and regulations involved in transferring possession of real property. A transaction broker is not a representative or agent for either the purchaser or the vendor.


Market Creator

A market creator plays an important role in any transaction over the Internet. It surveys the market properly before any transaction occurs between the company and its consumers. Market creators are actually responsible for creating the market for successful transactions between the seller and the buyer.

Service Provider

A service provider is an entity that offers services to other entities. Usually, this refers to a business that offers subscription or Web service to other persons or businesses, for example, Web application hosting, providing Internet access and mobile phone operator.

Internet banking is also known as e-banking. In it, a user with a Personal Computer (PC) and a browser get linked to the Website of his/her bank and performs any function which a normal bank permits. Each bank in an Internet banking system has a centralized database linked with a central server. All the available services provided by a bank through the Internet are displayed in the menu on the PC. The user can select any service and additional communication depends on the behaviour of services. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) have changed the way of banking.

In this system, a branch office of a bank is connected through a satellite or terrestrial, thus the bank requires no physical presence. It is a borderless entity allowing

Smart cards: Cards that have chips added to already existing magnetic stripe cards to enhance security and provide new service

NOTES

The Internet and E-Commerce anywhere, anytime banking. Intranet, which is restricted to organizations that build them, connects the various branches and the central office in the organization. SWIFT is an example of intranet application.

Automated Teller Machine

ATM, designed to do some essential functions of banks, is operated by a plastic card with some special features. It has helped electronic fund transfer and contains data about customers' account and also gets new information from customers. ATMs have lessened the use of cheques, bank attendance of the customer and eliminated banking hour restrictions.

The ATM, an electronic fund transfer terminal, has the facility to handle cash deposits, transfer cash between accounts, balance enquiries, cash withdrawals and pay bills. ATMs are to two types: online and offline. The online ones help customers to avail banking facilities from anywhere. The offline services are confined to the specific ATM. A customer having an ATM card issued by the network system may perform his transactions in an ATM connected to shared payment networks and perform his transactions.

Credit Cards/Debit Cards

Credit card, also known as postpaid card, has a limit fixed by the bank which has issued it. The card holder has the power to spend whenever and wherever he/she wants with his credit card within the limits fixed by the bank. When a credit card holder uses the card to buy a merchandise, the buyer's account is debited.

On the other hand, debit card is a prepaid card. A person has to open an account with the issuing bank which gives a debit card with a personal identification number. Whenever a person uses this card, money gets transferred to its account from the bank of the card holder.

When a purchase is made either by a debit card or a credit card, the card has to be swiped in an electronic machine, it dials the bank's system which validates the pin and asks the issuing bank whether to accept or decline the transaction. The customer is not allowed to overspend because the system rejects any transaction that exceeds the balance in his account.

Smart Card

Smart cards are cards that have chips added to already existing magnetic stripe cards to enhance security and provide new service. These cards permit large volume of information to be stored on magnetic stripe cards. At the same time, these cards are reliable and secure and perform numerous functions. A large amount of personal information, such as health, medical history to personal banking and their choices, is stored on them.

Business to Business (B2B) Models

Different models have been developed for B2B e-commerce, which is based on the control of market, buyer, supplier, etc.

E-Distributor

E-distributors are organizations that supply products and services directly to individual business firms. Generally, e-distributors are owned by one company that tries to serve many customers, e.g., grainger.com.


The Internet and E-Commerce B2B Service Provider

B2B service provider is concerned with industrial marketing; among the processes it handles are fulfilment and procurement. When you make an online purchase and payment is allowed through a credit card clearance, a message is generally displayed saying, 'Thank you for your order'. The amount is transferred from your account. The moment the message is displayed on the customer's monitor, an electronic order is sent to the vendor to fill the order and ship or transport it directly to the customer. Performing this electronically means reduced inventory and quick service. The Intranet plays an important function as a corporate and product information centre and is strictly a 'within company' type of information exchange. This interlinked environment is restricted to internal employees and customers, with firewalls to keep out non-employees. E-mail replaces paper for communication of messages, order acknowledge and approvals, and other forms of correspondence within the organization.

In intranet, there is no true payment process. Transfers of funds or charges against budget accounts are purely an accounting transaction as part of the intra-company billing procedure. Thus, intranet becomes a facilitator for the exchange of information and services among the departments or divisions of a large company.

Benefits of B2B

Some of the benefits of B2B are that you can outsource the unprofitable parts of your business; quicken your product development activities; or reduce time to the market; improve business and market intelligence; understand your market better than your competitors; clone your business in future markets; improve the speed of communication; facilitate communication between your customers and suppliers; reduce wastage through additional sales channels; improved ability to experiment and learn; higher customer retention rates; lower customer acquisition costs; and reduced costs can be passed on in favourable pricing. Besides these, B2B also provides exclusive benefits, such as fewer human interventions, less overhead expenses, fewer inadvertent errors, more efficiency, more advertising exposure, new markets and new physical territories equated to an intelligent method of mutual business. It is a win-win situation for both the buyer and the seller.

These are just few of the advantages of B2B e-commerce. It has been proved beyond doubt that doing business on the Internet is profitable. The actual return on the initial investment is very good. There is bound to be more profits for the business.

Thus, while transacting business-to-business e-commerce, it is necessary to remember the following two points:

(i) Supply Chain Management (SCM): In the late 1980s, different management concepts, such as just in time, design for manufacturing, stock-less production, lean manufacturing, and so on were developed. These helped to properly manage the operating costs of manufacturing. There were noticeable reductions in the operating cost in all areas of operation, such as transportation, inventory costs, overhead and finally direct labour costs. All these have the potential to save cost to the tune of crores of rupees. This can only happen when business organizations engage in the efforts of supply chain management.

(ii) Electronic Procurement System: In this system, the two basic processes are to handle distribution of goods from distributors to buyers and to remove the complex manifold paper and process labour intensive process. Thus, the business

NOTES


IZQ Just In Time Delivery: It means savings in terms of time and money

NOTES

The Internet and E-Commerce is run more efficiently and purchase managers get sufficient time to focus on supplier negotiation and complex acquisitions. At the same time, it should reduce cost and hassle. The electronic procurement system, should also give extensive management control, besides integrating with the existing systems.

Just In Time Delivery

Just In Time (JIT) delivery is very important from customers' viewpoint. This phase of B2B is critical because customers want delivery of good, items and products are delivered just when they are required. It means savings in terms of time and money.

Consumer to Consumer Model

Consumer to Consumer (C2C) involves the electronically-facilitated transactions between consumers with the help of a third party. Online auction is a common example, in which a consumer posts an item for sale and other consumers propose to buy it; the third party generally charges a commission or flat fee. The sites are only intermediaries, just there to match consumers. They do not have to check the quality of the products being offered, for example, eBay, Craigslist, Amazon.com, etc.

This type of e-commerce is expected to increase in the future, because it cuts out the costs of using another company. It could change in the sense that some one can send an advertisement regarding a sale to your Global Positioning System (GPS).

Universities

Consumer to consumer models are becoming popular among students in universities, because these are large organizations in the same environmental area which are low on cost. So they look for deals very often and these kinds of Websites offer them. Universities themselves identify spaces for the students to sell books and other items to various students; users can also advertise that they are subletting their apartment. An example of this is Tiger Books and Dalhousie University classifieds, both of which are put together by the Dalhousie Student Union (DSU) for the students.

Peer-to-Peer Model

Many attempts have been made by different companies to utilize the P2P architecture for making money. However, to date, the only successful business model is based on benevolent users, donating their CPU resources for scientific work, although some content sharing software client developers do provide functionality enhancements based on a fee as well as display third-party advertisements in the client console in order to finance the client programming projects. A P2P model for mega-scale business is yet to be developed. The main obstacles in P2P model are of security and rating.

There is a lack of responsibility inherent in the privacy and anonymity of P2P environment. A lack of a central authority makes it difficult to enforce contracts. In addition, there is no true P2P payment mechanism so far which facilitates exchanges without depending on some sort of intermediate authority and without affecting the privacy.

An individual rating system can help to solve the trust and contract enforcement problem, while an electronic payment mechanism (incorporating a card reader and e-cash) is designed to resolve the issue of payment. In addition, some variant of escrow may be applied to P2P architecture in order to ensure smoothness of transactions.


Ideal for small businesses of ten users or fewer.

No need for a full-time network administrator.

No centralized set-up to locate, manage, or control access to data.

Users have the authority to control their own shared nuances.

Inexpensive to purchase and operate.

Network security is applied to one computer at a time.

Back up is performed on each machine separately to protect shared resources.


NOTES

Check Your Progress

16 Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

(a) A connection enables you to connect to your ISP using a modem.

(b) HTTP is a protocol, which means each request is processed independently without any knowledge of the previous request.

(c) A is a software system that enables users to search for information on the Web using keywords.

(d) CPM costs are priced Per impressions.


(a) Telnet is a protocol that allows you to access a remote computer provided you have been given the permission to do so.

(b) Web browsers use HTML to request for information from Web servers.

(c) WiFi is an abbreviation of wireless fidelity.

(d) Mobile commerce facilitates the use of smart phones, personal digital assistants and other mobile devices to conduct business transactions.


Table 4.3 Benefits and Drawbacks of Peer-to-Peer Network

4.8 MOBILE COMMERCE

Mobile commerce (m-commerce) facilitates the use of smart phones, personal digital assistants and other mobile devices to conduct business transactions. The wider connection a business can make to their target markets, the higher possible sales they can have. With this, maximizing benefits from the current technology like mobile devices is a big step that industries need to establish. Mobiles are being used more and more on daily basis.

The integration of M-Commerce to a handy device is an immense benefit to all of us. Let us see some of these advantages:

Convenience

Wherever you are, in just a few clicks on your mobile device, you can do shopping, banking and download media files via m-commerce.

flexible

User can be accessible via mobile phones and at the same time be accessible online too through logging on to various mobile messengers like Skype, GTaIk etc.

Connectivity

As long as the network signal is available, mobile devices can connect and do transactions. No need for modem or WiFi connectivity set up.

Personalization

Each mobile device is usually dedicated to a specific user. One can do whatever he wants to his mobile device, modify the wallpaper, change view settings or modify contact information as he send emails or e-payments.

Efficient

Doing M-Commerce transactions do not require the user to plug anything or insert anything say like in ATM transaction. Just hit the on button of your mobile device and your ready to go.

4.9 SUMMARY


• The Internet is called the 'network of networks' and connects computer networks all over the world.

• Direct connection and connections through an ISP are the two methods for connecting to the Internet.

• A remote dial-up connection uses telephone lines and modems to connect to an ISP

• Direct connections to an ISP can be made using dedicated phone lines. Typically, this line is an ISDN line.

• TCP/IP is the communication protocol used to connect hosts on the Internet. It is a collection of communication protocols, the two main ones being TCP and IP.

• HTTP or HyperText Transfer Protocol is an application protocol that runs on top of TCP/IP and is used for transferring a variety of files over the WWW.

• An application protocol used for exchanging files over the Internet is termed as FTP.

• The Telnet protocol lets you perform a remote login. It emulates a direct connection to a different host.

• An IP address is a unique number associated with each computer on the network making it uniquely identifiable over the network. DNS is an Internet service that translates-domain names to or from IP addresses.

• URL, short for Uniform Resource Locator, defines the address of a Website on the Internet.

• HTML is the language used for publishing Web pages. It defines the various aspects of a Web page like heading, text and special effects such as bold, underline, italics etc.

• A search engine allows users to search for information on the WWW using keywords.

• The application used to access and display HTML documents is termed a 'Web browser'.

• E-mail or electronic mail is commonly used to send and receive messages over the Internet.

• Email Etiquette in technology is the conduct that is socially acceptable in an online or digital situation.

• Microsoft NetMeeting was a VoIP and multi-point videoconferencing client included in many versions of Microsoft Windows.

• WiFi is an abbreviation of wireless fidelity. It eliminates many of the cables that connect computers to various other devices, such as printer/copiers. It makes it possible to connect to the intemet from any location and from a laptop, notebook or PC and can be useful in offices where staff have to do a certain amount of travelling either between different company offices or out on the road visiting clients and then needing to update company records and print out documents.

• E-advertising is a form of advertising that uses the Internet and World Wide Web in order to deliver marketing messages and attract customers.

• The use of online advertising may affect the privacy and anonymity of users. The advertising company is able to track the browsing of users using third-party cookies. Thus, third-party cookies can be blocked by most browsers to increase privacy and reduce tracking by advertising and tracking companies without negatively affecting the user's Web experience.


NOTES


The Internet and E-Commerce • Electronic commerce (e-commerce) or business is the use of the Internet to transact businesses. This transaction of business is done between one organization and another; between individuals; between government and businesses, and so on.

• There are mainly five models to conduct e-commerce, which are (i) Business to Business (ii) Business to Consumer (iii) Consumer to Consumer (iv) Peer to-Peer and (v) Mobile Commerce.

• The primary idea behind B2C is that marketers and retailers can sell their merchandise to consumers online.

• M-commerce is the commerce transacted with the help of mobile phones. Mobile phones owners can contact each other and conduct business, through direct contract, SMS and GPRS facilities.

• The e-business life cycle starts from the moment a customer buys a product on a Website to the moment the product is actually delivered to the customer.

• The use of the seller's Website by customers is the central focus of attention of e-commerce application. Consumers can order online from any place and at any time.

• A portal contains and presents information in a systematic manner which it receives from different sources. It also offers search engine feature and services, such as e-mail, news, information and entertainment.

• Portals provide a way through which organizations maintain a consistent.

• An e-tailer is a person who mainly enables customers to shop for items or other services through the Internet.

• A transaction broker is not a representative or agent for either the purchaser or the vendor.

• Internet banking is also known as e-banking. In it, a user with a Personal Computer (PC) and a browser get linked to the Website of his/her bank and performs any function which a normal bank permits.

• Credit card, also known as postpaid card, has a limit fixed by the bank which has issued it. The card holder has the power to spend whenever and wherever he/she wants with his credit card within the limits fixed by the bank.

• Debit card is a prepaid card. A person has to open an account with the issuing bank which gives a debit card with a personal identification number. Whenever a person uses this card, money gets transferred to its account from the bank of the card holder.

• B2B Service Provider is concerned with industrial marketing; among the processes it handles are fulfilment and procurement. When you make an online purchase and payment is allowed through a credit card clearance, a message is generally displayed saying, 'Thank you for your order'.

• Just-in-time (JIT) delivery is very important from customers' viewpoint. This phase of B2B is critical because customers want delivery of good, items and products are delivered just when they are required. It means savings in terms of time and money.

• Consumer to Consumer (C2C) involves the electronically-facilitated transactions between consumers with the help of a third party. Online auction is a common

NOTES


example, in which a consumer posts an item for sale and other consumers propose to buy it; the third party generally charges a commission or flat fee.

• Mobile commerce (m-commerce) facilitates the use of smart phones, personal digital assistants and other mobile devices to conduct business transactions. The wider connection a business can make to their target markets, the higher

possible sales they can have.


NOTES


1. The Internet is called the 'network of networks' and connects computer networks

all over the world.

2. HTTP is a protocol that transfers files (image, text, video, sound and other multimedia files) using the Internet.

3. An IP address is a unique number associated with each computer, making it uniquely identifiable within all the computers connected to the Internet.

4. The Web can be understood as a collection of thousands of information locations connected to each other. Each such location is called a Website and comprises

of multiple Web pages.

5. The popularity of e-mailing is because of its capability to send and receive messages anytime, anywhere without any cost.

6. E-mail etiquette in technology is the conduct that is socially acceptable in an online or digital situation.

7. E-advertising is a form of advertising that uses the Internet and World Wide Web in order to deliver marketing messages and attract customers.

8. In CPM advertisers pay for exposure of their message to a specific audience. CPM costs are priced per thousand impressions.

9. The prime focus of e-commerce application is on the consumer's use of a merchant's Website. Consumers anywhere can browse and order goods or services online anytime. This approach is modelled on the traditional shopping experience found in stores. A shopping cart, for example, is used to hold goods until the customer is ready to check out. Checkout is order and payment

processing.

10. A portal contains information and presents information from different sources in a systematic manner. It provides search engine features. Portals also offer other services, such as e-mail, news, stock prices, information and entertainment. Examples of Web portals are Google, Yahoo, etc.

11. An e-tailer is a person who mainly enables customers to shop for items or other services using the Internet.

12. Content providers store and retrieve data and make it accessible to all applications. They share data across applications.

13. A transaction broker (also referred to as a facilitator, coordinator or contract broker) is not a representative or agent for either the buyer or the seller. The job of a transaction broker is to help both the buyer and the seller with the necessary paperwork and formalities involved in transferring ownership of real property.


14. Credit card, also known as postpaid card, has a limit fixed by the bank which has issued it. The card holder has the power to spend whenever and wherever he/she wants with his credit card within the limits fixed by the bank. When a credit card holder uses the card to buy merchandise, the buyers account is debited.

On the other hand, debit card is a prepaid card. A person has to open an account with the issuing bank which gives a debit card with a personal identification number. Whenever a person uses this card, money gets transferred to his account from the bank of the card holder.

15. Mobile commerce (m-commerce) facilitates the use of smart phones, personal digital assistants and other mobile devices to conduct business transactions.

16. (a) Dial-Up, (b) stateless, (c) Search engine (d) Thousand 17. (a) True, (b) False, (c) True, (d) False



NOTES


1. What is the Internet? Describe its features and advantages. 2. What is a permanent dedicated connection?

3. What do you mean by Internet protocols? Explain the various types of Internet protocols.

4. Write short notes on the following: (i) Website, (ii) Uniform Resource Locator, HTML

5. What do you mean by search engines and meta search engines? 6. How would you create, send, and check an Internet e-mail account? 7. How would you change passwords and attach files to e-mails? 8. Mention some important points which should be kept in mind while e-mailing. 9. Write short note on e-advertisement.

10. What are different types of e-business?


1. Explain the important features of google search. 2. Describe the features and importance of E-mail service. 3. Is it safe to use Wi-Fi in offices? Explain why?

4. What is the risk in e-advertising? Explain with the help of examples. 5. Discuss the basic business models of e-commerce.

6. Who is an e-tailer? Describe its advantages and disadvantages. 7. Explain In-commerce usage in present generation.


Buying and Selling through the Internet UNIT 5 BUYING AND SELLING

THROUGH THE INTERNET NOTES


Structure 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Unit Objectives 5.2 E-Payment and Electronic Fund Transfer

5.2.1 Digital Wallets 5.2.2 Digital Cash 5.2.3 Online Stored Value System 5.2.4 Digital Accumulating 5.2.5 RTGS or Real Time Gross Settlement 5.2.6 NEFT or National Electronic Funds Transfer 527 E-Ticketing

5.3 Balance Payment System 53.1 Digital Credit Card System 53.2 Digital Cheque Payment System 5.3.3 IT for Supply Chain

5.4 Payment Gateway and Security Systems 5.4.1 Protecting Internet Communication Using Encryption

5.5 E-Banking 5.6 Smartcards and Plastic Money 5.7 Summary 5.8 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 5.9 Questions and Exercises

5.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about electronic payment methodology. With the help of Electronic Payment System (EPS) users can transfer funds online through the Internet via computers, mobile phones and other hand-held devices. Electronic payment system is defined as 'The transfer of funds or money between two parties over a secure private or public network is called EPS.'

EPS is the one of the fastest payment method that provide services to customers at the lowest price. It is a secure method to transfer services to customers as compared to the traditional payment system. The services are not only provided to large companies, but also to users and consumers for online shopping. Customers can make payments through digital wallets, digital cash, credit card, etc. Finally, you will learn about security concepts related to e-commerce and brief introduction to e-banking.

5.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES


• Understand the significance of electronic payment system

• Explain the online electronic fund transfer process

• Explain the different types of payment systems, such as digital wallet, digital cash and online stored value system

Buying and Selling through the Internet

• Understand what balance payment systems are

• Define payment gateway with reference to the Internet

• Describe security related concepts of e-commerce

• Understand the characteristics of digital credit card payment system

• Discuss the significance of e-banking 4

NOTES

5.2 E-PAYMENT AND ELECTRONIC FUND TRANSFER

An e-commerce payment system facilitates the acceptance of electronic payment for online transactions. Also known as a sample of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), e-commerce payment systems have become increasingly popular due to the widespread use of the Internet-based shopping and banking.

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) is the electronic exchange, transfer of money from one account to another, either within a single financial institution or across multiple institutions, through computer-based systems.

