Just Institutions for a Crowded Planet

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Just!Institutions!for!a!Crowded!Planet!!Tim!Hayward!October!2014!

!JWI$Working$Paper$No.!2014/06!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Just!Institutions!for!a!Crowded!Planet!Tim!Hayward!JWI!Working!Paper!2014/06!First!published!by!the!Just!World!Institute!in!October!2014!©!Just!World!Institute!2014!!!The!views!expressed!in!the!Just!World!Institute!Working!Paper!Series!are!those!of!the!author(s)!and!do!not!necessarily!reflect!those!of!the!University!of!Edinburgh.! JWI!Working!Papers!have!not!undergone!formal!review!and!approval,!and!are!meant!to!elicit!feedback!and!encourage!debate.!Copyright!belongs!to!the!author(s).!Papers!may!be!downloaded!for!personal!use!only.!!Just!World!Institute,!University!of!Edinburgh,!Chrystal!Macmillan!Building,!15A!George!Square,!Edinburgh!EH8!9LD!Web:!http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/jwi!!

Acknowledgements.

This%paper%was%first%presented%at%the%Workshop%on%Duties%to%Create%and%Support%Just%

Institutions%sponsored%by%the%Society%for%Applied%Philosophy,%at%Nuffield%College,%Oxford,%in%

June%2014.%%I%am%grateful%to%the%organisers%and%participants%for%support%and%helpful%

comments.%%Particular%thanks%go%to%Elizabeth%Ashford,%Daniel%Butt,%Simon%Caney,%Iason%

Gabriel,%Yukinori%Iwaki,%David%Miller,%Margaret%Moore,%and%Henry%Shue%for%friendly%

challenges%and%suggestions.%

Just Institutions for a Crowded Planet

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Introduction*

In#a#global#context,#to#the#extent#that#just#institutions#do#not#already#exist,#there#may#be#a#

circumstantial# imperative# to# create# them.# # The# context#differs# from# that#of# an#established#

liberal# state# where# questions# about# individual# duties# to# support# its# institutions# have#

purchase.# # For# just# institutions# to# be# possible# at# all,# certain# enabling# circumstances#must#

obtain.##According#to#standard#ideas#about#the#circumstances#that#make#justice#possible,#one#

necessary#condition#is#that#resources#should#not#be#more#than#moderately#scarce.##Yet#what#

appears#to#be#the#case#for# large#swathes#of#the#global#population# is#that#this#circumstance#

does# not# obtain.# # To# the# extent# that# people# are# victims#of# circumstances# captured#by# the#

concept#of#radical-inequality#(Nagel,#1977;#Pogge,#2002),#justice#is#unavailable#to#them.1##The#

radicality#of# the# inequality,# and# thus# its# intractability#as#a#problem,# is# compounded#by# the#

fact# of# what# we# can# refer# to# as# global# ecological- overshoot# –# i.e.# the# situation# in# which#

aggregate#human#demands#on#the#planet’s#ecological#capacities#exceed#what#is#sustainably#

available.#

This# dual# problem# can# be# understood# to# imply# a# circumstantial# imperative# to# pursue# a#

corresponding#dual#goal#that#I#shall#refer#to#as#contraction-and-convergence#–#contraction#of#

aggregate#global#demand#on#the#planet’s#ecological#capacities#and#convergence#between#the#

demands#fulfilled#for#the#richest#and#poorest#globally.##This#is#a#goal#that#global#institutions#

are#not#currently#constituted#to#achieve.##Whether#the#institutions#that#exist#could#fulfil#the#

goal#if#suitably#reformed,#or#whether#new#or#replacement#institutions#may#be#required,#is#an#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 In saying this I have in mind particularly that radical inequality is impervious and pervasive. These are features not foregrounded in Thomas Nagel’s original characterization but are included in Thomas Pogge’s extension of it. Thus what is distinctive about radical inequality is not only that it is great, in both absolute and relative terms, but that it is a circumstance in which ‘it is difficult or impossible for the worse-off substantially to improve their lot; and … it concerns not merely some aspects of life, … but most aspects or all.’ (Pogge 2002: 198) It is because of this that I speak of justice being unavailable to them. Both Nagel and Pogge think that, in virtue of the relatively small redistribution from the best off to the worst off that in principle could lift people out of desperation, a just solution for them is feasible and thus potentially available. My view is that its availability in actuality will depend on how the factors that underlie imperviousness and pervasiveness are dealt with.!


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open#question# (Hayward,#2009).# #So#when#we#ask#after# the#duties#corresponding# to#global#

justice#we#cannot#necessarily#assume#they#entail#support#for#the#institutions#that#exist,#and#

we# cannot# expect# to# determine# what# they# are# simply# by# extrapolating# from# existing#

institutional#imperatives.##

Where,# then,# might# duties# be# rooted?# # The# circumstantial# imperative# of# contraction# and#

convergence#has#normative#force#if#we#assume#that#every#human#being#has#a#basic#right#of#

access# to# the#necessary#means#of#at# least#a#minimally#decent# life.# #Answering# to# the#basic#

right#we#can#then,#following#Henry#Shue#(1980),#identify#three#kinds#of#duty#with#respect#to#

that#access:#not#to#deprive,#to#protect#against#deprivation,#and#to#assist#where#deprivation#

has# occurred.# # Under# circumstances# of# radical# inequality,# the# duty# of# assistance# attains#

prominence#due#to#a#failure#to#discharge#the#prior#two#duties.###

Who#does#the#duty#of#assistance#fall# to,#and#what#does# it#consist# in?# #On#the#view#of# John#

Rawls# (1999),# the#duty# falls# to#wellXordered#societies,#and# it# consists# in#assisting#burdened#

societies# to# become# wellXordered.# # That# assistance# includes# a# degree# of# redistribution# of#

wealth#sufficient#for#the#purpose.##The#view#of#cosmopolitans#like#Thomas#Pogge#is#that#the#

affluent#have#a#duty#of#more# than#assistance,#due# to# their#breach#of# the#prior#duties.# #But#

Rawlsians#and#Poggeans#agree#that#the#relevant#duties#fall#to#the#affluent#countries#and#may#

be# discharged# by# some# modest# transfer# of# wealth.# # Under# the# constraint# of# addressing#

ecological# overload,# however,# what# is# due# cannot# simply# be# assumed# to# amount# to# a#

redistribution# of# some# surplus# affluence# to# the# worst# off,# for# there# might# not# be# any#

sustainable# surplus.# # Duties# of# assistance,# then,# comprise# not# only# a# rectification# of# the#

breach#of#prior#duties,#but,#also#a#commitment#to#sustaining#a#global#order#that#will#preclude#

returning# to# the#compounding#of#disadvantages# that# is#manifest# in# radical# inequality.# #This#

may#be#a#more#demanding#task#than#the#kind#that#is#envisaged#by#Rawls#or#Pogge.###


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In# what# follows# I# set# out# a# framing# for# seeking# a# solution# to# the# dual# problem# of# radical#

inequality#and#ecological#overshoot.##A#single,#integrated,#framing#is#required#since#putative#

solutions#to#one#aspect#of#the#problem#may#tend#to#exacerbate#the#other.##If#the#global#order#

currently# is# structurally# and# dynamically# committed# to# economic# expansion# and# increased#

divergence# between# economic# classes,# as# it# appears# to# be,# it# is# headed# in# a# direction#

antithetical# to#what# global# justice# requires.# # It#may# therefore# be# a#mistake# to# regard# it# as#

merely# imperfectly# just;# for# it# could# be# radically# unjust# in# the# sense# that# even# efforts# at#

reform# still# foster# movement# in# the# wrong# direction.# # In# that# case,# the# creation# of# just#

institutions# globally# could# require# revolutionary# transformation# to# bring# about#

circumstances# that#would#meet# the# requirements# of# a# global# constitution# that# recognizes#

socialist# and# ecological# principles.# # To# ascertain# what# ‘our# duties’# regarding# just# global#

institutions#are,# therefore,#we#may#need# to# learn# from#perspectives#and#voices#other# than#

those#that#share#assumptions#of#liberal#political#economy#about#the#world.#

*

1.*The*contemporary*circumstances*of*a*crowded*planet*

We# live# on# a# crowded# planet.# It# is# crowded# in# the# sense# that# the# demands# placed# by# the#

world’s# human# population# on# its# ecological# space# are# such# that# some# members# of# that#

population#do#not#have#access#to#ecological#space#adequate#for#their#health#and#wellXbeing.2##

This#problem#has#two#major#aspects.##One#is#the#finitude#of#the#earth’s#aggregate#biophysical#

capacity# such# that# can# support# a# finite# amount# of# organisms# in# general# and# human#

organisms#in#particular.##The#other#aspect#of#the#problem#is#that#some#humans#make#vastly#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2 It would be appropriate to discuss also the nonhuman inhabitants of the planet, too, but I set that aside for now.


