Himalayan Alpine Vegetation, Climate Change and Mitigation

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Himalayan Alpine Vegetation, Climate Change and MitigationAuthor(s): Jan Salick, Suresh K. Ghimire, Zhendong Fang, Sangay Dema, andKatie M. KoncharSource: Journal of Ethnobiology, 34(3):276-293. 2014.Published By: Society of EthnobiologyDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771-34.3.276URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2993/0278-0771-34.3.276

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HIMALAYAN ALPINE VEGETATION, CLIMATECHANGE AND MITIGATION

Jan Salick1, Suresh K. Ghimire2, Zhendong Fang3, Sangay Dema4, andKatie M. Konchar5

The Himalaya are experiencing the most drastic global climate change outside of the poles, with predicted

temperature increases of 5–6uC, rainfall increases of 20–30%, and rapid melting of permanent snows andglaciers. We have established a 1500 km trans-Himalayan transect across Nepal, Bhutan, and the Tibetan

Autonomous Prefecture (TAP), China to document the effects of climate change on alpine plants and peoples.

Data show that Himalayan alpine plants respond to environmental and climate change variables includingelevation, precipitation, and biogeography. People use alpine plants mostly for medicines and grazing. Climate

change threatens rare, endemic, and useful Himalayan plant species and is being monitored into the future.

Mitigation of climate change in the Himalaya takes place, without conscious reference to climate change,

through carbon negative livelihoods informed by traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) including conservationof sacred sites, afforestation, tree crops, and soil carbon sequestration through incorporation of mulch and

manure.

Keywords: alpine vegetation, alpine ethnobotany, climate change, mitigation, GLORIA, Himalaya

Introduction

The eastern Himalaya are particularly critical when considering climatechange. Biologically, they are the most diverse temperate region of the world(Barthlott et al. 2005; Kohler and Maselli 2009; Myers et al. 2000). Climatically, theHimalaya are predicted to experience a rise in temperature of 5–6uC andprecipitation increases of 20–30% by the end of the twenty-first century (Kohler

1. Corresponding author. Missouri Botanical Garden, Post Office Box 299, St. Louis, MO 63116, USA([email protected])

2. Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Post Box 26429, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal([email protected])

3. Shangri-La Alpine Botanical Garden, 21 Heping Road, Shangri-la County, Diqing Prefecture,Yunnan 674400, China ([email protected])

4. National Biodiversity Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Post Box 875, Serbithang,Thimphu, Bhutan ([email protected])

5. Missouri Botanical Garden, Post Office Box 299, St. Louis, MO 63116, USA ([email protected])

Collaborating authors (who have taken active part in data collection from 2005–2011): Denmark: AnjaByg, PhD; USA: Nanci Ross, PhD; Kenneth Bauer, PhD; Robbie Hart, PhD candidate; Abe Lloyd,MS; Benjamin Staver, PhD candidate; China: A Na, Tibetan doctor; Sonam Dorje, Tibetan doctor;Qizhu, Tibetan doctor; Hai Xian; Xie Aifang; Xiao Maorong; Shi Xiaowu; Li Lei; Liu Lin;Yangzong; Hu Huabin, PhD; Xie Hongyan; Li Deyou, Naxi doctor; He Guang; Li Hong; Bhutan:

Sangay Wangmo; Jigme Wangchuck; Younten Jamtsho; Richen Yangzon; Tshering Dorji;Tshering Wangmo; Richen Dorji; Rinzin; Nepal: Tshampa Nawang, Amchi; Himali ChundaSherpa, conservationist; Masters candidates: Asha Paudel; Laxmi Joshi; Smriti Lo; Binod Koirala;Arjun Chapagain; Prem Subedi; Sita Karki.

Journal of Ethnobiology 34(3): 276–293 2014

and Maselli 2009; Solomon et al. 2007), making them among the most threatenednon-polar regions of the world. The rapid changes in temperature andprecipitation have earned them the monikers, ‘‘thermometer of the world’’ and‘‘early detection tool for global warming’’ (Giorgi et al. 1997:297). The immenselyhigh Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau with masses of ice and snow are drivers ofworld climate and currents, branded with another catchphrase: ‘‘the third pole’’(Qiu 2008:393). As ice and snow melt and rains intensify, this ‘‘global watertower’’ (Xu et al. 2008:1) is threatened with change. Downstream, over one billionpeople are dependent on the great Asian rivers originating in the Himalaya andare thereby also made vulnerable to Himalayan climate change (Ataman et al.2003; Fussel 2007).

