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International Journal of Educational Research

journal homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate / i jedures

Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language

Julia Gorges a,*, Christian Kandler b, Gerd Bohner c

a Department of Psychology, Educational Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germanyb Department of Psychology, Personality Psychology and Psychological Assessment, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germanyc Department of Psychology, Social Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O

Article history:

Received 19 April 2011

Received in revised form 22 January 2012

Accepted 5 March 2012

Available online xxx

Keywords:

Foreign-language learning

Goal orientation

Higher education

Mastery goal

Performance goal

A B S T R A C T

Fostering foreign language proficiency is an important goal of university teaching. We

identified German university students’ (N = 1265) goal orientations developed during

secondary school as predictors of attitudes toward receiving instruction in English at

university. Mastery goal orientation was proposed to directly promote positive attitudes

because foreign language instruction offers an opportunity to increase language

proficiency. Conversely, performance goal orientation was expected to indirectly promote

positive attitudes via current academic self-concept of ability. Structural equation

modeling yielded results consistent with these predictions. Furthermore, when

controlling for students’ retrospective self-concept, the effects of performance orienta-

tions on attitudes toward foreign language instruction disappeared, whereas the effect of

mastery orientation remained significant. Results emphasize the importance of mastery

orientation for attitudes toward learning opportunities.

� 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Although internationalization is quite a heterogeneous concept in higher education research, Knight points out that ‘‘tomany, it means the inclusion of an international, intercultural, and/or global dimension into the curriculum and teachinglearning process’’ (2004, p. 6). Accordingly, her definition includes the ‘‘delivery of post-secondary education,’’ therebypointing to the institutional level of internationalization (2004, p. 11). On the same institutional level, Wachterconceptualized internationalization at home, which includes cross-cultural communication and foreign language proficiency(Wachter, 2003; for a detailed discussion of the concept of internationalization in higher education, see Knight, 2004).However, although efforts have been made to promote foreign language acquisition in Europe at every educational level (EU,2007), many university graduates in Germany still lack foreign language proficiency (Schaeper & Briedis, 2004). The presentarticle recommends teaching in a foreign language as a measure to improve German students’ language proficiency, and as apossibility for implementing internationalization at home.

One of the most important languages is English, as it is considered the lingua franca in our modern world (EU, 2006;Graddol, 2006). However, although English is the primary foreign language in secondary school – taught to 90% of pupilsacross Europe (DESI, 2006; EACEA, 2008) – English language proficiency is only recommended, and not generally required,for a university degree. In Germany, as in most countries, it is common to use the students’ native language as a medium ofinstruction, both during secondary school and within the university setting. It is also known that only 1.5% of all bachelordegree programs in Germany use instruction in English, and even fewer programs use other languages (DAAD, 2010).

* Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, Educational Psychology, Bielefeld University, PO 100131, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany.

E-mail address: julia.gorges@uni-bielefeld.de (J. Gorges).

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

0883-0355/$ – see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

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Because language application is important for developing language proficiency, many students in Germany spend studytime abroad to develop their English language proficiency. However, going abroad is costly in terms of fees and livingexpenses, and often requires extending the study period. These disadvantages put the option of studying abroad out of reachfor many German students (Isserstedt & Kandulla, 2010). To better equip their students in foreign language acquisition,university administrators should implement methods and strategies to promote internationalization for all students.Providing instruction in English at home could be an efficient way for German students to develop their English languageproficiency without having to go abroad. Teaching courses in English would require students to work with English texts andto form discussions in English. Thus, foreign language instruction could be an answer to Wachter’s call for a languagecomponent in internationalization at home (Wachter, 2003, see also Altbach & Knight, 2007).

