i

Social Science Perspective

MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT:

UNDERSTANDING GHANAIAN IRREGULAR

MIGRATION TO LIBYA FROM STRUCTURATION

THEORY PERSPECTIVE

Submitted by: Yeboah Collins

Lecturer: Dr. Meik Nowak

Date of Submission: 30th December, 2012

For correspondence, please contact: collinsybh@yahoo.com +233(0)208268289

ii

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Background to the study ..................................................................................................................... 1

2.1 Irregular Migration ........................................................................................................................ 1

2.2 Categories of Irregular Migration ................................................................................................. 2

3. Problem Statement .............................................................................................................................. 2

3.1 Research Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 3

3.2 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 3

3.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 3

3.4 Operationalization of variables ..................................................................................................... 3

3.5 Relevance and Justification of the Essay ...................................................................................... 4

4. Literature Review ................................................................................................................................ 4

4.1 Migration and Development ......................................................................................................... 4

4.2 Migratory patterns in Ghana ......................................................................................................... 5

4.3 Reasons for Intra-migration in Ghana ........................................................................................... 6

5. Theoretical or Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 6

5.1. The Structuration Theory ............................................................................................................. 6

5.2. Structuration Theory and Irregular Migration.............................................................................. 7

5.3 Social Institutions and Migration .................................................................................................. 8

5.4 Irregular Ghanaian Migration to Libya and the Channels Used ................................................... 8

5.5 Enablers for Irregular Migration to Libya ..................................................................................... 8

5.6 Constraints to Irregular Migration ................................................................................................ 9

6. Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 9

References ............................................................................................................................................. 11

iii

Key Terms

Agents

Ghana

Irregular

Libya

Migration

Structures

1

1. Introduction

Migration, as one of the basic determinants of population growth among fertility and

mortality, is on the policy agenda Africa and the international community as a whole because

of the frequency and its effects on the place of origin and the receiving areas as well. Daily,

people move on a journey of hope and uncertainty within or across borders with diverse

background (UNDP, 2009). The receiving countries in turn, has “diverse policies regulating

the entry and the settlement of different kinds of people with a foreign background” (Sara,

2011:2) restricting desperate migrants of entry. As a result, different irregular channels or

structures are created to effect migration by desperate migrants.

Whilst diverse policies are been implemented to curb irregular migration, the act continues

unabated as there are daily cases of people crossing the seas to Europe. Therefore,

understanding irregular migration and the processes involved will give insight into how the

phenomena can be tackled fully. In doing so, many theories have sort to explain the reasons

behind these phenomena from both functionalist and structuralist perspective separately.

However, Anthony Giddens Structuration Theory recognises “duality” that is; combining

both theories in trying to understand irregular migration where migrants (agents) create

structures in order to reach their destination. The paper applies the Structuration theory to

explain how structures created by these migrants enable and the same time constraints

desperate migrants from Ghana to Libya by road through the Saharan desert to give insight

into irregular migration and how it can best be tackled.

Structurally, in the sections that follow, the work begins with (i) the background and

conceptualisation of the study, (ii) literature review and theoretical/ conceptual framework,

(iii) problem statement, research questions and aims and objectives of the study, (iv) research

methodology for the study and (v) conclusions and recommendations.

2. Background to the study

The background gives definition and categories of irregular migration with objective to give

insight to the readers regarding specific concepts related to this essay.

2.1 Irregular Migration

One is considered irregular migrant only when those countries involved have legal rules

barring people from travelling without the necessary documents. Gosh, (1998 cited in Suter,

2005:14) explained that “a person is made illegal by altering laws and regulations of the

2

country of origin and destination”. Therefore, a situation where there are no restricted rules

on migration, irregular migration cannot be considered. The irregular migrants from Ghana

who alter the rules and regulations by using unapproved routes (the Saharan desert) to reach

Libya are considered for the work.

2.2 Categories of Irregular Migration

Suter, (2005), categorized irregular migrants into two groups based on push and pull factors.