Research on climate change impacts in the Himalaya has centered on glacialretreat (Scherler et al. 2011), snow cover change (Shrestha and Joshi 2009), glaciallake outburst flooding (Bajracharya et al. 2007), the water tower (Akhtar et al.2008; Immerzeel et al. 2010; Xu et al. 2008, 2009), treeline advance (Baker andMoseley 2007; Dubey et al. 2003; Schickhoff 2005), phenological change (Shresthaet al. 2012; Yu et al. 2010), and local perceptions (Ives 2004). Since the mediacoverage of inaccurate Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)figures on the speed of Himalayan glacier disappearance (Schiermeier 2010a), apublic perception has emerged (Nature Editorial 2010; Schiermeier 2010b) thatHimalayan climate change is not taking place. Nothing could be further from thetruth. However, to date there have been very little data on the effects of climatechange on the exceptional biodiversity of the Himalaya. Even climate envelopemodeling, so popular in other parts of the world, has been used less in theHimalaya due to a paucity of data on climate and plant distributions (Heikkinenet al. 2006).

To redress this neglect, we explore how climate change threatens Himalayanalpine vegetation, biodiversity and taxa, especially rare, endemic, and usefulspecies. To do so, we joined the Global Observational Research Initiative inAlpine Environments (GLORIA) in 2005 and initiated a broad survey ofHimalayan alpine regions to monitor the effects of climate change on vegetationand human dimensions over time. GLORIA’s multi-summit approach tracksspecies abundance, frequency, and cover in three to four summits in each targetregion. Mountain summits are considered the most appropriate sites forcomparing ecosystems along climatic gradients (http://www.gloria.ac.at/).Our Himalayan GLORIA sub-network includes nine target regions across a1500 km transect from southwestern China, through Bhutan, to western Nepal(Figure 1) encompassing a broad biogeographic and climatic gradient.

Human dimensions of climate change are of great consequence in theHimalaya, where alpine habitats are especially important to indigenouspopulations as collection grounds for medicinal plants, as alpine grazing lands,and as sacred areas (Figures 2 and 3). Extensive research has been done on thesehuman dimensions, including foci on traditional medicinal plants (Byg et al.2010; Ghimire et al. 1999, 2005a, 2005b, 2006; Konchar et al. 2011; Law et al. 2010;Law and Salick 2005, 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010; Salick et al. 2004, 2006), alpinegrazing (Salick et al. 2004; Salick et al. 2005), sacred sites and cosmology(Anderson et al. 2005; Salick et al. 2007; Salick et al. 2012), human perceptions of

2014 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 277

climate change (Byg and Salick 2009; Konchar et al. in prep.), and the interactionsbetween climate change and human culture (Salick 2012; Salick et al. 2009; Salicket al. in press; Salick and Byg 2007; Salick and Moseley 2012; Salick and Ross2009a, 2009b). The ethnoecological approach of this research distinguishes oursub-network from the GLORIA network in general (Salick in press), althoughother ethnobotanists (Turner et al. 2011) and other members of GLORIA(Grabherr 2009; Swerhun et al. 2009; Villar-Perez 1997) recognize the importanceof alpine ethnobotany within the human dimensions of climate change. Here, westress the prominence of climate change mitigation in the Himalaya arising fromtraditional ecological knowledge (TEK), even as the people themselves areunaware of this mitigation.

Specifically, in this study we ask what environmental factors determineHimalayan alpine plant distributions, diversity, endemism, rarity, and use. Arethese biocultural factors changing with climate change and are they threatened?How does alpine vegetation in the Himalaya compare with that in Europe? Howare indigenous peoples using alpine plants in the Himalaya? And finally, arethere climate change mitigation practices among the Himalayan peoples basedon TEK?

Figure 1. Across the eastern Himalaya, we established a 1500 km transect with nine major targetregions (from east to west): Da Xue Shan (DXS), Run Zi La (RZL), Ma Ji Wa (MJW), and Mei Li Shui(MLS) in Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP), China; Tampela, Wangchuck Centennial Park (TPL)and Jomolhari, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Park (JML) in Bhutan; Kangchenjunga ConservationArea (KCJ), Langtang National Park (LNP), and Manang, Annapurna Conservation Area (MNG) inNepal. Each target region includes three to four mountain summits, 3800–5000 masl, and covers arange of ecotones: subalpine-lower alpine; lower alpine-upper alpine; upper alpine-subnival; andsubnival-nival. Vegetation at each summit was sampled for species presence, frequency, cover, andrelative abundance (Supplemental Material, Table 1).

