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MAKALELER/ARTICLES

iktisrt Teorisi / Economic TheoryOKTE Ikinci

uiusiararasI Iktisat/1nternatiOnal Economics

Fericle Doganer CONEL Korc'tk'f ekrolojik Geligmeyi Etkileyeu Uosurlarvc Rekabetc Elkisi

Ferda HALIC10GLU Tlrklye‐ AB CI:1lrilk Bir‖こi'nin Dirckt YabancI

Serilinycヽ・atll■ 111lall Uzcrill(le鳳

Turkiye Ekonomisi/Turkish Economy

Ek[enl DONEK Is Tcrtilc Becorning A High-Tcch ludustry?.{u Empirical Study of thc Ttrrkish Textile Iudustrv

Mali Hukuk/Fiscal Law

S Ate,OKTAR [\'lrli Hukukuu Anlanr ve Kapsamr Uzeriue

Elldistri lli,kileri/1ndustrial Relations

A‖ Rlza BUYUKUSLU (i)rporrtisru rvas r Felturc ofthe Industriall{cln{iols of thc l(cynrsiau Wclfrrc Statc;ls l hcrc -\n1' l'rospccts thxl It rvill llcturn iu the 2000s?

Istatistik/Statistics

Seniye Unrit l?rrat OKTAY Kiirneleurc Analizi: istihdanrrn Sektiirel Yaprsr

Atrsrodnu Avrupa Ulkclcrinin Kargrlagtrrrlmasr

Scnla ULUTUItK I 997 Yrh l(ousolidc Biitge Gelir vc Giderlerinciligkiu Bi. Tahmiu

Haluk Z(JI F〔 KAR NonpiraDretrik Yiintcmlcre Ctrel Yaldagrm ve

Tbc l\Iann Whitley tl Tcsti Uzerinc Bir luceleme

igletme / Business AdministrationTainer Kじ ぐEC10CLU Stir(lurnlcbili:Orgtitscl Dcttisilll icin ilKli11l ve

Klllttru■ Olu,titrulinasi Uzcllue Bir call,ma

Araqtrrnra Ytintemleri / Research MethodsMu[atT YORUNG Bir I(auruoyu AraStrrnrrsr iizcrine Diiqiiuceler

Siyasct Bilimi/Political Science

Birsen 0RS (icA IVlodcrnlc5cn ijlkelcrtle Orrlunuu Rolii:IVhsrr Ornt!i1952 fliir Subilylar flrlrlictinin Terncllcri ve Ozellikleri

Sosyoloji / SociologyIrfan tlA$LAK Socio llistoricrl Inquiry: Themcs and

Controvcrsics in Historical Sociology

Kapak tasartmt: Mengii Ertel

Temmuz'1997 Cilt lll, Sayr: 2

IS TEXTILE BECOMIN C A

AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE

HIGH‐ TECH IN DUSTRY?

TURKISH TEXTILE IN DUSTRY

Ekrem Donek.

1. INTRODUCTION

Textile was a leading industry for the industrial revolution in nineteenth

century. It has been the engine of the competitiveness and development inGreat Britain and many other industrialized countries consistent with itslabor-intensive technologies that time. After a long time, textile is again

becoming an important high-technology using industry.

During the present century, the advancements in production has mostly

occurred through capital-intensive technologies. Since textile is a heavily

labor-intensive industry, it could not catch-up with the new technological

changes for a long time. Therefore, it has become a secondary technology using

industry [1]. The priority that has been given by the early industrialized

countries has moved to some other high-tech using industries, such as

microelectronics and computers. But, the industry has again becoming one of

the most high-tech using industries in the world.

This paper shortly discusses the recent developments in the world textile

industry and the Turkish Textile industry; then presents an empirical study of

the Turkish textiles for the question of "is textile a high-tech industry?" Our

★Doc.Dr.Erciyesウ niversitesi′ iktisadi ve idari Bililrnler Fakiltesi′ lktisat Bё limi′ Kayseri.

The auther would like tO thank Professor Romesh K.Diwan fOr his helpful suggestions during

the study.

preliminary conclusion

in the Turkish case."

"Yes textile has been found as a high-tech industry

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORTD TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Textile was one of the important leading industries for the Europe,s

industrial development in nineteenth century as a "British Model,'l1l.It has

been the engine of the competitiveness and development in many countries,

including industrialized countries, with its labor-intensive technologies thattime. After a long time of relatively stable technology in textile, the industryhas becoming an important high technology using industry.