1.1. Foreign language teaching

Using a foreign language as a medium of instruction in university courses can be viewed as a learning opportunity thatmay help students to develop their proficiency in that language. It would offer the opportunity to actually apply a languagethat had, thus far, only been taught (mainly) at the theoretical level during secondary school. Evaluation studies introducedat some secondary schools that address bilingual science classes (e.g., teaching geography in English; Viebrock & Breidbach,2006) have shown that teaching in a foreign language can be beneficial for students. Receiving instruction in a foreignlanguage promotes students’ foreign language proficiency and their confidence when talking in the foreign language, both atschool and in other contexts (e.g., Bredenbroker, 2000).

For German universities aiming at promoting English, having instruction in English could be a learning opportunity open toall students without imposing extra costs onto students. Thus, students who may not have the time or money to go abroad ortake extra classes in English would be able to develop their English language proficiency during the course of their universitystudies. However, there are also some drawbacks to this measure. Using a foreign language as a medium of instruction makesknowledge acquisition more difficult (Jochems, Snippe, Smid, & Verweij, 1996). In fact, students’ foreign language proficiencycontributes substantially to their learning success when using a foreign language as a medium of instruction (Jochems, 1991).Moreover, the risk of misconceptions is higher with foreign language teaching (Kocakulah, Ustunluoglu, & Kocakulah, 2005).Thus, using a foreign language as medium of instruction makes studying more demanding, so much so that students may notwant to receive their instruction in a foreign language when attending university in their home country.

Nonetheless, we assume that positive attitudes toward receiving instruction in English are especially important in anincreasingly globalized world, and that having instruction in English supports universities’ efforts to add internationalcomponents to their study programs (Ajzen, 1991). Therefore, having a positive attitude toward instruction in English as astrategy for internationalization should contribute to German students’ willingness to accept (some) courses taught inEnglish. Hence, our study has aimed at identifying what makes German students accept (or even desire) instruction inEnglish; that is, what contributes to a positive attitude toward instruction in a foreign language. Additionally, thisinformation could be used to shape universities’ plans to introduce instruction in English within various subject settings asan internationalization strategy.

We propose that students’ former learning motivation in English as a foreign language at secondary school is a centralfactor that influences their subsequent attitude toward receiving their instruction in English at the university level (Gorges &Kandler, in press). Thus, our research may lead to interventions which could positively influence students’ attitude towardthis new learning opportunity, even before they begin their university education. We therefore have focused on instructionin English as a learning opportunity for students in Germany, and especially on the influence of achievement goals on howstudents appraise, and ultimately use, this opportunity.

1.2. Attitude predicting motivation and behavior

Our study investigated factors that may contribute to German university students’ willingness to accept – or even desire –the opportunity to receive their instruction in English. We assume that attitudes are a precursor of motivation andsubsequent behavior (see Bohner & Dickel, 2011), and that a positive attitude toward a new learning opportunity shouldcontribute to a decision in favor of accepting the opportunity (Ajzen, 1991). Within an educational context, a learner’sattitude can be viewed as represented by task value (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Task value comprises beliefs that a particularlearning opportunity is, for example, important for one’s professional development, or is interesting (Wigfield & Eccles,2000). It would most probably be derived from past experience with a particular learning opportunity (Ajzen, 1991; Doll &Ajzen, 1992; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).

In the context of foreign language learning, Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu (2004) examined the influence ofJapanese students’ attitudes toward English and English-speaking countries (e.g., desire to learn English, interest ininternational activities) on their communication behavior with English native speakers. They found that positive attitudespredicted students’ willingness to communicate in English as well as the frequency of communication, both with a teacher inJapan who was an English native speaker and with English native speakers abroad. Consequently, attitudes can be seen asprecursors of behavior (i.e., using the learning opportunity to develop one’s language proficiency).

Our research aims at identifying factors that predict students’ attitudes toward instruction presented in English at aGerman university. We suggest that constituent factors of attitudes toward learning opportunities after graduation from

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

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secondary school are grounded in students’ former motivation. We focus on superordinate goals that characterize basic aimsstudents pursue when learning by means of adopting a particular goal orientation (for a summary, see Schunk, Pintrich, &Meece, 2008). Previous research has distinguished between mastery and performance goals and has shown that students’ goalorientation can predict their performance and task choice (Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, & Elliot, 2000; Harackiewicz,Durik, Barron, Linnenbrink-Garcia, & Tauer, 2008).

