MIGRATION AS TRANSFORMATION AGENT IN THE SHAPING AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE MALAY WORLD

International Seminar in Honor of Prof. E. U. Kratz, University of Frankfurt Gemany, 30 – 31 Mac 2011.

MIGRATION AS TRANSFORMATION AGENT IN THE SHAPING AND

DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE MALAY WORLD Mohd Sabrizaa B Abd Rashid

1

Sufian Che Amat2

UiTM Perak, Malaysia

Abstract

Geographically the Malay Archipelago generally recognised among the scholars as Nusantara; is located

between two main civilizations: India and the Islam dominated nations in the west with oriental China

towards its east. The informal boundaries that exist for centuries have shaped the established routes for

traders, missionaries and the populace that consequently influenced the character and disposition of the

new villages, coastal townships and ports of call. History witnessed many changes and migrations

together with the inevitable resettlement of the sovereign kingdoms along with its populace. The 2nd

century Funan Kingdom, the ruler of Kemboja in the northeast of the Malay peninsula; the Langkasuka

government to the north, the Sriwijaya Kingdom(6th

to 12th); the Malacca Sultanate as well as the

Majapahit Kingdom in Java in the 15th

century fashioned and transformed the migration patterns of the

Malay Nusantara. Economic factors together with other socio-cultural motives appear to be the basis for

the founding of new governments and the successive migration process among the populace. The events

that took place had affected and transformed the overall belief, socio-culture, the built environment and

the way of life among the Malays as the majority inhabitants in the Nusantara. The built environment and

its architecture are seen as comprehensive testimonies to the adaptation, assimilation and innovation

process that came about as a result of the migration. Distinctions can be made between the numerous

architectural designs, carvings and their associated symbolisms in the Malay world that assist to elucidate

the factors and thoughts behind the considerable migration of the Malay populace. This paper discuss and

attempt to enlighten the changes that took place and the ensuing transformation witnessed in the

development of architecture as a result of the migration process in the Malay world.

1 Assoc. Prof. Dr. MOHD SABRIZAA B ABD RASHID

Head Centre for Knowledge & Understanding of Tropical Architecture & Interior (KUTAI) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Perak Seri Iskandar Campus 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak Malaysia. 2 SUFIAN CHE AMAT

Department of Architecture Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Perak Seri Iskandar Campus 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak Malaysia.


Background

Geographically, the word Melayu directly refers to the Malay Peninsula which was once called the

Semenanjung Tanah Melayu. However the basis for the above seems to be watered down as most of the

other nations in the region are also populated by the Malays which practice the way of the Malay or adat

resam Melayu. This fact can be observered in places such as Sumatera, the West Borneo and the

surrounding islands including the northern part of Java where there exist villages with Malay names such

as found in Semarang and Jakarta in the present day Indonesia. Wan Salleh (2005:17) corroborated that

the Malay world can be categorised as follows:

1. Wilayah Melayu Teras or the main Malay region that include Malaysia, Singapore, southern

Thailand, southern Philiphine and most of present day Indonesia.

2. Wilayah Melayu Diaspora or the Malay community of Sri Lanka, Madagasgar, South Afrika

and the Christmas Island (Australia)

3. Wilayah Malayo-Polynesia that includes the many islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, Fiji,

Hawaii, Tonga, Samoa and New Zealand.

The kingdom of Funan, Champa, Pan-Pan and Langkasuka are among the early Malay kingdoms

within the region of Indochina and north of Malay Peninsula since the 1st century. The second silk road in

the 5th and 6

th century connected both India and China where countless trades took place. Subsequently

the trades expanded to include the Samudra Hindia sea routes including present day Southern Sumatera

via the present day Straits of Malacca.

Proof to the presence of extensive maritime trading routes in the regions can be seen by the

founding of the kingdoms of Srivijaya and later the Malacca Empire that dominated the era. During the 7th

century, the Langkasuka kingdom of the Srivijaya government was centred in Palembang. The Srivijaya

government at that time united with the Sailendra government of Java; with citizenry up to Champa in

Cambodia whilst making Langkasuka as the seat of government in the Malay Peninsula.(Munoz,2006)


During the era of the Majapahit kingdom, Langkasuka was annexed in 1275. This created several

new governments, seaports serving the trading routes. After the fall of the Malacca Empire to the

Portuguese in 1511, a number of coastal townships flourished such as in Aceh, Pattani, Palembang,

Banten, Brunei, Makassar and Banjarmasin. The colonial era of 16th

up until the early 20th century saw the

forming of many colonial towns, the Straits Settlements, the Federation of Malay States and also a few

independent Malay states. This development consequently led to the creation of the modern day states of

Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and Singapore.

