New Subsistence Data and Human Remains from the Earliest Levantine Epipalaeolithic

New Subsistence Data and Human Remains from the Earliest Levantine EpipalaeolithicAuthor(s): D. Nadel and I. HershkovitzSource: Current Anthropology, Vol. 32, No. 5 (Dec., 1991), pp. 631-635Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation forAnthropological ResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743699 .

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Volume 32, Number 5, December I99I 163I

References Cited BOWDEN, M. I978. Ape-men-Fact or fallacy? Bromley, Kent:

Sovereign. DAWSON, CHARLES, AND ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD.

I9I3. On the discovery of a palaeolithic skull and mandible in a flint-bearing gravel overlying the Wealden. (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geologi- cal Society of London 69 (March):II7-5I.

. I9I4. Supplementary note on the discovery of a palaeolithic human skull and mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). Quar- terly Journal of the Geological Society of London 70 (April):8.2-99.

. I9I5. On a bone implement from Piltdown (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 7I (March): I44-49.

DE VRIES, H., AND KENNETH P. OAKLEY. I959. Radiocarbon dating of the Piltdown skull and jaw. Nature i84:224-25.

ESSEX, ROBERT. I955. The Piltdown plot: A hoax that grew. Kent and Sussex Journal, July-September, pp. 94-95.

GOULD , STEPHEN JAY. 1980. The Piltdown conspiracy. Natural History 8o (8):I2I-24.

. I98I. Piltdown in letters. Natural History go (6):I2-30. GREGORY, WILLIAM KING. I9I4. The dawn man of Piltdown,

England. American Museum Journal I4 (May):I89-200. HALSTEAD, L. B. I978. New light on the Piltdown hoax? Na-

ture 276:II-13. HARRISSON, TOM. I959. The Piltdown forgery: A. H. Everett

and Niah. Sarawak Museum Journal 9:I47-50. HRDLICKA, ALES. i922. The Piltdown jaw. American Journal of

Physical Anthropology 5:337-47. LANGHAM, IAN. I978. Talgai and Piltdown: The common con-

text. Artefact 3:I8 I-224. LYNE, H. COURTNEY. I9I6. The significance of radiographs of

the Piltdown teeth. Royal Society of Medicine, Proceedings 9 (3):33-62.

MARSTON, ALVAN. I952. Reasons why the Piltdown canine tooth and mandible could not belong to Piltdown man. British Dental Journal 93:I-I4.

MATTHEWS, L. HARRISON. I98I. Piltdown man: The missing links. New Scientist 90:280-282, 376, 5I5-i6, 578-79, 647- 48, 7IO-II, 785, 86I-62; 9i:26-28.

MILLAR, R. I974. The Piltdown men: A case of archaeological fraud. London: Granada.

MILLER, GERRIT S. I9I5. The jaw of Piltdown. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 65:I-3I.

M O N T A G U, M. F. A S H L E Y. I 95 I. The Piltdown mandible and cranium. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 9:464- 70.

SCHOETENSACK, OTTO. I908. Der Unterkeifer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Leipzig: Englemann.

SPENCER, FRANK. iggoa. Piltdown: A scientific forgery. New York: Oxford University Press.

. iggob. The Piltdown papers. New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press.

VAN ESBROECK, GUY. I972. Pleine lumiere sur limposture de Piltdown. Paris: Editions de Cedre.

WEIDENREICH, FRANZ. I937. Dentition of Sinanthropus peki- nensis: A comparative odontology of the hominids. Paleonto- logica Sinica, n.s., D # I.

WEINER, JOSEPH S. I980 (I955). The Piltdown forgery. New York: Dover.

WEINER, JOSEPH S., KENNETH P. OAKLEY, AND W. E. LE GROS CLARK. I953. The solution to the Piltdown problem. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Geology Section) -2:138-46.