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more#use#of#the#planet’s#ecological#space#than#others#do.##We#have#reached#circumstances,#

globally,#that#manifest#a#problem#of#both#ecological#overshoot#and#radical#inequality.3#

These# are# circumstances# in#which# it# is# not#merely# the# case# that# prevailing# institutions# are#

imperfectly#just;#they#are#circumstances#in#which#justice#on#any#reasonable#description#at#all#

is#not#a#foreseeable#possibility#for#substantial#numbers#of#people.4##Those#people#who#live#in#

circumstances#where# the# necessary#means# of# life# are#more# than#moderately# scarce# –# and#

accounts# of# the# evidence# suggest# that# there# are# in# the# order# of# a# billion# such# people#

currently#–#can#be#said# to# live# in#circumstances#not#of# justice,#but#of# injustice.# #Remedy#of#

those#circumstances#would#therefore#be#a#preXrequisite#for#applying#any#principles#of#justice#

to#the#problem.##It#is#also#the#case,#however,#that#some#people#around#the#world#–#like#those#

of# us#with# the# advantages#of# living# in# a# liberal# democratic# society# –# do# enjoy# life#within# a#

framework#of#just#institutions.##From#our#situated#point#of#view,#the#widespread#suffering#of#

others# from# severe# scarcities,# which# can# include# and# also# occasion# severe# sufferings# and#

insecurities# of# many# further# kinds,# can# rightly# be# perceived# as# a# question# of# justice,# or#

injustice,# that# we# ought# to# address.# # It# is# arguable# that# a# first# principle# of# global# justice,#

taking# lexical# priority# over# any# other# (Hayward# 2014),# should# be# to# ensure# that# the#

circumstances#that#make#justice#possible#are#secured#for#all#globally.###

The#question#then#is#how#might#the#circumstances#of#justice#be#secured,#globally.##The#first#

step#in#thinking#about#this#is#to#form#a#general#idea#of#what#the#circumstantial#imperative#is#

–# i.e.# what# needs# to# be# done.# # Worth# emphasising# is# the# extent# to# which# ecological#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3 It could also be pointed out that we have a problem of population, too. This presents distinct additional challenges that I do not attempt to address here. I would note, however, that the approach advocated here could be helpful in dealing with population because it supports two key factors for constraining population growth: secure access to economic necessities for all and equal effective freedoms for women. The general emphasis on developing resourcefulness in communities rather than rely on perpetually expanding resource demands is likely to be favorable to this direction. 4 For avoidance of doubt, I would just recall, as mentioned in n2 above, that I am thinking of what possibilities are foreseeable from the standpoint of those on the wrong end of radical inequality. This is different from the sort of possibility that Pogge, for instance, has in mind when proposing modest reforms that might be led by the global elite with the hope of eradicating severe poverty.


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overshoot#and#radical#inequality#are#appropriately#seen#as#aspects#of#a#single#great#problem.##

While#the#existence#of#both#is#widely#recognized,#understandings#of#each#and#proposals#for#

the# solution# of# each# tend# to# be# advanced# by# liberal# political# theorists# in# relative# isolation#

from#the#other#(Hayward#2009).##That#is#a#recipe#for#allowing#problems#to#be#shifted#rather#

than# solved# or# genuinely# mitigated.# A# key# reason# for# recognizing# this# point# is# that# the#

measures# typically# advocated# to# address# the#one# tend# to# exacerbate# rather# than# alleviate#

the#other.##Strategies#for#enabling#the#poor#to#become#better#off#usually#rest#on#the#default#

assumption# that#aggregate# income#and#wealth#have# to# increase,#but# the#economic#growth#

relied# on# typically# tends# to# exacerbate# the# problem#of# ecological# overshoot;# on# the# other#

hand,#attempts# to# reduce#resource#use#and#environmental# impacts#can# further#exacerbate#

the# ecological# marginalisation# of# the# worst# off# which# is# the# most# basic# manifestation# of#

radical#inequality.#

If#the#two#problems#are#to#be#addressed#in#a#suitably#holistic#way,#then#it#is#helpful#to#have#a#

conceptual# framework# in# which# the# ecological# and# social# dimensions# are# fundamentally#

integrated.# # Such#a# framework#may#be#developed#by#conceptualising# the#circumstances#as#

described# above# in# terms# of# access# to# ecological# space.# # The# concept# of# ecological# space#

allows# us# to# keep# in# mind# how# both# the# environmental# impacts# of# our# activities# such# as#

cause#ecological#overload#and# the#access# to# the# resources#needed# to#keep#a#human#being#

from#debilitating#or#lifeXthreatening#poverty#are#all#found#within#the#same#single#biophysical#

reality.#

#

2.*The*duties*implied*by*the*circumstantial*imperative*

By#referring#to#a#‘circumstantial#imperative’#I#mean#to#indicate#a#situation#regarding#which#all#

who#survey#it#can#agree#that#‘something#ought#to#be#done’.##This#is#the#sort#of#thing#one#can#

agree#on#independently#of#formulating#an#account#of#who#more#exactly#might#have#a#duty#to#


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do#what.# # If# the#general#circumstantial# imperative#of#contraction#and#convergence# is# to#be#

implemented,#however,# it#will#be#necessary#to#specify#more#exactly#who# is#expected#to#do#

what,#and#on#what#grounds.##This#is#where#questions#of#duties#arise.#

In# thinking#about#how#duties#might#be#assigned,# it# is#helpful# to#make#explicit# the#basis# for#

casting#the#goal#of#contraction#and#convergence#as#a#normative# imperative.# # I#assume#that#

any#plausible#account#of#what#global#justice#requires#will#include#respect#for#the#most#basic#

values#and#standards#that#are#referred#to#in#terms#of#fundamental#human#rights.# # I#assume#

that#if#it#is#plausible#to#speak#in#terms#of#fundamental#human#rights#at#all,#then#to#do#so#must#

include# recognition# of# a# fundamental# right# of# access# to# the# necessary#means# of# at# least# a#

minimally#decent#life.##These#means#include#the#biophysical#resources#that,#compendiously,#

can#be#referred#to#by#the#term#ecological#space.# # It# is# therefore#straightforwardly#arguable#

that,#as#a#matter#of#human#rights,#every#person#is#entitled#to#enjoy#the#secure#access#to#the#

ecological#space#needed#in#order#to#live#a#minimally#decent#life.#

If#this#thought#about#basic#rights#motivates#the#circumstantial#imperative,#then#it#does#so#in#

a#way#that#lets#us#think#in#general#terms#about#yetXtoXbeXassigned#duties.# #Following#Henry#

Shue#(1980),#we#can#differentiate#three#broad#kinds#of#duty#that#answer#to#the#most#basic#

rights# observed# among# humans:# regarding# lack# of# access# to# the# basic# necessities# of# life,#

which#is#what#more#than#merely#moderate#scarcity#means,#all#human#beings#have#a#duty#to#

one#another#to#prevent#it#occurring;#where#there#is#a#risk#of#its#occurring,#all#human#beings#

have#a#duty#to#one#another# to#protect#one#another# from# its#harms,# if# they#can;#and# in# the#

event#that#it#occurs,#they#have#a#duty#to#assist#one#another#in#overcoming#it,#if#they#can.#

