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INFORMATION SCIENCE
PROOF 2
TelevisionEdited with a new introduction by
Toby Miller5 volume set
Film TheoryEdited with a new introduction by
Philip Simpson, Andrew Utterson and K. J. Shepherdson
4 volume set
HollywoodEdited with a new introduction by
Thomas Schatz4 volume set
Popular MusicEdited with a new introduction by
Simon Frith4 volume set
Communication TheoriesEdited with a new introduction by
Paul Cobley4 volume set
Visual CultureEdited with a new introduction by
Joanne Morra and Marquard Smith4 volume set
CyberculturesEdited with a new introduction by
David Bell4 volume set
Cultural HeritageEdited with a new introduction by
Laurajane Smith4 volume set
SubculturesEdited with a new introduction by
Ken Gelder4 volume set
JournalismEdited with a new introduction by
Howard Tumber4 volume set
RadioEdited with a new introduction by
Andrew Crisell3 volume set
FashionEdited with a new introduction by
Malcolm Barnard4 volume set
War and Conflict CommunicationEdited with a new introduction by
Philip Seib2 volume set
Everyday LifeEdited with a new introduction by
Ben Highmore4 volume set
Book PublishingEdited with a new introduction by
John Feather4 volume set
AdvertisingEdited with a new introduction by
Iain MacRury4 volume set
CRITICAL CONCEPTS IN MEDIA AND CULTURAL STUDIES
Other titles in this series
PROOF 2
Sound StudiesEdited with a new introduction by
Michael Bull4 volume set
Popular CultureEdited with a new introduction by
Chris Rojek4 volume set
Documentary FilmEdited with a new introduction by
Ian Aitken4 volume set
Chinese CinemaEdited with a new introduction by
Chris Berry4 volume set
Japanese CinemaEdited with a new introduction by Nikki J. Y. Lee and Julian Stringer
4 volume set
French CinemaEdited with a new introduction by
Phil Powrie4 volume set
British CinemaEdited with a new introduction by
Robert Murphy4 volume set
Film and GenderEdited with a new introduction by
Sue Thornham and Niall Richardson4 volume set
Early CinemaEdited with a new introduction by
Richard Abel4 volume set
Public RelationsEdited with a new introduction by
Robert Heath4 volume set
Forthcoming
BollywoodEdited with a new introduction by
Rachel Dwyer4 volume set
AnimationEdited with a new introduction by
Paul Wells4 volume set
Silent CinemaEdited with a new introduction by
Andrew Higson4 volume set
Visual Culture and GenderEdited with a new introduction by
Annette Burfoot4 volume set
PROOF 2
PROOF 2
INFORMATION SCIENCECritical Concepts in
Media and Cultural Studies
Edited byDavid Nicholas and Eti Herman
Volume IThe Theoretical Framework and Historical Context of
Information Science
PROOF 2
First published 2014by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Editorial material and selection © 2014 David Nicholas and Eti Herman; individual owners retain copyright in their own material
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
ISBN 978-0-415-68299-2 (set) -- ISBN 978-0-415-68300-5 (volume 1) -- ISBN 978-0-415-68301-2 (volume 2) -- ISBN 978-0-415-68302-9 (volume 3) -- ISBN 978-0-415-68303-6 (volume 4) 1. Information science. 2. Information services. 3. Electronic information resources. 4. Information technology. 5. Information behavior. 6. Information society. 7. Knowledge economy. I. Nicholas, David, 1947- II. Herman, Eti.Z665.I58255 2014020--dc232013048579
ISBN: 978- 0- 415- 68299- 2 (set)ISBN: 978- 0- 415- 68300- 5 (Volume I)
Typeset in Times New Roman MT byServis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire
Publisher’s NoteReferences within each chapter are as they appear in the original complete work
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vii
CONTENTS
VOLUME I: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE
Acknowledgements xviiiChronological table of reprinted articles and chapters xx
General introduction 1Introduction to Volume I 8
PART 1The perceptions and roles of information throughout history
1.1 The concept of information 15
1 The concept of information 15 DonalD o. Case
2 Information: objective or subjective/situational? 43 Birger HjørlanD
1.2 The significance of information in different social, political, economic and cultural settings 63
3 Information and modernity: the history of information and the eclipse of library history 63
alistair BlaCk
1.3 The ‘informatisation’ of life: the information society 72
4 As we may think 72 VanneVar BusH
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Content s
5 What is an information society? 88 Frank WeBster
PART 2The theoretical foundations of information science
2.1 The key concepts in the field 119
6 Information concepts for information science 119 n. j. Belkin
7 Measuring the impact of information: defining the concepts 157 CHarles t. MeaDoW anD Weijing Yuan
8 The wisdom hierarchy: representations of the DIKW hierarchy 183
jenniFer roWleY
2.2 The conventional definitions of information science and the central problems it addresses 207
9 Library and information science: practice, theory, and philosophical basis 207
Birger HjørlanD
10 The invisible substrate of information science 243 MarCia j. Bates
11 Conceptions of information science 258 CHaiM Zins
2.3 The multidisciplinary underpinnings, scope, parameters and boundaries of information science as an autonomous discipline 291
12 Cultural diversity in studies of information 291 FritZ MaCHlup anD una MansFielD
13 The history and historiography of information science: some reflections 351
W. BoYD raYWarD
14 Understanding information related fields: a conceptual framework 374
ping ZHang anD roBert i. BenjaMin
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Content s
PART 3The historical study of libraries as information- mediating institutions
3.1 The roles and effects of libraries in the diverse cultural, economic and socio- political contexts of past societies 405
15 The origin of libraries 405 MiCHael H. Harris
16 Genealogy of the profession 416 joHn M. BuDD
VOLUME II: MANAGING INFORMATION FOR OPTIMUM ACCESSIBILITY AND USABILITY
Acknowledgements ix
Introduction to Volume II 1
PART 4The generation of new information
4.1 The scholarly quest for new contributions to the extant body of knowledge 11
17 Who does research and with what results? 11 a. j. MeaDoWs
18 Re- thinking new knowledge production: a literature review and a research agenda 46
laurens k. Hessels anD Harro Van lente
PART 5The capturing and control of information
5.1 The selection and acquisition of recorded knowledge 85
19 The roles of collections and the scope of collection development 85
MiCHael k. BuCklanD
20 The changing nature of collection management in research libraries 100
josepH Branin, FranCes groen, anD suZanne tHorin
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Content s
5.2 The processing and organization of recorded knowledge 11921 Knowledge organization systems: an overview 119 gail HoDge
22 Structure and function in retrieval 127 alan gilCHrist
23 Cataloguing in an electronic age 137 MiCHael gorMan
5.3 The architecting of recorded knowledge in a digital environment 148
24 Information interaction: providing a framework for information architecture 148
elaine g. toMs
PART 6The dissemination and effective intermediation of information
6.1 The diffusion of information in the digital era 167
25 Whither libraries? or, Wither libraries 167 F. WilFriD lanCaster
26 Aftermath of a prediction: F. W. Lancaster and the paperless society 186
artHur p. Young
27 The role of social networks in information diffusion 202 eYtan BaksHY, itaMar rosenn, CaMeron MarloW anD
laDa aDaMiC
6.2 The changing practices of scholarly information dissemination 222
28 Scientific communication: new roles and new players 222 julie M. HurD
29 Scholarly communication in the digital environment: the 2005 survey of journal author behaviour and attitudes 237
ian roWlanDs anD DaViD niCHolas
6.3 Information brokering 257
30 Agents and angels 257 joHn seelY BroWn anD paul DuguiD
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Content s
6.4 People as information sources: interpersonal information sharing 278
31 Information seeking in social context: structural influences and receipt of information benefits 278
roB Cross, ronalD e. riCe, anD anDreW parker
6.5 Information sharing in the age of social media 302
32 Social media use in the research workflow 302 ian roWlanDs, DaViD niCHolas, Bill russell, niCHolas