1.3. Former goal orientation as a predictor of attitude toward new learning opportunities

Mastery goal oriented students strive to expand their competence and evaluate their learning progress on the basis ofintraindividual comparisons (for a summary, see Koller, 2000; Schunk et al., 2008). They engage in learning for the sake ofknowledge acquisition and skill development, and they view mistakes as information about their learning progress, and thusas an opportunity for improving their understanding. Consequently, mastery goal oriented students show beneficial patternsof achievement attribution associated with more positive emotions regarding learning (i.e., referring to effort rather thanability; Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Dweck, 1999); they also make more use of deeper learning strategies, enabling thedevelopment of a broad and highly networked knowledge base (Grant & Dweck, 2003). This should contribute to masterygoal oriented students’ self-concept of ability. Moreover, mastery goal orientation is associated with openness to new learningopportunities (Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Maehr & Midgley, 1991). We therefore propose a unique contribution of masterygoal orientation to students’ attitude toward the new learning opportunity, regardless of their self-concept of ability.Nevertheless, mastery goals should also contribute to students’ self-concept of ability, and thereby also have an indirecteffect on their attitude toward the new learning opportunity.

Performance goal oriented students stress the importance of achieving good test results (for a summary, see Koller, 2000;Schunk et al., 2008). They use social comparisons to evaluate their learning progress, and consider success and mistakes asreflections of their specific abilities. According to a distinction later developed between an approach and an avoidance focus ofperformance (Elliot & Church, 1997), they either strive to outperform their classmates (approach) or seek to hide deficits(avoidance). Performance-approach goal oriented students perform rather well at school, attribute success to personal ability,and thus experience positive emotions (e.g., pride). Performance-avoidance goal oriented students are less successful,attribute failure to personal inability, and thus experience more negative emotions (e.g., shame; Duda & Nicholls, 1992;Dweck, 1999). Generally, compared to mastery goal orientation, performance goal orientation is less adaptive in mostlearning situations, and leads to shallower processing and less understanding of the learned content (Grant & Dweck, 2003;Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). Performance-approach goal orientation may lead to school success in terms of goodgrades (Harackiewicz et al., 2000), whereas performance-avoidance goal orientation may be detrimental, and may lead towithdrawal from learning opportunities (Anderman & Maehr, 1994). Being focused on one’s individual (lack of) ability,performance goal oriented students’ self-concept of their English ability (i.e., English language proficiency) is likely tocontribute to their attitude toward receiving their instruction in English.

In sum, students high in mastery goal orientation should generally approve of new learning opportunities (almostindependent of their perceived self-concept of ability) because they associate more positive emotions with learning, are lessafraid of making mistakes, and welcome opportunities to increase their competence. Empirically, mastery goal orientationhas been found to predict interest and behavior (i.e., value and usage of learning opportunities; Harackiewicz et al., 2000). Incontrast, performance goal oriented students’ appraisal of a new learning opportunity should depend on the probability oflearning success, which is strongly related to the self-concept of ability. Thus, their evaluation of the new learningopportunity should strongly depend on their self-concept of ability.

1.4. The present study

English as a regular medium of instruction is not yet fully established in Germany. For this reason, we have only measuredstudents’ attitude toward receiving their instruction in English as a precursor of behavior. We propose that attitudes towarda new learning opportunity are based on past learning experience, as reflected in motivation and performance. The presentstudy aims to explain university students’ attitude toward instruction in a foreign language given their former learningmotivation (i.e., goal orientation) in that same domain.