5.2.1 Digital Wallets

A digital wallet is encrypted software that works during e-transactions, such as a physical wallet. A wallet can be used to hold payment information about the user, identify the user and provide digital certificate to the user and distribution of information to fast pace the transactions. Customers are benefitted because their information is encrypted against piracy, and because the wallets will automatically distribute and input information at the commercial site and will provide the paying option to the customers with the help of cheque or digital cash. A business gets benefits by guarding against such frauds.

Wallets are generally placed on the PC of the user, but the latest versions of wallets, also known as thin wallets, are to be located on the server of credit card issuer. Digital wallet technology is supported by Microsoft and others on their browsers. The digital wallet has been defined as follows:

`Digital wallet is a self-powered handy hard drive which is used to store camera images.'

A digital wallet, which is also called an e-wallet, permits the users to.make the transactions electronically, fastly, firmly and securely.

Digital wallets work similar to a physical wallet. It is a method of storing different types of electronic money ore-cash. It provides a way to the users to efficiently keep and use online shopping information.

5.2.2 Digital Cash

Digital cash is a system that provides a method to pay for products or services by passing cash from one computer to another. Digital cash numbers are unique, which is just like a serial number that appears on bills. The digital cash number is issued by a bank and provides a specific amount of real funds. Digital cash is reusable just like real cash. There is no way to obtain information about the buyer whenever a digital cash amount is sent from a customer to a seller. Another key difference is that the digital cash certificate can be reused.

Banks issue cash numbers or other unique identifiers for digital cash which contains a particular value, for example, Rs. 100. To get a certification from a bank,

Digital wallet: A digital wallet, which is also called an e-wallet, permits the users to make the transactions electronically, fastly, firmly and securely

Digital cash: It is a system that provides a method to pay for products or services by passing cash from one computer to another


Client-based digital wallets: Software applications that consumers install on their computer and that offer consumer convenience by automatically filling out forms at online stores

NOTFS


Buying and Selling

through the Internet you must have an account at the bank and when you pay for digital cash certificates, funds are withdrawn from your account. You can transfer the certificate to the seller by paying for a product or service and the seller then deposits the amount of cash in the bank or retransmits it to another seller. The seller can contact the bank to check the validity of the cash amount.

In brief, digital cash is a system to purchase cash or to store credits in your computer and then spend them over the Internet while making e-purchases. Figure 5.1 illustrates the digital wallet types.

(Digital Wallet-)

Gastor MasterCard Wallet

Microsoft Passport Cybercash lnstabuy

Novel Digital Me Yodlee.com

Fig. 5.1 Digital Wallets

Client-based digital wallets are software applications that consumers install on their computer and that offer consumer convenience by automatically filling out forms at online stores.

Server-based digital wallets are software-based authentication and payment services and products sold to financial institutions that market the systems to merchants either directly or as a part of their financial service package.

5.2.3 Online Stored Value System

Online stored value payment system is an online payment system in which the maximum amount of purchase depends on the value stored in a digital account. The digital account depends upon the amount stored in a bank, cheques, credit card account, etc. It is also a type of online debit account.

Characteristics of Store Value Card The portable storage and retrieval of data is the significant function of stored value or smart cards. These applications have evolved from existing electronic funds transfer mechanisms using debit cards, such as prepaid cards and debit-card money transfer. The capabilities of the product is defined by the embedded integrated circuit on the card and possible components may include a microprocessor, non-static Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM), other non-volatile memory and special purpose coprocessors. These characteristics make smart cards a viable medium for a digital currency payment system. While making a payment through stored value cards, the following points must be considered:

• There are no back end settlements involved.

• There is no audit trail for transactions.


• If a card is lost, the same result is achieved when actual cash is lost—it's gone. • Developers are working on ways to deliver card-to-card funds transfers.

Stored value smart cards are capable of more than facilitating payments. They can offer added client value information, including digital certificates for identification purposes and may authenticate a secure transaction. It is worth noting that computer hardware manufacturers have started to include smart card readers with their PCs and PC keyboards.

5.2.4 Digital Accumulating

Digital accumulating permits users to create micropayments and purchases over the Internet, building up a debit balance for which they are supposed to pay bill at the end of the month.

This system accumulates small charges and bill the consumer periodically. These systems are especially suited for processing micropayments for digital accounts. Micropayment is designed to purchase less than some amount. Digital credit accounts extend the online functionality of existing credit card payment systems. Digital cheque systems create digital cheques for e-commerce remittances and extend the functionality of existing bank cheque systems.

The accumulated balance digital payment system is used to make rnicropayment and purchases on the Web. The shoppers receive invoice through their convenient utility bills, such as telephone bill, electricity bill, etc. For example, PaymentOne charges its customers through their monthly telephone bill.

The stored value payment system is an instant online payment and the maximum amount of purchase depends on the value stored in the digital account. It is a type of online debit account.

5.2.5 RTGS or Real Time Gross Settlement

The RTGS or Real Time Gross Settlement systems are typically the funds transfer systems and are specifically used where transfer of money or securities takes place from one bank to another on a 'real time' and on 'gross' basis. Settlement in 'real time' means payment transaction is not subjected to any waiting period. The transactions are settled as soon as they are processed. 'Gross settlement' means the transaction is settled on one-to-one basis without bunching or netting with any other transaction. Once processed, payments are final and irrevocable.

The RTGS refers to continuous settlement of payments on an ind• ividual order basis without netting debits with credits across the books of a Central Bank. Thus, the RTGS is an electronic payment system and is normally maintained or controlled by the Central Bank of a country. There is no physical exchange of money; the Central Bank makes adjustments in the electronic accounts, for example of Bank A and Bank B, reducing the amount in Bank A's account and increasing the amount of Bank B's account by the same. The RTGS system is suited for low volume, high value transactions. It lowers settlement risk, besides giving an accurate picture of an institution's account at any point of time.

Typically, the implementation of RTGS systems by Central Banks throughout the world is driven by the goal to minimize risk in high value electronic payment settlement systems. In an RTGS system, transactions are settled across accounts held at a Central Bank on a continuous gross basis. Settlement is immediate, final and irrevocable. Credit risks due to settlement lags are eliminated. RTGS does not require core banking

NOTES



to be implemented across participating banks, since transactions are direct, with no central processing or clearing operations.

5.2.6 NEFT or National Electronic Funds Transfer

• NEFT or National Electronic Funds Transfer is Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) system which facilitates transfer of funds to other bank accounts in over 63000 bank branches across the country. This is a simple, secure, safe, fastest and cost effective way to transfer funds especially for retail remittances. Bank customers can remit any amount using NEFF customer intending to remit money through NEFT by furnishing the following particulars:

• MSC (Indian Financial System Code) of the beneficiary Bank/Branch.

• Full account number of the beneficiary.

• Name of the beneficiary. The facility is also available through online mode for all the Internet banking and

mobile banking customers. For corporate customers, bulk upload facility is also available at branches. Customers can use this facility between 9 AM and 7 PM on all week days and between 9 AM and 1 PM on Saturday. There are eleven hourly settlements between 9 AM and 7 PM on all week days and five hourly settlements between 9 AM and 1 PM on Saturdays. The money will be credited to the beneficiary's account on the same day or at the most next day in case the message is sent during the last batch of settlement. Union Bank offers NEFT facility to its customers through all its branches. Typically, NEFF operates on a Deferred Net Settlement (DNS) basis which settles transactions in predefined batches. In DNS, the settlement takes place at a particular point of time. All transactions are held up till that stipulated time.

Typically, the NEFT system is a nation wide system that facilitates individuals, firms and corporate to electronically transfer funds from any bank branch to any individual, firm or corporate hav ing an account with any other bank branch in the country. For being part of the NEFT funds transfer network, a bank branch has to be NEFT-enabled.

5.2.7 E-Ticketing

An electronic ticket (commonly abbreviated as e-ticket) is a digital ticket. It may be issued by an airline, in road, urban or rail, and in entertainment. Booking a trip, making reservation changes and boarding the train are more convenient than ever since Amtrak launched an e-ticketing program. E-ticketing simplifies the ticketing process and enhances your travel experience with Amtrak - no mailing cost and no waiting in ticket lines at the station. Print your e-ticket whenever, wherever. The easiest way to book your trip on any e-ticketing enabled route is through Amtrak.com, m.Amtralc.com or the Amtrak mobile application. After your booking, you will receive your e-ticket as a PDF attachment to an e-mail receipt. Your e-ticket is attached to your e-mail receipt as a PDF document. To board the train, print out your e-ticket anywhere — at home, work or a hotel business center and bring it along with proper identification. If your smartphone or tablet device receives e-mail and can open a PDF document, you can simply present the barcode on the screen to the conductor without printing it out. When traveling within the same e-ticketing enabled route, you can modify your reservation at Amtrak.com, over the phone or at the ticket counter without getting a new e-ticket, use only one e-ticket (instead of multiple paper value tickets) for a group of passengers under the same reservation and all of your travel segments and re-print your e-ticket if you ever lose it so you can travel with more security and less worry.

NOTES



Airline Ticket: In the case of an airline ticket the e-ticket rapidly replaced the older multi-layered paper tickets (from close to zero to 100% in about 10 years) and became mandatory for IATA members as from June 1, 2008. During the last few years, where paper tickets were still available, airlines frequently charged extra for issuing them.

Once a reservation is made, an e-ticket exists only as a digital record in the airline computers. Customers usually print out or are provided a copy of their e-ticket itinerary receipt which contains the record locator or reservation number and the e-ticket number. It is also possible to print multiple copies of an e-ticket itinerary receipt hence the 'loss' of an airline ticket becomes impossible.

While e-ticket itinerary receipts may at first glance look like a basic itinerary, they contain a number of other features that distinguish them. These same features are found on a paper ticket.

• E-tickets, like their paper counterparts, will contain an official ticket number (including the airline's 3-digit ticketing code, a 4-digit form number, a 6-digit serial number and sometimes a check digit).

• Carriage terms and conditions or at least a reference to them.

• Fare and tax details, including fare calculation details and some additional data, such as tour codes. The exact cost might not be stated, but a 'fare basis' code will always identify the fare used.

• A short summary of fare restrictions, usually specifying only whether change or refund are permitted but not the penalties to which they are subject.

• Form of payment.

• Issuing office.

• Baggage allowance. Joel R Goheen is recognized as the inventor of electronic ticketing in the airline

industry.

Checking In, i.e., Boarding Into Flight with an E-Ticket

To check in with an e-ticket, the passenger usually goes to the check-in counter and presents a government-issued ID, credit card or the e-ticket itinerary receipt which contains a confirmation or reservation code. Theoretically it is not even necessary to present the e-ticket itinerary receipt document or quote the confirmation code or e-ticket number as the reservation is confirmed solely on the basis of the passenger's identity, which may be proven by a passport or the matching credit card. However, producing a print-out of the itinerary receipt is required to enter the terminal of some airports as well as to satisfy immigration policies in most countries.

The rest of the check-in process remains the same as when paper tickets were the norm, that is, the passenger checks-in his/her luggage. The e-ticket is not a substitute for the boarding pass, which must still be issued at the end of the check-in process. However, the advent of an e-ticket allows different enhancements to checking-in.

Self-Service and Remote Check-In

The self-service and remote check-in features involve the following:

• Online/telephone/self-service kiosk check-in (if the airline makes this option available).

• Early check-in.

NOTES

244 Self-Instnictional Material

Buying and Selling through the Internet • Printing boarding passes at airport kiosks and at locations other than an airport.

• Deliveries of boarding pass barcodes via SMS or email to a mobile device.

Several Websites exist to help people holding e-tickets accomplish online check-ins in advance of the twenty-four-hour airline restriction. These sites store a passenger's flight information and then when the airline opens up for online check-in the data is transferred to the airline and the boarding pass is e-mailed back to the customer. With this e-ticket technology, if a passenger receives his boarding pass remotely and is travelling without check-in luggage, he may bypass traditional counter check-in.

The ticketing systems of most airlines are only able to produce e-tickets for itineraries of no more than 16 segments, including surface segments. This is the same limit that applied to paper tickets.

A digital ticket is a virtual issuance of a ticket which represents the digitization of rights to claim goods or services. A digital ticket must fulfill the following criteria:

• Secure (unable to alter or counterfeit).

• Portable (physical independence).

• Off-line capable. • Wide acceptability (In order to have the ticket generally accepted, some level

of trust is needed.).

• User-friendly. In addition, another three requirements are also important for digital tickets,

they are: Viewable: The terms and description of the service should be objectively

understood by both the service provider and consumer or owner, so the value of the ticket can be determined. Moreover, this is an essential property to trace the digital ticket.

State Manageable: Tickets may also have a payment status, i.e., paid or unpaid, and/or reservation status, for example, waiting list, reserved, or canceled. The status may be changed dynamically. In addition, the ticket ownership can be rewritten when the ticket is transferred. However, it is difficult to allow these changes while still guaranteeing security.

De-Composable: Combining two or more tickets is sometimes required to obtain a service or one ticket may comprise several parts. For example, a travel ticket can comprise an accommodation ticket and a plane ticket or a car rent ticket.

Besides the criteria mentioned above, there are still several features that should be concerned, such as anonymity, transferability and repetitive usability. The ticket is first issued by the service provider or issuer. The ownership of a ticket may change after it was issued, by transferring the ticket. Either the issuer or owner of ticket might view the status of the ticket. Finally, it is redeemed by the current owner at the service provider.

5.3 BALANCE PAYMENT SYSTEM

NOTES

The balance payment system defines how a payment is made through the Internet when any transaction occurs.

The features of the various types of payment systems are:

• Cash is a legal tender defined by a national authority to represent a value. Self-Instructional Material 245

Digital credit card system: It is used as an online shopping payment tools which is used to extend the functionality of existing credit cards

NOTES


411kr 4. Consumer signs up

CONSUMER for eCharge account

Fig. 5.2 Working of Digital Credit Card Payment System

6• Monthly statement issued showing debit to eCharge


• Float is the period of time between a purchase and the actual payment for the purchase.

• Cheque transfers are funds transferred directly via a signed draft or a cheque from a consumer's chequing account to a merchant or other individual.

• Credit card represents an account that extends credit to consumers; permits consumers to purchase items while deferring payment and allows them to make payments to multiple vendors at one time.

• Credit card associations are non-profit organizations that set standards for issuing banks.

• Issuing banks actually issue credit cards and process transactions. • Processing centres or clearing houses handle verification of accounts and

balances. • Stored value payment systems are accounts created by depositing funds

into an account and from which funds are paid out or withdrawn as needed. • Debit cards immediately debit a cheque or other demand deposit account. • Accumulating balance payment systems are accounts that accumulate

expenditures and to which consumers make periodic payments.

Current E-Commerce Payment Systems

The following are the current e-commerce payment systems: • Digital cash generates a private form. of currency that can be spent at

e-commerce Websites. • Online store value systems rely on prepayments, debit cards or checking accounts

to create value in an account that can be used for e-commerce shopping. • Digital accumulating balance payment systems accumulate small charges and

bill the consumer periodically. These systems are especially suited for processing micropayments for digital accounts.

• Digital credit accounts extend the online functionality of an existing credit card payment system.

5.3.1 Digital Credit Card System

The digital credit card system is used as an online shopping payment tools which is used to extend the functionality of existing credit cards. Figure 5.2 shows the working of a digital credit card payment system.

PARTICIPATING MERCHANTS eCharge 9► Authenticate merchant and consumer

5.3.2 Digital Cheque Payment System

The development of the digital cheque payment system was necessitated by the problems inherent in the traditional cheque payment system. These problems are as follows:

1. Lack of Convenience: In the traditional payment system, the consumer can send the paper cheques either by snail mail or go over personally and sign papers in order to perform a transaction.

2. Lack of Security: The lack of security occurs when the consumer sends the confidential data on paper by post that is not encrypted. This data can be read by any person.

3. Lack of Branch Network: Today, many businesses span multiple locations. These business houses need faster transactions — and therefore branches of banks — in all these locations. This problem can only be overcome effectively with an electronic cheque payment system.

What are Electronic Cheques?

Electronic cheques are basically the electronic tokens. These are specifically designed to provide accommodation to those individuals and entities who desire to pay by credit card or via any other way except paying direct cash. For this, the person has to be a registered buyer. After getting registered, a buyer can make contact with sellers of goods and services. For completing the transaction, the buyer gives a cheque to the seller towards. the cost of the goods/services purchased. After deposition, the cheque authorizes the transfer of the cheque amount from the buyer account to the issued cheque of the seller account where the cheque is deposited. Basically, the electronic cheque is modelled on paper cheque, but the only difference is that it is initiated electronically. It uses digital signatures to sign and endorse. It also requires digital certificates for authenticating the payer and the payer's bank details. To deliver the electronic cheques one can use either direct transmission via telephone lines or the Internet (public networks).

Benefits of Electronic Cheques

The following are the benefits of electronic cheques: • Electronic cheques are very useful and suitable to clear the micro payments. • The e-cheques are based on conventional cryptography which are easy to

process as compared to the systems which are based on public key cryptography, such as digital cash.

• These are used by corporate markets. Firms utilize these as cost effective manners. These generate float availability which is a significant commercial requisite.

Figure 5.3 shows the following stages in an e-cheque process:

Stage 1: Consumer gets e-cheque book from the bank.

Stage 2: Consumer issues e-cheque to merchants.

Stage 3: Merchant authenticates the consumer ID.

Stage 4: Merchant deposits e-cheque in his bank.

Stage 5: Federal bank authenticates the consumer's bank.

Stage 6: Consumer's bank transfers funds to the merchant's bank.


NOTES

Electronic Cheques: These are basically the electronic tokens. These are specifically designed to provide accommodation to those individuals and entities who desire to pay by credit card or via any other way except paying direct cash


Payer Payee

Payee Bank Payer Bank

3. Clear

1. Pay

5. Statement 2. Deposit 4. Report

A

Buying and Selling through the Internet 111111

"dea....riVecleral Reserve Bankcertifie public keys of banks

CONSUMER'S ► MERCHANT'S BANK Consumer's bank transfers BANK

funds to merchant's bank • Merchant authenticates

Issuing bank MERCHANT * Merchant deposits *Check

NOTES

1 Consumer obtains electronic checkbook from authorized bank

Ilihr CONSUMER

3A Merchant authenticates consumer ID

Fig. 5.3 Working of Digital Cheques and E-Cheques

Four Scenarios of E-Cheques

The following are the four scenarios of e-cheques:

(i) Deposit and Clear Scenario

This is a simple process; the payer pays a check to the payee, who deposits it in his bank. The cheque is presented to the payer's bank for clearance. The payer's bank gives a report to the payee bank (see Figure 5.4). Finally, the payer bank provides a statement to the payer.

Fig 5.4 Deposit and Clear

(ii) Cash and Transfer Scenario

In this process, the payer gives a cheque to the payee and the payee sends a request for the cheque to the payer's bank, which is notified to the payee. The payer bank transfers funds electronically to the payee bank. The payee bank then sends a report to the payee and finally the payer bank provides the statement to the payer (see Figure 5.5).


Payee Bank Payer Bank

6. Statement

Payee Payer

Payee I Pay

Fund transfer scenario: In a fund transfer scenario, the payer pays cheques to the payer bank. The payer bank then electronically transfers the funds to the payee bank

Buying and Selling

through the Internet

NOTES

Fig. 5.5 Cash and Transfer Scenario

(iii) Lockbox Scenario

In this case the payer pays the cheque to the payee's bank, which gives it to the payer's bank for clearance and provides a report to the payee. Finally, the payer bank gives a statement to the payer as shown in Figure 5.6.

Payer

3. Report 4. Statement

Payer Bank 2. Clear

Fig. 5.6 Lockbox Scenario

Payee Bank

(iv) Funds Transfer Scenario

In a fund transfer scenario, the payer pays cheques to the payer bank. The payer bank then electronically transfers the funds to the payee bank. The payee bank provides the report to the payee. Finally, the payer bank provides the statement to the payer as

shown in Figure 5.7.

Payer Payee

I 3. Report

4. Statement

2. EFT Payer Bank Payee Bank

Fig. 5.7 Funds Transfer Scenario

Advanced Secure Digital Cheque System

Advanced secure digital cheques have been specifically designed for corporate cheques using the Chip and Pin solution. It replaced the conventional multi-step process of issuing cheques with a digital and integrated system to produce the corporate cheques based on secure technology. This has significantly increased the security and efficiency

of any cheque payment process. Self-Instructional Material 249

Authenticity: It is a facility that recognizes the uniqueness of an individual or a thing to which a customer deals with through the Internet

Privacy: It is secrecy of information by itself

Buying and Selling

through the Internet Digital cheques is a Windows-based system. For security purposes it is password

protected. The potentials of system help you to define permissions for different users and to provide increased control by supporting the division of duties. This permits purchase ledger preparation, cheque print approval, signature application and audit reporting by different users, if required. Complete customization, use, training and interfacing with the current accounting package is given and supported by Advanced Secure.