CantY anD antHonY Watkinson
33 Classifying ecommerce information sharing behaviour by youths on social networking sites 323
BernarD j. jansen, kate soBel anD geoFF Cook
6.6 Scientific data sharing 351
34 Data sharing by scientists: practices and perceptions 351 Carol tenopir, suZie allarD, kiMBerlY Douglass,
arseV uMur aYDinoglu, lei Wu, eleanor reaD, MariBetH ManoFF anD Mike FraMe
6.7 The role of the information professional as information intermediator 403
35 The mission of the librarian 403 josé ortega Y gasset
36 Ortega revisited 420 lester asHeiM
37 The information enfranchisement of the digital consumer 431 eti HerMan anD DaViD niCHolas
6.8 Libraries in today’s digital world 449
38 Designing libraries round human beings 449 MauriCe B. line
39 Ranganathan’s relevance in the 21st century 462 DaViD MCMeneMY
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Content s
40 What is Library 2.0? 468 kiM HolMBerg, isto HuVila, Maria kronqVist- Berg anD
gunilla WiDén- WulFF
6.9 The curation and preservation of information 484
41 Digital preservation, archival science and methodological foundations for digital libraries 484
seaMus ross
42 Decision criteria in digital preservation: what to measure and how 509
CHristopH BeCker anD anDreas rauBer
VOLUME III: USE AND USERS OF INFORMATION
Acknowledgements ix
Introduction to Volume III 1
PART 7Information needs
7.1 The concept of ‘information need’ 13
43 What are information needs? 13 DaViD niCHolas anD eti HerMan
7.2 The role of information needs as motivators of information seeking 25
44 On user studies and information needs 25 t. D. Wilson
45 ASK for information retrieval: Part I. Background and theory 40 n. j. Belkin, r. n. oDDY anD H. M. Brooks
PART 8Information behaviour
8.1 The concepts of ‘information behaviour’ and ‘information practice’ 55
46 Information behavior and information practice: reviewing the “umbrella concepts” of information- seeking studies 55
reijo saVolainen
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Content s
8.2 The whys and wherefores of information behaviour and practices: theories and models 78
47 Models in information behaviour research 78 t. D. Wilson
48 Human information behavior: integrating diverse approaches and information use 102
aManDa spink anD CHarles Cole
8.3 The determinants of information behaviour 123
49 Individual differences in information- related behaviour: what do we know about information styles? 123
DaViD BaWDen anD lYn roBinson
50 The Google generation: the information behaviour of the researcher of the future 153
ian roWlanDs, DaViD niCHolas, peter WilliaMs, paul Huntington, Maggie FielDHouse, Barrie gunter, riCHarD WitHeY, HaMiD r. jaMali, toM DoBroWolski anD Carol tenopir
8.4 Information behaviour in today’s information- centred, digital world 177
51 The information- seeking behaviour of the digital consumer: case study – the virtual scholar 177
DaViD niCHolas, paul Huntington, HaMiD r. jaMali anD toM DoBroWolski
PART 9Information seeking, discovery and retrieval
9.1 Purposive information seeking 217
52 Information- seeking perspective and framework 217 garY MarCHionini
9.2 Accidental discovery of information 256
53 Information encountering: it’s more than just bumping into information 256
sanDa erDeleZ
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Content s
9.3 Serendipitous information acquisition 265
54 Serendipity and information seeking: an empirical study 265 allen Foster anD nigel ForD
9.4 Information retrieval 289
55 Accommodating the user’s information search process: challenges for information retrieval system designers 289
Carol Collier kuHltHau
56 Investigating information retrieval support techniques for different information- seeking strategies 298
Xiaojun Yuan anD niCHolas j. Belkin
9.5 Selecting information: the process of evaluation 339
57 Relevance: the whole history 339 steFano MiZZaro
58 User- defined relevance criteria in web searching 386 reijo saVolainen anD jarkko kari
PART 10Information usage: how people actually consume information
10.1 Putting information to use 415
59 Print vs. electronic resources: a study of user perceptions, preferences, and use 415
ZiMing liu
60 Filtering and withdrawing: strategies for coping with information overload in everyday contexts 430
reijo saVolainen
10.2 Personal information management 446
61 Finders, keepers? The present and future perfect in support of personal information management 446
WilliaM jones
10.3 Digital and information literacies 476
62 Origins and concepts of digital literacy 476 DaViD BaWDen
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Content s
63 Three decades of information literacy: redefining the parameters 490 sHaron Markless anD DaViD streatFielD
10.4 Information availability and accessibility: the digital divide 512
64 The digital reproduction of inequality 512 esZter Hargittai
65 Understanding information inequality: making sense of the literature of the information and digital divides 524
liangZHi Yu
10.5 Human–computer interaction
66 A moving target: the evolution of human–computer interaction 564 jonatHan gruDin
10.6 The gauging of information use and impact in a digital environment 638
67 Bibliometrics to webometrics 638 Mike tHelWall
68 Scientometrics 2.0: toward new metrics of scholarly impact on the social Web 663
jason prieM anD BraDleY M. HeMMinger
69 Characterising and evaluating information seeking behaviour in a digital environment: spotlight on the ‘bouncer’ 687
DaViD niCHolas, paul Huntington, HaMiD r. jaMali, anD toM DoBroWolski
VOLUME IV: THE ECONOMICS OF INFORMATION
Acknowledgements viii
Introduction to Volume IV 1
PART 11The information and knowledge society
70 Extract from ‘Information sociology’ 9 Frank linDe anD WolFgang g. stoCk
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Content s
PART 12The knowledge- based economy
71 An introduction to the economy of the knowledge society 31 paul a. DaViD anD DoMinique ForaY
PART 13Economic growth as a function of research, invention and innovation
72 The linear model of innovation: the historical construction of an analytical framework 55
Benoît goDin
73 Learning, institutions, and economic performance 82 C. MantZaVinos, Douglass C. nortH, anD sYeD sHariq
74 The dynamics of innovation: from National Systems and “Mode 2” to a Triple Helix of university–industry– government relations 101
HenrY etZkoWitZ anD loet leYDesDorFF
PART 14The knowledge industry
75 Knowledge- producing industries and occupations 127 FritZ MaCHlup
PART 15Information as an economic good
15.1 The concept of information as an economic good 135
76 Information as an economic good: a re- evaluation of theoretical approaches 135
BenjaMin j. Bates
15.2 The unique characteristics of information goods 148
77 Markets for information goods 148 Hal r. Varian
78 Digital goods and the new economy 163 DannY quaH
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Content s
15.3 The paradoxical co- existence of information as a public good and a private property 194
79 Knowledge as a global public good 194 josepH e. stiglitZ
80 Introduction: an overview of the knowledge commons 209 CHarlotte Hess anD elinor ostroM
PART 16The information production chain from an economic perspective
16.1 The life cycle phases of information production 231
81 Information resources as “goods” in the life cycle of information production 231
karen B. leVitan
16.2 Information production 253
82 Some basic economics of information production and innovation 253
YoCHai Benkler
16.3 Information dissemination 275
83 Information intermediaries and optimal information distribution 275
rYan WoMaCk
16.4 Information consumption 306
84 Production, consumption, prosumption: the nature of capitalism in the age of the digital ‘prosumer’ 306
george ritZer anD natHan jurgenson
16.5 The value of information 327
85 User- centered evaluation of information: a research challenge 327 DapHne r. raBan
Index 347
PROOF 2
PROOF 2
xix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reprint their material:
Emerald Group Publishing for permission to reprint D. O. Case, ‘The Concept of Information’, in D. O. Case (ed.), Looking for Information: A Survey of Research on Information Seeking, Needs, and Behavior, 3rd edn. (Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2012), pp. 39–63.