First, the type of irregular migration (survival migration) resulting from push factors such as

poverty, unemployment and economic hardship. Second, the pull factors such as lack of

opportunities to enhance economic welfare that result in another type of irregular migration

termed as opportunity-seeking migration. These two categories were further explained by

Gosh, (1998 cited in Suter, 2005: 15) that the potential risks and the reward involved in the

irregular migration makes the opportunity-seeking migrants more cautious about the intent to

move i.e. been risk averse. They are therefore more willing to stay in the country of origin “if

the risk and punishment of migrating is too high” (Ibid: 14). The survival migrants on the

other hand, are willing to take risk and are more driven by economic despair.

Other forms of illegal or irregular migrants are those who were officially recognised but fall

back into illegality when they overstay their visa or those who “fail to meet other conditions

for recognizing their legal status” (Kohnert, 2007:7). The survival migrants are considered for

the study since the risks of punishment and discomfort are less likely to deter them from

moving. These are desperate migrants from Ghana using unapproved routes (the desert) to get

to Libya. These migrants are more likely to accept almost any job in the destination country

(Suter, 2005).

3. Problem Statement

For many decades until the late 1960, Ghana was the destination country for many migrants

from the neighbouring West African countries because of its relative economic prosperity at

that time (Anarfi and Kwankye 2003). Only few Ghanaians travelled to United Kingdom and

other English-speaking countries mainly due to colonial links (Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al.

2000, cited in Anarfi and Kwankye 2003:6). Within Africa, the dominant points of

destination for many Ghanaians were Côte d’Ivoire at the time (Ibid). However the trend

changed after some time. Libya hitherto was the destination of majority of Ghanaians despite

the associated risk involved in travelling by road through the Sahara desert to Libya.

According to National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO, 2011) about 17,000

3

irregular Ghanaian migrants were deported from Libya during the Arab spring. This involved

Ghanaians entering Libya irregularly using the Saharan desert as a transit point.

Understanding the factors that lead to the irregular migration from Ghana to Libya through

the Saharan desert is still under explored in the migration literature. This paper contributes to

bridging this knowledge gap by exploring how structures constraints and enables migrant to

travel through the Sahara desert.

3.1 Research Objectives

The study seeks answers to how Ghanaians take this journey of uncertainty or irregularly and

what facilitates the movement using Anthony Giddens Structuration Theory. By so doing, the

research will explore amongst other things the migration pattern in Ghana, the structures that

constraints and enables the survival migrants to embark on such journey and the channels

mostly used and inform policies about it. In trying to achieve the objectives set, the following

research questions are posed:

3.2 Research Questions

1. In what ways do structural and contextual factors impede/facilitate irregular migration

from Ghana to Libya?

2. What strategies are employed by migrants or channels are used in irregular migration

from Ghana to Libya?

3.3 Methodology

The work employs secondary data due to time constraints to go to the field to collect data for

more qualitative and quantitative analysis. Therefore the essay is purely descriptive and

narrative in nature using secondary materials including literature review, desk study and

internet search-all anchored on the class discussions.

3.4 Operationalization of variables

Enablers: This refers to what facilitates the movement of migrants. Alternatively, it serves as

the pull factor; pulling the migrants to their destination countries.

Constraints: Constraints herein used refers to what inhibits migrants from making regular

migration. Policies that deter migrants from using approved routes.

Irregular Migrants: These are Ghanaian migrants using unapproved routes to reach Libya.

The routes used are the Saharan desert.

4

3.5 Relevance and Justification of the Essay

Increasing irregular migration has altered the migration policies employed by various

governments. Now the policy solutions on curbing migration rather focuses on “fighting” or

“combating” illegal migration (Haas, 2008:9). This has made the policies on migration

complex by many governments in their efforts to climb down on irregular migration. The

policies have to focus on the migrants on hand and the smugglers or the traffickers on the

other side. As migration policy in Ghana is still in its embryotic stage, the work will

contribute immensely by informing policies on what should be done to curb irregular

migration.