The Wave of Migration in the Malay world

Economic factors as early as the 5th century, the era of free trade during the Malacca Sultanate of

the 15th century together with the gold and tin mining activities during the 18

th century resulted in massive

waves of migration of the Malays from Sumatera, Java and Sulawesi to the Malay Peninsula. It was a

known fact that the war of the churches(Peperangan Paderi) during the Dutch colonization of Sumatera

also contributed to the migration of the Malay populace.

The rituals of tradings and migrating of the Minangkabau Malays witnessed during the era also

resulted in their migrating to the Nusantara that includes West and North of Sumatera, part of Riau

archipelago, Norther Bengkulu, Western Jambi, South West of Aceh including states of Negeri Sembilan

and Johor in the Malay peninsula (Jong, J., 1960). It is considered very highly for the youths of the era to

migrate and thereafter returns to their villages to take on a more leading and mature role of their

respective societies and states.

Similarly in the west and south of Sulawesi, the Bugis communities are well known for their

seafearing capabilities and migrated from one place to another habitually. The seaport town of Makassar

during the 16th

century was recorded as a multi ethnic harbor that breed exceptional seafearing

communities that traded in the well-known spices. Thus, it is the economic and political factors that

compel the migration of the Bugis Malays to Sumbawa, Lombok, Bali, jawa and the states of Johor and

Selangor in the peninsula during 17th to 18

th century (Andaya, L., 2004:04). The migration process also


witnessed the foundation of cross-relationship between the Malays of Malacca, Cambodia, Aceh, Batavia,

Banjarmasin, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, Manila, Sulu and Johor. (Sutherland, H., 2006:76)

During the 18th

century also, the Aceh and Bugis Sultanates was seen to be very influential in the

conduct of the government in Perak which at the time famed for its tin mines. That too contributed to the

envious relationships between Perak and its neighbouring states including Siam, the English and the

Dutch. Mixed marriages were normal at the time such as the northern Malays having nuptial relationships

with the Siams of Southern Thai. This was seen as tolerable even preferred as it would strengthen the

already strong family ties and at the same time prevent potential squabbles.

Additionally there exist blood-lines between the numerous Malays of Kedah, Kelantan and

Terengganu. The history of the Malays too touched on this by referring to the Cham community in

Malacca in the year 1400. The Chams were known to have similar culture and customs with the Malays

of Patani, Kelantan and Terengganu. In 1400 too the Cham lost the battle to Vietnam that results with

around 120,000 deaths and in 1600 the King of Cham converted to Islam. In 1700 the last muslim Cham’s

King together with his followers migrated to the south of Cambodia whilst those living along the coast

moved to the current Malay states of Terengganu and Kelantan. This historical lineage can also be seen in

the resemblance of the spoken language of the Cham’s and the Malays such as Kampong Cham,

Kambujadesa and Kampong Chhnang.

Economic activities since the era of the Malaccan Empire until the colonial period during the 17th

and 18th centuries in the Straits Settlements too resulted in the formation of the port cities of Malacca,

Singapore and Penang. These cities consequently became the centres for world migration and cause the

influx of numerous nationals from all over the trading world that significantly influenced the local

multiculturalism. Mixed marriages became commonplace with the local women giving birth to various

ethnic lineages such as the Cina Peranakan or Babas and Nyonyas of Malacca, India Peranakan or

Chettis of Malacca and the Jawi Peranakan. These phenomenons resulted in the clash of cultures that

subsequently produced various unique cultural and architectural heritages. These architectural fusions can

be seen for examples in the use of hanging lanterns called tanglung as a symbol of greetings whilst the


carvings for the interior uses motifs of phoenix which originated from the Chinese cultures. The Jawi

Peranakan too dominated building designs such as found in Lebuh Aceh in Penang. They were recognised

as having an Arabic lineage or even Indians which migrated to Penang as traders and all of them

communicated in Bahasa Melayu and dressed very much like the local Malays of the era.

The House and Venacular Architectural Design of the Malay World

It is common that any study on socio-cultures should involve architecture and its built

environment as one of the important aspect apart archeology and linguistics. Architecture is an expression

of the particular cultures; as physical records and visual documents created by the inhabitants that reflect

very much their socio-cultural activities. By investigating architecture as the focus area, we can

understand the various issues, the thinking process and methodologies involved in their creation.