Check Your Progress

What is a digital wallet?

2. What is an online stored value payment system?

3. What is digital accumulating?

4. What is digital cheque payment system?

5. What is the opportunity for retailers in India?

5.3.3 IT for Supply Chain

The Web of trade relationships is known as the supply chain or value chain as each stage adds value to the product before passing it on. Value chains differ between various trade sectors. In e-commerce, each trade exchange in the supply value chain is a transaction that adds cost without adding intrinsic value. E-commerce is the application of information and communications technology— the value chain to enable the accomplishment of a business goal. The business goal can reduce costs, improve service or to tap into a new market. The form of e-commerce that is appropriate depends on the circumstances of the parties involved in the exchange and the nature of the trade relationship.

Advanced Secure Laser protects cheques which are put in the printer tray having lockable feature. To import a batch of cheques from the accounting package, first approve the audit report and then swipe cards authorize signature release to print the cheques.

5.4 PAYMENT GATEWAY AND SECURITY SYSTEMS

Security of data in e-conunerce is a very important aspect when customers transact through Websites. The main concern of business through the Internet is that no unauthorized users can access information either intentionally or unintentionally.

Dimensions of E-Commerce Security

The following are the various dimensions of e-commerce security:

• Integrity: It is a facility that ensures that the information available on a Website or broadcast or acknowledged from the Internet is not changed by any intruder.

• No Repudiation: It is a facility to make sure that e-commerce contributors do not disagree with their online commitments.

• Authenticity: It is a facility that recognizes the uniqueness of an individual or a thing to which a customer deals with through the Internet.

• Confidentiality: It is a facility to ensure that data or information is available only to those authorized users who are interested in that particular information.

• Privacy: It is secrecy of information by itself.

• Availability: It is a facility to make certain that an e-commerce Website keeps on performing its task as planned.

Security Threats in E-Commerce Environment

The following are the various types of security threats in the e-commerce environment:

NOTES

Malicious Code

There are several viruses or malicious code, some of which are explained here.

• Viruses: These have the capability to duplicate and multiply into different files. A large number of viruses also distribute or contain different types of viruses, such as file infecting viruses and script viruses.

• Worms: These are specially planned to spread from one computer to another computer.

• Trojan Horse: It appears to be benign in the beginning, but then infects unexpectedly.

• Bots: These can be secretly installed on computers and they react to external commands which are sent by the intruder.

Hacking

Hacking, cracking and cyber vandalism is also done by unauthorized persons. These terms are explained as follows:

• Hackers: These are persons who plan to expand unauthorized access to computer systems.

• Crackers: They hack computer systems with illegal intention.

• Cyber Vandalism: It is deliberate trouble making, spoiling or destroying a Website.

The various types of hackers are as follows:

• White hat

• Black hat

• Grey hat • Blue hat

Credit Card Fraud

The following are the types of frauds based on credit card:

• There may be a possibility to steal credit card information by using online purchases over the Internet.

• Hackers generally target credit card files and other customers' information on business servers that are used to steal information by providing false identity of the credit card holder.

• One solution to tackle this problem is to develop the new identity confirmation instrument.

Spoofing

The terms spoofing and Spam Websites are explained as follows:

• Spoofing: It provides wrong information by using fake e-mail addresses which threatens the integrity or authenticity of the Aebsites.

• Spam Websites: They use domain names similar to the genuine one and forward information to spam domains.

Buying and Selling

through the Internet

NOTES

Crackers: They hack computer systems with illegal intention


NOTES

Insider Jobs: A single major economic threat



Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks

These types of attacks are of the following two types:

• Denial of Service (DoS) Attack

In DoS attack, the hackers overflow the Website with useless flow of information to flood and overcome network.

• Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attack

In this attack, hackers use several computers to attack target network from various locations.

Sniffing

• Sniffing: It is a type of spying program that examines information roaming over a network and enables hackers to steal vital information from any place over the network.

• Insider Jobs: A single major economic threat.

• Badly Designed Client and Server Software: It raises the complexity of software programs that has contributed to increase the susceptibility that hackers can use.

5.4.1 Protecting Internet Communication Using Encryption

Encryption is a procedure to convert plain text or data or information into cipher text that cannot be understood by anybody other than the sender and the receiver. The purpose of encryption is to protect data. It also provides:

• Integrity of message • No denial • Authentication • Privacy

Encryption by using symmetric key:

• It is also called secret key encryption.

• To encrypt and decrypt a message, the sender and the. receiver use the same digital key.

• For each transaction, it requires a different set of keys.

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

Majority of people use symmetric key encryption offer 128, 192 and 256-bit encryption keys; other standards use keys with up to 2048 bits.

Encryption by Using Public Key

• It explains the symmetric key encryption problem by exchanging the secret key. • It utilizes two digital keys — public key and private key — which are

mathematically related.

• To encrypt and decrypt a message, the above public and private keys can be used.

• To encrypt and decrypt a message the same key cannot be used. • A sender uses the receiver's public key to encrypt the message and the receiver

uses his private key to decrypt it. Figure 5.8 shows the public key cryptographic method.

2 Recipient's public key

3 Message encrypted in cipher text

4

5 Recipient's pnvate key

.4.....41111Wiess."1 Internet

1 Original message

5 Signed cipher text

3 Recipients public key

4 Sender's private key (digital signature)

Cipher text (including hash digest)

Hash digest

7 Recipients private key

6 Sender's public key

Internet


Fig. 5.8 Public Key Cryptography

Digital signatures and hash digests are used for public key encryption. The features are

as follows:

• The receiver can confirm the integrity of data by using the application of hash function which is used by the sender prior to encryption that produces the hash

digest.

• In order to ensure authenticity and non-repudiation, double encryption is used

with digital signature.

Figure 5.9 shows public key cryptography with digital signatures.

Fig. 5.9 Public Key Cryptography with Digital Signature

NOTES

Digital Envelope

• Digital envelope deals with the weakness of public key encryption and symmetric

key encryption.

• It uses symmetric key encryption to encrypt the message but uses public key encryption for both encryption and sending. Self-Instructional Material 253

Remote Server


NOTES

Encryption — An Introduction

Encryption is basically the transformation of information into a secret code. It is a useful method to ensure data security. If users want to read an encrypted file then they must get a secret key or password that permits them to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is a plain text while an encrypted data is referred as cipher text.

There are two main forms of encryption:

(i) Asymmetric Encryption

(ii) Symmetric Encryption

Security Channels of Communications

Security channels are categorized into the following:

Security Socket Layer (SSL)

• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL): This common type of securing channels for communication is used to establish a secure negotiated session.

• Secure HTTP (S-HTTP): It is a method that provides a secure communication protocol designed for use in combination with HTTP

• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): It allows distant users to securely access networks via the Internet by using Point-to-Point Tunnelling Protocol (PPTP).

Firewalls and Proxy Servers: The Protecting Networks

• Firewall: It is the hardware or software that prevents some packets from entering the network based on a security policy, and it is also used as filters for the communications packets.

Firewall methods consist of:

o Application gateways o Packet filters

• Proxy Servers: These are server's software that control all the communications initiating from or being sent to the Internet.

Figure 5.10 shows firewalls and proxy servers.

Rgl Firewall: It is the hardware or software that prevents some packets from entering the network based on a security policy

gUN1/4 FiREWALL mit

'*---1r Clients Firewalt Web Server

PROXY SERVER

Nr. vici* Internal

a Network

Clients

Nu; Remote Server

Proxy Server

External Network

Remote Client

Fig. 5.10 Firewalls and Proxy Servers

Remote Client


Protecting Servers and Clients

Servers and clients are controlled by:

• Operating System: In this method, access control mechanism is based on authentication.

• Anti-Virus Software: These are used to protect data or information against various threats for maintaining the integrity of the system.

Digital Signature and Processing

Digital signature is a specially designed signature for signing an electronic correspondence, created by encrypting the message digest with the sender's private key. This is done in the following way:

• MAC can provide message integrity and authentication, but it has a drawback as it uses symmetric public key for encryption which the sender and the user must know in advance.

• To overcome this drawback, a new concept of digital signature has been introduced which uses asymmetric key combination that is one public and one private for encryption.

• The concept of signature is very old, as you are familiar with it. You sign a document to authenticate that document and approve it.

• Similarly, digital signature is added at the end of each message which authenticates the sender and approve the receiver that a message is sent from an authenticated source.

• The concept of digital signature, first proposed by Bailey Whitfield Diffie of Stanford University, transforms a message that is signed so that the reader of the message is sure that the message is from the actual sender.

• A block of data or a sample of the message content that represents a private key is known as message digest.

• To make a digital signature, the message digest is encrypted with the private key, in other words, a sender encrypts a message with the sender's private key to create a digital signature.

• The public key is used to check the message which was generated by using the equivalent private key, in order to verify the signature.

• The digital signature is also used to time stamp the document; then the trusted party signs the document and its time stamp with the party's secret key. This process attests that the document was presented at the stated time.

• While making a digital signature, cryptographic hash functions are used to construct the message digest.

• The hash function is a formula that converts a message of a given length into a string of digits of 128 or more. Once the message digest is encrypted with the sender's private key, it becomes a digital signature.

The process of digital signature processing is as follows:

• A sender generates a message.

• A digest of the message is created by the sender.


NOTES

Digital signature: Digital signature is a specially designed signature for signing an electronic correspondence, created by encrypting the message digest with the sender's private key


Hashing: A procedure of producing hash values for retrieving data or for security purposes

NOTES

Hash function

Mr X Message (Plain text)

e.g., ARDX 1908d1ZYPQ

Mr X Message (Plain text)

Hash function

ARDX 1908dIZYPQ

Message with signature

ARDX 1908d1ZYPQ

Yes

Message authenticate

No

Message or signature not authenticate

Cyber space or Internet


• The message digest is encrypted with the sender's private key for authentication. This is digital signature.

• Digital signature is attached to the end of the message by the sender.

• Both the message and the digital signature are encrypted by the sender with the receiver's public key.

• At the receiver's end, the message is decrypted by the receiver's private key.

• The receiver verifies the message digest for accuracy.

Hashing

Hashing is a procedure of producing hash values for retrieving data or for security purposes. The process (see Figure 5.11) is as follows:

• Hash values generate a number either from a string or a text.

• Hashing is significantly smaller than the text, and it is generated by the method in such a manner that it is highly unlikely that some other text will construct the same hash value.

Fig. 5.11 Process of Verifying a Digital Signature 256 Self-Instructional Material

gal Digital Certificate: A digital certificate, issued by a trusted certificate authority, is an electronic document that certifies the identity of sender or vendor

E-banking: E-banking is a way through which users can do their transactions electronically or online over the Internet

NOTES

Check Your Progress

6. What are the different dimensions of e-commerce security?

7. What are malicious codes?

8. What are spoofing and spam Websites?

9. What is encryption?

10. Differentiate between credit cards and debit cards.

11. What are the advantages of the Internet banking?


Buying and Selling. through the Internet Digital Certificate

A digital certificate, issued by a trusted certificate authority, is an electronic document that certifies the identity of sender or vendor. Its features are as follows:

• A digital certificate plays a vital role in securing an online transaction.

• In e-shopping, the customer wants to be sure of the vendor's identity; at the same time, the vendor also needs to be sure that he is dealing with the right

customer.

• In some cases, the digital signature is used for the vendor's identity, while in some cases the digital certificate is used.

• While doing business over the Internet, the digital certificate just like an electronic credit card, establishes one's credential for authentication.

• It is like a software program installed on your Web browser that enables you to make secure business on cyberspace.

• The digital certificate has four classes. Some digital certificates are issued for a fee; the fee for obtaining a digital certificate increases with higher class.

The classes of digital certificate are as follows:

• Class 1: These certificates are just like library cards, they are easy to issue as there is minimal checks for this certificate; only user's name, address and e-mail addresses are checked.

• Class 2: These certificates are a bit higher class than Class 1. They check for

the user's real name, social security number and date of birth; besides their name, address and e-mail address. They are similar to a credit card. When a company issues a credit card, they verify the person's identity from a trusted

third party.

• Class 3: These certificates are one of the strongest digital certificate in terms of specifics. To get these certificates, you need to prove your identity. Most of the organizations working especially for security purposes use these certificates.

• Class 4: These certificates are more thorough. In addition to Class 3 certificates, these certificates also verify your working position.

The following are the contents of a digital certificate:

• A user's basic identity information (name, address, etc.)

• Digital signature and identity information of the issuing authority.

• User's public key.

• Validity and expiry date of the digital identity.

• Class of certification.

• Certificate the number of digital identity.

5.5 E-BANKING

E-banking is a way through which users can do their transactions electronically or online over the Internet. In spite of traditional banking, e-commerce plays an important role nowadays. The following services can be availed through e-banking:

Buying and Selling Payment of Bills thmugh the Internet

Through e-banking various types of bills, such as mobile phone bills, credit card bills, electricity bill, insurance premium, and so on can be paid. The bills can be of different utility organizations, service providers, etc., all over the country. If a user wants to pay a bill, all has to do is to complete an easy one-time registration for each bill provider. A customer can also give a standing online instruction to pay his/her recurring bill automatically. The bank may nominally charge customers for online payments.

Fund Transfer

Customers can transfer their funds from one bank to another. They can send money from one place to another. To do this, the customer has to log on to his account, which mentions his bank account number. The amount is transferred within a day however, in the traditional system it could take three working days.

Credit Cards

Customers can not only pay their bills online with the help of the Internet banking, but also obtain a loan facility. If the credit card is lost, it can be reported online so that it is blocked and no one misuses it.

Railway Pass

For the common passengers, Indian Railways have tied up with different banks; so customers can buy passes online for local trains. The banks deliver the passes at their homes.

Investment through the Internet Banking

An FD (Fixed Deposit) account can be opened online through funds transfer. This is done by investors opening a dematerialized (demat) account in a bank and trade in the stock market. The amount is automatically deducted from his/her account in the bank and shares are allocated to his demat account. At the same time, banks also give the facility to purchase mutual funds online.

These days, major banks have the facility of online banking and also provide demat facility. If a customer has his/her demat accounts with independent share brokers, then he needs to fill a form which helps to combine different accounts.

Recharging Prepaid Phone

Now, customers can recharge their mobile phones through the Internet. The following are the steps: (i) Select the name of the operator and (ii) Enter the recharge amount. Within a few seconds the prepaid phone gets recharged.

Shopping

A customer can shop for any product online including buying air or railway tickets through the Internet. The amount is deducted from his account.

Advantages of the Internet Banking

As per the Internet and Mobile Association of India's report on online banking 2006, `There are several advantages of online banking. It is suitable, it is not bound by operational timings, there are no environmental barriers and can offer services at a miniscule cost.'

NOTES


Service Provider: An entity that offers services to other entities


NOTES

Through the Internet banking, users can check their transactions at any time and number of times they want. Whereas in the traditional banking, banks provided only quarterly statements to their customers. They could charge outstation fee for transferring amount to outstation or where it may not have a branch. However, this is absolutely free in online banking.

5.6 SMARTCARDS AND PLASTIC MONEY

A service provider is an entity that offers services to other entities. Usually, this refers to a business that offers subscription or Web service to other persons or businesses, for example, Web application hosting, providing the Internet access and mobile phone operator.

Internet banking is also known as e-banking. In it, a user with a Personal Computer (PC) and a browser get linked to the Website of his/her bank and performs any function which a normal bank permits. Each bank in an Internet banking system has a centralized database linked with a central server. All the available services provided by a bank through the Internet are displayed in the menu on the PC. The user can select any service and additional communication depends on the behaviour of services. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) have changed the way of banking.

In this system, a branch office of a bank is connected through a satellite or terrestrial, thus the bank requires no physical presence. It is a borderless entity allowing anywhere, anytime banking. Intranet, which is restricted to organizations that build them, connects the various branches and the central office in the organization. SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication) is an example of intranet application.

Automated Teller Machine (ATM)

ATM, designed to do some essential functions of banks, is operated by a plastic card with some special features. It has helped electronic fund transfer and contains data about customers' account and also gets new information from customers. ATMs have lessened the use of cheques, bank attendance of the customer and eliminated banking hour restrictions.

The ATM, an electronic fund transfer terminal, has the facility to handle cash deposits, transfer cash between accounts, balance enquiries, cash withdrawals and pay bills. ATMs are to two types: online and offline. The online ones help customers to avail banking facilities from anywhere. The offline services are confined to the specific ATM. A customer having an ATM card issued by the network system may perform his transactions in an ATM connected to shared payment networks and perform his transactions.

Credit Cards/Debit Cards

Credit card, also known as postpaid card, has a limit fixed by the bank which has issued it. The card holder has the power to spend whenever and wherever he/she wants with his credit card within the limits fixed by the bank. When a credit card holder uses the card to buy a merchandise, the buyer's account is debited.

On the other hand, debit card is a prepaid card. A person has to open an account with the issuing bank which gives a debit card with a personal identification



NOTES

Check Your Progress

12. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

(a) is a system that provides a method to pay for products or services by passing cash from one computer to another.

(b) are software applications that consumers install on their computer and that offer consumer convenience by automatically filling out forms at online stores.

(c) The digital credit card system is used as an online shopping payment tools which is used to extend the functionality of credit cards.

(d) Electronic cheques are basically the


(a) Electronic cheques are very useful and suitable to clear the micro payments.

(b) Online stored value payment system is an online payment system in which the maximum amount of purchase depends on the value stored in a digital account.

(c) Accumulating balance payment systems are accounts that never accumu late expenditures and to which consumers make periodic payments.

(d) Advanced secure digital cheques have been specifically designed for corporate cheques using the Chip and Pin solution.


number. Whenever a person uses this card, money gets transferred to its account from the bank of the card holder.

When a purchase is made either by a debit card or a credit card, the card has to be swiped in an electronic machine, it dials the bank's system which validates the pin and asks the issuing bank whether to accept or decline the transaction. The customer is not allowed to overspend because the system rejects any transaction that exceeds the balance in his account.

Smart Card

Smart cards are cards that have chips added to already existing magnetic stripe cards to enhance security and provide new service. These cards permit large volume of information to be stored on magnetic stripe cards. At the same time, these cards are reliable and secure and perform numerous functions. A large amount of personal information, such as health, medical history to personal banking and their choices, is stored on them.

5.7 SUMMARY

Some of the important concepts discussed in this unit are: • A digital wallet is encrypted software that works during e-transactions, such as

a physical wallet.

• Digital cash is a system that provides a method to pay for products or services by passing cash from one computer to another. Digital cash numbers are unique, which is just like a serial number that appears on bills.

• Online stored value payment system is an online payment system in which the maximum amount of purchase depends on the value stored in a digital account.

• The portable storage and retrieval of data is the significant function of stored value or smart cards. These applications have evolved from existing electronic funds transfer mechanisms using debit cards, such as prepaid cards and copy machine cards.

• The digital credit card system is used as an online shopping payment tools which is used to extend the functionality of existing credit cards.

• Electronic cheques are basically the electronic tokens. These are specifically designed to provide accommodation to those individuals and entities who desire to pay by credit card or via any other way except paying direct cash.

• In cash and transfer scenario process, the payer gives a cheque to the payee and the payee sends a request for the cheque to the payer's bank, which is notified to the payee.

• In lockbox scenario case the payer pays the cheque to the payee's bank, which gives it to the payer's bank for clearance and provides a report to the payee.

• In a fund transfer scenario, the payer pays cheques to the payer bank. The payer bank then electronically transfers the funds to the payee bank. The payee bank provides the report to the payee.

• Security of data in e-commerce is a very important aspect when customers transact through Websites. The main concern of business through the Internet is

that no unauthorized users can access information either intentionally or

unintentionally.

• Viruses have the capability to duplicate and multiply into different files. A large number of viruses also distribute or contain different types of viruses, such as file infecting viruses and script viruses.

• Worms are specially planned to spread from one computer to another computer.

• Trojan Horse appears to be benign in the beginning, but then infects unexpectedly.

• Hacking, cracking and cyber vandalism is done by unauthorized persons.