John Wiley & Sons for permission to reprint B. Hjørland, ‘Information: Objective or Subjective/Situational?’, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 2007, 58, 10, 1448–56.
Maney Publishing for permission to reprint A. Black, ‘Information and Modernity: The History of Information and the Eclipse of Library History’, Library History, 1998, 14, 1, 39–45.
Taylor & Francis for permission to reprint F. Webster, ‘What is an Information Society?’, Theories of the Information Society, 3rd edn. (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 8–31.
Emerald Group Publishing for permission to reprint N. J. Belkin, ‘Information Concepts for Information Science’, Journal of Documentation, 1978, 34, 1, 55–85.
Elsevier for permission to reprint C. T. Meadow and W. Yuan, ‘Measuring the Impact of Information: Defining the Concepts’, Information Processing & Management, 1997, 33, 6, 697–714.
Sage Publications for permission to reprint J. Rowley, ‘The Wisdom Hierarchy: Representations of the DIKW Hierarchy’, Journal of Information Science, 2007, 33, 2, 163–80.
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Elsevier for permission to reprint B. Hjorland, ‘Library and Information Science: Practice, Theory, and Philosophical Basis’, Information Processing and Management, 2000, 36, 3, 501–31.
John Wiley & Sons for permission to reprint M. J. Bates, ‘The Invisible Substrate of Information Science’, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 1999, 50, 12, 1043–50.
John Wiley & Sons for permission to reprint C. Zins, ‘Conceptions of Information Science’, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 2007, 58, 3, 335–50.
Elsevier for permission to reprint W. B. Rayward, ‘The History and Historiography of Information Science: Some Reflections’, Information Processing & Management, 1996, 32, 1, 3–17.
John Wiley & Sons for permission to reprint P. Zhang and R. I. Benjamin, ‘Understanding Information Related Fields: A Conceptual Framework’, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 2007, 58, 13, 1934–47.
Scarecrow Press for permission to reprint M. H. Harris, ‘The Origin of Libraries’, History of Libraries in the Western World, 4th edn. (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995), pp. 3–16.
Greenwood Publishing Group for permission to reprint J. M. Budd, ‘Genealogy of the Profession’, Self- examination: The Present and Future of Librarianship (Westport, CT.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), pp. 1–35.
Disclaimer
The publishers have made every effort to contact authors/copyright holders of works reprinted in Information Science: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies. This has not been possible in every case, however, and we would welcome correspondence from those individuals/companies whom we have been unable to tracePROOF 2
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urna
l of
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Am
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an S
ocie
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atio
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3–50
I10
1999
Sand
a E
rdel
ezIn
form
atio
n en
coun
terin
g: it
’s m
ore
than
just
bum
ping
into
in
form
atio
n
Bul
letin
of
the
Am
eric
an S
ocie
ty fo
r Inf
orm
atio
n Sc
ienc
e an
d Te
chno
logy
25(
3): 2
5–9
III
53
1999
Car
ol C
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lthau
Acc
omm
odat
ing
the
user
’s in
form
atio
n se
arch
pro
cess
: cha
l-le
nges
for i
nfor
mat
ion
retr
ieva
l sy
stem
des
igne
rs
Bul
letin
of
the
Am
eric
an S
ocie
ty fo
r Inf
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atio
n Sc
ienc
e an
d Te
chno
logy
25(
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55
PROOF 2
xxiii
1999
Jose
ph E
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litz
Kno
wle
dge
as a
glo
bal p
ublic
go
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Kau
l, I.
Gru
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g an
d M
. A. S
tern
, Glo
bal
Pub
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erna
tiona
l Coo
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tion
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e 21
st C
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ord
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Pres
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IV79
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Hal
R. V
aria
nM
arke
ts fo
r inf
orm
atio
n go
ods
Pape
r pre
sent
ed a
t a c
onfe
renc
e on
‘Mon
etar
y Po
licy
in a
Wor
ld o
f K
now
ledg
e- B
ased
Gro
wth
, Q
ualit
y C
hang
e, an
d U
ncer
tain
Mea
sure
men
t',
18–1
9 Ju
ne 1
998,
Inst
itute
for M
onet
ary
and
Eco
nom
ic S
tudi
es, B
ank
of Ja
pan
IV77
1999
T. D
. Wils
onM
odel
s in
info
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beha
v-io
ur re
sear
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Doc
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70II
I47
2000
Jose
ph B
rani
n, F
ranc
es
Gro
en, a
nd S
uzan
ne
Tho
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The
cha
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g na
ture
of
colle
c-tio
n m
anag
emen
t in
rese
arch
lib
rarie
s
Lib
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Res
ourc
es &
Tec
hnic
al S
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ces 4
4(1)
: 23
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II20
2000
Hen
ry E
tzko
witz
and
L
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eyde
sdor
ffT
he d
ynam
ics o
f in
nova
tion:
fr
om N
atio
nal S
yste
ms a
nd
“Mod
e 2”
to a
Trip
le H
elix
of
univ
ersit
y–in
dust
ry–g
over
nmen
t re
latio
ns
Res
earc
h Po
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29(2
): 10
9–23
IV74
2000
Birg
er H
jørla
ndL
ibra
ry a
nd in
form
atio
n sc
ienc
e:
prac
tice,
theo
ry, a
nd p
hilo
soph
i-ca
l bas
is
Info
rmat
ion
Pro
cess
ing
and
Man
agem
ent 3
6(3)
: 50
1–31
I9
2000
Gai
l Hod
geK
now
ledg
e or
gani
zatio
n sy
s-te
ms:
an o
verv
iew
Gai
l Hod
ge, S
yste
ms o
f K
nowl
edge
Org
aniz
atio
n fo
r Dig
ital L
ibra
ries
: Bey
ond
Trad
ition
al
Aut
hori
ty F
iles,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
: Dig
ital
Lib
rary
Fed
erat
ion,
Cou
ncil
on L
ibra
ry a
nd
Info
rmat
ion
Res
ourc
es, p
p. 3
–9
II21
2001
Rob
Cro
ss, R
onal
d E
. Ric
e, an
d A
ndre
w
Park
er
Info
rmat
ion
seek
ing
in so
cial
co
ntex
t: st
ruct
ural
influ
ence
s an
d re
ceip
t of
info
rmat
ion
bene
fits
IEE
E T
rans
actio
ns o
n Sy
stem
s, M
an, a
nd
Cyb
erne
tics –
Par
t C –
App
licat
ions
and
Rev
iew
s 31
(4):
438–
48
II31
PROOF 2
xxiv
Dat
eA
utho
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rtic
le/C
hapt
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urce
Vol
.C
hap.