Receiving instruction in English differs from the educational context in previous research in that it is now an appliedcontext; a language formerly acquired in secondary school now has to be applied to learning content that is not related tolanguage or linguistics. Moreover, a transition takes place between learning English in secondary school and in a universitysetting in that English learning in secondary school takes place in the context of language acquisition, whereas Englishdominated instruction in a university takes place within a language application context. We propose that goal orientation inEnglish classes in secondary school predicts attitudes toward receiving instruction in English at the university level. Studentswho strove to expand their English language proficiency in secondary school (mastery goal orientation) should viewinstruction given in English in the university as an opportunity to further develop and practice their language proficiency.Also, mastery goal orientation has been found to be associated with more risk taking and openness when it comes to newlearning opportunities (Anderman & Maehr, 1994), which should result in a positive attitude toward the learningopportunity. These findings suggest that students high in mastery goal orientation are more likely to feel positive aboutreceiving their instruction in English.

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

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Furthermore, we assume that students high in mastery goal orientation with regard to English classes at school havedeveloped good language proficiency due to their use of effective learning strategies (Grant & Dweck, 2003), and thus hold apositive self-concept of English language proficiency. To date, several empirical studies have found close relations betweenthe self-concept of ability and value-related constructs, such as interest (e.g., Marsh, Koller, Trautwein, Ludtke, & Baumert,2005; see also Marsh & Craven, 2006) or task value (Anderman et al., 2001). According to Eccles and Wigfield (1995),students’ self-concept of ability represents the expectancy component of an expectancy-value model (Wigfield & Eccles,2000), and is thereby related to task value (i.e., attitude toward the learning opportunity). We therefore expect mastery goalorientation to predict attitudes toward the new learning opportunity, both directly and also as mediated via the self-conceptof ability. Stated another way, mastery goal orientation should show a direct, positive effect on attitude and on the self-concept of ability which, in turn, should also have a positive effect on attitude.

In contrast, performance goal oriented students strive to experience success (approach) or avoid failure (avoidance) whendeciding whether to accept or reject a learning opportunity. Thus, they should focus on their self-concept of ability whenestimating the probability of success. Students who strove to outperform others (high on performance-approach goalorientation) most likely achieved good grades in school (Harackiewicz et al., 2000), which should be accompanied by apositive self-concept of ability. Students high on performance-avoidance goal orientation have been found to be less willingto take risks and to try new tasks (Anderman & Maehr, 1994), which should be accompanied by a negative self-concept ofability. We therefore propose that both performance-approach and performance-avoidance orientation may predict attitudetoward a new learning opportunity via the self-concept of ability exclusively. Accordingly, we do not expect a direct effect ofperformance goal orientation on attitude. Performance goal oriented students (both approach and avoidance) should thus bewilling to study in English to the extent that their goal orientation also fosters a positive self-concept of ability; that is, withrespect to an expectation of success through the use of instruction delivered in English. Or more simply, performance-approach (avoidance) goal orientation should have a positive (negative) effect on attitude, mediated by the self-concept ofability.

Thus, we suggest that students’ goal orientation regarding English classes in secondary school is a predictor of theirattitude toward receiving their instruction in English at a university, both directly and by means of contributing to their self-concept of ability regarding receiving their instruction in English (henceforth referred to as current self-concept). In thepresent study, we tested goal orientations (mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance) and current self-concept as a predictor of attitude, using structural equation modeling.

As motivation and self-concept of ability show a close reciprocal relationship – with one predicting the other (Marsh &Craven, 2006) – it may be difficult for respondents to differentiate between motivation and self-concept in hindsight. For thisreason, we included the retrospective self-concept of ability (i.e., with respect to English language classes in secondary school,henceforth referred to as retrospective self-concept) as a control variable. We thereby were able to statistically eliminate theeffect of retrospective self-concept of ability on current attitude toward the new learning opportunity.

In sum, we hypothesize that (1) mastery predicts students’ attitude, both directly and as mediated by current self-concept; (2) performance-approach and performance-avoidance do not have a direct effect on attitude, but predict attitudeindirectly via current self-concept; and (3) these effects persist when retrospective self-concept is controlled for.