# The#duty#of#assistance,#to#draw#now#on#the#view#of#John#Rawls,#is#a#duty#that#wellX

ordered# peoples# have# with# respect# to# those# who# are# burdened,# lacking# the# capacity# to#

assure#a#basic# right#of# secure#access# to# the#necessary#means#of# life# for# all#members.# # The#

duty# is# to# provide# assistance# of# whatever#material# kind#will# suffice# to# help# the# burdened#


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people# become# capable# of# sustaining# just# institutions# domestically.# # Without# necessarily#

challenging# that# view,# we# should# note# that# the# applicability# of# a# duty# of# assistance,# as# it#

appears#within#Shue’s#framing,#is#premised#on#a#failure#to#make#good#on#two#prior#duties.##In#

other#words,# in# circumstances#where# Rawls’s# duty# of# assistance# comes# into# play,# there# is#

already# a# situation# in# which# those# who# could# have# done# something# to# prevent# it# are# in#

breach#of#what#duty#requires.##If#those#same#agents#now#have#the#ability#to#assist,#then#their#

duty#to#do#so#has#a#dual#normative#source:#they#have#the#general#moral#duty,#that#anyone#

would,#to#help#because#they#can;#and#they#have#a#duty#more#specifically#to#assist#in#dealing#

with#a#problem#that#they#were#party#to#causing#or#failing#to#prevent.###

Now#before# saying#more# about# this,#we# need# to# register# the# thought# that# those#with# the#

ability#to#assist#may#not#be#the#same#parties#who#failed#in#the#duties#of#nonXdeprivation#or#

protection.# # For# instance,# the# deprivation#might# be# held# to# have# purely# domestic# causes,#

whereas# the#assistance#now# in#question# is# international;#or#even# if# there#are# international#

failures#among#the#causes,#not#all#other#peoples#have#the#same#degree#of#responsibility#for#

them.# # So# should#we# not# observe# some# distinction# of# the# sort# suggested# by# Simon# Caney#

(2012),# in#his#analogous#discussion#of#climate#duties,#between#‘clean#developers’#and#‘dirty#

developers’#so#as#to#assign#more#onerous#duties#to#the#latter#than#the#former?##My#response#

to#this#is#to#grant#that#perhaps#we#should,#if#we#could#draw#that#distinction#in#a#sufficiently#

clear#and#robust#way#to#be#able#to#apply#it#credibly.##What#I#really#think,#though,#is#that#we#

cannot#do#so.##One#aspect#of#my#thinking#here#simply#draws#a#consequence#of#Caney’s#own#

approach# to# climate# justice,# which# he# calls# an# ‘integrationist’# one:# this# treats# the#

responsibilities#associated#with#climate#change#as#integrated#with#other#issues#–#like#poverty,#

trade,#and#development#–#within#a#general#account#of#global# justice# (Caney,#2012:#259).# # I#

think# he# is# right# to# take# this# approach,# but# once# we# allow# that# each# issue# is# profoundly#

influenced#by# the#others# then#we#have# also# to# recognize# that# causal# impacts# of# particular#

agents# and# practices# become# harder# to# determine.# # The# more# we# recognize# integration#


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amongst# the# various# factors,# the#more# difficult# it# is# likely# to# be# to# draw# clear# distinctions#

between#‘clean’#and#‘dirty’#developers.##I# just#do#not#think#it#can#be#assumed,#in#a#world#of#

mobile#capital,#massive#exchanges#of#natural#resources,#and#phenomenal#transfers#of#claims#

to#them#in#the#form#of#finance,#where#people#suffer#from#radical#inequality,#and#the#planet#

suffers# from#ecological#overshoot,# that# the#attainment#of#affluence# is#ever#entirely# ‘clean’;#

nor,#given#the#incommensurability#of#the#various#issues#involved,#can#we#expect#to#devise#a#

method#of#reliably#differentiating#degrees#of#guilt#and#then#determining#prospective#duties#

on#its#basis.##It#therefore#seems#to#me#more#helpful#to#focus#on#the#headline#idea#of#Caney’s#

(2010)#article,#namely,#that#it#is#those#who#are#advantaged#that#have,#to#the#extent#they#are#

advantaged,#a#responsibility#to#remedy#the#situation#for#the#disadvantaged#(Halme,#2007).##I#

think#it#is#ethically#acceptable#to#allow#a#presumption#–#defeasible#as#need#be#–#that#if#one#is#

advantaged#within#the#system,#one#is#advantaged#by#the#system;#if#the#system#has#reached#

its#present#state#through#various#dirty#kinds#of#development,#then#even#if#some#developers#

have# avoided# some# kinds# of# dirty# work,# the# overall# benefit# depends# on# someone# having#

done#it.#

So# the# duty# of# assistance,# on# the# view# of# it# I# would# commend,# can# be# understood# to#

comprise#more# than# I# think# is# intended# on# Rawls’s# interpretation# of# it.# # On# the# Rawlsian#

conception,# the#basic# idea# is# that#of#an#essentially#wellXfunctioning# international# system# in#

which# the# liberal# and# decent# peoples# provide# targeted# support# for# the# local# mending# of#

ailing#economies#and#broken# institutions#of#burdened#peoples#so#that,#and#until,# the# latter#

can#manage#to#get#themselves#on#their#own#feet.##On#the#commended#view,#assistance#is#not#

just# a# helping# hand# but# an# ongoing# disposition# not# to# undermine# minimal# supporting#

conditions.# # Thus,# something# like# Thomas# Pogge’s# idea# of# a# negative# duty# –# not# to#

collaborate#in#upholding#an#avoidably#unjust#global#institutional#order#–#would#stand#not#as#

an# alternative# to# the# duty# of# assistance# but# as# part# of# it.# # The# view# thereby# differs# from#

Rawls’s#in#recognizing#that#the#global#order#itself#–#its#institutions#and#the#parties#dominant#


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in#establishing#these#–#may#have#a#causal#role#in#having#burdened#the#burdened#societies;#it#

takes#historical#causes#and#the#continuing#dynamics#of#their#effects#to#constitute#part#of#the#

problem#that#a#duty#to#assist#is#a#duty#to#respond#to.#That#duty#will#have#been#discharged#–#

its#end#point#and#cut#off#reached#–#only#when#the#normative#order#globally#has#secured#all#

peoples# against# at# least# the# most# egregious# of# the# deleterious# effects# of# allowing# liberal#

lassitude#to#oversee#untrammelled#capitalist#expansion#in#a#finite#and#crowded#planet.###

So# I# am#proposing# an# interpretation#of# the#duty#of# assistance#which# includes# and#exceeds#

both#the#specification#of#it#put#forward#by#Rawls#and#the#additional#‘negative’#duty#proposed#

by# Pogge.# # Those#who#would# be# assigned# the# duty# of# assistance#would# be# those#who# are#

advantaged#by#the#international#order.##It#would#not#be#assigned#on#the#basis#of#analysis#of#

culpability#or#moral# fault#of#agents;#we#need#not#engage# in# tendentious#hypotheses#about#

who#‘imposes’#that#order.##Rather,#the#focus#is#on#structural#injustices#and#on#what#needs#to#

be#changed.##The#content#of#their#duty#would#be#to#play#a#positive#part#in#bringing#about#the#

needed#changes.##So#the#next#task#is#to#understand#what#changes#are#needed.#

#

3.*The*ecological*space*paradigm*as*a*constructive*framing*of*the*question*

Our# specific# interest# is# in# the# role# of# institutions# in# supporting# imperatives# of# justice#

grounded#in#the#values#and#standards#referred#to#as#human#rights,#and#so#the#short#answer#

is# that# property# rights# need# to# change.# We# need# to# recognize# the# role# played# by# the#

institutionalized# norms# of# property# in# driving# and# sustaining# the# processes# that# make#

ecological# overshoot# and# radical# inequality# such# intractable# problems.# # We# need# to#


!