WEINER, J. S., W. E. LE GROS CLARK, K. P. OAKLEY, G. F. CLARINGBULL, M. H. HEY, F. H. EDMUNDS, S. H. U. BOWIE, C. F. DAVIDSON, C. F. M. FRYD, A. D. BAYNES- COPE, A. E. A. WERNER, AND R. J. PLESTERS. I955. Further contributions to the solution of the Piltdown problem. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Geology) 2:225-87.

WINCHELL, NEWTON HORACE. I9I7. Antiquity of man in America as compared with Europe. Bulletin of the Minnesota Academy of Science 5:II-5 I.

WINSLOW, JOHN HATHAWAY, AND ALFRED MEYER. I983. The perpetrator at Piltdown. Science 83 (September):33-43.

WOODWARD, ARTHUR SMITH. I9I7. Fourth note on the Pilt- down gravel with evidence of a second skull of Eoanthropus dawsoni. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of Lon- don 73:(I)I-IO.

New Subsistence Data and Human Remains from the Earliest Levantine Epipalaeolithic'

D. NADEL AND I. HERSHKOVITZ Stekelis Museum of Prehistory, Hatishby 124, Haifa 3445 sDepartment of Anatomy and Anthropology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel. 26 VI 9I

The Kebaran culture was discovered by F. Turville-Petre in I93I during his excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Car- mel (Turville-Petre I932), and described by D. Garrod. Today, with data from more than 50 excavated Kebaran sites, its nature is better known (e.g., Bar-Yosef I970, I975, I98I, I987, I990; Henry I983, I988; Goring- Morris I987; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen I989). Excava- tions at the Ig,ooo-year-old Ohalo II site in the Jordan Valley have shed new light on its subsistence aspects as well as producing well-preserved human remains.

The Kebaran complex occupies the earliest part of the Levantine Epipalaeolithic sequence, which followed the local Upper Palaeolithic, and has been radiocarbon-dated to 20,000-I4,500 B.P. The bearers of this culture were nomadic hunter-gatherers who inhabited the Mediterra- nean phytogeographic belt, whereas the succeeding Geo- metric Kebaran complex (I4,500-I2,500 B.P.) (Bar-Yosef and Vogel I987) spread into the desertic region as well. The following Natufian is thought to represent the first sedentary hunter-gatherer population in the Mediterra- nean Levant (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen I989).

The Kebaran flint industry is characterized by the production of bladelets, usually from single-platform cores. Among the retouched assemblage, the most common

i. ? I99I by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. All rights reserved OOII-3204/92/3205-0007$I.00. Field- work was conducted by one of us (D.N.) on behalf of the Israel Archaeological Foundation, the Jerusalem Center for Anthropolog- ical Studies, and the L. S. B. Leakey Foundation. The excavation and preservation of the skeleton were carried out by an anthropological team from the Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Tel Aviv University (headed by I.H.). The laboratory preservation of the skeleton was made possible by a grant from the CARE Foun- dation. We thank 0. Bar-Yosef for his assistance and encourage- ment during fieldwork and his critical reading of this paper and M. Baron, P. Goldberg, D. Gordon, and E. Tchernov for their help and patience.



632 | CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

tool types are microliths modified in various ways to form backed and pointed pieces. Other tools include bu- rins, scrapers, notches, denticulates, and retouched blades and flakes. The microliths are used to distinguish temporal and geographical variants within the techno- complex. Thus, several Kebaran clusters have been iden- tified in the Levantine coastal ranges (Bar-Yosef I970) and later in other parts of the Levant (Besancon, Cope- land, and Hours I975-77; Hours and Loiselet I975-77; Henry I983, i988; Bar-Yosef and Vogel I987:225; Gor- ing-Morris I987; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen i989: 459).

Kebaran sites vary in size from small seasonal occupa- tions of 20-50 m2 at higher elevations to large winter base camps of more than i,000 m2 in the Jordan Valley or on the coastal plain (Bar-Yosef I970, I978, 198I, I987; Bar-Yosef and Nadel I988; Bar-Yosef, Goldberg, and Levison I974; Hovers et al. i989; Bar-Yosef and Belfer- Cohen i989:fig. 4). Most of them lack architectural remains; even post holes and small stone installations are rare. Ein Gev I (fig. I) is unusual in presenting the foun- dations of a hut, with evidence of several phases of occupation (Bar-Yosef I978). Kebaran sites also contain ground-stone implements such as mortars and pestles, worked bone tools, and beads made of Mediterranean and Red Sea shells.