2002
John
See
ly B
row
n an
d Pa
ul D
ugui
dA
gent
s and
ang
els
John
See
ly B
row
n an
d Pa
ul D
ugui
d, T
he S
ocia
l L
ife o
f In
form
atio
n, B
osto
n, M
A: H
arva
rd
Bus
ines
s Pre
ss, p
p. 3
5–62
II30
2002
Paul
A. D
avid
and
D
omin
ique
For
ayA
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
econ
omy
of th
e kn
owle
dge
soci
ety
Inte
rnat
iona
l Soc
ial S
cien
ce J
ourn
al 5
4(17
1):
9–23
IV71
2002
Ela
ine
G. T
oms
Info
rmat
ion
inte
ract
ion:
pro
vid-
ing
a fr
amew
ork
for i
nfor
mat
ion
arch
itect
ure
Jour
nal o
f th
e A
mer
ican
Soc
iety
for I
nfor
mat
ion
Scie
nce
and
Tech
nolo
gy 5
3(10
): 85
5–62
II24
2002
Rya
n W
omac
kIn
form
atio
n in
term
edia
ries a
nd
optim
al in
form
atio
n di
strib
utio
nL
ibra
ry a
nd In
form
atio
n Sc
ienc
e R
esea
rch
24(2
): 12
9–55
IV83
2003
Alle
n Fo
ster
and
Nig
el
Ford
Sere
ndip
ity a
nd in
form
atio
n se
ekin
g: a
n em
piric
al st
udy
Jour
nal o
f D
ocum
enta
tion
59(3
): 32
1–40
III
54
2003
Mic
hael
Gor
man
Cat
alog
uing
in a
n el
ectr
onic
age
Cat
alog
ing
& C
lass
ifica
tion
Qua
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ly 3
6(3/
4):
5–17
II23
2003
Dan
ny Q
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Dig
ital g
oods
and
the
new
ec
onom
yD
. Jon
es (e
d.),
New
Eco
nom
y H
andb
ook,
A
mst
erda
m: A
cade
mic
Pre
ss E
lsevi
er S
cien
ce,
pp. 2
89–3
21
IV78
2004
Julie
M. H
urd
Scie
ntifi
c co
mm
unic
atio
n: n
ew
role
s and
new
pla
yers
Scie
nce
& T
echn
olog
y L
ibra
ries
25(
1–2)
: 5–2
2II
28
2004
Will
iam
Jone
sF
inde
rs, k
eepe
rs? T
he p
rese
nt
and
futu
re p
erfe
ct in
sup-
port
of
pers
onal
info
rmat
ion
man
agem
ent
Firs
t Mon
day
9(3–
1)II
I61
2004
C. M
antz
avin
os,
Dou
glas
s C. N
orth
, an
d Sy
ed S
hariq
Lea
rnin
g, in
stitu
tions
, and
eco
-no
mic
per
form
ance
Pers
pect
ives
on
Polit
ics 2
(1):
75–8
4IV
73
2005
Ian
Row
land
s and
D
avid
Nic
hola
sSc
hola
rly c
omm
unic
atio
n in
the
digi
tal e
nviro
nmen
t: th
e 20
05
surv
ey o
f jo
urna
l aut
hor b
ehav
-io
ur a
nd a
ttitu
des
Asl
ib P
roce
edin
gs 5
7(6)
: 481
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II29
PROOF 2
xxv
2006
Yoch
ai B
enkl
erSo
me
basic
eco
nom
ics o
f in
form
atio
n pr
oduc
tion
and
inno
vatio
n
Yoch
ai B
enkl
er, T
he W
ealth
of
Net
work
s: H
ow
Soci
al P
rodu
ctio
n Tr
ansf
orm
s Mar
kets
and
Fr
eedo
m, N
ew H
aven
, CT:
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e U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss,
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IV82
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Ala
n G
ilchr
istSt
ruct
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func
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in
retr
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lJo
urna
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Ben
oît G
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The
line
ar m
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inno
vatio
n:
the
hist
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onst
ruct
ion
of a
n an
alyt
ical
fram
ewor
k
Scie
nce,
Tec
hnol
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& H
uman
Val
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1(6)
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IV72
2006
Zim
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Liu
Prin
t vs.
elec
tron
ic re
sour
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udy
of u
ser p
erce
ptio
ns, p
ref-
eren
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use
Info
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Pro
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anag
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t 42(
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92II
I59
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Am
anda
Spi
nk a
nd
Cha
rles C
ole
Hum
an in
form
atio
n be
havi
or:
inte
grat
ing
dive
rse
appr
oach
es
and
info
rmat
ion
use
Jour
nal o
f th
e A
mer
ican
Soc
iety
for I
nfor
mat
ion
Scie
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and
Tech
nolo
gy 5
7(1)
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35II
I48
2006
Rei
jo S
avol
aine
n an
d Ja
rkko
Kar
iU
ser-
defin
ed re
leva
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crite
ria in
w
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Jour
nal o
f D
ocum
enta
tion
62(6
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5–70
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I58
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Fran
k W
ebst
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hat i
s an
info
rmat
ion
soci
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Fran
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ebst
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heor
ies o
f th
e In
form
atio
n So
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d N
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Lia
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Und
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atio
n in
equa
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mak
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the
liter
atur
e of
the
info
rmat
ion
and
digi
tal d
ivid
es
Jour
nal o
f L
ibra
rian
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and
Info
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Scie
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38(4
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9–52
III
65
2007
Cha
rlott
e H
ess a
nd
Elin
or O
stro
mIn
trod
uctio
n: a
n ov
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ew o
f th
e kn
owle
dge
com
mon
sC
harlo
tte
Hes
s and
Elin
or O
stro
m,
Und
erst
andi
ng K
nowl
edge
as a
Com
mon
s: F
rom
T
heor
y to
Pra
ctic
e, C
ambr
idge
, MA
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IV80
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Birg
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jørla
ndIn
form
atio
n: o
bjec
tive
or
subj
ectiv
e/sit
uatio
nal?
Jour
nal o
f th
e A
mer
ican
Soc
iety
for I
nfor
mat
ion
Scie
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and
Tech
nolo
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8(10
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48–5
6I
2
2007
Dav
id M
cMen
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Ran
gana
than
’s re
leva
nce
in th
e 21
st c
entu
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ibra
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evie
w 5
6(2)
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Vol
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Shar
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Dav
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trea
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dT
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dec
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liter
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rede
finin
g th
e pa
ram
eter
s
S. A
ndre
tta
(ed.