! 10!

understand#how#a#basic#human#right#of#access#to#ecological#space#stands#opposed#to#certain#

practically#significant#rights#of#property.5#

Human# rights# stand# opposed# to# property# rights# most# directly# with# respect# to# the# use# of#

ecological#space#to#provide#for#subsistence.##Thus,#for#instance,#if#a#poor#family#is#prevented#

from# using# the# land# their# life# and# livelihood# depend# on# by# having# their# rights# to# use# it#

extinguished#through#a#transfer#of#rights#of#ownership#and#control,#then#those#executing#the#

assertion#of#property#rights#are#engaged#in#a#process#that#involves#an#abuse#of#human#rights.##

Human# rights# with# regard# to# use# of# ecological# space# can# also# be# threatened# in# less#

immediate# ways.# # Take# a# regime# which# assigns# rights# to# emit# carbon,# for# instance,# and#

thereby#assigns#to#the#bearers#of#emissions#rights#the#use#both#of#valuable#nonXrenewable#

energy# resources# and# of# the# planet’s# carbonXabsorptive# capacities,# diminution# of# which#

decrease# the# available# remaining# ecological# space.# # Such# a# regime# can# be# said# to# support#

practices#which#run#materially#counter#to#the#fulfilment#of#human#rights.#

While#human#rights#claims#in#respect#of#ecological#space#necessarily#have#a#view#to#its#use,#it#

is# possible# for# property# claims# in# respect# of# ecological# space# to# have# only# an# attenuated#

connection#with#any#actual#use#of#it.##This#makes#them#no#less#potent#a#source#of#problems,#

however,# for#humans#who#are# so#disadvantaged#as# to#be# the#most#obvious# claimants#of#a#

basic#right#of#access#to#ecological#space.##As#I#have#explained#more#fully#elsewhere#(Hayward#

2013c),# as# well# as# being# used,# ecological# space# can# be# occupied# and# commanded.# # These#

different# relations# between#humans# and# ecological# space# correspond# to# different# kinds# of#

property#relation.#

Occupation# of# ecological# space# can# be# effected# through# exercising# property# rights# of#

exclusion#–#e.g.#of#erstwhile#subsistence#farmers#from#their# land#–#and#may#or#may#not#be#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 The argument developed here assumes that a clear distinction can be drawn between those normative claims we refer to as human rights and mere rights of property that have no appropriate support of any such claim. On this see Hayward (2013d).


!

! 11!

followed#by#a#transfer#of#actual#use,#as#well#as#trade#in#them.##Occupied#ecological#space#–#of#

kinds#that#can#be#territorially#bounded#–#can#in#principle#simply#be#made#unavailable#to#nonX

owners.# Property# regimes# that# make# this# possible# can# be# implicated# in# severe# injustices#

when#people’s#lives#and#livelihoods#are#thereby#undermined.##

Command# of# ecological# space# has# a#more# attenuated# connection# still# to# the# actual# use# of#

ecological#space,#and#yet#it#can#constitute#a#powerful#and#extensive#threat#to#the#fair#use#of#

ecological# space# by# the# world’s# most# disadvantaged# people.# # Traditionally,# command# of#

ecological#space#would#have#been#tied#to#territory#and#would#largely#have#been#the#political#

prerogative# of# the# sovereign# power# of# that# territory# –# be# that# an# indigenous# ruler,# a#

democratic#polity,#a#colonial#power#or#a#warlord.##The#power#to#command#ecological#space#

includes# powers# to# extinguish# and# reassign# any# rights# of# use# or# occupation.# # Sovereign#

powers# achieve# this# by# fiat;# economic# powers# achieve# this# by# means# of# monopolistic#

accumulation.# # With# the# possibility# of# trading# in# property# rights# globally,# command# of#

ecological# space# has# come# to# be# represented# by# control# of# assets#with# tradable# value# on#

global# markets.# # To# exercise# command# by# economic# means# requires# a# critical# mass# of#

accumulation.##At#present#it#is#a#power#that#is#effectively#exercised#only#by#the#few,#since#the#

majority#of#individuals#have#relatively#miniscule#holdings#of#assets#and#do#not#have#a#form#of#

association#with#one#another# in#which# those#disparate#holdings# could# combine#with# some#

critical# mass.# # In# fact,# we# must# recognize# the# apparent# paradox# that# some# particularly#

powerful# drivers# both# ecological# overshoot# and# radical# inequality# reside# in# an#

institutionalised# set# of# practices# which# on# the# face# of# it# are# furthest# removed# from# any#

contact#with#the#real#world#of#nature#and#embodied#human#beings.##At#the#pinnacle#are#the#

world’s# interrelated# financial# systems# which,# while# being# the# apogee# of# abstraction# in# so#

many#ways,#nevertheless#have# impacts#on#the#world,#as#made#vivid# in# the#consequence#of#

the# recent# financial# crisis,# that# are,# from# both# human# and# ecological# points# of# view,# very#

material.#


!

! 12!

So#at# the#heart#of# the#problem,# I# am#maintaining,# is# the#way# that#property# rights,# as# they#

have#developed,#tend#to#favour#behaviours#that#exacerbate#overshoot#and# inequality.# #The#

answer#in#principle#is#to#take#robust#control#of#property#rights#regimes#on#behalf#of#humanity.##

In#practice,#such#a#globally#revolutionary#step#will#appear#neither#realistic#nor#even#desirable#

to# many.# # My# argument# here,# however,# is# concerned# with# what,# under# present# and#

foreseeable#material#circumstances,#would#be#just.#

#

4.* Towards* an* answer* to* the* question:* do* the* demands* of* global* justice* support*

institutional*reform*or*a*challenge*to*the*institutional*order?*

The#duties#that#the#circumstantial#imperative#entails#are#other#than#any#that#can#be#derived#

from# institutions# that# currently# govern# economic# and# ecological# relations# globally.6## In#

principle,# the# imperative#would# imply# duties# on# the# rich# to# reduce# their# demands# on# the#

planet’s# ecological# space# and# to# redistribute# access# to# ecological# space# to# the# worst# off#

(along# with# duties# on# others# to# keep# demands# within# newly# worked# out# bounds)# –# the#

achievement# of# any# of# which# is# highly# ambitious# to# expect# without# strong# measures# to#

counter# the# unwillingness# of# the# rich# to# make# any# sacrifices# and# the# drive# of# developing#

countries#to#emulate#the#rich.##There#would#seem#to#be#nothing#in#the#existing#international#

order#that#gives#support#to#implementing#the#imperative#of#contraction#and#convergence;#in#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!6 When thinking about proposals for institutional reform, I think it is helpful to bracket two kinds of general assumption. First, we should not assume that the duties that would implement the circumstantial imperative are already immanent in existing institutions (or therefore that doing something is necessarily better than doing nothing); we need to be open to the possibility of discovering that justice means radically transforming rather than reforming institutions that exist. Secondly, when seeking to identify who ought to do what we should not necessarily think to conceptualise duties on a possessive individualist model because that is not suited to grasping how the imperative needs to engage with institutional structures that are dynamic. An implication of these two points is that we should keep in mind how attaining critical insight into how even with reform a given institution may tend to perpetuate a dynamic of injustice could be more helpful than contributing a modest step which keeps us moving in the wrong direction.


!

! 13!

fact,# the# existing# institutional# order# appears# to# give# structural# support# to# dynamic# forces#

tending#to#perpetually#exacerbate#the#problematic#circumstances.#

# But#there#are#influential#liberal#thinkers#who#depict#the#world#and#its#institutions#as#

imperfectly# just# rather# than# fundamentally# unjust.# # On# that# basis,# some# of# them# advance#

specific#proposals#for#making# institutions#more#just.# #For# instance,#Thomas#Pogge#has#been#

an# especially# constructive# thinker# in# the# sphere# of# specific# public# policy# proposals# for#

improving# the# justice# of# international# institutions:# these# proposals# include# the# Global#

Resources#Dividend# (GRD),# the#Health# Impact#Fund,#and#recommendations# related#to# illicit#

financial# flows.# #Simon#Caney#has#aimed#to# influence#policy#makers#with#his#work#on#rights#

and#duties#with#respect#to#carbon#emissions#and#climate#change.##Leif#Wenar#has#proposed#a#

Clean# Trade# Initiative# for# surmounting# problems# associated# with# the# ‘resource# curse’.# # In#

what#follows#I#shall#briefly#consider#these.##My#aim#is#not#to#make#a#thorough#assessment#of#

them,#but#to#indicate#reasons#why#the#logic#of#the#proposals#tends#to#push#beyond#–#and#in#

some# ways# perhaps# against# –# the# liberal# framing# of# them.# # A# general# point# I# want# to#

emphasise#is#that#prioritising#human#rights#over#mere#rights#of#property,#when#they#conflict,#

can# sometimes#mean# challenging# the# justice# of# a# whole# regime# of# rights# and# not# merely#

trying#to#decide#on#the#most# just#allocation#within#that#regime.# # In#order#to#take#this#point#

seriously# it# is# also#helpful# to#have#an# appropriate#understanding#of#what# claims#of# human#

right#amount# to,# in# clear# contradistinction# to# the#elements#of# rightXduty# relations#as# these#

can# be# analysed# for# bilateral# legal# relations.7## Precipitately# individualised# duties# cannot#

necessarily# track# particular# aspects# of# the# problem# and# so# it# is# helpful# in# grasping# its#

contours# if# we# avoid# an# individualist# framing,# for# duties# as# much# as# for# rights,# when#

discussing#it.##When#thinking#practically#about#how#human#rights#values#stand#in#relation#to#

property# rights# we# should# make# the# comparison# on# terms# that# adequately# convey# those#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!7 My own full account of this matter has yet to be published, but some preparatory work has appeared in Hayward 2013a, 2013b.