The industry has recently become one of the highest (fourth) capital-

intensive industries in the world after petrochemicals, paper and some metal

industries [3]. In spinning, the open-end technology replaced the ring,

increasing productivity and eliminating costly steps of maneuvering

materials, loading and unloading, and adjusting machinery for different fibers

and yarn types [a]. The new technology (open-end) is faster than the old

technology (ring spinning) four to five times. It reduces labor cost by two-

thirds compared to the old technology.According to a calculation [5], the share

of the open-end machines in the total spinning machine increased to 16.

percent in 1990 from 8.8 percent in 1980. The rate of growth in the world total

spinning capacity for the same period was 20.7 percent while the rate was 120.8

percent for the open-end machines.

In weaving, the shuttleless looms substituted the shuttle looms. In

finishing, bleaching, dyeing and printing have been made automatic through

new electronic devices. Especially, the change in the cotton weaving industry

from conventional looms to the modern shuttleless looms made the

production faster, three to ten times more productive [6] and improve quality

Ｓ

　

　

Ｉ

by eliminating defects through the automated new machines with a lowerrelative production cost. For example, the working speed of a shuttleless loom(600 knots per minute) in 1980 is three times faster than the working speed of a

shuttle loom (200 knots per minute) in 1970 l7).

Another advantage of the new shuttleless looms is that production is

more flexible than the conventional shuttle looms. For example, frequent

replenishment of the bobbin is about necessary, power consumption is highand wasteful and of course very slow relative to the shuttleless looms [g].However, the cost of switching from shuttle looms to shuttleless looms is high

and it is quite difficult for small companies.

Between the years 1980 to 1987, there has been a 33 percent decrease in the

shuttle looms against a 64.5 percent increase in the shuttleless looms in the

world. These percentages are s4 and g0 for the Eurepean Community

countries, respectively, in the same period. The ratio of purchases ofshuttleless looms to shuttle looms have reached about 100 percent in 19g4 inmany countries, such as Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the U.S. and Hong

Kong while some others, such as India and Korea are between 25 to 38 percent.

However, the share of the modern shuttleless looms in current stocks of

capacities varies between 29 percent to 100 percent in the capital-intensive

industrialized countries while it is less than 10 percent in the labor-intensive

industrializing countries [9].

As Bosworth (1990) states, the manufacture of high-technology textile and

machinery has already taken on a global identity in the last decade and

"companies in China, Israel, Iran, Portugal, Turkey and Taiwan are now

manufacturing modern machinery for the industry" I10]. This is a very

consistent development with a growing argument about internationalization

3

of both markets and production stated by many scholars like Chesnais (19g6),

Freeman (L987), Diwan and Desai (1,990), Diwan and Chakraborty (1.991),

Benton at aI (1991"), and Ait-El-Hadj (1992). The new technologies are faster,

more flexible, cheaper and more quality than the old technologies that wereconsistent with the mass-production techno-economic paradigm of the 1950s,

1960s and partially 1970s.

However, the new technologies need labor to be highly educated and has

broader skills to anticipate new problems and to interact with different needs

of production process so that it can meet the new production system. Manyrecent studies suggest that in order to create more flexible production systems,

firms should learn how to stimulate workers to participate in production

Process and make use of their knowledge on product design [11]. In other

words, labor is to be considered as a part of production; i.e., it is an ,,asset,, not a

"cost" of production.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TURKISH TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Textile is the most important industry in manufacturing sector as well as

in the economy providing more production, employment and export inTurkey. Textile and clothing industries have the highest rate of production

growth (only clothing is L5.75 percent). The industry employs 28 percent of the

manufacturing employment and about one-fourth of the employment in the

industry is skilled-labor. The Turkish textile industry has a comparative

advantage uPon many European countries [12]. Almost 60 percent of the

industry's production is exported, and 31 percent of the total export of the

country belongs to this industry. Some recent studies [13] have shown that the

most important element that lies under the export success of the textile in the

1980s is the technological capabilities that provide the firms within the

4

industry to invest and produce efficiently.

to the recent technological advancements

have pointed out before.

This is a very parallel development

in the world textile industry, as we

Since it has been the fastest growing industry in the economy since thebeginning of the 1920s, textile has been the most attracted industry by privatesector' For example, the proportion of private sector in the industry has rapidlyincreased from 28 percent in L952 to 62 percent in 1962 and to over 90 percent

in 1990. Of course, the main reason for this is the liberal economic policiesthat have been implemented in the 1950s and the 1980s. Moreover, capacity

usage in the industry from 1.984 to 87 has reached to 90 percent. In 1990, 7

percent of GNP, 28 percent of the total industry employment [14] and 34

percent of the total export belong to the textile and clothing industry inTurkey.