• Hackers are persons who plan to expand unauthorized access to computer systems. Hackers generally target credit card files and other customers' information on business servers that are used to steal information by providing false identity of the credit card holder.

• Spoofing provides wrong information by using fake e-mail addresses which threatens the integrity or authenticity of the Websites.

• Spam Websites use domain names similar to the genuine one and forward information to spam domains. In DoS attack, the hackers overflow the Website with useless flow of information to flood and overcome network.

• Sniffing is a type of spying program that examines information roaming over a network and enables hackers to steal vital information from any place over the

network.

• Encryption is a procedure to convert plain text or data or information into cipher text that cannot be understood by anybody other than the sender and the receiver. The purpose of encryption is to protect data.

• Digital signatures and hash digests are used for public key encryption. In order to ensure authenticity and non-repudiation, double encryption is used with digital

signature.

• E-banking is a way through which users can do their transactions electronically or online over the Internet. In spite of traditional banking, e-commerce plays an important role nowadays.

• Smart cards are cards that have chips added to already existing magnetic stripe cards to enhance security and provide new service. These cards permit large volume of information to be stored on magnetic stripe cards.


NOTES


1. Digital wallet is an encrypted software that works during e-transactions, such as a physical wallet. A wallet can be used to hold payment information about a user; identify the user and provide digital certificate to him/her. The customer is benefited because their information is encrypted against piracy and the wallets will automatically distribute and input information at the commercial site and will provide the paying option to customers with the help of cheque or digital cash. Business is benefited by guarding against any fraud.

2. Online stored value payment system is a payment system in which the maximum amount of purchase depends on the value stored in a digital account. The digital



NOTES

account depends upon the amount stored in the bank, cheque, credit card account, etc. It is also a type of online debit account.

3. Accumulated balance digital payment systems are used to create micro payment and purchases over the Internet. The shoppers can get their statement as per their convenience, such as through the telephone bill, electricity bill, or the Internet bill.

4. Digital cheque payment system is an expansion over the conventional cheque system that can be used for online payment over the Internet. It is less costly than credit cards and much quicker than conventional paper-based cheques.

5. By linking the business with online distribution, a retailer can save his existence. Additional information about various things to the consumers can be provided easily, fulfill the electronic orders and check their authenticity, and stay in touch with their consumers anytime. Therefore, e-commerce is a good opportunity.

6. The different dimensions of e-commerce security are as follows: • Integrity: Afacility to make sure that information being demonstrated on a

Website or broadcast or received from the Internet could not be changed by any unauthorized user.

• No repudiation: Afacility to ensure that e-commerce contributor does no disagree with the online events.

• Authenticity Afacility to recognize the identity of an individual or entity to which you deal through the Internet.

• Confidentiality: A facility to make sure that messages and information are made available only to those who are authorized to see them.

• Privacy: A facility to control the use of information about itself. • Availability: Afacility to make sure that an e-commerce site continues to

perform functions as planned.

7. The following are known as malicious codes:

• Viruses: They have the ability to duplicate and multiply to other files. Most viruses also distribute or include macro viruses, file infecting viruses and script viruses.

• Worms: These are specially planned to spread from one computer to another computer.

• Trojan Horses: They appear to be benign in the beginning, but then infects unexpectedly.

• Bots: These can be secretly installed on computers and react to external commands which are sent by the intruder.

8. Spoofing and spam Websites have been explained as follows:

• Spoofing Websites: It provides wrong information by using fake e-mail addresses which threatens the integrity or authenticity of the Websites.

• Spam Websites: It uses domain names similar to genuine ones and forward information to spam domains.


9. Encryption is basically the transformation of information into a secret code. It is a useful method to get data security. If users want to read an encrypted file, then they must get a secret key or password that permits them to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is a plain text while an encrypted data is referred to as cipher text.

10. Credit card, also known as postpaid card, has a limit fixed by the bank which has issued it. The card holder has the power to spend whenever and wherever he/she wants with his credit card within the limits fixed by the bank. When a credit card holder uses the card to buy merchandise, the buyers account is debited.

On the other hand, debit card is a prepaid card. A person has to open an account with the issuing bank which gives a debit card with a personal identification number. Whenever a person uses this card, money gets transferred to his account from the bank of the card holder.

11. There are many advantages of Internet banking. It is convenient, it is not bound by operational timings, there are no geographical barriers and the services can be offered at a miniscule cost.

12. (a) Digital cash; (b) Client-based digital wallets; (c) Existing; (d) Electronic tokens

13. (a) True; (b) True; (c) False; (d) True



1. What is electronic payment system? Write its advantages and disadvantages.

2. What is the need of electronic payment system?

3. Differentiate the traditional payment systems from electronic payment systems. 4. Write short notes on:

a. Digital wallets b. Digital cash c. E-cheque d. Electronic fund transfer e. Electronic credit cards

5. List the four security requirements for safe electronic payment.

6. What is the difference between open and closed stored cards?

7. Compare secure socket layer and secure electronic transaction.

8. Compare and contrast the contact and contactless cards.

9. How an e-cheque is different from a paper cheque? 10. What are the DoS attacks?

11. What is the significance of Internet banking?


NOTES




1. What are the media used for electronic payment? Explain with the help of examples.

2. Describe the relation between EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer) and debit cards.

3. Explain the types of e-cash.

4. Explain why traditional payment system is inadequate for e-commerce.

5. What are micropayment systems? What is their requirement for EPS? How does such system enable economical payment? Discuss.

6. How will you distinguish a regular debit card from a stored value card? Describe with the help of example.

7. Discuss the issues related to cross border payment.

8. Discuss the best payment systems for B2C and B2B transactions. Give reasons in support of your answer.

9. Distinguish between: (a) Atomicity and isolation. (b) Scalability and interoperability. (c) Consistency and durability. (d) Authentication and interoperability. (e) Authentication and authorization.

10. What are the characteristics of e-money? Describe with the help of example.

11. What is unique about the e-wallet? How does it differ from real money? How does it work? Explain with the help of example and illustration.

12. Why would anyone with a credit card want to use an electronic cash system on the Web? Discuss using suitable illustration.

13. Explain the process of digital signal processing.

14. Explain the use of stnartcards.

NOTES


Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) UNIT 6 ELECTRONIC DATA

INTERCHANGE (EDI) NOTES


Structure

6.0 Introduction 6.1 Unit Objectives 6.2 Electronic Data Interchange and Enterprise Resource Planning System 6.3 Emergence of Data Mining and Data Warehousing

6.3.1 Evolution of Data Mining and Data Warehousing 6.4 Data Mining 6.5 Data Warehousing (DWH) 6.6 Developing a Data Mining and Warehousing Framework

6.6.1 Data Mining and Warehousing Challenges 6.6.2 Impact of Data Mining and Warehousing

6.7 Online Office Suites and Paperless Office 6.8 Telecommunications

6.8.1 Components and Functions of a Telecommunications System 6.9 Teleconferencing

6.10 Telecommuting or Telework 6.11 Virtual Team 6.12 Virtual Business 6.13 Summary 6.14 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 6.15 Question and Exercises

6.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about Electronic Data Interchange (EDI). EDI is defined as `the computer-to-computer transfer of information in a structured and predetermined format'. You will also learn about data mining and warehousing. Data mining and data warehousing have now become familiar terms not only for computer professionals, but also for most decision-makers. A rapid growth has taken place in developing a technology surrounding them, with most of the leading companies of the world creating products and services to exploit their potential. It, therefore, brings out an underlying fact before us, that is, a technology is an outcome of business needs. In this case, it was an inescapable and urgent requirement of the business community to have a powerful, online decision-making tool to support and substantiate its own intuitive thought processes. You will also learn about teleconferencing, and telecommuting or telework.

Finally, you will also learn about virtual team and virtual business. A virtual team is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by communication through Web. Members of virtual teams communicate electronically and may never meet face-to-face. It allows companies to procure the best talent without geographical restrictions. Avirtual business refers to an electronic means to transact business as opposed to a traditional business that relies on face-to-face transactions with physical currency.

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): It is the computer-to--computer transfer of information in a structured and predetermined format'

NOTES


Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) 6.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES


• Explain about EDI and its benefits

• Trace the evolution of data mining and data warehousing

• Know the components of data mining and data warehousing systems

• Understand the complementary relationship between data mining and warehousing

• Learn the steps involved in the implementation of data mining and warehousing architecture

• Identify the problems associated with data mining and data warehousing frameworks

• Know the role of data mining and data warehousing in strategic decision-making

• Learn about telecommunication and its components

• Explain the significance of teleconferencing and video conferencing

• Describe telecommuting or telework

• Learn about virtual team

• Discuss about virtual business

6.2 ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE AND ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING SYSTEM

Earlier, companies used paper for conducting business. They used to enter data into a business application, print the form containing data, and mail this form to a trading partner. The exchange of information between companies relied heavily on the postal system. The trading partner, after receiving the form, used to re-key the data into another business application. Inherent in this process are poor response times and excessive paperwork and the potential for errors as information is transcribed. The use of the postal system can add days to the exchange process. The advent of business computers has enabled companies to process data electronically, that is, exchanging information via electronic means. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is defined as `the computer-to-computer transfer of information in a structured and predetermined format'.

Genesis of ERP: In 1990 Gartner Inc. an information technology research and advisory firm headquartered in USA first employed the acronym ERP as an extension of, Material Requirement Planning (MRP). later Manufacturing Resource Planning and Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). Without supplanting these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole, reflecting the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing. Not all ERP packages were developed from a manufacturing core. Vendors variously began with accounting, maintenance and human resources. By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core functions of an enterprise. Beyond corporations, governments and non—profit organizations also began to employ ERP systems.

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

ERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s because Year2K (Y2K) problem and introduction of the Euro disrupted legacy systems. Many companies took this opportunity to replace such systems with ERP.

ERP systems initially focused on automating back-office functions that did not directly affect customers and the general public. Front office functions, such as Customer Relationship Management (CRM) dealt directly with customers, or e-business systems, such as e-commerce, e-government, e-telecom and e-finance or Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) became integrated later, when the Internet simplified communicating with external parties.

ÈRP II' was coined in the early 2000s. It describes Web based software that allows both employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers) real-time access to the systems. The role of ERP II expands from the resource optimization and transaction processing of traditional ERP to leveraging the information involving those resources in the enterprise's efforts to collaborate with other enterprises, not just to conduct e-commerce buying and selling. ERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERR Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems. Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems.

Two-Tier Enterprise Resource Planning: Two-tier ERP comprises software and hardware that allows companies to run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level. For example, a manufacturing company uses an ERP system to manage across the organization. This company uses independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company's customers. Each independent center or subsidiary may have their own business model, workflows and business processes.

Given the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value. With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems. Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.

Factors affecting enterprises adopting two-tier ERP systems are the globalization of manufacturing or the economics of sourcing in emerging economies, the potential for quicker and less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries based on selecting a software product more suited to smaller companies and any extra effort required where data must pass between the two ERP systems. Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the entire organization.

NOTES

ERP Characteristics Features

The following are the characteristic features of ERP systems:

• An integrated system that operates in real time (or next to real time), without relying on periodic updates.



• A common database, which supports all applications.

• A consistent look and feel throughout each module.

• Installation of the system without elaborate application/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department provided the implementation is not done in small steps.

Functional Areas of ERP

The following are common functional areas covered in an ERP System. In many ERP Systems these are called and grouped together as ERP Modules:

• Financial Accounting: Cash Management, Management of Fixed Assets, Payables, Receivables and Financial Consolidation, General Ledger.

• Costing: Activity Based Costing, Cost Management.

• Management Accounting: Budgeting, Capital Budgeting, Simulation.

• Human Resources Recruiting: Training, Payroll, Benefits, Diversity Management, Retirement, Separation.

• Manufacturing: Engineering, Bill for Materials, Work Orders, Scheduling, Capacity, Work Flow, Manufacturing Process, Manufacturing Projects, Manufacturing Flow, Product Life Cycle.

• Supply Chain Management: Logistics, Supplier Scheduling, Supply Chain Planning, Order to Cash, Purchasing, Inventory, Product Configuration, Claim Processing.

• Project Management: Project Planning, Resource Planning, Project Costing, Work Break Down Structure, Billing, Income/Expenditure Booking, Billing, Time and Expense, Performance Units, Activity Management.

• Customer Relationship Management: Sales and Marketing, Commissions, Service, Customer Contact, Call Centre Support.

• Data Services: Various 'Self-Service' Interfaces for Customers, Suppliers and/or Employees.

Components of ERP

The following are the significant components of an ERP system:

• Transactional Database.

• Management Portal/Dashboard.

• Business Intelligence System.

• Customizable Reporting.

• External Access via Technology, such as Web Services.

• Document Management.

• Messaging/Chat/Wiki.

• Workflow Management.

Best Practices to be Incorporated into ERP: Most ERP systems incorporate best practices. This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in how conveniently the

NOTES


customer can modify these practices. Companies that implemented industry best practices reduced time-consuming project tasks, such as configuration, documentation, testing and training. In addition, best practices reduced risk by 71% when compared

to other software implementations.

The use of best practices eases compliance with requirements, such as International Financial Reporting Standards (MRS), Company Law, or Basel II or III.

They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as EFT or Electronic Funds Transfer. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses who share that

business requirement.

Modularity: Most systems are modular to permit automating some functions but not others. Some common modules, such as finance and accounting, are adopted by nearly all users; others, such as human resource management are not. For example, a service company probably has no need for a manufacturing module. Other companies already have a system they believe is adequate. Generally speaking, the greater the number of modules selected, the greater the integration benefits, but also the greater

the costs, risks and changes involved.

Connectivity to Floor Level Information: ERP systems connect to real—

time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by system integrators, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment and vendor

solutions.

Direct Integration: ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant

floor equipment) as part of their product offering. This requires the vendors to offer specific support for the plant floor equipment that their customers operate. ERP vendors must be expert in their own products and connectivity to other vendor products,

including competitors.

Database Integration: ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through

staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the system integrator.

Enterprise Appliance Transaction Modules (EATM): EATM communicates

directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, Web Services, or system—specific Application Program Interfaces (APIs). The benefit of an EATM is that it offers an

off—the—shelf solution.

Custom-Integration Solutions: Many system integrators offer custom solutions.

These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom-integrated solutions typically run on workstation or server class computers.

Implementation: ERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices. Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes—consulting, customization and support. Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular


NOT FS



NOTES

ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise consumes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants. Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years. Customization can substantially increase implementation times.

Process Preparation: Implementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes. Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure. It is, therefore, crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze business processes before implementation. This analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that the risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:

• Linking current processes to the organization's strategy. • Analyzing the effectiveness of each process. • Understanding existing automated solutions.

ERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies and decision centers. This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (for example, linking via Master Data Management) customizing the system to meet specific needs.

A potential disadvantage is that adopting 'standard' processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.

Configuration: Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the customer wants the system to work with the way it was designed to work. ERP systems typically build many changeable parameters that modify system operation. For example, an organization can select the type of inventory accounting- FIFO (First In First Out) or LIFO (Last In First Out), to employ, whether to recognize revenue by geographical unit, product line or distribution channel and whether to pay for shipping costs when a customer returns a purchase.

Customization: Vendors do offer customers configuration options that allow organizations to incorporate their own business rules but there are often functionality gaps remaining even after the configuration is complete. ERP customers have several options to reconcile functionality gaps, each with their own pros/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered functionality, writing a homegrown bolt-on/add-on module within the ERP system or interfacing to an external system. All three of these options are varying degrees of system customization, with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain. Alternatively, there are non-technical options, such as changing business practices and/or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP functionality.

Extensions: ERP systems can be extended with third—party software. ERP vendors typically provide access to data and functionality through published interfaces.

Data Migration: Data migration is the process of moving/copying and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration


is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention.

Advantages: The fundamental advantage of ERP is that integrating myriad businesses processes saves time and expense. Management can make decisions faster and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include:

• Sales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization.

• Chronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.

• Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment.

• Revenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt.

• Matching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced).

• They eliminate the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems—consolidation of finance, marketing and sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications.

• They bring legitimacy and transparency in each bit of statistical data.

• They enable standard product naming or coding.

• They provide a comprehensive enterprise view (no 'islands of information'). They make real-time information available to management anywhere, any time to make proper decisions.

• They protect sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure.

• ERP can greatly improve the quality and efficiency of a business. By keeping a company's internal business process running smoothly, ERP can lead to better outputs that benefit the company, such as customer service and manufacturing.

• ERP provides support to upper level management to provide them with critical decision making information. This decision support allows the upper level management to make managerial choices that enhance the business down the road.

• ERP also creates a more agile company that can better adapt to situations and changes. ERP makes the company more flexible and less rigidly structured in an effort to allow the different parts of an organization to become more cohesive, in turn, enhancing the business both internally and externally.

Disadvantages: Recognized ERP limitations have sparked new trends in ERP application development. Development is taking place in four significant areas: more flexible ERR Web-enable ERR inter-enterprise ERP and e-business suites. Each of these potentially addresses current ERP failings.

• Customization is problematic.

• Re-engineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.

• ERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.


NOTES

•


Business Application

Internal Format Conversion

EDI Translator

EDI Envelope for Document Messaging

Business Application

Internal Format Conversion

EDI Translator

EDI Envelope for Document Messaging

Private value added network (VAN) or

Public Internet

Company A Company B

Modem

• • •

Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) • High ERP switching costs can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power,

which can result in higher support, maintenance and upgrade expenses.

• Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.

• Integration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.

• Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.

• Due to ERP's architecture (OLTP, On-Line Transaction Processing) ERP systems are not well suited for production planning and Supply Chain Management (SCM)

• Harmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning and money.

How does EDI Work?

EDI software has four layers, namely business application, internal format conversion, EDI translator and EDI envelope for document messaging (see Figure 6.1). At the sender's side, these four layers make a package of the information and then this package is sent over the value-added network to the target side where the four layers follow the reverse process to obtain the original information.

Fig. 6.1 EDI Transmission of Information

The first layer (business application) in the EDI process creates a document, i.e., an invoice, in a software application. This software application uses the internal format conversion to convert the document into the form an EDI translator can understand. and sends the document to an EDI translator. An EDI translator automatically reformats the invoice into the agreed EDI standard by both the business entities. Then this business information is passed on to the EDI envelope for document messaging, where business

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) information is wrapped in the electronic envelope of the 'EDI package' and it is mailed to the trading partner over VANs. The receiving trading partner receives this 'EDI package' and the process is reversed to obtain the original invoice in the format the receiving trading partner can understand, and it is sent to the application to process the

invoice. To understand the process of EDI, consider an example of an organization that

has to send purchase orders to different manufacturers. To accomplish this, the steps

below are followed.

1. Preparation of Electronic Documents: The first step is to collect and organize

the data by the organization's internal application systems. Rather than printing out purchase orders, the system builds an electronic file of purchase orders.

2. Outbound Translation: The next step is to translate this electronic file into a standard format. The resulting data file will contain a series of structured transactions related to the purchase orders. Note that the EDI translation software

will produce a separate file for each manufacturer.

3. Communication: The organization's computer automatically makes a connection with its value-added network and transmits all the files that have been prepared. The VAN will process each file, routing it to the appropriate electronic mailbox for each manufacturer. In case of manufacturers not subscribed to the organization's VAN, the files are automatically routed to the appropriate network

service.

4. Inbound Translation: The manufacturers retrieve the files from their electronic

mailboxes as per their convenience, and reverse the process that the organization went through, translating the file from the standard purchase order format to the specific format required by the manufacturer's application software.

5. Processing Electronic Documents: Each manufacturer processes the purchase

orders received in their internal application systems.

Benefits of EDI

EDI offers a number of benefits, some of which are as follows:

• Speed: Information between computers moves more rapidly, and with little or no human intervention. Sending an electronic message across the country takes

minutes or less.

• Accuracy: The alternate means of document transfer suffer from the major drawback of requiring re-entry into the recipient's application system, with the

possibility of keying errors. But information that passes directly between

computers without having to be re-entered eliminates the chances of transcription errors. There is almost no chance that the receiving computer will invert digits,

or add an extra digit.

• Economy: The cost of sending an electronic document is not more than the regular first class postage. In addition, the cost has also reduced due to the elimination of re-keying of data, human handling, routing and delivery. The net result is a substantial reduction in the cost of transaction.

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (ED!)