!

! 14!

values:#i.e.#not#in#terms#of#quasiXlegal#individual#possessions#but#in#terms#of#basic#standards#

of#conduct#amongst#human#beings#and#how#to#set#up#the#basic#structures#of#institutions#so#

that#these#can#be#respected.#

I#have#already#indicated#above#how#this#approach#means,#for#instance,#that#framing#climate#

justice# as# a#matter# of# human# rights# not# only# does# not#mean# treating# carbon# emissions# as#

human# rights# (Hayward# 2007);# it# also#means# accepting# that# any# particular# distribution# of#

emissions# rights# is#not#going# to# follow#with#any# fineXgrained#determinateness# from#human#

rights# imperatives.# # Hence# while# sharing# Caney’s# (2012)# general# ethical# intuitions# about#

climate# justice,# I# do# not# feel# able# to# accompany# him# into# the# sphere# of# policy#

recommendation.# If# fineXtuning#entitlements#to#emissions#rights# is#not#necessarily# the#best#

way# to#achieve#emissions# reductions,#a# related#point#can#be#made#with# regard# to# the# idea#

that# human# rights# can# generate# an# account#of# duties# that,# if# complied#with#by# the# agents#

under#their#direction,#would#suffice#to#eradicate#world#poverty.# #The#drivers#and#structures#

that# maintain# relations# of# advantage# and# disadvantage# are# likely# to# absorb# any#

countervailing# moral# action# quite# readily# unless# that# action# is# directed# at# the# very#

institutions#that#support#them.##This#would#mean#more#than#levying#a#modest#tax#on#some#

primary#resources,#as#Pogge#(2002)#envisages#with#his#GRD#proposal#(Hayward#2005,#2008).##

The# relationship# between# relatively# small# transfers# of#money# –# even# assuming# they# reach#

their#intended#recipients#–#and#the#factors#that#make#for#a#minimally#decent#life#is#too#loose#

and#too#vulnerable#to#all#manner#of#intervening#hitches.#It#also#does#not#necessarily#conduce#

to#any#of# the#needed#structural#change.# #Meanwhile,#a#small#hiccup#on#global#markets#can#

decimate# the# livelihoods#of#masses#of#poor#people.# # Secure#access# to# the#ecological# space#

needed#for#a#minimally#decent#life#has#to#be#secured#by#a#range#of#measures#including#local#

land# rights# and# other# protections# against# transnational# and# colonial# incursions.# # Such#

measures#are#most#likely#achieved#not#by#giving#small#amounts#of#money#to#poor#people#but#

by#changing#the#basic#property#regimes#that#keep#the#people#in#poverty#in#the#first#place.#


!

! 15!

A#contrasting#view#has#been#put#forward#by#Leif#Wenar#(2008).##He#highlights#the#important#

role# that# property# rights# have# to# play# in# upholding# the# circumstances# of# justice.# # A#

particularly# calamitous# kind# of# breakdown# of# those# circumstances# is# referred# to# as# the#

‘resource# curse’.# # This# is# a#problem# that# afflicts#many#poorer# countries# that#derive#a# large#

portion#of#their#national#income#from#highXvalue#extractive#resources#such#as#oil,#natural#gas,#

diamonds,# and# copper.# # In# the# absence# of# stable# government,# a# territorial# endowment# of#

valuable# natural# resources# can# be# a# magnet# for# corrupt# and# violent# rulers# and# warlords.##

Wenar’s#argument#is#that#far#from#being#the#problem#here,#property#rights,#when#properly#

respected,#are#the#basis#of#a#solution.##His#argument#that#enhanced#enforcement#of#property#

rights#help#to#deal#with#this#problem#is#premised#on#the#principle#that#‘the#natural#resources#

of#a#country#belong#to#the#people#of#that#country.’8###Hence#if#those#resources#are#disposed#

of#by#agents#other#than#the#people#of#their#territory#of#origin#and#without#their#assent#then#

that# is# tantamount# to# handling# stolen# goods.# This# could# be# corrected# by# ensuring# that# all#

international#resource#sales#respect#the#principle#that#you#cannot#sell#what#you#do#not#own.##

WellXordered# peoples# should# refrain# from# dealing# with# these# regimes.# And# if# Western#

nations# stop# trading# in# ‘stolen’# oil# from# countries# like# Sudan,# only# to# find# that# others,# for#

instance#China,#do#so#instead?##Since#the#oil’s#productive#benefits#will#percolate#through#the#

Chinese#economy#and#be#embedded# in# its# exports,#Wenar# suggests,# a# ‘Clean#Hands# Trust’#

should# be# set# up# by# the# U.S.# Government:# it# would# be# funded# from# tariffs# on# Chinese#

imports#as# they#enter# the#United#States;# the# funds#would#be#held# for# the#people#of#Sudan#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8 Wenar claims that the principle is widely affirmed in international law and that, as a moral proposition, ‘[t]he idea that the natural resources of a country belong to the people of that country is so intuitive that most will need no more proof than its statement.’ (Wenar 2008: 10) But a ‘people’s right’ to ‘its’ resources is not straightforwardly or incontrovertibly a human right: the principle of national sovereignty over resources can conflict with human rights; cosmopolitans and others therefore focus on ‘common heritage of humankind’ as the default property regime that respects human rights. There are, in fact, many questions that can be asked about the meaning and status of this principle (see e.g. Schuppert (2014).


!

! 16!

until# the#minimal# conditions# in# that# country# are#met# and# they# can#be#handed#over# to# the#

people#(Wenar#2008:#28).#

The#proposal#to#track#the#provenance#of#resources#is#a#constructive#one.##But#why#do#so#just#

for# cases# like# the# Chinese# in# Sudan# and# not# also# for# those# of# various# Western# countries#

throughout#the#period#of#colonialism#and#empire#–#as#well,# indeed,#as#with#the#conduct#of#

some#large#transnational#companies#today?# #Certainly,# the#Chinese#might#well#ask#why#the#

sudden# interest# in# the# justice# of# accumulation# on# the# part# of# the#Western# countries# that#

have#appropriated#the#lion’s#share#of#the#world’s#wealth#already#without#ever#justifying#it#to#

anyone!##It#might#require#explaining#why#the#newly#capitalist#countries#engage#in#‘trafficking’#

whereas#old#capitalist#countries#attained#world#dominance#by#engaging#in#‘trade’.#

Still,#if#we#accept#that#in#both#cases#trade#is#not#innocent,#should#we#evaluate#positively#the#

normative#proposal?##I#think#that#depends#on#how#positively#we#view#the#existing#norms#of#

international# institutions.# #Wenar’s#proposed#‘clean#trade’#presupposes#that# if#those#norms#

were# only# better# enforced# and# complied#with,# justice#would# be# the# result;# things# only# go#

wrong,# when# the# ‘first# rule# of# capitalism’# –# do- not- deal- in- stolen- goods!# –# is# broken;#

concomitantly,#when#things#go#right,#then#property#rights#can#be#relied#on#as#people’s#best#

bulwark#against#human#rights#violations.##‘The#first#step#in#improving#the#prospects#of#poor#

people#is#to#enforce#the#rights#they#already#have.’##(Wenar#2008,#2)##Taking#a#less#sanguine#

view,#one#might#take#capitalism’s#‘first#rule’#to#be#maximize-your-return-on-investment!-and#

be# skeptical# about# the# rights# poor# people# already# have,# since# a# defining# feature# of# being#

poor# is#that#of#being#bereft#of#almost#any#enforceable#rights#at#all.# # If#what# is#meant# is#the#

enforcement#of# their#basic#moral# rights,#we#would# thereby#have#an#argument#about#what#

the#law#ought#to#be.##We#would#avoid#any#suggestion#that#we#are#talking#about#what#the#law#

already# is.# #Arguing#for#respect#for#a#sovereign#right#for#a#people#as#a#whole#leaves#entirely#


!