4. Literature Review

4.1 Migration and Development

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) explains that migration impacts on

development can be understood in three ways; “transfer of population and workforce; transfer

of know-how and knowledge; and transfer of financial assets” (IOM, 2012:3). Migration

invariably entails both benefits and costs (IOM, 2012; Gosh 2010), which are often

differentially shared between and within countries. The migrants contribute to the economy

in the receiving areas by way of offering labour force and the remittances to the country of

origin as well. However, much will depend on the receiving country (Gosh, 2010). In terms

of prosperity and economic reconstruction, the receiving countries welcome migrants who

serve as a source of labour to boost their economy. That is; the “migrants allow destination

countries to meet rising labour demand, restrain wage push inflation, boost consumption and

put the economy on an upward swing” (Gosh, 2010:22). The migrants can also remit their

family left behind in their country of origin. Farrington and Mitchell (2006:4) argue that

policy-makers acknowledge international migration due to the macro-economic significance

of remittance flows. However, the trickling down effects of remittances on the economy is

essential for development. According to UNDP Report, (2009), migration becomes positive

when the benefits are trickled down to those left behind or on their new destination. It is

therefore important to note that the significance of the impacts of migration on development

only on economic growth is not enough, rather the distributional manifestation is very

important (Todaro and Smith, 2011).

5

4.2 Migratory patterns in Ghana

Ghana has experienced out migration since independence mainly by political persecutions,

socio-economic conditions, and pursuit of higher education. This out migration in Ghana

involves internal, external and irregular migration (IOM, 2012). With an estimated population

of 25million people at growth rate of 2.2 percent (CIA, 2012), the pressure to migrate in

Ghana may increase unless there is an improvement in employment opportunities for young

labour market entrants (IOM, 2009:15). It is estimated that the labour force will increase

yearly by 2.9 percent for the next 15 years (Ibid).

Intra-Migration: Migration in Ghana initially was within the borders of the country and

involved groups and individuals of different ethnic groups moving into other areas in search

of security as a result of warfare, and for new safe lands for settlement and fertile lands for

farming as well (Wyllie, 1977; Boahen, 1975 cited in Awumbila et al, 2011:12). Almost, all

the ethnic groups in present Ghana claim to have come from somewhere other than their

present location (Anarfi and Kwankye 2003). This form of migration took the form of rural-

rural migration, rural-urban migration and urban-rural migration which was dominant before

independence (Ibid). For instance, the introduction of cocoa by Tetteh Quarshie in the 19th

century led to the unprecedented migration of farmers around Ghana (Hill, 1963 cited in

Awumbila, 2011:34). However, the trend in migration had changed since the late 1960s as a

result of the decline in the economy coupled with political instability (Awumbila et al, 2011;

Anarfi and Kwankye 2003). This led to the North-South migration mostly involving the

youth from the Northern parts of Ghana to such Southern cities such as Accra and Kumasi

where they engage in menial jobs to earn a living (Ibid). Aside these socio-economic and

political reasons, there have been forced migration too. In the year 1994-1995, an estimated

100,000 were reported to have been forced out of their homes in northern Ghana as a result of

ethnic conflicts (Black et al, 2006, cited in Awumbila et al, 2011).

Inter-Migration: Cross border migration in Ghana, is as a result of the educational system

and the economy. These situations according to Peil (1995, cited in Awumbila et al 2011:17)

offer few opportunity for the growing population. According to Awumbila et al (2011), the

poor conditions of the domestic prospects for employment and the sustainable livelihoods

also underlie much of the Ghanaian migration to other countries. In the period 1980, many

Ghanaians started travelling outside the country in search of Jobs abroad. Among these

emigrants, majority of them were professionals such as teachers, lawyers, and administrators

(Anarfi and Kwankye, 2003).

6

4.3 Reasons for Intra-migration in Ghana

Various reasons are assigned for migration within Ghana. For the purpose of this work, very

few points will be elaborated.

Economic factors: One major reason assigned is the increasing population growth rate in

Ghana within the last three decades which has increased the supply of labour. Mostly, it puts

a lot of pressure on the available lands which eventually leads to the high incidence of

migration particularly in the rural areas. The macro-economic environment in Ghana is also a

determining factor (Anarfi and Kwankye, 2003). A bias policy that favours the urban areas at

the expense of the rural areas, the terms of trade turned against agriculture and the rural areas,

contributes to wide rural-urban income differentials. These policies suppressed farm prices

and rural incomes, encouraging a shift of labour out of agricultural production and a

subsequent increase in rural-urban migration (Ibid).