NOTES


6.3 EMERGENCE OF DATA MINING AND DATA WAREHOUSING

Data mining and data warehousing have now become familiar terms not only for computer professionals, but also for most decision-makers. A rapid growth has taken place in developing a technology surrounding them, with most of the leading companies of the world creating products and services to exploit their potential. It, therefore, brings out an underlying fact before us, that is, a technology is an outcome of business needs. In this case, it was an inescapable and urgent requirement of the business community to have a powerful, online decision-making tool to support and substantiate its own intuitive thought processes. It thus, resulted in the development of data mining and warehousing technology.

There are cases when an organization buys a technology first and then takes views of experts in knowing about its use. Such organizations are impressed by the display of products and have no prior knowledge of using technology in business. These organizations share the experience of developers. When using technology for marketing, the most important area falls in the realm of CRM (Customer Relation Management). Organizations share experience of system developers since they have experience with various types of clients having different size of business and different areas, such as financial services, industrial operations, automobile manufacturing, and so on.

Handling marketing strategies requires lot of attention and this has lead to the introduction of sophisticated campaign management software which can execute campaigns having great complexity. They can handle different market segments and track market response from different channels.

Developers have also introduced business intelligence software enabling measurement and tracking of campaigns very easy System developers play an important role in improving the businesses by careful market analysis so as to improve their business function. Developers have also created models that can perform very sophisticated tracking and reporting for daily updates. Timely updates based on feedback from the market are an essential factor for a successful business operation. There is strategic information related to the moves of competitors which cannot be ignored as it requires adoption of certain short term as well as long-term strategies. Today's business atmosphere is highly competitive and apart from response generation, actual revenue generation is the focus.

In the initial stages, marketing personnel handling advertising were reluctant to do analysis based on customer behaviour, organizational issues and market challenges. Developers, at times, find difficulty in getting access to data. But when the system was built with partial data, developers were able to convince top executives who started implementing it in making decisions. With the use of data mining technology many models are made such that data feeds are automated, thereby giving results within a week.

Many data mining tools have appeared during the past decade and further advancements are being made. The reason for popularity of data mining tools in business environment can be attributed to their user-friendliness and not much of knowledge of statistics is needed to handle these models. Quadstone, one of the data visualizations


tools, has enabled users to explore large quantities of data without much knowledge of statistics. After using such explorations formal statistical models can be run. Developers have created real-time analytical engines that have enabled companies to carry out analyses of customer behaviour in real-time mode and react in personalized ways, almost instantaneously.

IT Solutions for Strategic Decision-Making

Information technology has emerged as a powerful business driver and an essential component for the companies to give them a competitive advantage in the challenging market scenario. Each and every aspect of IT is being closely examined and integrated into business activities. But by far, the very existence of the industry depends on strategic decisions taken by its top management, because these decisions are translated by its middle level and operational staff into actions. Data mining and warehousing TT solutions have taken strategic decision-making beyond the realm of conventional MIS and Operational Information System (OIS). Figure 6.2 shows the types of information system.

Information Systems

NOTES


Operational Information System

ERP, CRM, SCM, etc.

Management Information System

DSS, EIS, Expert Systems, etc.

Fig. 6.2 Types of Information System

An organization after becoming well acquainted with the quantitative decision-making techniques and starts using `whats', 'whys' and 'what ifs' in the dynamic business environment can use the model for predictive purposes. This is stage 2. Getting an understanding after pondering over various alternatives produced by various 'what ifs' about 'what next' enables proactive management of organizational strategy. Data warehousing uses tools for data mining in creating predictive models and historical details are collected for this purpose.

Construction of models and scoring them, require intense workload. This involves derivation of very high number of complex metrics requiring more than a million observations that form the basis of training the predictive algorithms to realize a set of business objectives, specific to the adopted strategy. Scoring is done, using millions of observations before constructing the model.

Complex mathematical functions are used for methods of advanced data mining methods. Functions employed are: trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential and sophisticated statistical functions to develop predictive characteristics. For developing predictive power of an algorithm, access to detailed data is essential. SAS and Quadstone are vendors who provide tools for development of complex models. These models require direct access to data warehouse having relational structure. End-users of such models are less in number, but consume more than 50 per cent of the machine


cycles during peak periods. This is attributable to the complexity of data access and data volume that is handled in an environment of data mining.

Focus on End-Users

Data mining and warehousing, as we have seen have been developed for managers and top-level executives to assist them in reaching decisions based not only on facts and figures seen superficially, but also for drawing inferences from hidden and widely dispersed uncorrelated data. The focus of the system is on end-users and meeting their requirements by offering simple interfaces. It is essential to keep the front-end tools simple, less complicated and user-friendly. Experts have to create a system keeping in view the technical limitations of end-users, their lack of understanding of the system capabilities in the initial stages and support them to achieve the desired result.

6.3.1 Evolution of Data Mining and Data Warehousing

Data mining and data warehousing have grown to their full potential today after passing through a number of clearly demarcated stages. Prior to 1970s we had the flat files and databases (see Figure 6.3). The emphasis then was on data collection and database creation. A manager was able to use them only for simplifying his/her day-to-day tasks.

These were further developed into a Database Management System (DBMS) from the 1970s to the early 1980s, offering advantages such as concurrent, shared or distributed access, ensuring consistency and providing information security, providing the backbone for reports and supporting the conventional MIS and OIS features.

Later on, DBMS followed the three below mentioned growth paths.

(a) Advanced Database Systems: Development started in the 1980s and is still in progress. They include object-relational, spatial, temporal and biological database systems.

(b) Data Warehousing and Data Mining: This started evolving in the 1980s and is still progressing in the form of knowledge discovery and data mining, data warehousing and Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) technologies. Their full potential was not realized due to a large number of limitations of the hardware, networking and software constraints of the earlier years.

(c) Web-Based Database Systems: The development is on from the 1990s and is still progressing. These systems are based on the phenomenal reach of the Internet, XML-based systems, web technology and web mining.

1980 till today

Advanced Database

• Flat Files, Database

DBMS Data

Mining ko., Integrated

Database

1960-1970 1970-1980 2000 onwards

Web Database

276 Self-Instructional Material Fig. 6.3 Development of Database Management System

NOTES

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) The latest trend is the integrated information systems based on the above three which

paved way for the revolutionary development in decision-making in the corporate

world. Recent development in data warehousing has brought new models enabling

real-time data access, data analysis (both structured and unstructured) and synchronization between core customer and product information in the operational systems which gives a single view of the whole enterprise. Such changes have resulted due to increased requirements of new businesses that need to use enterprise information more effectively to meet the following objectives:

• Identification of new opportunities for fast delivery of new products to

market.

• Optimization of business processes using real-time information system and

analytics.

• Increased visibility on performance of business activities and results.

• Developing a standard for industry-level compliance in reporting.

Requirement for context oriented, inline information is being felt by more and more users. Definition of performance so that it can be indicated by a number or symbol, known as Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) is required for performance monitoring in real-time mode. Modern models have embedded business intelligence controlling

key business processes. Creation of a true enterprise view of information, supporting strategic and

operational business functions, data warehouses have to be reoriented to act as a dynamic source of all types of information, current as well as historical. Dynamic warehousing enables organizations to visualize more dynamic business insights, achieved by integrating, transforming, harvesting and analysing insights using both structured and unstructured information. Vast information processing capability of a dynamic warehousing infrastructure enables an organization to handle unscheduled analysis requests by responding on demand to such requests. These models have the capability to trigger events that provide 24x7 information.

Data warehouse platform is the key component of a dynamic warehouse environment. The platform for implementing dynamic warehousing should have:

• PT (Process Transactions) and AR (Analytical Requests).

• Capacity to handle variables on Service Level Agreements (SLA).

• Scalability to handle the growing number of applications.

• Capability to analyse both structured as well as unstructured data.

• Embedded real-time analytics for business processes.

• Capability to support advanced analytics (data mining within the data warehouse).

NOTES


Dynamic warehouse: It has extended infrastructure leveraging metadata to extend the data warehouse, to operational systems as well as traditional business intelligence applications

NOTES

Data mining: It means locating, identifying and finding unforeseen information from a large database


mg APepopplileea, tiProocnsesses

Repositories, Applications

PROCESS MANAGEMENT

INDUSTRY MODELS

MDM DATA WAREHOUSE

DATA INTEGRATION SERVICES

SEARC.II & TEXT ANALYTICS

ENTIat PIMP DATA MODELLNG


Fig. 6.4 Dynamic Warehousing Environment

A dynamic warehouse has extended infrastructure (see Figure 6.4) leveraging metadata to extend the data warehouse, to operational systems as well as traditional business intelligence applications.

Further, to having a dynamic warehousing with right data warehouse platform a dynamic warehouse requires an extended infrastructure as shown in the Figure 6.4. These are:

• Changes can be implemented in the model without affecting usage. • Monitoring and analysis of data sources for content and structure to ensure

access to the best data for each application.

• Provision of proper tools enabling collaboration of business users and IT staff on data requirements and definitions.

• Show results of impact analysis and data lineage to coordinate changes and provide visibility to critical data flows.

• Show results of data cleaning and harmonizing to the warehouse regardless of volume or latency requirements.

• Synchronizing master data for key business entities across operational systems.

Real-time systems of this kind will increase in demand and more business houses will be attracted to such solutions against their rising needs.

6.4 DATA MINING

Data mining means locating, identifying and finding unforeseen information from a large database. The information is one which is interesting to the end-user. It can also be understood as a data analysis based on searching or learning dependent on deduction.

A data pattern discovered through a database search is considered interesting, if it is easily understood, is valid on a new or test data with some degree of uncertainty, potentially useful and is noveL Interesting patterns are identified by objective parameters which are combined with subjective requirements to reflect the needs and interests of a particular user.


NOTES

Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery

Data Milli1v1 is devoted specifically to the processes involved in the extraction of useful inforr Aron by applying specific techniques based on certain knowledge domains. These are based on statistics, artificial intelligence, and so on. However, knowledge discovery is a wide term and is the entire range of activities right from deciding business objectives, capturing desired data, preparing, processing, arranging them, applying predefined techniques and then presenting them in an understandable form to the user. To say specifically, knowledge discovery can be subdivided into five specific steps which are performed repetitively till the desired result is reached, and one of them is data mining.

(i) Data processing comprising data selection, data cleaning and data integration.

(ii) Data transformation and organization in a form ready for fast access.

(iii) Data Mining (DM engine) and other techniques, such as OLAP or Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) for searching and extraction.

(iv) Knowledge presentation methods through Graphical User Interface (GUI).

(v) Analysing results and assimilating them in a knowledge domain.

Figure 6.5 shows the steps in knowledge discovery..

Data Processing

Data Transformation

Data Mining Engine

4, Knowledge Presentation

through GUI

Result Analysis

Fig. 6.5 Steps in Knowledge Discovery

We can thus consider data mining as a subset of knowledge discovery.

Data mining software is an analytical tool used for data analysis. Users can analyse data from different angles, classify/categorize it, and then summarize the identified relationships. Technologically, data mining follows the process of finding correlations or patterns among many fields having large relational databases.

Data mining technology is not new but the term 'data mining' is new. Companies in the past have handled large databases using powerful computers for market research. Continuous advancement in processing power of computer and statistical software are enabling more use of accurate analysis at a lower cost.



NOTES

Nature of Data to be Mined—Operational and Analytical

Data mining is an essential step towards the creation of information systems. These are operational information systems, such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) or Management Information Systems (MIS) including Decision Support System (DSS). DSS assists managers in taking decisions based on available unstructured data and to validate their intuitive judgements. OIS and DSS have their own requirements of data structures and databases.

The data in turn is categorized as operational data which is dynamic in nature and meets short-term goals. Another category is analytical data that has a longer time span and supports intuitive decisions. Operational database supports transaction processing through Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) queries. Analytical database meets the Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) requirements of DSS.

Table 6.1 shows the differences in database requirements for OLTP and DSS.

Table 6.1 Differences in Database (DB) Requirements for OLTP and DSS

Characteristic DB for OLTP DB for OLAP Needs

1. Nature of content Dynamic Static

2. Time span Current Historical

3. Time measured Implicit, implied Explicit and mentioned

4. Level of detail/granularity Primitive/detailed Detailed and derived

5. Update cycle Real time Periodic, planned

6. Tasks Known pattern, Repetitive Unpredictable

7. Response Time bound Flexible

OLTP and OLAP

Having seen the database requirements of OLTP and DSS, let us now differentiate the query systems associated with each. These are OLTP and OLAP. OLTP fulfils the requirements of OIS well, as the queries are simple in nature. OLAP, on the other hand, addresses the needs of defining more complex queries and requires novel databases in the form of MultiDimensional and Multi-Relational Databases (MDDB and MRDB, respectively) to provide back-end support.

Table 6.2 shows the comparison of the features of OLAP and OLTP.

Table 6.2 Differences between OLAP and OLTP Features Make a Table

Feature OLTP OLAP

1. Meant for OLS MIS/DSS

2. Purpose Supports transaction For analysis

3. End-user Operations level, DB specialists Knowledge worker

4. Function Daily operations Long-term needs

5. DB design ER based, application oriented Star/snowflake schemas, Subject oriented

6. Data Current, up-to-date Historical


Online Analytical Processing (OLAP):

This is a methodology that provides end-users, fast access to large amounts of data in an intuitive manner for assisting deductions which is based on i nvestigative reasoning

7. Work unit

8. Access mode

9. Based on

10. Operations

11. Number of records

12. Number of users

13. DB size

14. Priority

15. Measure

Short, simple transaction

Both read/write

Data inputs

Operation on primary key

accessed Few

Large number

In MB/GB

High performance and availability

Transactions throughput

Aggregated

Multidimensional, multi-relational

Complex query

Mostly read

Derived information

Multiple scans

Many

Selected

In over 100GB to TB

High flexibility, End-user autonomy

Specific query

7. Summarization Primitive, highly detailed

8. View Relational

Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI)

NOTES

Online Transaction Processing (OLTP)

Databases can be split into various categories on the basis of their application and requirements. The most popular method is OLTP which stands for Online Transaction Processing. Other methods include Decision Support Systems (DSS), Data

Warehouses and Data Marts.

OLTP databases handle real-time transactions having some inherent and special requirements. A person managing a store should ensure efficient updating alongside purchases tables and customer tables. OLTP databases should have atomicity in operation. Transactions must be atomic in nature which means that an entire transaction should be completed or aborted, and each data should be consistent, isolated and durable. All these factors are essential for running a successful OLTP database.

OLTP databases act like front line warriors. A database should be extremely robust and scalable to meet growing needs. An undersized database for DSS database might shift your schedule before time but due to an undersized database in OLTP you will loose customers. If OLTP database is unable to update within 15 seconds, order bookings cannot be done from an online book store.

OLTP have features of 'row-level locking'. A given record in a table may be locked from updates by other processes till transactions on that record is complete. It

is similar to mutex locks in POSIX threading.

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

This is a methodology that provides end-users, fast access to large amounts of data in an intuitive manner for assisting deductions which is based on investigative reasoning.

OLAP Systems for Decision Support

People in IT sector face challenges in meeting the growing demand of delivering system for business owners to make decisions strategic as well as tactical based on corporate information. Decision support systems of this type come under Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) systems. They enable knowledge workers to manipulate operational data fast with flexibility and use familiar business terms, providing analytical

insight. Self-Instructional Material 281


OLAP systems need to:

1. Provide support for the requirement of complex analysis for decision-makers.

2. Analyse data from different angles. 3. Provide support for complex analysis against large data set as input.

Dr E.F. Codd's Guidelines for OLAP

OLAP is an essential ingredient of data mining. It is, therefore, essential to understand the relevance of Dr E.F. Codd's (a well-known authority on Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)) guidelines. The following is an interpretation of each of them, relating them to the issues involved:

I . Multidimensional Conceptual View: Business problems are complex and can be solved only through a multidimensional concept as normal queries cannot address them effectively. As such, multidimensional schemas are essential to create relevant databases.

2. Transparency: An end-user must be presented a cohesive, unambiguous version of data and must not be exposed to complexity and diversity of data sources.

3. Accessibility: Essential data must be identified and accessed. 4. Consistent Reporting Performance: Reporting must remain dependable and

reliable even with an increase in database size.

5. Client-serverArchitecture: Data mining and warehousing systems are created to meet the growing business needs and financial constraints.

6. Generic Dimensionality: Every data dimension has the same importance. 7. Dynamic Sparse Matrix Handling: Provides capability to keep the database

size within limits by adopting suitable methods of handling sparse matrices. 8. Multi-User Support: The system must permit access to a large number of

users at the same time.

9. Unrestricted Cross-Dimensional Operations: Multidimensional schemas must be well understood, designed and permit cross-references.

10. Intuitive Data Manipulation: OLAP is created for decision-makers to make intuitive decisions. They are not computer experts and must be provided with a user-friendly, uncomplicated access to generate queries.

11. Flexible Reporting: The system must be capable of providing reports desired by the end-users.

12. Unlimited Dimensions and Aggregation Levels: The system must remain flexible/expandable for adding extra dimensions and permitting additional aggregations.

Data Mining—A Multidisciplinary Area

Data mining is a confluence or combination of multiple disciplines (see Figure 6.6). Some of the disciplines are:

1. Information science.

2. Database technology.

NOTES



NOTES

3. Statistics.

4. Machine learning.

5. Visualization.

6. Other sciences.

Information Science Statistics

Database Technology

Data Mining

Machine Learning

4

Visualization Other

Sciences

Fig. 6.6 Various Disciplines contributing to Data Mining

Successful development of a data mining system would thus, require joint efforts from experts of different domains.

Classification of Data Mining Systems

Data mining means developing special algorithms to answer the queries of various users. The procedure is to evolve a number of models and to match one of them to data stored in the database. Three steps involved in this process are: creating a model, finding out the criteria to give preference to a model over others and identifying the search technique.

Data mining models being mathematical in nature are categorized as predictive and descriptive (see Figure 6.7).

(i) A predictive model spells out in advance the values a data may assume based on known results from other data stored in the database. This model performs data mining tasks of classification, tine series analysis, regression and prediction.

(ii) A descriptive model is based on identification and relationships in data. This model aims at discovering rather than predicting the properties of data.

A descriptive model performs data mining tasks comprising clustering, summarization, association rules and sequence discovery.

Data Mining Models

4

4

Predictive Model

Descriptive Model

Fig. 6.7 Types of Data Mining Models


Clustering: It is referred to as unsupervised learning or segmentation/partitioning. In clustering, groups are not predefined


NOTES

Data Mining Tasks

The basic tasks under predictive and descriptive models are:

(i) Predictive Model

(a) Classification: Data is mapped into predefined groups or classes. It is also termed as supervised learning as classes are established prior to examination of data.

(b) Regression: It means mapping of data items into known types of functions. These may be linear, logistic functions, etc.

(c) Time Series Analysis: The value of an attribute is examined at evenly spaced times, as it varies with time.

(d) Prediction: It means foretelling future data states based on past and current data.


(ii) Descriptive Model

(a) Clustering: It is referred to as unsupervised learning or segmentation/partitioning. In clustering, groups are not predefined.

(b) Summarization: Data is mapped into subsets with simple descriptions. It is also termed as characterization or generalization.

(c) Sequence Discovery: Sequential analysis or sequence discovery is utilized to find out sequential patterns in data. It is similar to association, but the relationship is based on time.

(d) Association Rules: A model which identifies specific types of data associations.

Data Mining Primitives

A data mining task is expressed in the form of a Data Mining Query Language (DMQL) statement and requires certain primitives to be stated. The primitives are:

(i) Task-Relevant Data: It mentions the part of the database to be examined. (ii) Nature of Knowledge to be Mined: It defines the tasks or functions to be

performed on the data Examples are characterization, association and clustering.

(iii) Background Knowledge: It means the concept hierarchy as it indicates the level of abstraction at which data is to be mined.

(iv) Interestingness Measures: These are defined for the task or function to be performed. For example, for association rules, the support and confidence factors are measured corresponding to the threshold levels specified by users as a measure of interestingness.

(v) Presentation and Visualization of Discovered Patterns: They refer to the ways in which the result obtained can be displayed for the convenience of the user.

Data Mining Query Language (DMQL)

Data mining systems are required to support the ad hoc and interactive requirements of knowledge discovery from relational database and multiple levels of abstraction.

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) Data mining languages are designed to meet this requirement. They help in formulating

a query to define data mining task primitives.

The primitives require:

(i) Set of task-relevant data to be mined.

(ii) Nature of knowledge to be mined.

(iii) Background knowledge required for the discovery.

(iv) Measures of interestingness.

(v) Visualization representation.