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hang
e an
d C
halle
nge:
In
form
atio
n L
itera
cy fo
r the
Twe
nty-
first
C
entu
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Aus
lib P
ress
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36
III
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Dav
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icho
las,
Paul
H
untin
gton
, Ham
id
R. J
amal
i, an
d To
m
Dob
row
olsk
i
Cha
ract
erisi
ng a
nd e
valu
atin
g in
form
atio
n se
ekin
g be
havi
our
in a
dig
ital e
nviro
nmen
t: sp
ot-
light
on
the
‘bou
ncer
’
Info
rmat
ion
Pro
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Man
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3(4)
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85–1
02II
I69
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Dap
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R. R
aban
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r- ce
nter
ed e
valu
atio
n of
info
rmat
ion:
a re
sear
ch
chal
leng
e
Inte
rnet
Res
earc
h 17
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22IV
85
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Jenn
ifer R
owle
yT
he w
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hie
rarc
hy: r
epre
sen-
tatio
ns o
f th
e D
IKW
hie
rarc
hyJo
urna
l of
Info
rmat
ion
Scie
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33(2
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3–80
I8
2007
Rei
jo S
avol
aine
nF
ilter
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and
with
draw
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st
rate
gies
for c
opin
g w
ith in
for-
mat
ion
over
load
in e
very
day
cont
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Jour
nal o
f In
form
atio
n Sc
ienc
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21II
I60
2007
Rei
jo S
avol
aine
nIn
form
atio
n be
havi
or a
nd
info
rmat
ion
prac
tice:
revi
ew-
ing
the
“um
brel
la c
once
pts”
of
info
rmat
ion-
seek
ing
stud
ies
The
Lib
rary
Qua
rter
ly 7
7(2)
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–32
III
46
2007
Ping
Zha
ng a
nd
Rob
ert I
. Ben
jam
inU
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stan
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info
rmat
ion
rela
ted
field
s: a
conc
eptu
al
fram
ewor
k
Jour
nal o
f th
e A
mer
ican
Soc
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for I
nfor
mat
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Scie
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Tech
nolo
gy 5
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7I
14
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Cha
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Con
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scie
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Jour
nal o
f th
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mer
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Soc
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nfor
mat
ion
Scie
nce
and
Tech
nolo
gy 5
8(3)
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I11
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Dav
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nO
rigin
s and
con
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tal
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acy
C. L
anks
hear
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M. K
nobe
l (ed
s), D
igita
l L
itera
cies
: Con
cept
s, Po
licie
s and
Pra
ctic
es, N
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York
: Pet
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Publ
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g In
c., p
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III
62
2008
John
M. B
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Gen
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f th
e pr
ofes
sion
John
M. B
udd,
Sel
f- ex
amin
atio
n: T
he P
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Futu
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Esz
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Lau
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K. H
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ls an
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Len
teR
e- th
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ledg
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o-du
ctio
n: a
lite
ratu
re re
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a
rese
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nda
Res
earc
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Dav
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Paul
H
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R. J
amal
i and
Tom
D
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wol
ski
The
info
rmat
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seek
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beha
v-io
ur o
f th
e di
gita
l con
sum
er:
case
stud
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the
virt
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chol
ar
Dav
id N
icho
las a
nd Ia
n R
owla
nds (
eds)
, D
igita
l Con
sum
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Res
hapi
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e In
form
atio
n P
rofe
ssio
ns, L
ondo
n: F
acet
Pub
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III
51
2008
Ian
Row
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s, D
avid
Nic
hola
s, Pe
ter W
illia
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Paul
Hun
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on,
Mag
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Fie
ldho
use,
Bar
rie G
unte
r, R
icha
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ithey
, H
amid
R. J
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i, To
m D
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wol
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Car
ol T
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ir
The
Goo
gle
gene
ratio
n: th
e in
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atio
n be
havi
our o
f th
e re
sear
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the
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re
Asl
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edin
gs 6
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III
50
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Mik
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all
Bib
liom
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omet
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Jour
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f In
form
atio
n Sc
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Art
hur P
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n: F
. W
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ss
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Lib
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Tre
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Kim
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Isto
Huv
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Mar
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Wid
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Wha
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ibra
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f D
ocum
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utho
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Wha
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PROOF 2
PROOF 2
1
GENERAL INTRODUCTIONInformation science: advancing knowledge about
information
Information science, the body of knowledge encompassing the whole gamut of the theoretical and practical aspects of effective information creation, pro-vision and consumption, is now more than ever an important subject for scholarly exploration and research. This is only to be expected, of course, for today’s knowledge society is so very much information-based and information-dependent. Indeed, it is shaped by an unabatedly accumulating abundance of information, which, courtesy of the internet and the omnipres-ent electronic information communication tools, such as computers, modems and smartphones, permeates our daily lives and drives our economy. Not that information has ever been marginal to the human enterprise; how could it be, when, as Nicholas and Herman (2009) point out, success in meeting any of the three basic human needs – physiological needs (need for food, shelter, etc.), psychological needs (need for domination, security, etc.) and cognitive needs (need to plan, learn a skill, etc.) – is dependent on possessing the right information? Still, in the past few decades information has moved ever closer to centre stage, with the inhabitants of our knowledge society demanding and enthusiastically consuming information to an extent that is surely unparal-leled in the history of humankind.
This is hardly surprising, for in our postmodernist era of plurality, diver-sity, ambiguity, innovation and change, on the one hand, and constant chal-lenging of convention and authority, on the other (Buschman and Brosio 2006), competent problem solving and decision- making can only be based on knowledge constantly updated and refreshed by new information. To be sure, for quite some time now the key to success on the individual, community, cor-porate and governmental level has been popularly – and rightly – held to be possession of a relevant knowledge base that is continually enhanced by fur-ther information and data. Thus, getting hold of the right information at the right time and in the right place is vital these days, when people need to make every effort to harness the truly invaluable asset that information has become to the vast variety of their personal and professional/organisational purposes.
Obviously, then, living in an information- saturated digital world, with its plethora of conveniently available information and communication technology (ICT) based modes of access to a cornucopia of information resources, has its instantly recognisable advantages. So much so, in fact, that today’s ardent
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general introD uCt ion
digital consumers consider the abundance of omnipresent information unprob-lematic (Nicholas et al. 2008), if not wholly satisfactory (Herman 2005), a state of affairs that flies in the face of the oft- cited gloomy prophesies of our immi-nent drowning in an immense, ever- growing sea of information (Gaines, 1995).
True, as Hilbert and López show (Hilbert 2012; Hilbert and López 2011), the growth rate of information is indeed astounding: the world’s technological capacity to store and telecommunicate information has grown at a compound annual growth rate of 25–30 per cent during the period from 1986 to 2007, with its technological capacity to compute information growing even faster – by 60–85 per cent annually. In absolute terms we are talking of information quantities expressed in numbers stretching to twenty- some digits: for exam-ple, according to Lyman and Varian (2004), print, film, magnetic and optical storage media produced about 5 exabytes of new information in 2002, which is equivalent in size to the information contained in 37,000 new libraries, each of which equals in size the 17 million- volume Library of Congress.