Social Factors: According to Ewusi (1986 cited in Anarfi and Kwankye, 2003), depressed

social conditions at the place of origin also compel people to migrate other than economic

factors. However, their choices of destination are always based on the economic opportunities

available. Alternatively, the social conditions prevailing at their place of origin act as the

main “push factor” while the economic opportunities available in a particular town act as the

“pull factor” attracting migrants to that locality (Johnson 1974 cited in Anarfi and Kwankye,

2003:16). According to Anarfi and Kwankye (2003), internal migration and urbanisation in

Ghana is as a result of economic reasons which makes people migrate from their previous

locations (place of origin); to their destination. This suggests that income differentials

contribute significantly to internal migration in the country.

5. Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

5.1. The Structuration Theory

The theory of structuration “underscored the macro-economic and social forces that were

responsible for throwing masses of migrants on the roads” (Remund, 2010:3). In explaining

the structuration theory and its applicability to migration, the functionalist and the

structuralist approach gives first insight to the study. Most assumptions made by some of the

theories are based on economic gains “migration of labour is a response to a wage differential

or inequality between the source and destination countries” (Goss and Lindquist, 1995:317).

The functionalist perspective focuses on microeconomic processes, particularly the decision

making behaviour of the migrant who, in their desire to improve their life chances migrate to

7

other places as a respond to real or perceived inequalities in the distribution of economic

opportunity (Ibid). The structural perspective, on the other hand, does not focus on the

individual exercising rational choices. Rather, it focuses on the macroeconomic processes

that produce socio spatial inequalities and constrain the life chances of individuals as

members of specific social classes in particular places (Goss and Lindquist, 1995). Because

of these two conflicting stance, there are several stances that sociologist believe are either one

way or the other with no middle ground that balances elements from both sides (i.e. macro

and micro) to explain social practices (Olson and Yahia, 2006).

Giddens’s Structuration Theory was developed to merge this conflicting social theory. As

noted by Olson and Yahia (2006), the basis of the Structuration Theory involves the

identification of the relationship between the individuals and the social forces that act upon

us. In applying the theory to migration is to start by recognising “society” which relates to

structural causes for migration and “agency” which relates to the individual reason for

migrating and linking them. Simply put, “migration patterns can be explained either in

macro-terms, where individual behaviour is seen as a result of changes in the surrounding

(structure), or in micro-terms where individual decision-making and individual values are

given more substance1”. To this end, both micro and macro analysis are critical to the study

of migration and must be considered as a whole rather than in parts.

5.2. Structuration Theory and Irregular Migration

De Haas, (2010: 15), explains that “recognizing the relevance of both structure and agency is

essential, as this enables us to better deal with the heterogeneity of migration-development

interactions”. This theory has been applied to the study of migration by many researchers

(Goss and Lindquist, 1995; Pilkington, 1998; Pilkington and Phizacklea, 1999; Westwood

and Phizacklea, 2000; Morawska, 2001; Flynn, 2004). The theory recognises that structures

both constrain and enable agency; and the idea that social actors (migrants) are

knowledgeable − “they have ideas about the conditions and possible consequences of their

actions” (Kosygina, 2009:16). Hence, migrants are faced with multiple of decisions as the

degrees of freedom of all migrants are constrained by the social structures in which they

exist. Yet the most seemingly vulnerable and powerless individuals organise resources where

they can carve out “spaces” of control as the intent of migrating economically is to gather

resources as a source of control to have influence in the society. The use of “spaces” from

Geographical perspective means across the earth surface. Implying that, since one is

1 http://cybergeo.revues.org/3827 accessed on 6th December, 2012.

8

constrained in gathering resources at the originating country (Ghana) because of being poor

or vulnerable, the available option is to look elsewhere (Libya).

5.3 Social Institutions and Migration

According to Gosh and Lindquist (1995), the interactions of agents and the social systems

create what Giddens called “time-space distanciation" because of the geographical spaces that

are involved in these interactions. These interactions occur in regional or locally bounded

places and are “sedimented” in space. In the modern world, these distances or the movement

from one place to other can be facilitated through transport networks. However, central to this

essay is the irregular means that are involved in overcoming the “distance” between places.

As argued by Gosh and Lindquist, (1995), the increase in the migration is not necessarily,

from the functional perspective, the linkages that neither are readily accessible such as the

transportation networks to get to desired areas, nor as a result of, often argued by the

structuralist, the emergence of the capitalist market and unequal development as space.