Although Turkey is an important (number one) cotton yarn exporter inthe world, relative to some industrialized countries, the machines in the

cotton yarn and knitting industries need to be modernized [15] because, only 50

percent of them are the post-1980 machines in the cotton yarn sub-industry

[16]. On the other hand, 52.8 percent of the available spinning capacity belongs

to the modern open-end machines, and more than g0 percent of these

machines are under 10 years. Turkey is the fifth country regarding open-end

machines capacity after Russia, u.s., China and ozbekistan [17].

In Turkey, organized private sector is increasingly using shuttleless

looms while public sector (Srimerbank that time) is still using mostly shuttle

looms. On the other hand, 82.6 percent of the available machines in weaving

are shuttleless looms, and 59.6 percent of these machines are under 15 years

[18]. Since Stimerbank has been recently privatized, it can be argued that more

5

firms are now using the modern shuttleless looms in the sector despite the fact

that the need for more technological improvements is still there.

In the 1,972-79 period, the capacity of cotton yarn has increa sed 126 percent(from 1.3 million spindles to 3 million spindles) in Turkey. This development

has been continued in the 1980s with the help of the export-promoting

policies, but towards the end of the decade (after lg1g) this trend slowed down(especially in the textile industry) as a result of over increase in the prices ofrow cotton and insufficient incentives for export [19]. The yarn and knittingsectors in the wool industry are better than that of in the cotton industry, butthe spindles are again need to be renewed since many of them are 5 to 15 years

old [20]. If an appropriate education and training policy is not developed by

both public and private sectors to meet the latest technological change, these

developments will decrease the level of employment in the sector extensively.

According to a recent comprehensive study [21], technological capabilities

related to production and investment in all textile subsectors (especia[y in the

Bursa region) were found quite high. Also, the wide availability of skilled

manPower made this success possible. Finally, it is argued that this

technological capacity, in addition to the cheap labor, in the industry is the

main factor that lies under the export success of the sector in the 1980s.

4. DATA

The data in this study are taken from the various issues of Household

Labor Force Results, Annual Manufacturing Industry Statistics, Census of

Manufacturing Industry, Statistical Yearbook of Turkey and National

Education Statistics: Adult Education published by the Turkish State Institute

of Statistics (SIS); various issues of Main Economic Indicators published by the

State Planning Organization (SPO); various issues of Textile Industry in OECD

Countries published by OECD; and finally Yearbook of Labour Statistics

published by International Labour Office (ILO). The period that is undertaken

in the study is between L970 and 1990.

The variables are defined as follows: Q is the real gross output in billionsof Turkish liras, K is the capital in billions of Turkish liras, N is the annual

average number of employees which is an arithmetic average number ofemployees in Februaty,May, August and November, E is the total number of

graduates from vocational and technical junior higher school, and high school

plus university and other higher education institutions, and T is the totalnumber of graduates (or successful finishers) from the following courses and

schools: (i) Public Education, (ii) Domestic Science Schools, (iii) practical Trade

Schools for Girls, (iv) Apprenticeship Training (mastership plus journeyman),

(v) Private Courses, and (vi) Industrial Practical Trade Schools. For the high-

tech industries we took (i) to (vi) and for the textile industry we took (i), (ii),(iii), (v) and (vi) since (iv) is not relevant to the textiles.

5. MODEL

A general twice differentiable production function can be written as:

Q=f(Xl′ X2′ ¨̈′Xn) (1)

The production function (1) shows a set of possible relations between

output (Q) and the minimum quantities of factors required (Xr, x2,...., X.,)

given the current state of technological knowledge.

The Cobb-Douglass production function is the most widely known

function in the literature. Following Heathfield and Wibe (1987) and Antle

and Capalbo (1988), it can be written in its logarithms form as:

7

lnQ=ln αO+αl lnXl+ … +α n lnXn

or in the form:

Q=αO Xlαl……Xn(h

The elasticity of substitution in the Cobb-Douglass production function isassumed to be equal to unity (O = 1 or o.1 + ... + cr,, = 1)which is the condition ofconstant returns to scale. Also, the Cobb-Douglass production function limitsthe substitution possibilities for more than two goods. Although the Constant

Elasticity of substitution (cES) production function allows the elasticity ofsubstitution to be something other than unity, both the Cobb-Douglass and the

CES production functions impose a priori assumptions of additivity and

homogeneity of the production function. The transcendental logarithmic(translog) function developed by Christensen, Jorgensen and Lau (1977 and,

7973) is more flexible since it allows the elasticity of substitution to change

with output and / or factor proportions.