However, it is not only the amount of information that is growing fast; so is the capacity of individuals to control the abundance – at least in theory. Neuman et al. (2009), for example, pondering their finding in their study con-cerning the huge increase over the years in the ratio of supply to demand, as measured by the number of media minutes available in the typical American household in a given year, from 98 in 1960 to 20,943 in 2005, seem to think so. According to their reasoning, today’s information consumers, faced as they are with a cognitive challenge that is plainly beyond human- scale capabilities, cannot but turn for help in managing the abundance to the increasingly intel-ligent digital technologies that created it in the first place.
Unfortunately, with all that the computer- aided capacity of controlling the vast quantities of information may very well be in place, the substantial data-base that the CIBER research group has amassed over the years by collecting and evaluating the digital footprints that people leave behind them after a digital visit shows reality to be very, very different. Present- day information consumers, old and young alike, manifest such unsatisfactory information skills and inadequate levels of digital literacy that much of their use turns out to be rather ineffectual (Nicholas et al. 2008; Nicholas et al. 2011; Rowlands et al. 2008).
Revelling in the huge digital choice on offer on the internet, people may happily navigate their way in the vast and constantly changing virtual space in search of goods, services, new experiences, titillation, excitement and amuse-ment, but the outcomes of their journeys through cyberspace leave much to be desired (not that they are aware of this sorry state of affairs, a point we will return to shortly). They frenetically bounce from webpage to webpage, not returning to the same website very often, if at all, ‘feeding for informa-tion’ or ‘power browsing’ horizontally through sites, titles, contents pages and abstracts in their pursuit of quick wins, spending at each stop insufficient time to do much reading, judging and evaluating.
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No less worryingly, people’s cheerful succumbing to the siren song of that epitome of ‘instant information gratification’, the web, often turns out to be very problematic indeed. Of course it is: as by now the cornucopia of infor-mation available on the web is not only avidly consumed by everybody but increasingly produced by everybody – from governmental, scholarly or com-mercial content providers to Joe Public – much of it is of such questionable authority and quality that putting it to use is valueless, at times even danger-ous. Thus, as Rieh and Danielson (2007) suggest, present- day users, facing, as they do, greater uncertainty regarding who and what can be believed – and, in fact, even who is responsible for the information they encounter – have to develop new skills and strategies for assessing the credibility and reliability of information. Regrettably, more often than not nothing could be further from their minds, as the aforementioned CIBER databank amply proves (Nicholas et al. 2008; Nicholas et al. 2011; Rowlands et al. 2008). In point of fact, they spend no more than seconds assessing authority and trust by dipping and cross- checking across different sites and by relying on previous experience and favoured brands; indeed, for some, Google is a far stronger brand than any library.
Finally, complicating matters even further, these days information seek-ers consistently manifest an inexorably growing preference for unmediated information activity, and, to their minds, why not? After all, as part and parcel of the internet- triggered digital transition, they are connected directly to unbelievable quantities of information sources via a veritable armoury of computers and mobile phones, so that they can easily meet their information needs on their own, and can do so at any time of the day or night, too. Also, holding themselves to be competent and skilful consumers, imbued with the sophisticated know- how necessary to find their bearings in the ICT- immersed information environment of the knowledge society (Gross and Latham 2007; Moayeri, 2007), they staunchly – if, as it has already been noted, very much mistakenly – believe that they are fully capable of meeting their information needs without the help of a professional mediator. With a huge digital choice in terms of sources of information, and self- service as a viable alternative to the traditional information services, it is quite understandable that informa-tion seekers feel that they are no longer dependent on the information pro-viders’ goodwill or expertise. No wonder disintermediation (loosely defined and understood as ‘cutting out the middleman’) seems to be moving at such a massive rate, with libraries clearly growing increasingly decoupled from their user base as information consumers continue to flee the physical space (Martell 2008).
However, as Herman and Nicholas (2010) point out in their analysis of the situation, today’s disintermediated seekers of information may have massive and unfettered choice, may feel that they can safely take matters into their own hands, but, more often than not, this has unfortunate outcomes: their myriad pressing information needs go unmet. ‘Information malnutrition’ in
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an era of plenty is regrettably all too prevalent these days, although people are satisfied enough with their information supply, never realising, or at least comfortably ignoring, that they should, indeed could do much better where their information needs are concerned.
Plainly, then, there is now a void to be filled where information problems are concerned, and information professionals are certainly the ones best placed to fill this void. They are the ones who can see to it that information services fulfil their intended roles by providing truly personalised responses to people’s needs; they are also the ones who can reverse the move towards inef-fectual information consumption by helping consumers acquire the informa-tion literacy skills without which they cannot adequately fend for themselves in today’s information- rich environment. The potential terrain for the infor-mation professional has thus increased enormously, although most of it lies outside the boundaries of the physical space. The key to mastering this ter-rain, of course, is moving closer to the consumers to achieve a professional- expertise- based understanding of their idiosyncratic information needs and ensuring that these needs are handled effectively, both via the proficient plan-ning and delivery of information provision and by spreading professional thinking and practices.
Under these circumstances it comes as no surprise that interest in the mani-fold aspects of information provision and consumption seems to be on the rise. Indeed, it has brought about the advent of iSchools (http://ischools.org/), founded to establish broad recognition of the iField and its importance to society. Seeking to identify, clarify and speak to the major issues, challenges and driving questions at the nexus of information, technology and society, iSchools, which number among their ranks many of the leading institutions in the field worldwide, take it as given that expertise in all forms of informa-tion is required for progress in science, business, education and culture. Also, academic work in and around both the pure science and the applied science component of information science has been particularly vibrant for quite some time now. Thus, for example, in their review of Library and Information Science trends in Europe, Spink and Heinström (2012) state that the field has experienced significant expansion, with the growth evident in the increase in the number of educational programmes, students and academics, the expan-sion of existing programmes and an increase in research outputs. This is as you might expect, of course, for professional know- how is now needed wherever information is created, manipulated and used, wherever informa-tion makes a difference, which these days means literally everywhere.
Very much in line with these recent developments, the potential audience for Information Science literature has expanded hugely in size and charac-ter. This is, first and foremost, because the internet has been busy blowing up and redrawing the boundaries between professional groups. As informa-tion consumers (and professions) use their recently found freedom to relo-cate themselves and their activities in the virtual information space, more
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professions are concerned with information, and some of them are relatively new to it. Thus, a wide variety of information professionals, who need to understand information life cycles, the information technologies that support them and the ways that people use information systems, are a key audience for Information Science literature. They are destined to appreciate greatly the ready access offered in this four- volume collection to influential, classic and contemporary contributions to the scholarship in the field.
No less importantly, scholars in the various sub- fields of Information Science, as well as those working in allied areas, such as Communications, Cognitive Sciences and Systems Science – and their students – also stand to benefit from this authoritative synthesis of the research output of the field of Information Science. In today’s world, increasingly shaped as it is by informa-tion, rapid and profound changes have already taken place in the theoretical and practical aspects of retrieving, organising, managing and ensuring access to this most vital of resources, with many more surely yet to come. Thus, researchers, constantly called upon to revise how we approach, understand and appreciate information, to proffer insight and breakthrough solutions for the challenges of the fast- changing information- driven world, and to educate tomorrow’s information professionals, will surely put to good use the research and teaching resource offered here.