! 17!

open#what#effects#that#might#have#for#the#people#as#a#plurality.9##Either#the#interpretation#of#

that# right# is# guided#by#basic#human# rights#principles# –#which# includes#giving# these#priority#

over#mere#rights#of#property#when#they#conflict#–#or#it#is#not.##This#is#a#question#that#Wenar’s#

postXNozickean#pronouncement#–#‘peoples#have#rights’#(Wenar#2008,#32)#–#leaves#somewhat#

underXtheorised# (Schuppert# 2014).# # So# while# I# have# no# particular# quarrel# about# the#

desirability#of#clean#trade,# I#remain#to#be#persuaded#that# ‘[t]he#priority# in#reforming#global#

trade#must# be# to# enforce# the# rights# that# define# the#modern# international# order.’# (Wenar#

2008,#32)#

A# direct# attempt# to# counteract# some# adverse# effects# of# an# international# private# property#

regime# has# been# proposed# by# Thomas# Pogge# and# colleagues# in# the# form# of# The- Health-

Impact-Fund.##This#is#a#response#to#the#problem#not#only#of#access#to#existing#medicines#but#

also#that#of# incentives#biased#against#research# into#diseases#of# the#poor.# #At# its#heart# is#an#

innovative# proposal# for# reform# of# the# patent# system.# Whereas# current# patents# reward#

inventors# with# monopoly# pricing# powers,# the# new# patent# would# instead# reward# the#

development#of#new#drugs#in#proportion#to#the#invention’s#impact#on#the#‘global-burden-of-

disease’# (GBD).# # The# results#of# successful# efforts# to#develop#new#essential#drugs#would#be#

made#available#as#public#goods#that#all#pharmaceutical#companies#anywhere#may#use#free#of#

charge.# Inventor# firms# would# receive# payment,# out# of# public# funds,# in# proportion# to# the#

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!9 Indeed, consider the latitude Wenar actually allows for interpretation of the principle in its implementation: ‘For example, the principle is compatible with a national oil company controlling all of a country’s oil (as in Kuwait), and also with widespread private ownership of oil (as in the United States). Widespread private ownership of resources is possible through the operation of validly enacted laws that transfer resources from national to private control. For instance, legal private ownership of oil might come about through a law that vests permanent title to sub-soil oil in whoever legally acquires the land above that oil. Or private ownership might come about through the rather different law dominant in the United States, which is that extracted oil belongs to whoever can first reduce it to physical possession (this is “grabbers-keepers”: one may extract all the oil in a deposit that stretches under both one’s own and another’s land). Laws such as these can result in most or even all of a nation’s resources coming to be privately held.’ (Wenar 2008, 11) The sense in which the oil is then the ‘people’s’ has begun to seem somewhat attenuated.


!

! 18!

impact#of#their#invention#on#the#global#disease#burden.#Affluent#countries#would#contribute#

to#a#Health#Impact#Fund#(whose#size#Pogge#sets#between#$45X90#billion#annually).##

This# proposal# is# constructive,# well# motivated# and# potentially# very# important.# To# be# sure,#

even# in# friendly# spirit,# critical# questions# can# be# asked# about# it:# How# likely# is# it# that#

governments#will#commit#to#funding#it?##Would#companies#have#sufficient#confidence#in#the#

plan#even#if#governments#did#undertake#to#provide#it?##Would#its#methods#of#calculating#and#

reporting#‘health#impacts’#be#robust#enough#in#view#of#the#various#ways#in#which#the#system#

could#be#gamed?##And#even#if#the#accounting#is#carried#out#in#good#faith#and#competently,#

there#are#questions#about# indicators#to#be#used#for#GBD#itself,#given#e.g.#how#this# involves#

weighting#different#health#conditions#against#one#another#(see#e.g.#Hassoun#2012).##

But# a# particularly# pointed# question# is# brought# into# focus# by# less# friendly# critics# of# the#

proposal:# why# should# pharmaceutical# companies# have# a# special# responsibility# to#work# for#

the# public# good# when# other# kinds# of# companies# do# not?# ‘People# should# stop# asking#

companies#to#do#things#they#weren’t#intended#to#do’,#is#a#complaint#voiced#on#their#behalf#in#

response# to#moral# criticisms# directed# at# them.# They# emphasise# that# the#main# problem# is#

poverty,#with#diseases#of#the#poor#not#caused#only#or#even#mainly#by#a#lack#of#medicines#but#

by# the# wider# conditions# of# impoverished# life# and# livelihood# that# include# poor# sanitation,#

poor#housing,#poor#nutrition,#and#poor#health#education.#If#we#take#seriously#the#point#that#

poverty# is#a#more#basic#cause#of# illXhealth#than#lack#of#drugs#amongst#those#disadvantaged#

by#radical#inequality,#as#Pogge#in#fact#does,#then#there#is#a#much#more#basic#question#to#ask#

about#the# institutions#whose#role# is#to#secure#basic#rights# in#this#area.#The#question# is#why#

should# we# try# and# manipulate# the# incentive# structure# of# a# private# property# regime# in#

pharmaceutical# development# rather# than# aim# to# institute# a# fully# socialised# system?# (And,#

indeed,#why#should#we#not#aim#to#address#a#wider#range#of#diseases#than#the#HIF#plan#can#

plausibly#be#hoped#to?)#If#public#funds#are#to#be#used,#in#addition#to,#and#as#they#already#are,#


!

! 19!

in#universities,#where#a#great#deal#of#the#relevant#research#is#anyway#already#occurring,#why#

not#go# the#whole#way#and#abandon#patent# rights# in# favour#of# complete#social#direction#of#

the#research?#A#public#health#problem#might#appropriately#be#viewed#as#such,#rather#than#as#

a#marketing#opportunity.##The#situation#we#face#has#been#summed#up#by#Cooper,#Kennelly,#

&#OrduñezXGarcia#(2006):#

#‘The#poorer# countries#of# the#world# continue# to# struggle#with#an#enormous#health#burden#

from#diseases#that#we#have#long#had#the#capacity#to#eliminate.#Similarly,#the#health#systems#

of# some# countries,# rich# and# poor# alike,# are# fragmented# and# inefficient,# leaving# many#

population#groups#underserved#and#often#without#health#care#access#entirely.’#

The# authors# point# out# how#much# there# is# to# learn# from# the# experience# of# fully# socialised#

health#care#in#Cuba:#

‘modest# infrastructure# investments#combined#with#a#wellXdeveloped#public#health#strategy#

have#generated#health# status#measures# comparable#with# those#of# industrialized#countries.#

Areas# of# success# include# control# of# infectious# diseases,# reduction# in# infant# mortality,#

establishment#of#a#research#and#biotechnology# industry,#and#progress# in#control#of#chronic#

diseases,#among#others.#If#the#Cuban#experience#were#generalized#to#other#poor#and#middleX

income# countries# human# health# would# be# transformed.’# (Cooper,# Kennelly,# &# OrduñezX

Garcia,#2006)#

# An# implicit# socialist# dimension# can# also# be# identified# in# the# proposals# Pogge# is#

currently# facilitating# for# dealing#with# Illicit# Financial# Flows.# These# flows# constitute# a#major#

problem#that#exacerbates#injustice#in#the#world#today#that#he#analyses#as#follows:#