う４

(3)

The translog function can be obtained by specifying the

production elasticities to be logJinear functions of the factors.

the following condition to 3:

αi=αi+:Σ βtt inxl i=1′ … ′n (4)

gives the translog production function:

lnQ = 6xo + Io1 lnX1 * | >> 0,, (tnx) (tnx;) (5)

Differentiating the translog function with respect to the logarithm of

factor quantities and employing the Shepherd's Lemma give the following set

of demand equations for the factors:

Cobb-Douglass

That is, adding

8

dtng0lnx1 = = Si = Cli+XB1;tn\ iガ =K′ N′ E′ T

since one of the share equations is redundant, one of them is arbitrarilydropped in the estimation procedure (capital will be dropped in our moders).

To estimate the parameters of the share equations, iterative-Zenner (1963)

estimation procedure, which is usually known as Iterative Seemingly

Unrelated Regression Equations (ISUR) estimation has been employed.

In order for the equations to be weri-behaved, the transrog function (and

also the factor share equations) are subject to the restrictions of symmetry

condition, concavity condition and linear homogeneity in factor quantities.

The factor share equations derived from the translog function provide a

very flexible framework for the analysis of factor substitution and demand

elasticities. Using the factor shares s1 and the coefficients Bil, Allen partial

elasticities of substitution (AES) can be calculated:

ぬ一』

Ｘｉ一Ｑ ／

０

Own―AEa qi=■■挙重

Cross―AES: σ巧=呼 =暑 +1

i=K′ N′ E′ T

iガ =K′ N′ E′ T, i≠ j

″／

(8)

Equations (7) and (8) give us a clear understanding of own-and cross_

factor elasticities, complementarity and substitutability between the factors as

well as what the impacts of technological change on capital and labor are.

The study basically comprises two models, one is for the high-technology

industries and the other is for the textile industry. There are some industries

in the economy where the new technologies are applied first and then spread

to the rest of the economy through those industries. Those industries are

9

usually called as "high-technology industries" and classified under differenttwo-digit industries within the manufacturing industry. For example, Diwanand Chakraborty (1991) define them as four two-digit industries (5, 6,7 and g)

according to the ISIC classification. In this study, we define the high-technology industries for the Turkish economy as the following three two-digit manufacturing industries: chemicals (#35), Basic Metals (#g7) and

Machinery and Equipment, Transportation and Telecommunications (#3g).

6. EMPIRICAL RESULTS

Table 1 clearly indicates that except a substitution relationship between

labor and education, on an average computation over the twenty years period

from 1970 to 1990 all other inputs have been found complementary.

Table 1: A Comparrcon of Elastrcrtres of Substrtutron

Elasticity of Substitution (O1i) High-Tech Industries Textile Industry

Capital-Labor (oxp)

Capital-Education (OrE)

Capital-Training (orr)

Labor-Education (ONe)

Labor-Training (oNr)

Education-Training (Osr)

complimentary

complimentary

complimentary

substitutes

complimentary

complimentary

complimentary

complimentary

complimentary

substitutes

complimentary

complimentary

Source: Calculated from the Allen partial elasticities of substitution (AES).

The complimentarity between capital and labor is a consistent result with

the latest information technology, assuming labor as an asset rather than a cost

of production 1221. Capital with education and capital with training are also

found complimentary. If we assume that these two educational variables are

two proxies for technological change, this result indicates that technological

10

change is capital-using in both textiles and high-technology industries inTurkey. Labor with education is found substitution while labor with trainingis found complimentary. In other words, technological change through formaleducation is labor-saving while it is labor-using through adult education. Thisresult shows that in both industries, adult education (T) is more consistent

with the new Paradigm than the formal education (E). Also, education andtraining are complimenting one for another.

7. CONCLUSION

If we look at the figures 1 to 6, we can see a sort of similar trend in twoindustries. If we assume elasticities of substitution [23] as an elaboration of the

structure of the industries, it can be said that the Turkish textile industry has a

very similar formation of inputs and capability of production to the Turkishhigh-technology industries. This is a very consistent result with the

developments in the world textile industry; the proportion of shuttleless

looms to shuttle looms in weaving, has reached about 100 percent in 19g4 inmany countries, the open-end machines in spinning replaced the ring and

automatic new electronic devices in finishing, bleaching, dying and printinghave already taken place in the industry.