2. Method

2.1. Sample

Participants included students from six different fields of study (technology, business, law, mathematics, physics, andsports science) from a midsized German university (mean age = 23.6; SD = 3.2; 49.3% female). Only participants who hadsubmitted complete data were included in the analysis (N = 1265; 19 cases were excluded). About 24.5% reported that theyhad already stayed in an English-speaking country for some time (e.g., as a participant in a language course or as a high-school exchange student).

2.2. Procedure

All scales were part of an online survey about the potential introduction of instruction delivered in English, which wasconducted as part of an investigation into strategies of internationalization at the participants’ university. The survey tookabout 25 min to complete. The first part of the survey assessed the participants’ current situation within the university(including attitude and current self-concept), and the second part of the survey referred to participants’ experiences insecondary school (including performance-approach, performance-avoidance, mastery, and retrospective self-concept).Participants were informed about the study in advance and all had given their consent to participate.

2.3. Measures

Newly developed scales were used to measure attitude (6 items, a = 0.88) and current self-concept (9 items, a = 0.94)using a 6-point Likert-type response scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). All items of these scales are presented inthe Appendix. Goal orientation was measured by adapting a German scale by Koller and Baumert (1998), based on Nicholls,

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Patashnick, & Nolen (1985) using a 4-point Likert-type response scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree), as in Wild andRemy (2002). Performance-approach was normatively conceptualized, with an emphasis on social comparisons. Masterygoal orientation was conceptualized as the ‘‘striving toward development and growth of competence’’ (Grant & Dweck, 2003,p. 543). All mastery and performance-approach items started with ‘‘I felt really content in English as a foreign languageclasses. . .’’ (e.g., mastery: ‘‘. . .when I came to understand something that was not clear to me before’’; performance-approach: ‘‘. . .when I knew more than the others’’). Performance-avoidance items started with ‘‘It was important to me. . .’’and emphasized students’ fear of public failure in class (e.g., ‘‘. . .not to make a fool of myself in front of my classmates’’).Internal consistencies were a = 0.70 for mastery, a = 0.83 for performance-avoidance, and a = 0.86 for performance-approach. Retrospective self-concept was measured by 4 items adapted from Jopt (1978) using a 4-point Likert-typeresponse scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree; e.g. ‘‘I was good at English’’), as in Wild and Remy (2002). This scale’sinternal consistency was a = 0.94. All items were reformulated to retrospectively refer to English classes in secondary school.

2.4. Analyses

At first, we calculated correlations between the contemplated variables to examine bivariate links. As correlations do notyield information on complex relationships between multiple variables, we used structural equation modeling (SEM). SEMallows model tests of the expected multiple and sequential relations between all variables, which may take the role of eithera dependent variable (i.e., being influenced by another variable) or an independent variable (i.e., influencing other variables;Byrne, 2001). Therefore, we computed path models (see Fig. 1) using the statistical software package AMOS (Arbuckle, 2007)and compared different models to test our hypotheses. We used the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA;Steiger, 1990) for the evaluation of global fit of the model (with its implicated links between variables) to the empirical data(RMSEA< 0.05 indicates a good fit; 0.05< RMSEA< 0.08 indicates an acceptable fit). The x2-difference test was used fornested model comparisons to compare different alternative models.

Starting from a fully saturated model with goal orientations predicting attitude (Model 1, bold lines in Fig. 1), we thentested more parsimonious models’ fixing paths between goal orientations and attitude to zero, assuming no effects. Thisallowed more detailed analyses of effects unique to specific variables. When x2-difference tests indicate that a moreparsimonious model does not fit the data significantly worse than does the full model, the parsimonious model (with noeffect from goal orientation on attitude) can be assumed to be the most adequate model of the relationships betweenvariables.

Then, we included current self-concept as a first extension (Model 2, bold and unbroken thin lines in Fig. 1) and comparedit against more parsimonious models, fixing the direct paths between goal orientation and attitude to zero. Thus, with Model2, we tested the mediation hypotheses: (1) mastery predicts students’ attitude, both directly and as mediated by current self-concept; (2) performance-approach and performance-avoidance do not have a direct effect on attitude, but predict attitudeonly indirectly via current self-concept of ability.