Rather, it is as a result of the rapidly developing economies with individuals in the furthest

peripheries of the Third World and the rigid institutions that restrict people to reach the

developed world (Ibid: 335). Research on the Ghanaian returnees from Libya indicated that

majority of the people are from the rural areas (peripheries) in Ghana who perceived of good

paying work in the developed country.

5.4 Irregular Ghanaian Migration to Libya and the Channels Used

Prior to the migration to Libya, vehicles left Nkoranza in the Brong Ahafo Region to

transport migrants to Bawku in the Upper East Region of Ghana. According to Manuh

(2011), the migrants would board other vehicles to take them eventually to Agadez in Niger,

from where they begun their journeys on foot through the Sahara desert to Libya. Nkoranza

was also said to boast facilities for making false travel documents including passports that

enabled migrants to cross borders. There are local agents (locally known as connection men)

who facilitate the emigration to Libya. They take money from the prospective migrants and

provide them with fake documents to enable them get to Libya.

5.5 Enablers for Irregular Migration to Libya

Growing employment opportunities, combined with cheaper communications and transport,

have increased the ‘demand’ for migration (UNDP, 2009). Libya is one of the fastest

developing countries in Africa in terms of economic opportunities. At the same time, it is

among the countries in Africa that has low population. Because of this, labour is scarce and

therefore high in demand. Most people move to Libya because of the economic opportunities

9

available as no requisite skills needed. According to Manuh, (2011) about 90% of the

migrants to Libya engaged in masonry work “plastering” commonly referred to as “malaga”

which does not require any technical skills. The plastering is high in demand and the wage

differential is high as compared to the farming work they were doing in Ghana. Other reasons

are governmental neglect in siting industrial establishments in the region as contributing to

emigratory waves of predominantly young men desirous of acquiring a livelihood away from

farming (Ibid).

5.6 Constraints to Irregular Migration

Agents create structures that constraint those wishing to migrate. These migrants have

increasingly come up against government-imposed barriers (Structures) to movement. These

are in the form of policies that constraint migrants to arrive at their destinations. According to

UNDP Report, (2009), the number of nation states has quadrupled to almost 200 over the past

century, creating more borders to cross, while policy changes have further limited the scale of

migration even as barriers to trade fell. The created structures (policies) favour the educated

to settle in the developed countries whilst barriers to mobility are high for people with low

skills, despite the demand for their labour in many rich countries (Ibid). In the context to the

irregular migrants from Ghana to Libya, they are constrained because of the structures

created that inhibit their movement to Libya. The structures created by the Libyan authorities

with regard to the acquisition of visa constraints majority of the migrants to use approved

routs to get to Libya. This implies that, migrants break the institutions that inhibit them from

entering Libya. It is therefore necessary to analyse the institutions which is impossible to

ignore considering the individuals who represent them and whose daily actions and

interactions reproduce institutional practice (Goss and Lindquist, 1995).

6. Summary and Conclusion

The essay explains the role that Structuration Theory plays in understanding irregular

migration using a Ghana as the study area. The importance of structure, agency, the

institutions and other basic tenets of the structuration theory were explored in trying to

understand irregular migration. It is evident that agency here (connection men) are critical as

they use the resources and the rules to effect migration to Libya contrary to the institutional

arrangements of the country. Also, migrants try to overcome the constraints imposed by the

structure in order to reach “distanciated” space.

10

To effectively understand irregular migration and the measures to curb it as evidenced from

the discussions, it is important to acknowledge the “duality of structure” which enables and

the same time constraints migrants. Migration is crucial to development but the right channel

must always be followed to benefit both the sending countries and the receiving countries

alike. As discussed, both push and pull factors throw masses of migrants on the road to Libya

from Ghana. This is evidenced from the fact that bias policies in Ghana that favours the urban

areas growth where development are always skewed towards at the neglect of the rural areas

leads to the rural-urban migration. Until development especially in the rural areas are looked

at, the daily cases of people using unapproved routes to Libya will continue. More

importantly, the socio-economic issues in Ghana need to be looked at. These are the root

causes of irregular migration in Ghana.