Our knowledge of Kebaran subsistence has up to now been meager. The faunal assemblages attest to the hunt- ing of a wide variety of species, from small rodents, turtles, and birds to medium-sized herbivores such as ga- zelles and deer. Fish bones have been found in a few sites. This broad-spectrum economy is in accord with

0~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ Oh. .3ev

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Flannery's (I973) predictions and later syntheses (Ed- wards i989). Preservation of plant material in Kebaran sites is very poor (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen i989); most of the sites have yielded virtually no floral remains.

Ohalo II is located 9 km south of Tiberias at 2I2.5 m below m.s.l. (fig. i). Long submerged, it was discovered in the fall of I989 when the water level of the Sea of Galilee was unusually low because of prolonged drought and extensive pumping. It was excavated in I989 and I990 and was dated by C'4 to ca. I9,000 B.P. (table i) (Kislev, Nadel, and Carmi n.d.). It covers an area of at least I,500 m2. Several wide, shallow pits dug into the Lisan formation, 3-5 m wide and ca. 0.5 m deep, were uncovered. Some of these were sampled, and their dark sediment was found to be rich in flint, animal bones, carbonized seeds, and other debris. It was determined, on the basis of the radiocarbon dates and the initial analysis of the lithics, that these pits and their contents belonged to the early Kebaran. In addition to the test trenches, an area of ca. i6o m2 was systematically excavated (Nadel I990).

The flint assemblage is in excellent condition. Produc- tion of bladelets from single-platform cores appears to have been the main aspect of the industry. Many of these bladelets are extremely narrow and thin and have been modified into various types of tools by fine retouch, semisteep retouch, and backing. No dominance of any single type can be discerned, and obliquely truncated pieces are rare. The microliths are accompanied by bu- rins, end scrapers, awls, notches, and retouched flakes and blades. The Falita points are worth mentioning, as they are typical of the regions east of the Jordan Valley and have not been found to the west of it; they have

TABLE I

Radiocarbon Dates for Charcoal Samples from Ohalo II

Sample Provenance Date B.P.

Pta-5375 C88b 2i2.i6-i8 I9,400 ? 220 Pta-5386 D89a 2i2.06-I4 ig,600 ? 400 Pta-5387 C85a 2i2.iS-i9 20,I00 ? 440 OxA-2564 AB87a 2i2.i2 i8,68o i8o OxA-2565 C87d 2i2.2o-25 I9,3Io I90 OxA-25 66 C87d 212.25-30 I9,I IO? 390 RT-I244 C89a 2i2.I5-2o I8,360 230 RT-i246 AB87 surface I5,550 ? I30 RT-I248 B85c 2i2.i5-i6 I9,800 ? 360 RT-i25o B89b 2i2.i5-2o I9,250 ? 460 RT-i25i B8sb 2I2.I2-I4 I9,000 ? I90 RT-i252 B89b 2I2.I3-I5 I8,900 ? 400 RT-I297 E86b 2I2.38-43 I7,500 ? 200 RT-I342 B88d 2i2.Io I9,500 ? I70 RT-I343 C85c 2I2.I0 I8,6oo + 22o

RT-I358 AB87c 2I2.I5 I8,700 ? I80

SOURCES: Kislev, Nadel, and Carmi n.d.; Carml and D. Segal, personal communication, I990; R. Housley, personal communication, I990; J. Vogel, personal communication, I990.



Volume 32, Number S, December 1991I 163

4,,

FIG. 2. Position of the Ohalo II (1-12) skeleton durirnr excavation.