Somewhat more surprisingly, perhaps, the collection might very well prove to be of interest to the general public, too, for, as it has already been noted, the digital transition has led to consumers being involved in matters once the exclusive preserve of the librarian or archivist. Indeed, in many respects, everyone is a librarian or archivist now: we all search for information our-selves, have at our beck and call vast amounts of information, are respon-sible for the organisation and archiving of information, and even search for information on behalf of others, as is the case with parents and carers. It follows, then, that everyone will have to sort out their own information needs (and those of their family and friends, too) if they are to really benefit from the information abundance that is available to them. Thus, the likes of the amateur scholar, student, academic, concerned parent, home- worker and informed patient might find the collection useful for achieving their goals, whether those goals are personal, community or corporate.
This collection should, therefore, meet a long- felt need for an authoritative reference work that will help make sense of the vast, ever- burgeoning and increasingly complex contemporary corpus of scholarly literature pertaining to traditional and current understandings of information. Bringing together canonical and the best cutting- edge scholarship, it is organised thematically to provide a systematic review of the Information Science field. Volume I provides a wide- ranging critique of the theoretical framework and historical context of Information Science. Volume II assembles the essential thinking on the management of information for its optimum accessibility and usabil-ity. Volume III, given over to use and users of information, explores people’s
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present- day information needs and information behaviour. And the final volume, Volume IV, reviews the key scholarship on the ever- more central role that knowledge and information assume in today’s fast- changing, technology- driven economy.
ReferencesBuschman, J. and Brosio, R. A. (2006) ‘A Critical Primer on Postmodernism: Lessons
from Educational Scholarship for Librarians’, Journal of Academic Librarianship 32(4): 408–18.
Gaines, B. R. (1995) An Agenda for Digital Journals: The Socio- Technical Infrastructure of Knowledge Dissemination, http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~gaines/reports/HM/DigitalJ/DigitalJ.pdf.
Gross, M. and Latham, D. (2007) ‘Attaining Information Literacy: An Investigation of the Relationship between Skill Level, Self- Estimates of Skill, and Library Anxiety’, Library and Information Science Research 29(3): 332–53.
Herman, E. A. (2005) The Information Needs of Contemporary Academic Researchers, PhD dissertation, London: Department of Information Science, City University.
Herman, E. and Nicholas, D. (2010) ‘The Information Enfranchisement of the Digital Consumer’, Aslib Proceedings 62(3): 245–60.
Hilbert, M. (2012) ‘How Much Information Is There in the “Information Society”?’, Significance 9(4): 8–12.
Hilbert, M. and López, P. (2011) ‘The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information’, Science 332(6025): 60–5.
Lyman, P. and Varian, H. (2004) ‘How Much Information 2003?’, http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how- much- info- 2003/.
Martell, C. (2008) ‘The Absent User: Physical Use of Academic Library Collections and Services Continues to Decline 1995–2006’, Journal of Academic Librarianship 34(5): 400–7.
Moayeri, M. (2007) ‘Lost in Cyberspace: Where to Go? What to Believe’, Webology 4(4), http://www.webology.org/2007/v4n4/a47.html.
Neuman, W. R., Park, Y. J. and Panek, E. (2009) ‘Tracking the Flow of Information into the Home: An Empirical Assessment of the Digital Revolution in the US from 1960–2005’, paper presented at The Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, Chicago, http://www.wrneuman.com/Flow_of_Information.pdf.
Nicholas, D. and Herman, E. (2009) Assessing Information Needs in the Age of the Digital Consumer, London: Routledge.
Nicholas, D., Huntington, P., Jamali, H. R. and Dobrowolski, T. (2008) ‘The Information- Seeking Behaviour of the Digital Consumer: Case Study the Virtual Scholar’, in D. Nicholas and I. Rowlands (eds), Digital Consumers: Reshaping the Information Professions, London: Facet Publishing, pp. 113–58.
Nicholas, D., Rowlands, I., Clark, D. and Williams, P. (2011) ‘Google Generation II: Web Behaviour Experiments with the BBC’, Aslib Proceedings 63(1): 28–45.
Rieh, S. Y. and Danielson, D. R. (2007) ‘Credibility: A Multidisciplinary Framework’, Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 41: 307–64.
Rowlands I., Nicholas D., Williams P., Huntington, P., Fieldhouse, M., Gunter, B.,
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Withey, R., Jamali, H. R., Dobrowolski, T. and Tenopir, C. (2008) ‘The Google Generation: The Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future’, Aslib Proceedings 60(4): 290–310.
Spink, A. and Heinström, J. (eds) (2012) Library and Information Science Trends and Research: Europe, Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME I
Seeking to provide an extensive appraisal of the theoretical framework and historical context of Information Science, Volume I considers the essential thematic components of this broad subject. Starting with the changing definitions, conceptions and roles of information throughout history, it proceeds to examine the nature of Information Science as a discipline – its philosophy and core mission, intellectual content and concerns, scope and boundaries, rounding up the picture with an appraisal of how libraries, information services and information management evolved over the years.
Part 1: The perceptions and roles of information throughout history
Information is by now truly the lifeblood of society, a cornerstone of its cul-ture and economy, and a major fuelling agent of its endeavours. Nevertheless, for all that information plays a critical part in our lives from cradle to grave, the concept itself is in fact poorly understood, although people do refer to it as if it were an unequivocal, consensual notion, for ‘everybody knows what information is’. Thus, the first part of the three that comprise Volume I sets the stage for the whole collection by taking a closer look at the fundamental concept of information and placing it in its present- day essential environmen-tal context, the information society.
At the outset, in a chapter taken from his book Looking for Information, Donald O. Case (Chapter 1) proceeds to clarify the concept of informa-tion, which, for many readers, will be their first contact with the theoretical understandings at the heart of Information Science. Offering a multifaceted, comprehensive exploration of the definitions, explications and typologies of the concept of information, he considers the problems involved in its defini-tive characterisation. The ensuing wide- ranging analysis of the literature on the various meanings and interpretations of the phenomena of information, although leading up to the conclusion that there is as yet no single, widely accepted definition of the concept, indeed that such a definition may not be
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9
entirely necessary for the study of information, lays solid foundations for our conceptual appreciation of the subject.
Widening the scope of the examination, Birger Hjørland (Chapter 2) then looks at two conflicting understandings of the concept of informa-tion: as an observer- independent, objectively existing phenomenon, versus a subjective, observer- dependent situation- specific one. Putting forward a strong case in favour of the latter view, he emphasises the vital importance of arriving at a proper understanding of the concept of information in order to establish a fruitful theoretical and conceptual basis for the field of Information Science.
Moving on to the wider context for understanding the notion of infor-mation, Alistair Black’s article on information and modernity (Chapter 3) provides an insight into the significance of information in different social, political, economic and cultural settings. Arguing that information intensive-ness has evolved as part and parcel of the emergence of modernity, he notes the changing conceptualisation of information over the centuries, from a process (the act of informing or being informed) in ancient times to an entity, a resource, in our present- day knowledge society. However, going beyond the epistemological level, his focus in the chapter is the tracing of the transforma-tions in the part played by information in society, as they culminate in the present- day mushrooming of opportunities for accessing information from, but also on individuals.