Also, attention should be placed on capacity building of Government officials and local

institutions to educate these survival migrants about business and employment potentials in

Ghana and the fact that the grass is not always greener in foreign lands as they are made to

believe. There is also the need to increase campaigns about the risks of travelling through

irregular channels.

11

References

Anarfi, J., K., (1982). International Labour Migration in West Africa: A Case Study of the

Ghanaian Migrants in Lagos, Nigeria. Accra: Regional Institute for Population Studies;

Legon: University of Ghana.

Anarfi, J., and Kwankye S., (2003). Migration from and to Ghana: A Background Paper.

Working Paper C4. Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty,

University of Sussex.

Awumbila M., et al, (2011). Migration and Mobility in Ghana: Trends, Issues and Emerging

Research Gaps. Woeli Publishing Services, Accra.

Bakewell, O., (1996). Refugee Repatriation in Africa: Towards a Theoretical Framework?

Occasional Paper, Centre for Development Studies, University of Bath, UK

De Haas, H., (2008). Irregular Migration from West Africa to the Maghreb and the European

Union: An Overview of Recent Trends. International Organization for Migration, Geneva

Farrington, J., and Mitchell, J., (2006). How Can the Rural Poor Participate in the Global

Economic Processes? Natural Resources Perspectives 103. Overseas Development Institute

Giddens, A., (1977). Studies in social and political theory. London: Hutchinson & Co

(Publishers) Ltd.

Giddens, A., (1979). Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction

in Social Analysis. Macmillan: London.

Giddens, A., (1981). Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism: Power, Property and

the State. London: Macmillan.

Giddens, A., (1982). Profiles and critiques in social theory. Los Angeles: University of

California Press.

Giddens, A., (1984). The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. Los

Angeles: University of California Press.

12

Goss, J., and Lindquist B., (1995). Conceptualizing International Labor Migration: A

Structuration Perspective. The Center for Migration Studies of New York, Inc. International

Migration Review, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 1995), pp. 317-351. Available at:

http://www.jstor.org/stable/2546784.

Gosh, B., (2010). The Global Economic Crisis and Migration: Where do we go from here?

The Hague process on Refugees and Migration, IOM

Human Development Report, (2009). Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and

development. UNDP

International Organisation for Migration, (2012). Focus on Migration. Newsletter, December,

2012. Accra, Ghana.

International Organisation for Migration, (2009). Migration in Ghana: A Country Profile

2009. Geneva, Switzerland.

Kohnert, D., (2007). African Migration to Europe: Obscured Responsibilities and Common

Misconceptions. Working Papers No. 49: German Institute of Global and Area Studies

Kosygina, L., (2009). The Russian migration regime and migrants' experiences: the case of

non-Russian nationals from former Soviet republics. Student Thesis: Centre for Russian and

East European Studies, University of the Birmingham, UK.

Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., et al. (1998). Worlds in Motion: Understanding

International Migration at the End of the Millennium. Oxford Clarendon Press.

Morawska, E., (2001). Structuring Migration: The Case of Polish Income-Seeking Travelers

to the West. Theory and Society, Vol. 30, No. 1 (Feb., 2001), pp. 47-80. Springer. Available

at http://www.jstor.org/stable/658062

Olsen, N., and Yhaia K., (2006). Nijmegen School of Management, Holland

13

Remund, A., (2010). Refreshing the typology of migration systems. A reformulation based on

the case of early nineteenth-century Geneva. European Population Conference, Vienna, 1st –

4th of September 2010, University of Geneva

Sara, B., (2011). Cross-border Migration and Migration Policies in Sweden: A Capability

Approach Perspective. Seminar Paper. Available at:

www.dse.unifi.it/upload/sub/seminari/bonfanti.doc

Rose, J., (1998). Evaluating the Contribution of Structuration Theory to the IS Discipline. In

Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems (BAETS, W.R.J. Ed),

Euro-Arab Management School, Granada

Suter, B., (2005). Labour Migration in the United Arab Emirates: Field Study on Regular

and Irregular Migration in Dubai. Malmö University, Sweden

Yu, T. K., (2007). Empowerment Approach to Female Migration: A case study of China’s

Manufacturing Industry. Working Paper Series, Number 07-79. London School of

Economics and Political Science, London

http://cybergeo.revues.org/3827, accessed on the 5th December, 2012

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html, accessed on 5th

December, 2012.