Finally, we tested a model including both current self-concept and retrospective self-concept (Model 3, complete modelin Fig. 1), taking the reciprocal relationship between goal orientation and self-concept of ability into account. That is, wecontrolled for effects of retrospective self-concept and considered independent effects of goal orientations at the same time.In addition to the fit indices, we evaluated the significance of all parameters using the critical ratio (C.R.; the ratio betweenpath coefficient estimate and standard error) for each path coefficient.

[(Fig._1)TD$FIG]

Fig. 1. Full path model of students’ goal orientation predicting attitude toward receiving their instruction in English.

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

Table 2

Correlations.

Variables Attitude 1. 2. 3. 4.

1. Current self-concept 0.421**

2. Retrospective self-concept 0.282** 0.658**

3. Mastery 0.254** 0.246** 0.348**

4. Performance approach 0.115** 0.155** 0.278** 0.441**

Performance avoidance �0.030 �0.136** �0.081** 0.194** 0.439**

Note. N = 1265; **p< 0.01.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics.

Variables Mean SD Range

Mastery 2.47 0.587 1–4

Performance-approach 2.22 0.872 1–4

Performance-avoidance 2.10 0.871 1–4

Retrospective self-concept 2.74 0.910 1–4

Current self-concept 3.71 1.282 1–6

Attitude 4.33 1.350 1–6

Note. N = 1265.

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3. Results

3.1. Descriptive statistics and correlations

Descriptive statistics for all scales are presented in Table 1. Overall, students’ attitudes toward receiving their instructionin English were rather positive (M = 4.33), and also showed considerable variation (SD = 1.35). Table 2 shows theintercorrelations of all measures. Most correlations were significant at p< 0.01. As expected, attitude and current self-concept were positively correlated. Current self-concept and retrospective self-concept, performance-approach andmastery, as well as performance-approach and performance-avoidance, showed substantial positive correlations. Masterywas moderately related to both current self-concept and retrospective self-concept as well as to attitude, whereas the twoperformance goal orientation scales showed only small or nonsignificant correlations with current self-concept,retrospective self-concept, and attitude.

3.2. Structural equation models

Model 1, fully saturated, reflects a multiple regression model, as correlations among goal orientations were taken intoaccount. Mastery and performance-avoidance were significant predictors (b = 0.25 and b =�0.10), accounting for 7% of thevariance in attitude. Allowing for correlations among goal orientations increases the effect of performance-avoidance andsimultaneously decreases the effect of performance-approach on attitude (cf. Table 2). The increase of the effect ofperformance-avoidance could be explained by a suppression effect (Lewis & Escobar, 1986). That is, the unique predictivepower of performance-avoidance is adjusted by performance-approach and thereby becomes significant.

Model 2 includes current self-concept as an additional predictor of attitude and a mediator for the relationship betweengoal orientations and attitude (see Fig. 2). This model showed a very good fit (x2 = 0.05, df = 2, p = 0.80, RMSEA = 0.000).Performance-approach and performance-avoidance predicted current self-concept (b = 0.17 and b =�0.25, respectively),which in turn predicted attitude (b = 0.38). Direct paths from performance-approach and performance-avoidance were notsignificant (both p> 0.58). Mastery predicted attitude both directly (b = 0.16) and partially mediated via current self-concept(b = 0.22). The partial mediation was significant (Sobel test, t = 7.69, df = 1263, p< 0.001). Mastery and current self-conceptaccounted for 20% of the variance in attitude. A parsimonious model without the partial mediation of mastery by currentself-concept was tested as well. The path coefficient of mastery-predicting attitude remained (b = 0.16), but the model fitwas not acceptable (x2 = 55.4, df = 3, p< 0.001, RMSEA = 0.118). This indicated that mastery has a substantial effect onattitude, both directly and indirectly, via self-concept.