Further enriching our understanding of the societal roles information, Part 1 concludes with a consideration of the much- discussed phenomenon of the informatisation of society. We therefore turn at this point to Vannevar Bush’s visionary paper ‘As we may think’ (Chapter 4) and then to Webster’s widely acclaimed book on the information society. Written almost 70 years ago, Vannevar Bush’s paper proposes a theoretical basis and practical principles for taking control of mankind’s vast stores of accumulated knowledge. Thus laying the foundations for the future advent of the internet, which was to change the world on a massive and global scale, he in fact paves the way for the eventual emergence of the information society.
Indeed, towards the cusp of the millennium, when Frank Webster pub-lished his book on the information society, a chapter of which features next (Chapter 5), it became a much studied fact of contemporary life. Citing the agreed-upon views of the information society as a society profoundly changed by technological innovations, networks and, above all, by information, which plays such a fundamental role in its economy, occupational structure and culture, he maintains that information society is all that and more. It is, in fact, a society in which information has qualitatively, rather than just quanti-tatively, transformed how we live, in which information is at the core of how we conduct ourselves.
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Part 2: The theoretical foundations of Information Science
Having gained entrance to the field of Information Science via addressing the perceptions and societal roles of its key concept, information, we now pro-ceed to an aerial view of the discipline itself, by no means an easy undertak-ing, for it is truly a rambling domain; in fact, as Marcia J. Bates points out in her paper (Chapter 10), it is a meta- discipline, which, cutting as it does across traditional content- centred disciplines, draws on many kinds of knowledge and has both pure science and applied science components.
Part 2 thus opens with an exploration of the basic, interrelated but nev-ertheless distinct concepts of the scientific study of information. First, Nicholas J. Belkin’s seminal paper ‘Information concepts for information science’ (Chapter 6) lays down the conceptual foundations of the discipline by presenting a critical survey of the various approaches to the study of the central phenomenon of interest to Information Science – information; not how it is defined, but, rather, what the possible ways of looking at it and interpreting it are. This, as he explains, because arriving at an agreed upon, useful and unifying concept of information is an essential prerequisite for the discipline’s achieving its stated goal, the facilitating of the effect-ive communication of desired information between human generator and human user.
Thinking along similar lines, Charles T. Meadow and Weijing Yuan (Chapter 7) follow with a literature- based, explicated compilation of defi-nitions of the key concepts of Information Science, featuring, as first and foremost among them, information, data and knowledge. This, with the express goal of providing the profession with a common, standardised basis for referring to frequently used terms, which, as they contend, is vital for enabling information professionals to communicate among themselves and to build upon each other’s work. Next, Jennifer Rowley takes the discus-sions pertaining to the basic concepts of the field one step further by situ-ating them in the widely recognised data–information–knowledge–wisdom (DIKW) hierarchy (Chapter 8). Revisiting the original formulations of the hierarchy, she looks at the definitions of the different concepts and the distinctions among them, as well as at the extent of agreement/dissent they generated in the literature.
Having so far taken a deliberately narrowly focused look at the disciplinary domain of Information Science through its terminology, the upcoming three chapters view it from the wider perspective of its theories, underlying phi-losophy and paradigmatic elements. First, Birger Hjørland’s paper (Chapter 9) draws an overarching portrayal of the field, delineating its different dimen-sions: the names commonly associated with it, its institutional affiliations and their influence on its research, its fields of practice, its fundamental concepts, its theories, its meta- theories/paradigms, its related disciplines and its core philosophical assumptions. Marcia J. Bates complements the picture by dis-
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cussing what she calls ‘the invisible substrate of information science’ (Chapter 10), pointing out that the field does not consist only of the well- known, explicit paradigm of the study of the selecting, gathering, organising, accessing and retrieving of information; it also has many unarticulated but important ele-ments in the ‘below- the- water- line’ portion of its paradigm. Most notably, she calls attention to the discipline’s research and theory development, which, concerned as it is with the documentary products of other disciplines, centres around representation and organisation of information, rather than knowing information. Finally, bringing up to date the profile of Information Science presented here, Chaim Zins explores the meaning of Information Science as it is understood by leading scholars in the Information Science academic com-munity (Chapter 11). His analysis of their definitions and reflections provides a research- led, systematic mapping of the contemporary conceptions of the field.
In conclusion of the enquiry into the theoretical foundations of the field, the chapters coming next focus on the standing of Information Science as an autonomous discipline among other scientific domains in the information field. Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield, in a chapter of their book The Study of Information (Chapter 12), introduce the subject by examining and discuss-ing the logical, methodological and pragmatic interrelations among the differ-ent areas in the study of information. Identifying almost forty fields in which information, in one of its several meanings, plays a strategic role, and offering brief sketches of the major ones among them, they show how Information Science intersects with other disciplines devoted to the systematic study of information to develop its own research identity.
Reflecting further on the nature of Information Science and the difficulties arising from the lack of agreement as to what precisely constitutes the field, W. Boyd Rayward revisits Machlup and Mansfeld’s above- noted ideas on the subject from the perspective of a historian (Chapter 13). Suggesting that the development of the field has been a dynamic process of disciplinary differen-tiation, competition and convergence, he moves on to depicting the historian’s role in achieving a broad, potentially integrative framework for the personal, social and organisational dimensions of managing information, of informing and becoming informed.
Lastly, updating our understanding of the Information Science field and putting it in its wider context, Ping Zhang and Robert I. Benjamin offer a unified view of the fields that study human interactions with information and its technologies (Chapter 14). Positing that core components from other knowledge domains interact and integrate with each other to form dynamic disciplines, which all have to do with information, technology and people, they present a conceptual framework that identifies and describes the com-monalities and differences among information- related fields.
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Part 3: The historical study of libraries as information- mediating institutions
The origins of libraries are traceable to ancient times, when the advent of writing solved the problem of transmitting information across time and space, and led to the establishment of formal information institutions for the storage and provision of information – libraries. However, these traditional agents for the mediation of knowledge are facing nowadays what seems to be the greatest challenge in their existence: in the wake of the digital transition, with information seekers increasingly deserting the physical space, libraries are certainly no longer held to be the best option for securing the keys to information. Thus, Part 3 looks at the glorious past of libraries with quite some concern regarding their future.
Michael H. Harris launches the brief excursion into the history of libraries presented here (Chapter 15) by identifying and describing the social, eco-nomic and political conditions held to be important prerequisites for the rise and growth of libraries. However, since these ‘favourable conditions’ do not invariably guarantee the expected outcome, he suggests that an additional factor should be taken into consideration: the extent of agreement in a given society on the value of libraries, which provides the ideological or philosophi-cal justification for the expenditure of money and energy on the provision of library and information services. John M. Budd’s review of the history of libraries from antiquity to the present, which follows (Chapter 16), provides further insight into how libraries came to be, what they had to offer to their users, and what purposes they served, all of which is, as he proposes, vital for understanding the foundations of the Information Science field and its environment.
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