Architecture too offers clues to their beliefs, their cultural practices and their way of life. The word rumah

for example or house in Malay is common and used all over the Malay world. It’s called Omah in Java,

Umah in Bali, Emah in Sunda; also called Ruma by the ethnic Dayak, Uma in Mantawai and Kayan, Ume

in Atoni and Dawan Tenggara Timur; other names such as Balai, Bala or Fale in Fiji and Hale in Hawaii

carry the same meaning (Abdul Rahman Al-Ahmadi, 2000 : 207).

The Architectural Design Migration of the Malay World

The migration of the Minangkabau Malays from Sumatera to Tanah Melayu not only brought in

their Minang cultural practices of adat perpatih but also brings with them an architectural design in the

form of Rumah Gadang and bumbung lentik (literary means curved roof) similar as found in Negeri

Sembilan. From the architectural point of view similar designs can also be found in several places such as

the Toraja House in Sulawesi, the Batak House of Lake Toba and rumah adat in Papua New Guinea. The

design of bumbung lentik is said to have come from the shape of the local buffalo or kerbau. In the

context of the Minangkabau people it originated from the legend of a buffalo that was the prize won in a

competition that was said to have upheld the honor of the locals. Others in the Malay world associate the


buffalo as a symbol of prosperity and strength; the Mandalings even believe the spirit of the dead rides the

buffalo to heavens.

Similar connections between trades, heredity and cultures between the Malays of Champa,

Pattani, Kelantan and Terengganu have also impacted on the design of their houses3. Many of their houses

incorporated the use of pemeleh and roofed using the commonly found singgora tiles of the era and they

became the main architectural features. Decoratives trimmings at the four corners of the roof also use a

design called ekor itik(literary means duck tail) or sulur bayung.

The traditional Malay houses along Sungai Perak called Rumah Bumbung Melayu or Rumah

Kutai some of which dated more than 150 years; also have features similar to the ones seen in Malacca,

Aceh and some parts of Sumatera. Studies have indicated that some of the local inhabitants near Sungai

Perak are originally the fourth and fifth generations Malays that have migrated from Sumatera .

Rumah Bertiang(Pile Houses) and the Concept of Tiang Seri (central post)

Overall there are many distinctions in the architectural design of the Malay world. However close

scrutiny reveals parallel resemblance in shapes and designs characteristics. This is true for example in the

use of the lantai gantung with timber columns with stone footings called rumah panggung atau rumah

bertiang. With the exception of part of Java, Bali and Lombok, most of the regions of the Malay world

uses similar design features of rumah bertiang. Carvings seen on the Candi Borobudur confirmed similar

motifs of rumah bertiang indicating the probability that the Malay houses in Java also use similar design

in the past.

The construction process of a Malay house entails a ceremony to raise the main column or the

tiang seri which to the Malays symbolises strength and sturdiness of the house being built. Tiang Seri is

always the first column erected and it is located at the very centre of the house plan or located as one of

3 See discussion by Aziz Deraman,ed. (2003), Peradaban Melayu Timur laut, DBP : Kuala Lumpur dan Wan Salleh et.al.ed. (2008), Prosiding Seminar Antarabangsa Pemandiran Budaya Tamadun Timur Laut, UiTM : Shah Alam.


the four main columns that support the hip roof house or rumah bumbung limas. In Kelantan and

Terengganu the tiang seri is also one the main columns that form the rumah ibu.

The other version of the Malay house called Rumah tiang dua belas, involved the use of six main

columns or tiang panjang that support the cross beams alang panjang and alang pendek. In Java the tiang

seri is called Soko Guru, whilst in Aceh it is known as the Tiang Raja and as sao mongkon in Thailand to

mean the lucky column or tiang bertuah. The Malays believe that the tiang seri that is good or baik will

thwart any untoward incidents such as fire or evil spirits or makhluk halus. The traditional Sumbas of

Indonesia always positioned the tiang seri on the front right hand side of the plan as they consider it as

the sacred medium between the house owners and their ancestors spirits in the heaven. A more extreme

practice can be found in northern Sumatera where an doomed servant was said to be sacrificed by burying

alive4 directly in the ground beneath the tiang seri. Other names for the tiang seri are tiang penghulu and

tiang tua which is always the first foundation hole in the ground to be dug accompanied by supplication

or doa to the prophet Muhamad s.a.w.