Finally, Model 3 was tested to control for the effect of retrospective self-concept (see Fig. 3). Here, the model fit was good(x2 = 1.6, df = 1, p = 0.20, RMSEA = 0.023). Retrospective self-concept significantly predicted all goal orientation variables andcurrent self-concept. Interestingly, neither of the performance goal orientation variables showed any substantial predictivepower, even though the path from performance-avoidance to current self-concept (b =�0.09) reached significance (due tothe large sample size). This indicates that the prediction of performance-approach and performance-avoidance on attitude isexclusively based on self-concept. That is, performance-approach (avoidance) goal oriented students in secondary schoolheld a positive (negative) self-concept of ability with respect to English as a foreign language. It is this former belief in ability

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

[(Fig._3)TD$FIG]

Fig. 3. Model 3 of the mediation of students’ goal orientation predicting attitude toward receiving their instruction in English by current self-concept of

ability controlled for respective self-concept of ability.

[(Fig._2)TD$FIG]

Fig. 2. Model 2 of the mediation of students’ goal orientation predicting attitude toward receiving their instruction in English by current self-concept of

ability.

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that influenced their current belief in ability with respect to English language instruction and, consequently, their attitudetoward the new learning opportunity. When these students lack a positive self-concept of ability, they also hold a negativeattitude toward foreign language instruction. Still, mastery did predict attitude (b = 0.17 and b = 0.38, respectively)independent of retrospective self-concept and in addition to current self-concept, accounting for 20% of the variance. That is,mastery goal oriented students held a positive attitude toward the new learning opportunity, regardless of their ability beliefs.

4. Discussion

In the present study we examined goal orientation in secondary school as a predictor of attitude toward a new learningopportunity within a university. We proposed a model with mastery goal orientation predicting attitude, both directly and aspartially mediated by current self-concept of ability. Performance goal orientation (both approach and avoidance) washypothesized to only indirectly predict attitude, mediated by current self-concept. Moreover, we controlled for(retrospectively assessed) self-concept of English language ability in secondary school, which is closely linked to (especiallyperformance) goal orientation.

In line with our hypotheses, mastery goal orientation was found to be a robust predictor of attitude toward the newlearning opportunity. However, performance goal orientation did not predict attitude when controlling for self-concept ofability. Thus, our study shows that mastery goal oriented learners in secondary school transfer a positive attitude toward new

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

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learning opportunities after graduation. Performance goal orientation, however, appeared to have only negligible effects onattitudes, shifting more weight onto the self-concept of ability. This finding is in line with expectancy-value theory (e.g.,Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Mastery expresses the motivational goal, or value, of extending one’s ability, and the self-concept ofability expresses the expectancy of success. Both contribute to positive attitudes toward new learning opportunities.

4.1. The role of goal orientation for students’ attitude toward new learning opportunities

Our results extend previous findings on goal orientation in two respects: First, our investigation links secondary schoolwith university education. Thus, we may tentatively conclude that effects of goal orientation are transferred acrosseducational institutions (i.e., from secondary school to university). Second, achievement goal orientation (concerning foreignlanguage acquisition) has been found to predict attitudes toward a learning opportunity in a different context (usingacquired language proficiency). Thus, the results point to the importance of a school environment that fosters mastery goalorientation rather than performance goal orientation.

A focus on mastery goal orientation at prior educational stages may promote positive attitudes toward learningopportunities later on, including opportunities to apply one’s knowledge, and may thus contribute to adults’ participation incontinuing education. This is in line with recent findings linking goal orientation, emotions, and achievement outcomes(Daniels et al., 2009), and several studies demonstrating that mastery goal orientation accounts for subsequent task choice(e.g., Durik, Vida, & Eccles, 2006; Harackiewicz et al., 2008; for a review see Wigfield & Cambria, 2010).