DMQL follows a Structured Query Language (SQL) like syntax which is amenable for linking with relational query languages and it simplifies a user's task of

knowledge extraction. Different data mining algorithms extract different patterns from data. For

supporting knowledge discovery process, integrated systems are not needed that are capable of dealing with either data patterns. Knowledge discovery processes are querying processes and query languages are needed for this. To support declarative specification of pattern and data manipulation for rule mining, query languages are to

be designed.

Integration of Data Mining Systems

A diverse number of data mining tools may be available in an organization. It is essential to identify and categorize them to understand which model and tasks they support. Also, it is necessary to find out if some data mining tools are being developed in-house. They should be displayed on the GUI of client desktop to select the right data

mining tool for the problem in hand.

Data mining concepts boost the ability to analyse data and these techniques are based on statistics and machine learning. Data analysis should be consolidated at the warehouse for data integrity and management concerns. It is of utmost need to integrate data mining technology seamlessly under the framework of traditional database systems.

Significant progress in research has been made for streamlining data mining algorithms. There are huge requirements for scaling data mining techniques for working with large databases. Data mining implementations are 'disk-aware' as well as 'SQL aware'. Implementations use functionalities provided by SQL Engine and the API.

Advancement in data mining can implement several data mining operations on large databases, very efficiently. The final goal of data mining is construction of data mining models from their databases, and use of models for a variety of predictive and analytic tasks, and sharing these models with other applications. This type of integration is essential to make data mining successful in the database environment.

Although a data mining model can be derived by use of an SQL application, for implementing a training algorithm database management system will not be aware about the semantics of the mining models. This is because these mining models have no explicit representation in database. But, such explicit representation is required to enable database management system to share, reuse and manage mining models in an

efficient way.

NOTES



NOTES

Profitable Applications

Many companies have used data mining applications successfully. Early users were more information-intensive. But the technology may be used by any company that looks to use large data warehouse for managing their customer relationships in a better way. Data mining needs a large and well-integrated data warehouse and well-defined understanding of the business process for applying data mining.

Successful application areas of data mining are:

• Analysis of recent activities and results gained by the sales force to find marketing activities having greatest impact in the coming months. Data on activities of competitors and information on existing local health care systems are needed. These results require distribution to sales personnel using wide area network enabling representatives to review the recommendations.

• Analysis by credit card companies to use vast data warehouse on customer transaction for identification of potential customers for new product. Atest mail can be sent to know the attributes of customers that may have an affinity for the product.

• A transportation company whose business is spread over many areas and has a large direct sales force, can use data mining for identification of the best prospects about its services.

• A company dealing in consumer package goods may use data mining for improving its sales process for the satisfaction of retailers. If the company has many units at different locations it may take data from the activities of competitors, list of present consumers, weekly or monthly enquiries, details of shipments, etc., can be applied to understand the reasons for brand and store switching.

Major Issues of Data Mining

The major issues of data mining are as follows:

(i) Human interaction. (h) Over-fitting. (iii) Outliers.

(iv) Interpretation of results.

(v) Visualisation ofresults.

(vi) Large datasets.

(vii) High dimensionality.

(viii) Multimedia data.

(ix) Missing data.

(x) Irrelevant data.

(xi) Noisy data.

(xii) Changing data.

(xiii) Integration.

(xiv) Application.


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) 6.5 DATA WAREHOUSING (DWH)

What is a Data Warehouse?

According to W.H. Inmon, known as the father of the data warehouse concept, 'a data warehouse is a subject oriented, integrated, non-volatile and time-variant collection of data in support of management's decisions.'

Subject oriented means that database is organized in a data warehouse in a subject-wise manner even at the expense of redundancy. Thus, every manager would have access to the desired information in the shortest possible time notwithstanding the extra space occupied by it.

Integrated implies related database tables created in the form of fact and dimension tables that can be linked to each other and are not stored as standalone data resources.

Non-volatile means storage of data on a permanent, non-destructible basis. It can be purged or removed only as an exception for an organizational need.

To be time variant, it requires all data to be entered in the data warehouse to be time stamped or associated with its time of entry. The time element introduced may not be the actual time when data was entered in the operational system.

Figure 6.8 shows a data warehouse system.

NOTES


Information Delivery System

External Users

External Data

Transformation Tools

Operational Data Store

Admin and Mgt Tools

Data warehouse -1"1 DBMS and Data

Repository

Metadata

Data Mining Tools

Fig. 6.8 Data Warehouse System

Data Warehouse Building Blocks

Data Pre-Processing Tools

Data pre-processing means sourcing, acquisition, cleaning and transformation of data prior to its entry into a data warehouse repository. Data is received from legacy systems, the Web or other external sources. The data and database from where it is received will be heterogeneous and requires:

(i) Removing unwanted data.

cri) Converting to common data and definition names:

(a) Summarizing the data.

(b) Completing missing data

141 Technical metadata: It contains the sources of access data, data structure, transformation description, rules specified during data processing, access authorizations and backup history

Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) Operational Data Store

Data is transformed and loaded into the Operational Data Store (ODS) in real-time frame. From the ODS it is loaded into the data warehouse after extraction and cleaning operations at regular intervals, but not as and when received from external sources. As such a time of entry is attached with it. The data thus available is loaded under the control of metadata.

Metadata

Metadata is data about data and keeps information as:

(i) Technical Metadata: It contains the sources of access data, data structure, transformation description, rules specified during data processing, access authorizations and backup history.

(ii) Business Metadata: It contains information about the subject areas, information object types, Internet home pages, details of information delivery system, that is, when to dispatch information and to whom, data warehouse operational information and ownership details.

Data Warehouse Database

It is the central database consisting of data warehouse RDBMS, a large repository and supporting databases, such as multi-relational database, multidimensional database and data marts.

Data Mart

Data mart is another important component of data warehouse and is a data store that is subsidiary to a data warehouse. It is created to meet specific information needs of different functional area managers. Data marts are a part of the data warehouse rabase and cannot be taken as an alternative for data warehouse.

Management and Administration Tools

They are provided for:

(i) Managing and updating metadata.

(ii) Providing backup and recovery.

(iii) Removing unwanted data.

(iv) Providing security and assigning priorities.

(v) Checking quality.

(vi) Distributing data.

Access Tools

They are categorized as:

(i) Query and Reporting Tools: To solve query and produce result.

(ii) Application Tools: To meet specific user requirements.

(iii) Data Mining Tools: To discover knowledge, data visualization and for correcting data when the input data is incomplete.

NOTES


Star schema: It is the most common model. In the star schema there is a large central fact table containing numerical data without duplication or redundancy

Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) (iv) OLAP Tools: These are associated with multidimensional databases to provide

elaborate, complex views for analysis.

Information Delivery System

It provides an external interface to provide data warehouse reports, information objects

to external users as per a specified schedule.

Granularity of Data

Granularity of data refers to the level of detail or summarization at which data is stored in a data warehouse. Larger the granularity less will be the detail available for those data items. Vice versa also holds good. A data warehouse manager is required to identify the granularity of data for his organization so that reports of the requisite detail

are available.

An example is the maintenance of details of all calls made by a mobile user by the telecom operator to provide a high level of detail (low level of granularity) to meet

legal requirements at a later stage.

Granular data offers the advantage of reusability of data by other users and also

helps in optimizing the storage space.

Multidimensional Data Models and Schemas

Data warehouses and OLAP tools are based on what is known as a multidimensional model. Data is visualized as a data cube in such a model identified by fact and dimension

tables.

Facts are the numerical measures of a central theme, for example, a student.

The measures may be Marks_obtained, Division scored.

Dimensions are the entities with respect to which an organization keeps its records; for example, teacher, subject, class, college, university, etc.

Concept Hierarchies

It is a method of defining a sequence of identifying levels for each entity, for example,

city, district, state and country.

Schemas

While Entity-Relationship Model (E-R Model) was found adequate in the design of

relational databases, a data warehouse requires a subject-oriented schema for better

analysis and handling of more complex queries.

Three schemas are, therefore, created to meet the data warehouse requirements.

These are:

(i) Star Schema: It is the most common model. In the star schema there is a large central fact table containing numerical data without duplication or redundancy. A large number of dimension tables are referred by it. Each of these handles a dimension. Figure 6.9 is an example of a star schema.

NOTES


Dimension Table Key C

Dimension Table Key A

Dimension Table Key A

Snowflake schema: It is an extension of star schema

Dimension Table Key B

Dimension Table Key D

Dimension Table Key B

Dimension Table Key D Key F

Dimension Table Key F


NOTES Fact Table contains

Keys, say A, B, C, D and Measures

Dimension Table Key C Key E

Dimension Table Key E

Fact Table contains

Keys, say A, B, C, D and Measures

Fig. 6.9 An Example of a Star Schema

(ii) Snowflake Schema: It is an extension of star schema. The dimension tables are further normalized and extra tables are added. Figure 6.10 shows an example of a snowflake schema.

Fig. 6.10 An Example of a Snowflake Schema

(in) Fact Constellation Schema: It has multiple fact tables to meet the requirements of more advanced applications. Fact tables are permitted to share dimension tables. Figure 6.11 shows an example of a fact constellation schema.


Fact Table I Keys A and C

Dimension Table Key C Key E

Dimension Table Key E

Dimension Table Key D

Fact Table 2 Keys B and D

Dimension Table

Keys A, B, C


NOTES

Fig. 6.11 An Example of a Fact Constellation Schema

Data Warehouse Design

A data warehouse design involves:

(i) Choosing a business process to model, for example orders, invoices, shipments, etc.

(ii) Choosing a DWH for a large organization while selecting a data mart for departmental implementation.

(in) Choosing the grain of the business the fundamental, atomic level of data to be

represented in the fact table.

(iv) Choosing the dimensions to be applied to each fact table.

(v) Choosing the measures that will populate each fact table record, for example, Units _sold, Rs_sold.

Based on these five principles, a nine-step method is evolved as follows:

(i) Choosing the subject matter.

(h) Deciding what the fact table represents.

(iii) Identifying and conforming the dimensions.

(iv) Choosing the facts.

(v) Storing pre-calculations in the fact table.

(vi) Rounding out the dimension tables.

(vii) Choosing the duration of the databases.

(vin) Tracking the slowly changing dimensions.

(ix) Deciding the query priorities.


Data warehouse architecture: Based on an RDBMS system server it has a massive central repository for storage of data, subsidiary databases and front-end tools

NOTES

Data Warehouse Database, Metadata,

Data Logic

MDDB MRDB, Metadata

< > GUI, Presentation Logic, Query Specification

< >


Data Warehouse Architecture

Data warehouse architecture is based on an RDBMS system server. It has a massive central repository for storage of data, subsidiary databases and front-end tools.

The architecture (see Figure 6.12) consists of:

(i) Bottom tier—An RDBMS and a DWH server.

(ii) Middle tier—An OLAP server.

(ii) Top tier—Front-end tools.

DATA SERVERS APPLICATION SERVERS CLIENTS

Fig. 6.12 Data Warehouse Architecture

Virtual Warehouse

Another commonly used term is the virtual server. It is a set of views over operational databases. For efficient query processing, some of the possible summary views are materialized. It is easy to build but requires excess capacity of operational database servers.

Developing a Data Warehouse

It involves:

(i) Defining a high-level corporate data model.

(ii) Developing an enterprise data warehouse and continuing to refine it to meet user requirements.

(ii) Developing parallel data marts and refining these models.

ROLAP, MOLAP and HOLAP

These tools utilize specialized data structures to organize, navigate and analyse data, typically in an aggregated form. They require a tight coupling with the application and presentation layer.

1. MOLAP or Multidimensional Online Analytical Processing architecture (see Figure 6.13) creates a data structure to store data in a way it will finally be utilized to enhance its pedonnance. It is particularly well suited for iterative and time series analysis. It provides tools to access data maintained in the DWH repository (RDBMS) and permits its access when the MDDB does not have the desired data. It is used for providing the user a high performance and better understanding through specialized indexing and storage optimizations. It requires less space due to usage of compression.



Server

MOLAP Server

Data cube MDDB

Front-end Tools

Query sent New data Loaded

Metadata Processing

Result of Search

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) Load Information

Required Requested Information

Fig. 6.13 MOLAP Architecture

2. ROLAP or Relational Online Analytical Processing works directly with RDBMS and is more scalable. It depends on databases for calculations, and therefore its performance suffers. ROLAP servers contain both numeric and textual data and serve broader needs. They support large databases supporting parallel processing, good security and employs known technologies. Figure 6.14 shows

the ROCAP architecture.

SQL

Information Requested

NOTES

Front-end Tools


and Metadata

ROLAP Server MRDB

Metadata Request

Requested Dataset Returned

Result of Search Given

Fig. 6.14 ROLAP Architecture

3. HOLAP or Hybrid Online Analytical Processing uses the best features of both, i.e., the flexibility of ROLAP RDBMS and the optimized multidimensional structure of MOLAR. Users are provided the ability to perform limited analysis capability, either against RDBMS products or by introducing an intermediate MOLAP server. A user can send a query to select data from the DBMS which then delivers the requested data to the desktop where it is placed in a data cube. The desired information is maintained locally and need not be created

each time a query is given.

1. The salient differences among MOLAP, ROLAP and HOLAP are:

CO In MOLAP there is no query directly given by the user to the DWH server. The desired multidimensional data is positioned in the MOLAP server after an SQL sent by the MOLAP server is sent to the DWH

server.

(ii) The ROLAP server does not store the intermediate result in a cube but in a relational table. The user gets his query serviced by the

ROLAP server.


SDLC: A requirements-driven life cycle which supports the operational environment

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) (iii) In HOLAP, an SQL is sent by the user to the DWH server. Then

either the result is received by it directly or an intermediate MOLAP server data cube is created and accessed by the user.

NOTES


6.6 DEVELOPING A DATA MINING AND WAREHOUSING FRAMEWORK

An Evolving System

Data mining and warehousing are not only massive, but also extremely critical systems for the entire organization. They are not to be built in one stroke but to be gradually evolved as they require a substantial investment from the organization in the form of human and financial resources. It is, therefore, common practice to identify one subject area and build a system for it and then gradually move to other functional areas. Several measures to curtail the investment are introduced. One of them is implementing a data mart to begin with and then creating the data warehouse repository. It is also essential to select systems which are upward scalable, keeping the evolution factor in mind.

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) and CLDS

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) (see Figure 6.15) is a requirements-driven life cycle which supports the operational environment. A well-known model is the Waterfall Development.

Feasibility

IAnalysis

Design

Coding

4 Testing

IIntegration

IImplementation

Fig. 6.15 Systems Development Life Cycle

CLDS (reverse way of saying SDI,C) (see Figure 6.16) is the methodology followed for developing a data mining application. It is a reverse way as the end-user being a manager and not a technocrat does not at the outset realize the potential of the system and its decision support capabilities. The user expects the technical experts to present the available data, identify suitable algorithms and test the results.

1

Integrate Data

Test of Information Bias

Develop Program for Data

Design DSS System

Analyse Result

Implement Warehouse

Understand Requirements

Fig. 6.16 CLDS (Reverse of SDLC)

Selection of Hardware for Data Warehouse

The decision to select data warehouse hardware is based on the following:

(i) Existing and future business growth plan of the organization.

(ii) Data expected to be stored.

(ii) Performance expected from the system.

(iv) Identifying suitable Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) or Massively Parallel Processing (MPP) systems.

(v) Network bandwidth for external connectivity.

(vi) Nature of legacy systems and their interfaces.

(vii) Nature of information delivery system.

(viii) Data and application servers.

(ix) Client desktop system with adequate storage and processing power.

Selection or Development of Data Mining Tools

The following points can be followed while selecting or developing data mining tools:

(i) Identify the user requirement.

(ii) Categorize the model applicable and the associated tasks.

(iii) Make or buy suitable tools.


NOTES


Electronic Data Interchange (ED!)

(iv) Find out the available data warehousing capabilities and develop an application based on them.

6.6.1 Data Mining and Warehousing Challenges

Major Issues/Challenges to Data Mining

The major issues and challenges to data mining are:

I. Mining different types of knowledge in databases.

2. Interactive mining of knowledge at multiple levels of abstraction.

3. Incorporation of background knowledge.

4. Data mining query languages and ad hoc data mining.

5. Presentation and visualization of data mining results.

6. Handling noisy or incomplete data.

Data Warehouse—Open Issues and Research Problems

Data warehousing being an evolving system has many issues which are open for further study and research. These are in the areas of the following:

(i) Security: Data warehouse contains full details of organizational information, some of which are highly confidential. A data warehouse provides access to many employees for accessing its contents. Special efforts are required to maintain the safety, security and confidentiality of this valuable and sensitive information residing in it.

(ii) Performance: Very large databases require their storage in multiprocessors and not in conventional computers. These fall under the category of MPP and SME Both are upgradeable and permit very large database to be partitioned and accessed at fast speeds. Features, such as shared memory protection and dynamic load balancing are in-built in them. Designing scalable systems is an important factor.

(iii) Functionality: Modifying accessing methods is a major challenge to data warehouse managers. Developing novel data mining algorithms and OLAP for meeting users' latest requirements are essential features of extracting interesting data from the warehouse.

(iv) Presentation: Data visualization techniques have to be constantly improved for end-users to utilize the full capability of the system, draw inferences and analyse the results.

6.6.2 Impact of Data Mining and Warehousing

The following are the various impacts of data mining and warehousing:

(i) Collecting. cleaning, transforming data from heterogeneous sources.

(ii) Integrating data from dissimilar sources. Examples of heterogeneous and dissimilar sources are legacy systems, World Wide Web, organizations' ERPs.

(iii) Storing data in a systematic but easily accessible manner. Examples are creating appropriate fact and relation tables, organizing data marts and partitioning of database.

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) (iv) Organizing data to facilitate manipulation, processing of very large data. A good metadata design is a prime factor in attaining this objective.

(v) Simplifying exploration of massive data. Creation of data marts is essential for meeting this goal.

(vi) Arranging data for interpretation and pattern recognition. Efficient data mining algorithms are necessary to achieve it.

(vi) Presenting data in a readable manner for the managers by designing proper GUI.

(vii) Business decision-making based on data mining and other access tools.

r 6.7 ONLINE OFFICE SUITES AND PAPERLESS OFFICE

An online office suite or online productivity suite is a type of Office Suite offered by Websites in the form of software as a service. They can be accessed online from any Internet-enabled device running any operating system. This allows people to work together worldwide and at any time, thereby leading to international Web based collaboration and virtual teamwork. Usually, the basic versions are offered for free and for more advanced versions one is required to pay a nominal subscription fee.

Applications are often developed on the Web 2.0 paradigms with leverage on the existing developer community. Players come from both the commercial software market and from the open source, free software communities.

The term Office 2.0, which is sometimes used to refer to online office suites, originated with Ismael Ghalimi in an experimental effort to test whether he could perform his entire computer based work in online applications. It is a marketing neologism representing the concepts of office productivity applications as published applications rather than stand-alone programs, leveraging the Web 2.0 concept to conjure imagery of collaborative, community based and centralized effort rather than the more traditional application running on a platform locally.

Examples of where the term may apply include:

• The centralized administration of office productivity software, installation, licensing and version control.

• Collaborative applications which improve personal and organizational productivity.

• Centralized storage of data, rather than traditional personal data responsibility.

• Applications which focus on collaborative data sharing, document review and document resource management.

• Office applications which are able to be run from multiple independent platforms with a suitable back-end framework to present the application in a uniform manner.

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) Advantages

The following are the advantages of online office suites:

• The cost is low. In most cases, there is no specific charge for using the service for users who already have access to a computer with a Web browser and a connection to the Internet.

• There is no need to download or install software outside of the office suite's Web page, including the ongoing upgrade chores of adding new features to or eliminating bugs from the office suite.

• Online office suites can run on thin clients with minimal hardware requirements.

• Online office suites provide the ability for a group of people to share a document without the need to run their own server.

• There is no need to purchase or upgrade a software license. Instead, the online office suite is available as software as a service.

• Online office suites are portable. Users can access their documents from almost any computer with a connection to the Internet, regardless of which operating system they use.

• If the user's computer fails, the documents are still safely stored on the remote server. Online service providers' backup processes and overall stability will generally be superior to that of most home systems.

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of online office suites:

• Access requires connectivity—if the remote server or network is unavailable, the content will also be unavailable. However, in many cases, the online suite will allow the user to regularly backup data or even provide synchronization of documents between the server and the local computer.

• There are speed and accessibility issues. Most of the available online office suites require a high speed (broadband) Internet connection. That can be a problem for users who are limited by a slower connection to the Internet.