There are many rituals (pantang larang and petua) during the erection of the tiang seri such as

the person tasked to do the job must avoid having his or others shadows cast in the pit being dug; iron

ores, nails, broken knives or beliung patah, buah keras and coins are often buried underneath the tiang

seri. The Malays being highly superstitious often associates their daily activities with the goods and the

evils. The head of the tiang seri or kepala tiang will be covered with a special square cloth (pelapik kain)

called bunga halang; often the cloth has three, five or seven colours that signify the owner’s status in the

society. Three colours for the common Malays; five for the wealthy and seven for the royalties (Yuan,

1987:148), (Chen, 2003:17)5. It also serves not only as a decoration but also the Malays believe that by

4 See Indonesia Heritage : Architecture (1998), Archipelago Press : Singapore, p. 94. 5 Common colours are :

i. Black – symbolises bravery which protects the house from evil spirits. ii. Red – denotes life and valiant or friendship. iii. White – purity iv. Green – prosperity and fertility v. Blue – happiness


doing so will keep the house owners away from any tragedy. Similar practice can also be seen in

other areas of the Malay world such as in north of Thailand where the cloth colours were red and white

with capped by silver sheets; the event was concluded with incantations and servings to honour the

dragon or naga as the guardian or semangat bumi.

In Aceh on the other hand there were two types of tiang seri that represent both male and female;

the male was called tiang raja and the female as tiang puteri. Different colour combinations of black and

white were used as the kain pelapik often with attached Quranic verses. In other parts of the Malay world

the pracitise was accompanied by servings of cooked yellow glutinous rice or pulut kuning for the

ceremony; with gandarusa , pepanggih, menjuang or rumput semabau leafs bunched, tightened and

dipped in air tahlil before being sprinkled onto the footprint where the tiang seri would be positioned

(Raja Bahrin 1988:46).

The Dragon, Garuda and Buffalo Motifs

Among the early architectural record in the Malay worlds were images seen on the Dongson

drum, a musical instrument found in Indonesia and Vietnam in 500BC until 300AD; illustrating an

occupied house with animals roving below. The image illustrates the thinking of the era where there is a

very clear standing among the populace where the upper part is always occupied by the mythical dragon

or garuda (heaven), the middle (earth) by humans whilst the bottom (earth) were for other creatures or

animals etc.6 Waterson(1997:18-19), Chen(2003:15). Other motifs such as makara

7 could be seen on

houses found in Indochina and Thailand as well as on carvings on boats and personal weapons such as the

keris in Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang. Architectural elements such as perabung bumbung or roof

vi. Purple – heroism and dedication vii. Yellow – symbolises power and royalty 6 The Malay world often associates strength and supernatural power with real life creatures such as tigers and elephants or mythical beings such as the dragon or naga; it was thought that the naga is actually a big serpent or snake with horns that lighted in the nights and has supernatural power. 7 Sea monster originating from Hindu mythology. A symbol of protection, especially for fishermen.


ridge were sisik naga(literary means dragon fin) or carving imitating dragon scales that ends with another

carving called sulur bayung as if depicting a slithering dragon.

Conclusion

Like other cultures of the world the ethnic Malay life is interrelated and governed by its

sovereigns. The populace practices what the ruler preaches and do what their monarch directs; often the

whole kingdom and its populace goes to war and face the consequences either in victory of in defeat.

Collective migrations among the Malays are commonly practiced. Marriages either within the same

kinfolks or mixed with another caused numerous modifications and adaptations to their traditional

cultural practices. New generations were born that may not have a clear or distinguish culture that can be

rightly called their own. This phenomenon has to some extent impacted the architecture of the Malay

world especially the Malays living in Tanah Melayu.

In general the architecture of the east coast of the peninsula is mostly influenced by the

architectural styles of the southern Thai, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam; whilst the architecture of the west

coast of the peninsula follows closely the design characteristics as found in Sumatera. During the colonial

era most buildings duplicated the English colonial, Chinese or India design elements. The arrival of Islam

to Tanah Melayu has also had a big impact on the design language and philosophy of the architecture in

the Malay worlds. Gone were the figurative elements such as headed dragons or buffaloes as they

symbolism that is forbidden in Islam. Hence, most of the architectural style became simpler, compared to

states such as Thailand or Cambodia where Hinduism and Budhism is still widely practiced.

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MIGRATION AS TRANSFORMATION AGENT IN THE SHAPING AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE MALAY WORLD