#‘The# realXworld# problem# is# not# that# rich# countries# fail# to# pay# enough# attention# to#

embezzlement# and# tax# evasion# in# developing# countries.# The# problem# is# that# they# run# a#

global#financial#system#that#enables#shell#companies,#tax#havens#and#secrecy#jurisdictions#to#

be# important# elements# of# how# millionaires# and# multinational# corporations# run# their#


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operations.# Our# politicians# protect# this# infrastructure# to# help# these# wellXconnected# elites#

engage# in# tax#evasion#and# corruption.#And,# as# it#widely# known,# this# same# infrastructure# is#

also#used#by#terrorists,#drug#dealers#and#human#traffickers.’#(Pogge#2013)#

Accordingly,# Pogge# sets# out# some# practical# imperatives# for# getting# global# financial#

institutions# to# work#more# in# line# with# the# liberal# values# that# permeate# international# law.##

One#is#a#call#for#the#worldwide#abolition#of#secret#bank#accounts#and#transparency#regarding#

beneficial# ownership#—# ‘people# who# do# not# wish# to# be# associated# with# certain# financial#

assets#for#tax#purposes#should#not#be#able#to#control#and#spend#these#assets#either.’#(Pogge#

2013)# He# also# advocates# automatic# information# exchange# among# tax# authorities# so# that#

abusive# transferXpricing#practices#would#be#eliminated,#and#with#a#global# tax# regime# there#

should#be#a#global#corporation#tax#that#would#go#into#a#fund#for#poverty#relief.##

This# practicallyXfocused# goal# of# reducing# outright# criminality# in# the# dark# interstices# of# the#

global# financial#system#is#clearly#an# important#one.# #Yet# I# think#we#should#not# lose#sight#of#

how#financial#flows#that#would#be#regarded#as#perfectly# licit#also#contribute#significantly#to#

the#dual#global#problem#we#have#to#deal#with.##In#fact,#I#think#we#need#to#recognize#how#the#

immanent#imperative#in#the#financial#system#is#in#key#respects#diametrically#opposed#to#the#

circumstantial# human# and# ecological# imperative# of# contraction# and# convergence.# # Finding#

increasingly# imaginative#ways# to# raise# taxes# on# business# as# usual,# and# on# businesses# that#

formerly#evaded#them,#may#seem#to#be#promising#steps#in#the#right#direction.##But#are#they?##

While#some#harms#might#be#reduced#by#reducing#illegality,#and#some#good#might#be#done#by#

applying# funds# to# activities# that# benefit# the# worst# off,# to# achieve# these# things# means# to#

support# the# institutions# that# currently# may# conceivably# be# underpinning# injustices# to# a#

greater#extent# than#would#be# remedied.# #A#question#we# therefore# should#not#disregard# is#

whether# it# is# institutional# reform# that# is# required# as# opposed# to# something# more#

revolutionary.##It#may#not#be#clear#just#now#where#a#revolutionary#impulse#might#come#from#


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! 21!

or# what# exactly# it# might# aim# at.# # But# I# think# it# would# be# foolhardy# to# imagine# that# the#

question#can#be#ruled#out#as#an#irrelevance.#

It# is#possible#that#an#answer#might#lie#in#completely#new#institutions#that#the#rich#have#not#

designed.##While#this#suggestion#is#purely#speculative,#nevertheless,#if#we#reflect#on#what#our#

crowded#planet#might#be#like#twenty,#fifty,#a#hundred#years#from#now#–#with#the#effects#of#

climate# change,# population# growth# and# resource# depletion# making# themselves# felt# on#

individual# lives#and#social# fabric#–# it#may#be#asked#what#sound#and#nonXspeculative#reason#

there#is#to#suppose#that#the#institutions#created#in#midX20th#century#will#be#broadly#up#to#the#

job,#with#a#bit#of#tweaking,#and#with#business#otherwise#proceeding,#perhaps#more#smartly,#

but#basically#as#usual.#

#

5.*Finance*and*the*warping*of*ecological*space*

Given#my#advocacy#of#an#ecological#framing#for#political#theory,#it#may#come#as#something#of#

a#surprise#to#find#that#the#most#fundamental#institutional#change#I#suggest#we#may#need#has#

so#little#to#do#with#anything#ecological.##But#it#is#here#that#we#appreciate#the#significance#of#

what# I# have# referred# to# as# the# command# of# ecological# space.# # Understanding# the# role# of#

financial#norms#in#concentrating#that#command#in#a#few#hands#is#key#to#understanding#how#

control#of#ecological#relations#can#become#so#far#removed#from#the#people#who#have#real#–#

and# vital# –# interests# in# ecological# stewardship,# including# for# the#preservation#of# their# own#

livelihoods.##Of#all#the#institutions#that#there#is#reason#to#think#need#radical#transformation,#

those#maintaining# the# current# global# financial# system#are#especially# clear# candidates.# # The#

system#of#global#finance#is#the#antithesis#of#ecological#stewardship#or#real#equality#of#respect#

for# human# beings.# Whereas# global# justice# today# requires# a# process# of# contraction# and#

convergence,# international#norms#support# the# financial#monopolisation#of#ecological# space#


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! 22!

as#a#process#of#expansion#and#divergence.# #There#are#thus#reasons#to#think#that#a#sine#qua#

non#for#any#meaningful#progress#towards#global#justice#is#radical#change#of#the#basic#norms#

governing#global#finance.#

We# are# aware# that# financial# transactions# today# occur# at# a# scale# and# velocity# such# as# to#

exceed#any#direct# correlation#with#material# events#beyond# the#electronic#movements# that#

convey#them.##Yet#we#are#also#aware#that#a#crisis#in#the#financial#realm#can#have#devastating#

consequences#at#a#human#scale#in#socioXeconomic#reality.##It#has#been#noticeable#that,#since#

the# financial# crisis,# tremendous# economic# hardship# has# afflicted# many# millions# of# people#

around# the#world# and# yet# those#who# are#most# intimately# involved# in# the# financial# system#

continue# to# prosper,# even# more# in# some# cases# than# they# did# before.# # It# may# appear#

something#of#a# tragic# irony# that#occurrences#within# such#a# rarefied# financial# system#–#and#

one#operated,#moreover,#by#a# relative#handful#of#people#globally#–#can#have#such#massive#

tangible#consequences#for#so#many#other#people.##It#is,#in#fact,#an#explicable#outcome#of#the#

workings#of#institutions#as#they#currently#are.#

The# financial# system#has# immanent# imperatives# that#arise# from#the#way#money# is#created.##

Modern#banks#create#money#by#lending#vastly#in#excess#of#their#reserves.##In#order#to#repay#

the# debt,# and# with# interest,# the# borrowers# have# to# earn# more# money.# # Reiterated#

throughout# the#entire#economy# this#process# generates# a# systemic# imperative# for# the# total#

value# of# sales# in# the# economy# to# increase# perpetually.# This# can# be# achieved# either# by#

inflation#or#expansion.#Since# inflation#undermines#value# rather# than# increasing#wealth,# the#

system# is# geared# to#meet# a# continuous# and# insatiable# need# for# economic# growth.# # This# is#

regardless#of#what#actual#benefits#the#continuous#expansion#of#economic#activity#might#yield#

and#what#damage#it#may#do#to#both#to#human#society#and#the#natural#world,# including#the#

hastening#of#climate#change#(Douthwaite,#1999).#


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The# ecological# perspective# reminds# us# –# what# we# should# anyway# know# –# that# perpetual#

economic#growth# is# impossible# in#a# finite#world.#Defenders#of# the#status#quo#hold#out# the#

possibility#that#growth#could#continue#endlessly#if#it#is#the#value#of#production#that#increases,#

rather#than#its#physical#volume.##But#this#idea#leaves#unspecified#what#the#‘increase#in#value’#

would#relate#to#if#it#is#entirely#decoupled#from#any#biophysical#substrate:#if#it#were#simply#an#

increase#in#the#amount#of#money#circulating,#that#would#be#pure#inflation;#if#it#is#growth#of#

some#tangible#source#of#value,#then#what?##In#particular,#either#it#does#or#does#not#represent#

human# time# and/or# ecological# space:# if# it# represents# either,# then# it# cannot# increase#

indefinitely,#because#they#cannot;#if#it#represents#neither,#then#the#onus#is#on#the#maker#of#

the# argument# to# tell# us# what# is# contemplated.# Meanwhile,# we# might# note# that# the#

unspecified#possibility# cited#cannot#claim#support#of#any#evidence.#Even# the#service# sector#

needs#material#inputs#(vehicles,#buildings,#computers)#and#often#quite#a#substantial#physical#

base,# as# is# evident,# observes# Herman# Daly,# ‘from# casual# observation# of# a# university,# a#

hospital,#an#insurance#company,#a#barber#shop,#or#even#a#symphony#orchestra.’#(Daly#1991,#