• The number of features available is an issue. Online office suites lack the more advanced features available on their offline counterparts.

• There may be a subscription charge to use the service. In that case, in the long run, the ongoing subscription cost may be more expensive than purchasing offline software upfront.

• The user has no control over the version of the software used. If the software is changed the user is forced to use the changed version, even if the changed version is less suited to the user.

• The user is reliant on the service provider for security and privacy of their documents.

An online office suite normally includes abroad set of applications, such as the following:

• Document Creation and Editing Applications: Word processor, Spreadsheet, Presentation, Flowchart, Image processor, etc.

NOTES 1


• Publishing Applications: Content management, Web portal, wild, blog, Fora,

etc.

• Collaborative Applications: E-mail, Voice over IP, Calendar, etc.

• Management Applications: Data Management, Project Management, CRM, ERP, Accounting, etc.

Paperless Office

Traditional offices have paper based filing systems which include filing cabinets, files, folders of varied types, shelves, depositories and drawing cabinets, all of which require maintenance, equipment, considerable space and are resource intensive. With all that security, retrieval and safe replacement are not guaranteed. Even computerized offices use reams of papers. Computers were supposed to make paperless offices possible, but most offices are surrounded by more pages than ever. It is possible to break free from paper's grip, however and run offices efficiently with slim handful of papers and files only. Paperless office amply supported by paperless office software is the answer.

The `Paperless Office' was a publicist's slogan, intended to describe the office of the future. It was facilitated by the popularization of video display computer terminals like the 1964 IBM 2260. An early prediction of the paperless office was made in a 1975 BusinessWeek article. The idea was that office automation would make paper redundant for routine tasks such as record-keeping and bookkeeping and it came to prominence with the introduction of the personal computer.

PC on every desk was remarkably prophetic, but the `paperless office' is not. Improvements in printers and photocopiers have made it much easier to reproduce documents in bulk, causing the worldwide use of office paper to more than double from 1980 to 2000. This has been attributed to the increased ease of document production and widespread use of electronic communication, which has resulted in users receiving large numbers of documents that are often printed out. However, since about 2000, the global use of office paper has leveled off and is now decreasing, which has been attributed to a generation shift, younger people are believed to be less inclined to print out documents, and more inclined to read them on a full-color interactive display screen. According to the US Environment Protection Agency, the average office worker generates approximately two pounds of paper and paperboard products each day.

A paperless office is a work environment in which the use of paper is eliminated or greatly reduced. This is done by converting documents and other papers into digital form. Proponents claim that 'going paperless' can save money, boost productivity, save space, make documentation and information sharing easier, keep personal information more secure, and help protecting the environment by reducing both consumption and hence waste generated.. The concept can also be extended to communications outside the office. Scan the documents and convert them to PDF files that include both high resolution images of the originals (for reference and later printing) and using Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software digitized copies of document text so that these can be searched, selected or copied.

Enterprise Forms Automation: The need for paper is eliminated by using online systems, such as replacing files and folders with databases, typed letters and faxes with e-mail and reference books with the Internet. Another way to eliminate


NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (ED!)

NOTES

paper is to automate paper based processes that rely on forms, applications and surveys to capture and share data. This method is referred to as 'Enterprise Forms Automation' and is typically accomplished by using existing print perfect documents in electronic format to allow for pre-filling of existing data, capturing data manually entered online by end-users, providing secure methods to submit form data to processing systems, and digitally signing the electronic documents without printing.

The technologies that may be used with Enterprise Forms Automation include: • Form Technology (for example, Adobe PDF) to create, display and

interact with documents and forms.

• Enterprise Forms Automation software to integrate forms and form data with processing systems.

• Databases to capture data for pre-filing and processing documents. • Workflow Platforms to route information, documents and direct process

flow.

• Digital Signature solutions to digitally sign documents used by end-users. • Web Servers to host the process, receive submitted data, store documents

and manage document rights.

Digitalizing Paper-Based Documents: Another key aspect of the paperless office philosophy is based on the conversion of paper documents, photos, engineering plans, microfiche and all the other paper based systems to digital documents. Technologies that may be used for this include scanners, digital mail solutions, book copiers, wide format scanners (for engineering drawings), microfiche scanners, fax to PDF conversion, online post offices, etc. Each of these technologies uses software like image compression, Optical Character Recognition (OCR).

Software for Paperless Office

A scanner and OCR software are the key components of a 'Paperless Office'. The scanner helps you bring existing paper documents like letters, invoices, books and faxes into the computer while the OCR software converts these scanned images into editable and searchable formats like PDF or Microsoft Word.

The program that came bundled with your scanner is probably good for controlling the quality of your scans but that is just half the job done because image scans are not searchable and are therefore impossible to manage in the long term. To complete the cycle, here are some of the best software tools and online services that will assist you in making a successful move towards a 'Paperless Office'.

Extremely powerful OCR software packed in an easy and very intuitive interface are crucial for paperless office reality. As scanning is done, automatically analyses of different areas of the image that contain text, tables or pictures are sensed and appfopriate inbuilt recognition software capturers the same and virtual records created. The software can even recognize different languages and fonts used in the document. The built-in spell checker suggests spellings and helps in quickly fixing words that could be recognized. The scanned documents can then be exported as searchable PDF files, Word documents or even HTML Web pages.


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Adobe Acrobat 9: Adobe Acrobat (not the free Adobe Reader) can directly scan paper documents to searchable PDF documents.

In the test run, Acrobat could accurately scan a newspaper clipping with fairly high level of noise though it did not manage to preserve the layout while exporting the scanned image to a Word document. Acrobat is again commercial software but it does come bundled with some scanners.

OCR Software: Simple OCR software is a fairly basic solution but it is completely free and may appeal to budget conscious consumers. Simple OCR lets you proof-read the scanned image as text so you can fix inaccuracies before exporting the scanned image as plain text.

Scribd iPaper: If you have piles of paper documents in your office, you can easily get rid of them by sending everything in a snail mail to Scribd this service will convert all your paper clutter into digital documents for free.

Scribd will also run your documents through their own OCR software so everything remains searchable as well.

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Evernote: This is not OCR software but it can easily recognize text in image. So if you have scanned a bunch of electricity bill receipts as images, you may use

Evernote to locate them on the hard drive. The software is free and available for Mac

and Windows.

Oipit, Snapter and ScanR: These are pretty similar solutions and use a digital camera or a mobile phone as a scanner. You capture a newspaper clipping, a page from a magazine or the conference room whiteboard room with your camera phone and turn to these services for extracting text out of the images.

Once you have converted your scanned images into scanned documents, you can bulk upload them to Google Docs (that comes with Google Apps) via e-mail.

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI)

NOTES

Alternatively, you can put everything on a hard drive and index them using Google Desktop search or via Windows Vista's built-in search indexer.

Configure the Software

Tweaking the software is needed to get the best results. 300 dpi digital quality yields the best trade-off between quality and convenience. In ScanSnap Manager, go to the Scanning tab and choose Better (Faster) from the Image Quality pop-up menu to get 300-dpi scans.

File Type: Since documents ultimately end up as PDFs in this system, saving scans as PDFs from the outset is good. In ScanSnap Manager, go to the File Option tab and choose PDF (*.pdt) from the File Format pop-up menu. If PDF is not available in your scanning software, choose TIFF.

File Location: Most scanning software lets you put scanned images wherever you want. Saving them to a subfolder named Scans in the user's Pictures folder one can easily find scanned documents later. In ScanSnap Manager, go to the Save tab, click on the Browse button, locate the folder you want to use, and click on Choose.

Other Settings: Turn on automatic duplex scanning and color detection: In ScanSnap Manager, go to the Scanning tab, choose Auto Color Detection from the Color Mode pop-up menu and Duplex Scan (Double-Sided) from the Scanning Side pop-up menu. If you can, tell the software to remove blank pages from scans, adjust crooked images, and automatically rotate images that are upside down or in landscape mode. In ScanSnap Manager, go to the Scanning tab, click on Option, and select the Allow Automatic Blank Page Removal, Correct Skewed Character Strings Automatically and Allow Automatic Image Rotation options.

Automate Your Scans: Next configure your scanning software so it will send scans directly to your OCR program, save the document with the new text layer, and close the file. Here's how to do that in Acrobat; you can follow similar procedures for whichever software you're using. Start by configuring Acrobat's OCR settings. Open a PDF file and choose Document: Recognize Text Using OCR: Start. In the dialog box that appears, click on Edit, make sure English (US) is selected in the Primary OCR Language pop-up menu and choose Searchable Image (Exact) from the PDF Output Style pop-up menu.

Next, set up an AppleScript Folder Action to automate the processing of new scans. You can download AppleScripts for Acrobat and Readlris Pro from macworld .com/3048.Once you have downloaded the script you need, save it in/Library/ Scripts/ Folder Action Scripts. Control or right-click on the folder you have designated to hold new scans and from the contextual menu, choose Enable Folder Actions. Control or right-click again and choose 'Attach A Folder Action'. In the window that appears, navigate to your new AppleScript file, select it and click on Choose.

Now try scanning a new document. If everything works correctly, Acrobat should open shortly after your scan finishes, recognize the text in the document and close the document window when it's finished.

Difficulties in Adopting the Paperless Office: A major difficulty in 'going paperless' is that much of a business's communication is with other businesses and individuals, as opposed to just being internal. Electronic communication requires both the sender and the recipient to have easy access to appropriate software and hardware.


Check Your Progress

I. Name the different layers on which EDI works.

How is usage of EDI economically beneficial?

3. How is data mining a subset of knowledge discovery?

4. Differentiate between OLTP and OLAP.

5. Differentiate between a predictive model and a descriptive model.

6. What is a technical metadata?

7. What are the types of access tools?

8. What are the types of schemers required by a data warehouse?

9. What is HOLAP?

10. How are data mining tools for an organization developed?



NOTES

There may be costs and temporary productivity losses when converting to a paperless office. Government regulations and business policy may also slow down the change. Businesses may encounter technological difficulties such as file format compatibility, longevity of digital documents, system stability, and employees and clients not having appropriate technological skills.

6.8 TELECOMMUNICATIONS

The word telecommunications is derived from two Greek words: Tele, which means `distance' and communicara, which means 'the ability to share'. Thus, telecommunications means the ability to share information over long distances.

Earlier, to communicate over long distances, smoke, signals, flags, pigeons, ambassadors, etc., were used. Slowly, other methods for communication developed, including the postal method, which is still used widely. However, with the advancement of technologies, the electronic devices, such as telephone, radio, television, etc., have been developed that enable communicating information over long distances effectively and efficiently. The use of these electronic devices has brought the new revolution in telecommunications.

In the late 20th century, the development of computer networks (especially the Internet) enabled almost everyone to communicate with anyone in this world through e-mail at a negligible cost. Organizations have developed their private networks using a variety of technologies, such as fibre optic, wireless and digital technology. Satellites have been launched, antennas have been set up for radio or microwave transmission, and many other advanced technologies have been developed. Nowadays, telecommunications has become an important part of all organizations in the world.

The Marriage of Computers and Communications

With the Communication Act of 1934, the American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company became the only company to provide the telecommunications services in the whole of the US. At the time, the Congress, who gave the right to AT&T, regulated the prices that the company could charge for the services and required to provide telecommunications services in all the regions of America, including the rural areas, at a very reasonable price.

The monopoly of AT&T Company prompted the US Department of Justice to start an antitrust action in 1974 to end the company's monopoly and to promote competition in the telecommunications market. As a result, the AT&T Company broke up into seven independent Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs). RBOCs were also ordered to permit long-distance competitors to provide services to local customers. Such orders promoted competition in the market. This competition increased with the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which permitted long-distance companies to provide services to local customers and ordered RBOCs to lease lines to long-distance competitors at a reasonable rate.

The Information Superhighway

There is a continuous increase in the demand of information on a anytime-anywhere basis. With the advancement in technology, one obvious way to fulfill this demand is to provide information electronically. Several paths or high-speed digital networks,

Terminals: These are any input/output device that sends or receives data over the telecommunications network; for example, a telephone, a personal computer, an ATM, etc.

NOTES



including the Internet, have emerged to provide instant access to information electronically. Information superhighway is the term used to refer to all these high-speed digital networks, since they provide vast volumes of data and information to virtually everyone in the world. Due to the high bandwidth of information superhighway, the transmission of text, images, audio, or video is done in real time without any delay. This feature enhances information sharing among organizations as well as individuals regardless of their geographic distance. Multimedia also plays an important role in information sharing. Many organizations today conduct their meetings with the help of videoconferencing that eliminates the need for all the individuals to be present at the same location.

6.8.1 Components and Functions of a Telecommunications System

When a message is transmitted from a machine (source) to another machine (destination), it travels over a communication medium in the form of signals and passes through a variety of components.

A telecommunications system consists of hardware and software components that help in transmitting text, voice or video. The basic components of a telecommunications system are as follows:

• Terminals: These are any input/output device that sends or receives data over the telecommunications network; for example, a telephone, a personal computer, an ATM, etc.

• Computers: Computers of different types and sizes are attached through the telecommunications network to process information. For a large network, for example, a powerful computer, such as a mainframe, may be used as a host computer and small mid-range computers may serve the task of front-end processors.

• Telecommunications Processors: They are used between the terminals and the computers to provide support for the transmission and reception of data. They perform many functions in the telecommunications network, such as converting data from analog to digital and vice versa, controlling the speed of flow of data, directing the packets towards their destination, etc. Modems, switches, multiplexers, routers, bridges, etc., are examples of telecommunications processors.

• Telecommunications Channels: These are mediums over which data travels between the source and the destination device. The telecommunications system uses a variety of media as channels, including twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fibre optics or any wireless system.

• Telecommunications Control Software: It is needed to control the input/ output activities and manage the functions of the telecommunications networks. Network operating systems, browsers, etc., are examples of telecommunications control software.

Note that regardless of the size of the telecommunications network, each telecommunications network must have these basic components to transmit information from the source to the destination. To make these components of telecommunications network work together, some common set of rules, called protocol, are required

using which they communicate with each other. Each component of the network must be able to interpret the protocol of other components in the network.

Functions of the Telecommunications System

To transmit information from the source to the destination machine, a variety of functions are performed by the telecommunications system which are transparent to the users at either end. One important function of the telecommunications system is to establish the connection between the sender and the receiver. Once the connection is established, all the data between the sender and the receiver can be transmitted. The telecommunications system also ensures that the message is delivered to the right receiver efficiently and securely. To deliver the message efficiently, the router performs a major role. It directs the data towards the path through which the message can reach its destination most efficiently. The telecommunications system also checks for errors in the data that may occur during transmission. Finally, the system is responsible for preventing a fast sender from overflowing a slow receiver. That means it controls the flow of data and a buffer may be maintained at the receiver's side so that some data can be stored in it until consumed by the receiver.

Analog and Digital Signals

Data can be transmitted from one point to another by means of electromagnetic signals. These signals may be in the form of analog signals or digital signals. Based on the form of signal used, data transmission can be analog transmission or digital transmission.

Analog Transmission

The type of data transmission that uses analog signals to transmit data is called analog transmission. An analog signal is a continuous waveform that changes smoothly over time (see Figure 6.17). An important application of the analog signals is the transfer of data across telephone lines. Analog signals are mostly used for carrying data, such as voice or sound.


NOTES

Fig. 6.17 Analog Signal

Digital Transmission

The type of data transmission that uses digital signals for transmitting the data is called digital transmission. In a digital signal, the data is represented in the form of Os and Is. A digital signal has two points—a high point and a low point. When the signal is at a high point, the value of the signal is 1, and when low, the value of the signal is 0 (see Figure 6.18). The important property of a digital signal is that it is not affected by noise or attenuation and does not require to be amplified while transmitting data over long distances.

Digital transmission: The type of data transmission that uses digital signals for transmitting the data

Fig. 6.18 Digital Signal


Data conferencing: A type of teleconferencing that allows sharing of computer data, such as graphics, drawings, documents, screen, applications, etc., interactively among multiple users at remote locations

Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI)

NOTES

6.9 TELECONFERENCING

Teleconferencing is a technology that allows communication among several people at distant locations but connected via the telecommunications system, usually over a telephone line. It is similar to a telephone call but the conversation is extended to several people instead of only two. Thus, it can reduce the travelling cost, increase idea sharing with each other, and result in improved quality and increased productivity.

A business organization uses teleconferencing to connect to its remote clients and employees. Teleconferencing enables organizations to arrange meetings, demonstrate their product, present project updates and even provide live training classes to various employees at remote locations. In addition, it can also be used to report monthly progress.

The simplest form of teleconferencing is to use the three-way calling service provided by the telephone companies. This service enables you to establish your own teleconference between yourself and the other two persons. Some of the teleconferencing service providers provide this service for more than three persons. Since it is low cost, most companies use teleconferencing service provided by the telephone companies rather than setting up their own teleconferencing systems.

The traditional mode of teleconferencing enables only voice sharing among the participants, but modern teleconferencing technologies, namely data conferencing and videoconferencing, help in sharing information from both the ends simultaneously. While data conferencing allows sharing electronic documents with each other, videoconferencing enables the participants to see each other, in addition to information sharing.

Data Conferencing

Data conferencing is a type of teleconferencing that allows sharing of computer data, such as graphics, drawings, documents, screen, applications, etc., interactively among multiple users at remote locations. All the participants can view the data, comment on it or manipulate it. In data conferencing, devices like keyboard, screen, mouse, etc., can be shared among the participants or one participant's computer can control other participants' computers.

Data conferencing is performed with the help of whiteboards, application sharing, and application viewing.

• Whiteboard: It is an online workspace visible to everyone participating in data conferencing. All the participants can simultaneously write and draw on the whiteboard and the changes made are viewed by everyone. Whiteboard employs different tools to support drawing and writing.

• Application Sharing: It is like remote control software that allows the participants at the remote machines to interactively work on an application installed on only one participant's machine.

• Application Viewing: It is similar to application sharing except that only one participant is allowed to make changes in the shared document while others can only view the document and provide suggestions.


Run X

=1 iv 11 ren; Lconf .exe

Type the name of a program, folder, document, or Internet resource, and Windows will open it for you.

OK Cancel Browse...

Videoconferencing: It enables conversation among people geographically apart from one another with a facility to see each other while they converse

Electronic Data Interchange (ED!) Videoconferencing

Videoconferencing enables conversation among people geographically apart from one another with a facility to see each other while they converse. The newsreader on the TV, for example, talking to a reporter(s) at a faraway place(s) and reporting directly to the audience, uses the videoconferencing facility. Videoconferencing is an extremely useful means of communication because it saves the time and expense of travel and can often accomplish many of the things that a physical meeting can. The five basic components that are required to conduct a videoconferencing are as follows:

• Camera: To capture the images to be sent across the network.

• Monitor or Television: To display the images of the people participating in the

video-conference.

• Microphone: To record the sound at the sender's end.

• Speakers: To play the recorded sound at the receiver's end.

• Coder/Decoder (Codec): To compress and decompress video and audio data,

allowing transmission across the network.

In addition to these components, the videoconferencing software should also be installed on the system. Cu-SeeMee and Microsoft NetMeeting are some of the popular software used for videoconferencing. Here, we will discuss videoconferencing using Microsoft

NetMeeting.

The steps for installing Microsoft NetMeeting are as follows:

1. Click Start and then click Run from the submenu that appears. The Run dialog

box appears as shown in Figure 6.19.

Fig. 6.19 The Run Dialog Box

2. Type conf.exe in the Open text box and press the Enter key. The Microsoft

NetMeeting wizard appears (see Figure 6.20).

NOTES


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Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI)

NOTES

Fig. 6.20 The Micmsoft NetMeeting Wizard

3. Follow the steps of the Microsoft NetMeeting wizard as instructed to install it.

After installing NetMeeting, you can conduct a videoconference with the other person who also has all the basic components attached with his or her system. The steps for conducting videoconferencing using Microsoft NetMeeting are as follows:

I . Start the NetMeeting software. The NetMeeting window appears as shown in Figure 6.21.

Fig. 6.21 The NetMeeting Window

2. Click the Call menu and then click New Call. The Place A Call dialog box appears as shown in Figure 6.22.

308 Self-Instructional Material Fig 6.22 A Place A Call Dialog Box

NetMeeting

• Wativ for a response horn Ira... Cancel

NOTES

Check Your Progress

11. What is telecommunication?

12. State the difference between data conferencing and videoconferencing.

13. Define the term telecommunicating or telework.

14. What do you mean by virtual team?

I 5. What are service teams?


Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) 3. Enter the name of the computer with which you want to have a videoconference

in the To list box and click the Call button. The NetMeeting message box appears on your screen and the NetMeeting-Incoming Call message box appears on the screen of the person on the other side as shown in Figure 6.23 (a) and (b).

Cdtl

Ireorisoral ha; al al

Accept

(a) NetMeeting Message Box (b)NetMeeting-Incoming Call Message

Fig. 6.23 Getting Connected for Videoconferencing

After getting connected, you can begin the videoconferencing over a local network or the Internet by using the digital camera, microphone and speakers.

6.10 TELECOMMUTING OR TELEWORK

Telecommuting or telework term specifies a unique work arrangement system in which the employees never commute to a centralized work place. The terms `telecommuting' and `telework' were coined by Jack Nilles in 1973. The user who telecommutes is termed as a `telecommuter' or a `teleworker' and also sometimes as a 'home sourced' employee because they work from their home. Sometimes the employees also work using their mobile telecommunications technology and are termed as 'nomad workers'.

Telework typically specifies the type of information technologies work exchange that uses telecommunications and computers for work associated communication process. The technology is unique in its nature as in it the work is shifted to the worker instead of workers coming to the workplace to complete the assigned job as normally

happens. Even though the basic theory of telecommuting and telework are closely

interrelated still there is a significant difference between the two. Telework specifically refers to all sorts of technology assisted work that are accomplished externally or outside of a centrally located workspace, such as work undertaken in the home, outside sales calls, etc. Telecommuting refers to more specified work that is specifically undertaken at a precise location to decrease the commuting time. Basically, in telecommuting the work is accomplished inside the home or at some other distant workplace which has advanced technological facilities, such as a broadband connection and computer or phone lines, etc.

More precisely, telework includes the following four specific dimensions in its

definitional framework:

• Work Location: It can be anywhere external or outside of a centralized

organizational work place.

• Usage of liCB: The term ICTs is short form of Information and Communication Technologies. It provides technical support for telework.

• Time Distribution: It refers to the total amount of time substituted in the traditional

workplace.

• Diversity of Employment Relationships: It refers to the diversity of employment relationships between the employer and the employee and includes the complete range of work starting from contract work to traditional full time employment.

Virtual team: It is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by communication through Web

Service Teams: These teams work on providing a service and hand over the same to similar teams in different time zones

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (ED!) The roots of telecommuting are established to early 1970s technology that linked

satellite offices to business district mainframes through dumb terminals using telephone lines as a network bridge. The notable decrease in cost and significant increase in work performance and usability of personal computers decentralized the workplaces moving the office to the home. By the early 1980s, more advancement was made in technologies so that the branch offices and home workers were capable to connect to specific organizational mainframes with the help of personal computers and terminal emulation.

Telework tools include groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling, videoconferencing and Voice over IP (VOIP). It is very competent and useful for organizations and offices because it permits the staff and workers to communicate over long distances, thus it saves significant amounts of travel time and cost. Nowadays, telecommuters use laptop PCs which can be used both at the office and at home as it can be easily carried. Besides, the advent and growth of cloud computing technology and Wr-FI availability have facilitated access to remote servers by means of a combination of portable hardware and software. In addition, smartphones are now extensively used in telework because of their improved technology and increasing popularity.

6.10 VIRTUAL TEAM

A virtual team is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by communication through Web. Members of virtual teams communicate electronically and may never meet face-to-face. It allows companies to procure the best talent without geographical restrictions.

Examples of virtual teams include a team of people working at different geographic sites and a project team whose members telecommute.

Types of Virtual Teams

The following are the types of virtual term:

• Networked Teams: They are dispersed teams from the same or different organisations.

• Parallel Teams: In this type of team, there are task oriented and usually short time span highly specialized members from inside/outside the organisation to deliver recommendations.

• Project Development Teams: These teams usually work on creating new products, information systems or processes for users/customers.

• Work, Production or Functional Teams: These teams work on specific areas/ tasks, for example, finance, training etc.

• Service Teams: These teams work on providing a service and hand over the same to similar teams in different time zones.

Tips for running a successful virtual team are as follows:

• Hold an initial face-to-face startup if possible.

• Arrange periodic face-to-face meetings, especially to resolve conflict if any. • Establish a clear code of conduct or set of norms and protocols for behavior. • Recognize and reward performance.

• Recognize that most communications will be non-verbal so use caution in tone and language.


Several benefits of virtual teams include the following:

• People can work from anywhere at anytime.

• People can be recruited for their competencies, not just physical location.

• Expenses associated with travel, lodging, parking, and leasing or owning a building may be reduced and sometimes eliminated.

• There is no commute time.

Disadvantages of Virtual Teams

The following are the disadvantages of virtual teams:

• Communication Deficiency: The biggest disadvantage that any virtual team can suffer from is the lack of efficiency in communication, partly due to constraints in virtual communication mediums. Failure to properly communicate may lead to frustration and eventually failure.

• Poor Leadership and Management: Poor leadership can result in the failure of any team, whether virtual or not. Messages must be sent across accurately and clearly and team should be managed professionally.

• Incompetent Tham Members: Virtual teams should not consist of incompetent and inexperienced team members as there is a distance factor which can overtly affect the timing and completion date of a project. Projects are more likely to fail if the team consists of individuals who are lazy or lack sufficient knowledge.

6.12 VIRTUAL BUSINESS

A virtual business refers to an electronic means to transact business as opposed to a traditional business that relies on face-to-face transactions with physical currency. Today, many businesses have begun to use the communicative and collaborative technologies of virtual business to reach their customers. Also, companies reduce costs and increase market share by teaming up with virtual businesses and outsourcing to them for admin support, sales and marketing, operations management etc. As a virtual business has little or no physical structure so it relies on the Internet and telecommunications to achieve the desired goals.

To run a virtual business following steps should be followed:

1. Determine the type of business you will run. For this, you can start with what you do best. Outline the types of services you are planning to offer, keeping in mind that providing few services completely very well is better than jumping in to provide many services at a lesser-quality level.

2. Research other businesses that are offering the similar service online or to those in your area. Determine if there is a need for your service at all and also find out if you will be competing against a large, well-known brand. This research may alter your decisions or you may decide to offer some unique services or develop an extra interest.

3. Study about your potential market, who might be your clients, where they might be located and how will you reach to them.

4. Manage your finances well. Although, a virtual business will not require a start up cost, but still there will be financial requirements for small related works. Try to find how long you can support the business to run on, incase enough profits

NOTES


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI)

NOTES

Check Your Progress

16. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

(a) The layer in the EDI process creates a document.

(b) typically specifies the type of information technologies work exchange that uses telecommunications and computers for work associated communication process.

(c) The members of virtual teams communicate and may never meet face-to-face.

(d) teams are dispersed teams from the same or different organisations.


(a) The cost of sending an electronic document is not more than the regular first class postage.

(b) Poor leadership can result in the failure of any physical team but does not affect any virtual team.

(c) The biggest disadvantage that any virtual team can suffer from is the lack of efficiency in communication, partly due to constraints in virtual communication mediums.

(d) Telework tools include groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling, videoconferencing and Voice over IP (VOIP).


are not shown. Estimate the cost of online marketing, advertising and other possible cost to the business.

5. You may have to hire an employee or two so that you can focus on earning more business and also the task you don't like to do should be handled by other person for the companies good.

6. Being virtual you might be taken as a not-real business and people might think you wont last long or run away with time. For that, be honest with your clients and everyone you deal with and share your vision and goal for business and also share testimonials from satisfied customers.

Recently, the online delivery of professional services like administration services, design and marketing services have risen in popularity. Many virtual assistants work between 12 and 18 hours a day during the startup phase. Even after establishing solid guidelines, one-third of these business owners admit to working nontraditional hours, including weekends and holidays. So, one should have deep study of all factors discussed above and decide accordingly if this business is for them or not.

6.13 SUMMARY


• Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is defined as the computer-to-computer transfer of information in a structured and predetermined format.

• EDI software has four layers, namely business application, internal format conversion, EDI translator, and EDI envelope for document messaging.

• Data mining and data warehousing have now become familiar terms not only for computer professionals, but also for most decision-makers A rapid growth has taken place in developing a technology surrounding them, with most of the leading companies of the world creating products and services to exploit their potential

• Many companies measure their own campaigns accurately but do not focus on measuring the long-term effects of their effort that get accumulated, neglecting the impact on business.

• Information technology has emerged as a powerful business driver and an essential component for the companies to give them a competitive advantage in the challenging market scenario.

• An organization after becoming well acquainted with the quantitative decision-making techniques and starts using `whats', 'whys' and 'what ifs' in the dynamic business environment can use the model for predictive purposes.

• Construction of models and scoring them, require intense workload. This involves derivation of very high number of complex metrics requiring more than a million observations that form the basis of training the predictive algorithms to realize a set of business objectives, specific to the adopted strategy.

• Complex mathematical functions are used for methods of advanced data mining methods. Functions employed are: trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential and sophisticated statistical functions to develop predictive characteristics.

• Data mining and warehousing, as we have seen have been developed for managers and top-level executives to assist them in reaching decisions based

1

1


not only on facts and figures seen superficially, but also for drawing inferences from hidden and widely dispersed uncorrelated data.

• The focus of the system is on end-users and meeting their requirements by offering simple interfaces. It is essential to keep the front-end tools simple, less complicated and user-friendly.

• Experts have to create a system keeping in view the technical limitations of end-users, their lack of understanding of the system capabilities in the initial stages and support them to achieve the desired result.

• Data mining and data warehousing have grown to their full potential today after passing through a number of clearly demarcated stages.

• The latest trend is the integrated information systems based on the above three which paved way for the revolutionary development in decision-making in the corporate world.

• Requirement for context oriented, inline information is being felt by more and more users.

• Data mining means locating, identifying and finding unforeseen information from a large database. The information is one which is interesting to the end-user. It can also be understood as a data analysis based on searching or learning dependent on deduction.

• Data mining software is an analytical tool used for data analysis. Users can analyse data from different angles, classify/categorize it, and then summarize the identified relationships. Technologically, data mining follows the process of finding correlations or patterns among many fields having large relational databases.

• Data mining is devoted specifically to the processes involved in the extraction of useful information by applying specific techniques based on certain knowledge domains.

• Data mining is an essential step towards the creation of information systems. These are operational information systems, such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) or Management Information Systems (MIS) including Decision Support System (DSS). DSS assists managers in taking decisions based on available unstructured data and to validate their intuitive judgements.

• The data in turn is categorized as operational data which is dynamic in nature and meets short-term goals.

• Databases can be split in to various categories on the basis of their application and requirements. The most popular method is OLTP which stands for Online Transaction Processing. Other methods include Decision Support Systems (DSS), Data Warehouses and Data Marts.

• OLTP databases handle real-time transactions having some inherent and special requirements. A person managing a store should ensure efficient updating alongside purchases tables, and customer tables. OLTP databases should have atomicity in operation.

• OLTP databases act like front line warriors. A database should be extremely robust and scalable to meet growing needs.

• OLTP have features of 'row-level loCking'. A given record in a table may be locked from updates by other processes till transactions on that record is complete. It is similar to mutex locks in POSIX threading.

NOTES


Electronic Data Interchange (ED!)

• People in IT sector face challenges in meeting the growing demand of delivering system for business owners to make decisions strategic as well as tactical based on corporate information.

• Multidimensional conceptual view: Business problems are complex and can be solved only through a multidimensional concept as normal queries cannot address them effectively.

• Data mining means developing special algorithms to answer the queries of various users. The procedure is to evolve a number of models and to match one of them to data stored in the database.

• A data mining task is expressed in the form of a Data Mining Query Language (DMQL) statement and requires certain primitives to be stated.

• Different data mining algorithms extract different patterns from data. For supporting knowledge discovery process, integrated systems are not needed that are capable of dealing with either data patterns.

• Significant progress in research has been made for streamlining data mining algorithms. There are huge requirements for scaling data mining techniques for working with large databases.

• Advancement in data mining can implement several data mining operations on large databases, very efficiently.

• According to W.H. Inmon, known as the father of the data warehouse concept, à data warehouse is a subject oriented, integrated, non-volatile and time-variant collection of data in support of management's decisions.'

• Subject oriented means that database is organized in a data warehouse in a subject-wise manner even at the expense of redundancy.

• Data is transformed and loaded into the operational data store (ODS) in real-time frame. From the ODS it is loaded into the data warehouse after extraction and cleaning operations at regular intervals, but not as and when received from external sources.

• Data mart is another important component of data warehouse and is a data store that is subsidiary to a data warehouse. It is created to meet specific information needs of different functional area managers.

• Granularity of data refers to the level of detail or summarization at which data is stored in a data warehouse.

• Data mining and warehousing are not only massive, but also extremely critical systems for the entire organization.

• CLDS (reverse way of saying SDLC) is the methodology followed for developing a data mining application. It is a reverse way as the end-user being a manager and not a technocrat does not at the outset realize the potential of the system and its decision support capabilities.

• The word telecommunications is derived from two Greek words: Tele, which means 'distance' and communicara, which means 'the ability to share'. Thus, telecommunications means the ability to share information over long distances.

• A telecommunications system consists of hardware and software components that help in transmitting text, voice, or video.

• To transmit information from the source to the destination machine, a variety of functions are performed by the telecommunications system which are transparent to the users at either end.

NOTES


• Data can be transmitted from one point to another by means of electromagnetic signals. These signals may be in the form of analog signals or digital signals

• Teleconferencing is a technology that allows communication among several people at distant locations but connected via the telecommunications system, usually over a telephone line.

• Videoconferencing enables conversation among people geographically apart from one another with a facility to see each other while they converse.

• Telecommuting or telework term specifies a unique work arrangement system in which the employees never commute to a centralized work place.

• Telework typically specifies the type of information technologies work exchange that uses telecommunications and computers for work associated communication process.

• Telework tools include groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling, videoconferencing and Voice over IP (VoIP).

• A virtual team is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by communication through web.

• Members of virtual teams communicate electronically and may never meet face-to-face. It allows companies to procure the best talent without geographical restrictions.

• A virtual business refers to an electronic means to transact business as opposed to a traditional business that relies on face-to-face transactions with physical currency.


NOTES


1. EDI software has four layers, namely business application, internal format conversion, EDI translator and EDI envelope for document messaging.

2. The cost of sending an electronic document is not more than the regular first class postage. In addition, the cost has also reduced due to the elimination of re-keying of data, human handling, routing, and delivery. The net result is a substantial reduction in the cost of transaction.

3. Data mining is devoted specifically to the processes involved in the extraction of useful information by applying specific techniques based on certain knowledge domains. However, knowledge discovery is a wide term and is the entire range of activities right from deciding business objectives, capturing desired data, preparing, processing, arranging them, applying predefined techniques and then presenting them in an understandable form to the user. To say specifically, knowledge discovery can be subdivided into five specific steps which are performed repetitively till the desired result is reached, and one of them is data mining. Thus, data mining is a subset of knowledge discovery.

4. OLTP fulfils the requirements of OIS well, as the queries are simple in nature. OLAP, on the other hand, addresses the needs of defining more complex queries and requires novel databases in the form of multidimensional and multi-relational databases to provide back end support.

5. A predictive model spells out in advance the values a data may assume based on known results from other data stored in the database, whereas a descriptive


Electronic Data

Interchange (EDI) model is based on identification and relationships in data. The descriptive model aims to discover rather than predict the properties of data.

6. Technical metadata is a type of metadata which contains the sources of data, data structure, transformation description, rules specified during data processing, access authorizations and backup history.

7. The types of access tools are:

(i) Query and reporting tools. (ii) Application tools. (iii) Data mining tools. (iv) OLAP tools.

8. The types of schemas required by a data warehouse are:

(i) Star schema. (ii) Snowflake schema. (iii) Fact constellation schema.

9. HOLAP is the hybrid of ROLAP and MOLAP. HOLAP uses the best features of both, i.e., the flexibility of ROLAP RDBMS and the optimized multidimensional structure of MOLAP. Users are provided the ability to perform limited analysis capability either against RDBMS products or by introducing an intermediate MOLAP server. A user can send a query to select data from the DBMS which then delivers the requested data to the desktop where it is placed in a data cube. The desired information is maintained locally and need not be created each time a query is given.

10. Data mining tools for an organization are developed in the following ways:

(i) Identifying the user requirement.

(ii) Categorizing the model applicable and associated tasks.

(iii) Making or buying suitable tools.

(iv) Finding out the available data warehousing capabilities and developing an application based on them.

11. The word telecommunications is derived from two Greek words: Tele, which means 'distance' and communicara, which means 'the ability to share'. Thus, telecommunications means the ability to share information over long distances.

12. Data conferencing is a type of teleconferencing that allows sharing of computer data, such as graphics, drawings, documents, screen, applications, etc. interactively among multiple users at remote locations whereas videoconferencing enables conversation among people geographically apart from one another with a facility to see each other while they converse.

13. Telecommuting or telework term specifies a unique work arrangement system in which the employees never commute to a centralized work place.

14. A virtual team is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by communication through Web.

15. Service teams are the teams that work on providing a service and hand over the same to similar teams in different time zones.

16. (a) First, (b) Telework, (c) Electronically, (d) Networked

17. (a) True, (b) False, (c) True, (d) True

NOTES


Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) 6.15 QUESTION AND EXERCISES


1. Which process takes place at sender's side in EDI?

2. Write a short note on the evolution of data mining.

3. What are the steps involved in data mining when viewed as a process of knowledge discovery?

4. Define data mining fiinctionalities.

5. What are data mining models and what are the tasks associated with them?

6. What is a data mart?

7. What are the various issues of data mining? In what ways do they affect the implementation of a data mining system?

8. What are the different data warehousing building blocks?

9. What is meant by granularity of data?

10. What is a snowflake schema?

11. What are the factors on which the selection of hardware for a data warehouse is dependent?

12. List the components of telecommunication system.

13. Write short note on data conferencing.

14. What does the term telework specifies?

15. What are different types of virtual business?


1. How does EDI works? Explain with the help of example.

2. Discuss the various benefits of EDI.

3. What is the difference between: (i) Discrimination and classification. (ii) Characterization and clustering. (iii) Classification and prediction. (iv) ROLAP and MOLAP. (v) MDDB and MRDB. (vi) Data warehouse and data mart.

4. Describe three challenges to data mining in relation to data mining methodology and user interaction issues.

5. Describe the various multidimensional data models and schemas.

6. Discuss the various issues in data warehousing requiring further research.

7. What are the functions of telecommunication system? Explain with the help of example.

8. Discuss the basic components that are required to conduct a video conferencing.

9. Discuss the specific dimensions that telework includes in its definitional framework.

10. Explain some key points to run a virtual business.

NOTES


Model Question Paper MBA Degree Examination Office Automation

Time: 3 Hours Maximum: 100 Marks 1

PART A (5 x 8 = 40 marks)

Answer any FIVE of the following:

1. Discuss the evolution of computing and the generation of computers.

2. What is the significance of operating system? Which operating system is most widely used and why?

3. Explain the impact of IT on the business excellence.

4. Why the organizations use MS PowerPoint for creating effective presentation?

5. Describe the various functions of MS Excel that helps in calculation.

6. How can you search the information on the Internet? Explain with the help of examples.

7. What is the role of IT in supply chain? Give reasons in support of your answer.

8. Data mining is a subset of knowledge discovery'. Justify the statement.

PART B (4 x 15 = 60 marks)

Answer any FOUR of the following:

9. Explain the major information need of business and IT support. Demonstrate the inter linkages amongst the various elements of the Internet.

10. Discus the steps to create the database in MS Access and store information using queries.

11. Describe the significance of Wi-Fi environment in modern offices.

12. Why buying and selling through the Internet is gaining importance in business transactions?

13. Explain the various types of digital payment and electronic funds transfer systems. List the areas where these are used.

14. Discuss the significance of data mining and warehousing with reference to online/ manual business transactions.

Comptilsery

15. Prepare a plan for conducting online virtual business. For this, develop a virtual team that will conduct virtual business using the various telecommunication methods.

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY (A State University Established by the Government of Tamilnadu

Reaccredited with 'A' Grade by NAAC)

KARAIKUDI - 630 003 Tamil Nadu, INDIA

ISBN 978-93 259-6714-4

9 011

967144

Master of Business Administration

Paper 4.4.1

Office Automation

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION (Recognized by Distance Education Council (DEC), New Delhi)