FIG. 2. Position of the Ohalo II (H2) skeleton during excavation.

been reported from Yabrud Rockshelter III in Syria (Rust 1950), Ein Gev I in the Jordan Valley (Bar-Yosef I970),

Jilat 6 in the Azraq Basin of central Jordan (Byrd I988), and Wadi Madamagh in southem Jordan (Kirkbride i958). Broken basalt bowls- and pestles were recovered in small numbers. The typological variability of the worked-bone tools is very limited; they are all points or awls.

The rich and well-preserved faunal remains include bones of birds, reptiles, rodents, turtles, hares, foxes, ga- zelles, and deer (R. Rabinovitch, personal communication, I990). The most common identifiable bones are fish vertebrae, represented by thousands of specimens. It may therefore be concluded that the people of Ohalo II hunted a wide variety of animal species and that fish played an important part in their diet. This is probably among the earliest manifestations in the southem Le- vant of an economy balanced by freshwater fish and is the oldest fisher-hunter-gatherer site on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. Fish are a nutritious food that is relatively easy to procure and available year-round. Notwithstand- ing other food resources, fish would have allowed for long-term occupation of the site and perhaps consider- able economic stability (see, e.g., Akazawa I980, Wata- nabe I983).

The preservation of the flora is exceptional. Thou- sands of carbonized seeds and other plant parts have

been retrieved by wet and dry sieving. They include the oldest grains of wild barley and wild wheat found to date in archaeological context along with more than 30 other species of plants (Kislev, Nadel, and Carmi n.d.). De- tailed analysis has shown that barley, wheat, and other species were collected in spring, whereas fruits were gathered in autumn-strongly suggesting that the site was occupied for more than six months at a time. In addition, the floral assemblage permits a detailed recon- struction of the environment. The specimens reflect the presence of the lake and the mosaic of open forest and grasslands typical of today's central Jordan Valley. While the general range of species appears to have been very much the same, changes have probably occurred in the relative cover of the different plant communities (Kislev n.d.). The availability of reliable, nutritious food resources such as fish and cereals in addition to a wide variety of other plant and animal-species suggests that proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins were abundant. In other words, the Ohalo II population seems to have belonged to an affluent system, practicing low residential mobility (Binford I980) and subsisting on the lake shore for most of the year (Nadel n.d.).

In addition to the organic remains described above, the assemblage of Ohalo II contains Dentalium beads from either the Mediterranean or the Red Sea (D. Bar- Yosef, personal communication, I990). These may indi-



634 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

cate logistical forays from the Jordan Valley to the coast or some kind of exchange.

An additional important discovery at Ohalo II is well- preserved human remains. In contrast to the Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) and late Epipalaeolithic, or Natufian, from which large numbers of human remains are known, the Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic sequences of the region have produced only a few frag- mentary remains. The limited inventory of Upper Palaeolithic human remains from Israel includes two unpublished frontal bones from Qafzeh Cave, a fragmented femur and isolated teeth from Hayonim Cave (Arensburg et al. i990), and an almost complete female adult skeleton from Nahal Ein Gev I (Arensburg I977). From the early Epipalaeolithic period, specimens include fragments of humeri, ulnae, and mandibles from Kebara, miscellaneous fragments of limbs, trunk bones, and a fragmented mandible from El-Wad (McCown and Keith I939), a damaged female skeleton from Ein Gev I (Arensburg and Bar-Yosef I973), and a fragmented unpublished skeleton from Neve David, a Geometric Ke- baran site (D. Kaufman, personal communication). Of all the early Epipalaeolithic human remains from the southern Levant, the skeleton from Ohalo II is the most complete. The scarcity of human skeletons can be par- tially explained by the fact that the dead were apparently laid in very shallow pits (as is evident at both Ohalo and Ein Gev I) and were therefore prone to damage by scavengers and/or erosion.