118)#Moreover,#even#if#such#a#form#of#growth#were#possible,#it#would#then#be#of#a#kind#that#

could#not#usefully#trickle#down#–#a#process#that#is#usually#invoked#to#justify#unending#growth.##

For,#as#Daly#also#points#out,# if# the#expansion# is#really#going#to#be#for#the#sake#of#the#poor,#

‘then# it# will# have# to# consist# of# things# needed# by# the# poor# X# food,# clothing,# shelter# X# not#

information# services.# Basic# goods# have# an# irreducible# physical# dimension.’# (Daly# and#

Townsend#1993,#267)#

The# conclusion# seems# inescapable:# to# reduce# inequality# globally# and# to# protect# the# global#

environment,#we#need#a#radical#change#in#the#norms#governing#financial#institutions.##Driving#

both#ecological#overshoot#and#radical#inequality#are#processes#of#accumulation#of#command#

of#ecological# space# through# the#medium#of# financial# assets.# # It# is# the# financial# system# that#

keeps#the#treadmill#of#accumulation#going.##I#do#not#claim#to#know#exactly#how#they#should#

change,#but#certain#general#desiderata#seem#quite#evident.##The#aim#should#be#to#find#ways#


!

! 24!

to# channel# financial# flows# so# they# track# the#use,# development# and#exchange#of# the# things#

that#we#materially#prize.##Finance#should#be#linked#to#what#we#really#value;#that#applies#both#

now#and# regarding# the# future.# #Refocusing# investment# towards#meaningful,# longXterm#and#

sustainable# valueXcreation# is# going# to# take# work# on# a# variety# of# fronts# at# once,# with#

prominence# being# allowed# for# bottomXup# initiatives,# involving# a# plurality# of# democratised#

arrangements.##A#plurality#of#moneys#could#encourage#us#to#drop#habits#of#thought#in#which#

value#is#largely#fungible;#it#would#help#us#overcome#assumptions#that#a#harm#done#here#or#a#

wrong#done#there#can#always#be#compensated#by#an#amount#of#money,#and#money#acquired#

from#activities#that#might#be#perpetuating#such#harms#and#wrongs.#

I# would# emphasise# this# last# point.# # The# idea# that# compensation# for# social# and# ecological#

harms#can#be#provided#in#the#medium#of#money#assumes#that#a#disaggregated#view#of#the#

problems#is#appropriate#and#that#a#homogenized#medium#for#delivering#solutions#to#them#is#

possible.# # The# ecological# perspective# has# us# reverse# those# assumptions:# the# problems# are#

interrelated,# and# disaggregating# them# is# as# likely# as# not# to# shift# rather# than# solve# them.##

Human# time# and# ecological# space#might# be# exchanged# for#money,# but# they# can# never# be#

substituted#by#it.#

#

Conclusion*

The# fundamental# challenge# for# global# justice# is# to# address# the# dual# problem# of# radical#

inequality#and#ecological#overshoot;# its#circumstantial# imperative# is# to#pursue#the#ultimate#

goal#of#contraction#and#convergence#–#a#world# in#which#human#rights#are#securely#fulfilled#

through# a# sustainable# use# of# the# planet’s# resources.# # Understanding# that# ecological#

overshoot#and#radical#inequality#cannot#be#grasped#in#isolation#from#each#other#means#being#

able# to# recognize#how# the#processes#driving# them#are# integrated.# #We#need# to#be#able# to#

recognize#how#the#institutions#supporting#those#processes#may#be#part#of#the#problem.##We#


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! 25!

therefore# cannot# simply# accept# unquestioningly# the# view# that# existing# international# and#

global# institutions# –# when# they# preside# over# aspects# of# the# problem# –# are# merely#

incompletely#just;#we#need#to#be#prepared#to#recognize#that#they#may#be#actively#unjust#in#

their#workings.#We#should#be#wary#of#attempts#to#‘outsmart’#capitalism#and#markets#as#well#

as# of# the# various# winXwin# scenarios# that# can# only# be# sustained# with# various# degrees# of#

disingenuity.##

So#my# final# point# is# that# we# need# to# be# clear# what# the# purposes# would# be# of# the# global#

institutions# that# would#merit# our# support# before#we# can# talk# about# duties# of# support# for#

such# institutions.# # Regarding# duties# to# create# those# institutions,# we# have# to# be# duly#

respectful#of#the#maxim#that#‘ought#implies#can’#and#not#attempt#to#issue#one#another#with#

unfulfillable#directives.##Yet,#as#philosophers,#we#enjoy#the#extraordinary#liberty#of#being#able#

to# think# in# terms# of# possible# worlds,# and# something# we# can# do# is# articulate# an# idea# of# a#

global# constitutional# order# that# would# appropriately# respect# individual# aspirations# in# the#

light#of#social#and#ecological#imperatives.###

#

References#

Caney,#Simon#(2010)#‘Climate#Change#and#the#Duties#of#the#Advantaged’,#Critical-Review-of-

International-Social-and-Political-Philosophy,#13(1):#203X228.#

Caney,#Simon#(2012)##‘Just#Emissions’,#Philosophy-and-Public-Affairs,#40(4):#255X300.#

Cooper,#R.S.,#Kennelly,#J.F.,#OrduñezXGarcia,#P.,#(2006)#‘Health#in#Cuba’,#International-Journal-

of-Epidemiology,#35:#817–824.#

Daly,#Herman#E.#(1991)#SteadyIState-Economics,#2nd#edn.##Washington#DC:#Island#Press.#

Daly,#Herman#E.#and#Townsend,#Kenneth#N.#(1993)#Valuing-the-Earth.##MIT#Press.#


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Douthwaite,#Richard#(1999)#The-Ecology-of-Money.##Green#Books.#

Halme,#Pia#(2007)#‘Carbon#Debt#and#the#(InX)Significance#of#History’,#Trames#11:#346X365.#

Hassoun,# N.# (2012)# Globalization- and- Global- Justice:- Shrinking- Distance,- Expanding-

Obligations.#Cambridge#University#Press.#

Hayward,# Tim# (2005)# ‘Thomas# Pogge’s# Global# Resources# Dividend:# A# Critique# and# an#

Alternative’,#Journal-of-Moral-Philosophy#2,#317–332.#

Hayward,# Tim# (2007)# ‘Human# Rights# Versus# Emissions# Rights:# Climate# Justice# and# the#

Equitable#Distribution#of#Ecological#Space’,#Ethics-&-International-Affairs#21(4):#431–450.#

Hayward,# Tim# (2008)# ‘On# the# Nature# of# Our# Debt# to# the# Global# Poor’,# Journal- of- Social-

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Hayward,#Tim# (2013b)# ‘The#Sense#and#Significance#of#Rights#Talk’,#unpublished#manuscript#

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Hayward,# Tim# (2013c)# ‘Ecological# Space:# the# concept# and# its# ethical# significance’,# JWI-

Working-Paper#2013/2,#Just#World#Institute.#

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Nagel,# Thomas# (1977)# 'Poverty#and#Food:#Why#Charity# Is#Not#Enough',# in#P.#G.#Brown#and#

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Choices.#New#York,#Free#Press.#

Pogge,#Thomas#(2002)#World-Poverty-and-Human-Rights.#Polity#Press.#

Pogge,# Thomas# (2013)# ‘Q# &# ASAP:# After# the# MDGs’# Interview# online#

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#

#

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Documents

Just Institutions for a Crowded Planet