This result conforms the findings of Kirim and Ates (1989) and Kirim(1990). They have found that the Turkish textile industry has enough

technological capacity and skilled manpower to continue to compete in the

international markets. Henceforth, this capacity is the main factor that lies

under the export success of the industry during the 1980s.

11

NOTLAR[1]For a detailed discussiOn′ see Williams(1984),and Park and AndersOn(1991).

[2]Bruland(1989)′ p.9.

島 I蹴 温 膿 ∫ l銚『観 im暉

暉 u←勁 PP И卜5獅 nton tt d l1991〉 P鉤

[4]Benton at al(1991)′ P.47.

[5]Ansal(1993)′ p.433.

[6]Ansal(1993)′ p.432.

[7]Antonelli′ Petit and Tahar(1989)′ pp.783-784.

[8]Qurayshi(1983)′ p.112.

[9]AntOnelli′ Petit and Tahar(1989)′ pp.785-786.

[10]Bosworth(1990)′ p.7.

[11]Diwan and Desai(1990)′ p.5′ Benton at al(1991)′ p.7.

[121 0ECD (1993)′ p.71,Turkey is one of the highly textile and c10thing exporting cOuntries tothe Europeall COmmunity●C〉 itismenumbelT:l蔵

:ll顧:∬7償豊「」1:可環11二腎1主響80.4 thOusand tOns in 1979′ which is larger tha

l;31T■ .T猟昔 胤 Tζ 鰍 織 謬 鶏 )富『 概 里 fttξ 出 器 町 織 縫

exporter cOuntry to EC after China.

[13]For exalnple′ Klrlln and Ate§ (1989)メ Klrlln(1990),and Ansal(1993)′ p.443.

[141 SPO(1993)′ p.157.

[15]Ba§ er and lsik(1991)′ p.394.

[161 SPO(1993)′ PP.160-161.

肌 謂 脚 誕 距 ;翻 fTll甜 醜 ど 協 輝 :葛 .he鍵∞nd血∝ meu3 hり %狙 d■e

[18]Ozer(1995)′ p.5′ 6′ 17.

[19]SPO(1993)′ p.177.

120]Ba§ er and I§ ik(1991)′ p.394.

[21]Klrlln and Ate§ (1989)′ p.5 and Klrlm(1990)′ pp.5-6 alld Chapter 5.

122]For more details′ see Diwan and Desai(1990),and Diwan and Chakraborty(1991).Especially I)iwan and Chakraborty(1991)diSSCusses the issue in detail.

[23]VVe alSO calculated factor demand elasticities for factors and had the same results regardhgcompllnentarity and substitution.

12

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15

ABSTRACT

Textile was a leading industry for the industrial revolution innineteenth century. It has been the engine of the competitiveness and

development in Great Britain and many other industrialized countries

consistent with its labor-intensive technologies. After a long time, textile is

again becoming an important high-technology using industry. However, this

PaPer aims to present an empirical study of the Turkish textiles for the

question of "is textile becoming a high-tech industry?" For this purpose, the

study basically comprises and compares two models, one is for the high-

technology industries and the other is for the textile industry. Ourpreliminary conclusion is that "yes textile has been found as a high-tech

industry in the Turkish case".

OZET

Tekstil′ OndOkuzuncu yuzyllda sanayi devrimi icin en 6nde gelen bir

sektёr idi o d6nemde′ emek yogun tekn。 101iSi ile ingiltere′ de ve diger

sanayile§ lni§ olkelerde kalklnmanln ve rekabet gttcttnun mOtoru

durumunda idi uzun zaman sOnra tekstil′ yeniden ёnenlli bir yaksek

tekn010,i kullanan endtlstri olinaktadir Burada′ tekstilin bir yllksek

tekn0101i sekt6rtl saylllP sayllamayacagl y6ntlnde Turk tekstil sekt6rtt

tlzerine yaplln11§ ekonOmetrik bir call§ ma yaplllnlltlr Cah§ mada′ hemtekstil sektё ru icin′ hem de yuksek tekn0101i sekt6rt icin ayri ayrl trans10g

iretim fonksiyonu kullanllarak Allen Klsn、i lkame Esneklikleri

hesaplanml§ ve kar§ 1la§ tirmalar yapllml§ tlr Call,mada′ Turk tekstil

sektё rinin′ Turk sanayii aclslndan Ttrk yllksek tekn。 10ji sektёriyle

kar。 1lastlrlldlきlnda′ benzer yaplya sahip olduklarl′ bundan d01ayl da tekstilin

bir ytlksek tekn010ji sektё rtt sayllabilecegi sonucuna varllmlotlr