The Nahal Ein Gev I skeleton was found in a tightly flexed position, with the distal end of the femur almost touching the sternum (Arensburg I977). Its skull was reconstructed from dozens of fragments, many presenting postmortem deformation; most of the long bone epiphyses had been crushed (Arensburg I977). This low- statured female (I 57 cm) manifested extremely gracile cranial features-weak glabella, poorly developed supra- orbital ridge, etc. The orbits were low and rectangular, the nasal apertures wide and low with a sharp rim sepa- rating the nasal floor from the subnasal region. The zy- gomatic bones were relatively strong and protruded lat- erally. All the long bones had very smooth muscular attachments and small dimensions. In its size and shape, the skull differed from European Upper Palaeolithic female skulls (see Arensburg I977). On the individual level, it had the greatest number of traits in common with Cro-Magnon II and Piredmosti IV. The later Ke- baran skull of Ein Gev I and the female skulls of subse- quent Natufian populations were very similar to it.

The Ohalo II skeleton was discovered lying on its back with hands crossed over the chest. The legs were fully flexed to the left side, the heels touching the buttocks (figs. 2, 3). In sharp contrast to the Nahal Ein Gev I skeleton, it manifests extreme robusticity both in the cranium and in the long bones. This individual, an adult male, was I 6 cm taller than the Nahal Ein Gev I female, indicating sharp sexual dimorphism during this period. The calvarium is rounded and of average size. The face is broad and massive, the orbits extremely low, and the interorbital region wide and rectangular; the supracili-

K

FIG. 3. Burial position of the Ohalo II (H2) individual.

ary eminence is exceptionally massive. The lateral aspect presents a pronounced superior temporal line and the posterior aspect shows a well-developed external oc- cipital protuberance. Since many of these traits are common in the ensuing Natufian populations, Ohalo II may be regarded as a "prototype" of all later eastern Mediter- ranean groups. Consequently, population continuity can be traced in the southern Levant for at least 2o,000 years. It is worth noting that many of the morphological characteristics of the Ohalo II skeleton (e.g., tall stature, low, square orbits, wide interorbital region, developed brow ridges, long arms, and a well-developed linea aspera) are considered typical of Upper Palaeolithic populations of Europe (Stringer, Hublin, and Vandermeersch I984). As material from the Upper Palaeolithic and Epi- palaeolithic accumulates, we may eventually be able to determine the origin of the Natufians and the possible biological relationship between Upper Palaeolithic eastern Mediterranean and European populations.

Ohalo II is of further interest because it provides the earliest direct evidence for the age of the Sea of Galilee. During the Last Glacial Maximum, the water level of Lake Lisan, a saline body of water that covered much of the Jordan Valley in the Upper Pleistocene, began to fall, and this tendency continued, with some fluctuations,



Volume 32, Number 5, December I99I 1635

into the Holocene. Reconstructions of Lake Lisan water levels depend mainly on the study of prehistoric sites in the Jordan Valley. Until the discovery of Ohalo II, the lowest Kebaran sites in the valley were at ca. i 8o m below sea level. In addition, as a result of tectonic activ- ity a new basin was forming and filling with fresh water in the northern part of the receding Lake Lisan, namely, the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret). This phenomenon was previously thought to have taken place sometime between i 8,ooo B.P. (Horowitz I 97 I: 2 5 8) and I 5,000 B.P. (Neev I 980: i9). Ohalo II, at 2 I 2.5 m and with an earlier date of I9,000 years B.P., presents some difficulties for these age estimations. It would, however, be premature to suggest an exact age for the Sea of Galilee, its earliest water level, or the possible impact of the tectonic ac- tivity.

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ARENSBURG, B., 0. BAR-YOSEF, A. BELFER-COHEN, AND Y. RAK. I990. Mousterian and Aurignacian human remains from Hayonim Cave, Israel. Paleorient I6:I07-9.

BAR-YOSEF, 0. I970. The Epipalaeolithic cultures of Palestine. Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.

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BAR-YOSEF, O., P. GOLDBERG, AND T. LEVISON. I974. Late Quaternary stratigraphy and prehistory in Wadi Fazael, Jordan Valley. Paleorient 2:4I5-28.

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New Subsistence Data and Human Remains from the Earliest Levantine Epipalaeolithic