4.2. Internationalization at home: The language component

With respect to educational interventions, the promotion of mastery goals at secondary school emerges as a basicprerequisite for future learning motivation. For students already enrolled at a university, our results suggest that it is mostimportant to encourage further English language development, for example, by offering free language courses. If students’language proficiency is good enough to warrant success with foreign language teaching, they should be more open to foreignlanguage teaching (Anderman et al., 2001; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). In addition, universities could promote internationalrelations and emphasize the importance of English for different kinds of careers.

4.3. Limitations and outlook

Three major limitations should be considered when interpreting our data. First, the present study has a cross-sectionaldesign. Retrospective assessment of past experiences may be influenced by present issues (e.g., goals, attempts to reducedissonance, subjective constructions of memories that may not accurately reflect previous experience) or other pastexperiences. Thus, the findings should be replicated using longitudinal data.

Second, the assumed link between the attitude toward a learning opportunity measured here and subsequent behaviorhas not yet been established empirically. It would thus be desirable to conduct further research that investigates theattitude–behavior link in educational contexts (e.g., observing effects of attitudes on the acceptance versus rejection oflearning opportunities). Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior, as well as numerous research findings (see Bohner &Dickel, 2011), support the notion that attitude is linked to behavior. Moreover, qualitative findings by Love (1953) suggestthat attitudes are an important precursor of educational decisions (i.e., participation in continuing education).

Third, this study was conducted at a German university, and its informative value may thus be limited to languageprerequisites that are specific to Germany. That is, even though English is the primary foreign language at most German(primary and secondary) schools, it may not be widely used in everyday life; for example, unlike in Germany, there are othercountries that do not dub over their English TV programs and cinema movies. Exposure to English is probably higher in thosecountries, which should promote people’s language proficiency. For this reason, it would be interesting to replicate this studyin other European countries with English as a foreign language, or in English-speaking countries using another foreignlanguage (e.g., Spanish in the United States).

The present study may serve as a starting point for more detailed examinations of (secondary school) antecedents ofattitudes toward new learning opportunities (and related educational decisions), which is important in the context ofdeveloping lifelong learning. More evidence and longitudinal studies would be desirable to assess the generalizability of thisapproach. In addition, future research should incorporate behavioral and more objective measures (beyond self-reports),such as observations of the actual usage of the proposed learning opportunity. In sum, our findings make a case for the role ofmastery goal orientation, in addition to self-concept of ability, with respect to continuing education after graduation fromsecondary school. Our results might motivate educators to move away from the performance principle and emphasize theindividual learner’s own trajectory of skill development as a basis for ongoing engagement in learning and education.

Acknowledgments

This research emerged from a project on foreign language teaching partly supported by the local Committee for theImprovement of Study Conditions. A previous version of this manuscript was presented at the JURE2010 conference. We

Please cite this article in press as: J. Gorges, et al., Internationalization at home: Using learning motivation to predictstudents’ attitudes toward teaching in a foreign language, International Journal of Educational Research (2012),doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.001

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thank faculty deans and students for their participation, Malte Schwinger for his comments on a previous version of thismanuscript, and Anastasia Byler for native speaker advice.

Appendix. Scales for currently measured variables

Attitude items were:

I would appreciate more courses taught in English.

I think that a couple of courses should be taught in English on a regular basis.

All students should have the opportunity to participate in a specific English course in their subject area.

I would like to use the opportunity of a specific English course in my subject area.

Courses taught in English would increase the value of studying here.

Courses taught in English would help dealing with English literature.

Current self-concept items were:

My English language proficiency is good enough to keep up with a lecture.

My English language proficiency is good enough to participate in a seminar.

I have a basic command of English.

It is no problem for me to read and understand academic textbooks in English.

It is no problem for me to read and understand academic journal articles in English.

It is no problem for me to write papers in English.

I will probably write my final (bachelor/master/diploma) thesis in English.

It is no problem for me to deliver an oral presentation in English.

It is no problem for me to participate in a discussion in English in a seminar.

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