278 SALICK et al. Vol. 34, No. 3

Methods

Study RegionsOur nine GLORIA target regions span over 1500 km from the Hengduan

Mountains of the Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP) in northwestYunnan, China, through Bhutan and eastern Nepal, to western Nepal nearMt. Annapurna (Figure 1). Target regions were selected along this latitudinal,biogeographic, and climatic transect to elucidate the impacts of climatic changeamong regional patterns of biodiversity, precipitation, temperature, and resourceuse.

Global Observational Research Initiative in Alpine Environments (GLORIA)Following GLORIA’s multi-summit approach, each target region includes

three to four individual mountain summits spanning an elevational gradientbetween treeline and permanent snowline (,3800–5000 masl) to representthe ecotones: subalpine-lower alpine, lower alpine-upper alpine, upper alpine-subnival, and subnival-nival (Supplementary Material, Table 1). Each summit isdivided into eight summit area sections for general plant inventories and uses.Four 1 3 1 m quadrats are placed in the four cardinal directions at five verticalmeters from the highest point of the summit; these quadrats provide detaileddata on plant species abundance, frequency, and cover. Photographic data werealso collected using the standardized methods of GLORIA (http://www.gloria.ac.at/).

Figure 2. Iconic sacred mountains near our target regions from east to west include (a) Mt. KhawaKarpo (near MLS) in the Menri range, TAP, China (photo by Zhendong Fang); (b) Mt. Jomolhari on theborder of Bhutan and Sikkim (near JML; photo by Jan Salick); and (c) the Annapurna range in westernNepal (near MNG; photo by Katie Konchar).


Environmental DataEnvironmental data—latitude, longitude, elevation, aspect, slope, and temper-

ature—were taken using GPS units, altimeters, compasses, clinometers, andtemperature monitors according to GLORIA protocol. Total annual precipitationand average annual temperature data were compiled from national weather stationsclosest to each target region (Supplementary Material, Table 2) at comparableelevations. There are no government meteorological stations on mountain tops, sothe closest weather station data are from elevations below actual target regions, thusunderestimating the actual precipitation received on mountain summits.

Plant IdentificationAlpine plants were identified in the field and confirmed with vouchers

deposited at the Missouri Botanical Garden (MO) and/or national/local herbaria:the Shangri-La Alpine Botanical Garden (SABG) and Kunming Institute ofBotany (KUN), Yunnan, China; the National Biodiversity Centre (THIM),Thimphu, Bhutan; and Tribhuvan University Herbarium (TUCH), Kathmandu,

Figure 3. Human dimensions of climate change are of great consequence in Himalaya, where alpinehabitats are important to indigenous populations predominantly for: (a) medicinal plants, e.g.Saussurea laniceps Hand.-Mazz. (Asteraceae) and (b) alpine grazing. Mitigation of climate change in theHimalayan mountains includes carbon sequestration through (c) augmentation of soil organic matterwith vegetation and manure; and (d) conservation of vegetation at sacred sites (Buddhist prayer flagsframe sacred Mt. Khawa Karpo; Salick et al. 2007).


Nepal. Several flora and ethnobotanical references were used for plantidentification, distribution, and use information (Supplementary Material).

Ethnobotany MethodsIn addition to conducting standardized GLORIA sampling, this study was

carried out in collaboration with traditional doctors (e.g., Amchi trained in herbalmedicine), knowledgeable indigenous peoples, and with reference to extensivebotanical and ethnobotanical literature (see Supplementary Material). Afterobtaining prior informed consent, information on specific plant uses, generalhabitat uses, and climate change mitigation were recorded. We allowed ourindigenous collaborators to interpret ‘‘useful’’ species within their own TEK andcosmologies resulting in a wide range of plants reported to be used for food,medicine, grazing, wood, tools, construction, fiber, dyes, herbs/spices, decora-tion, poison, and spiritual purposes. The information presented here representsthe responses of more than 350 informants interviewed over seven years (2005–2012; see individual studies cited in introduction for sampling and demographicdata).

Statistical AnalysesTo assess diversity (species number and evenness combined) among and

between Himalayan target regions, Shannon-Weiner (H9) indices of diversitywere calculated for each individual summit and at each target region (three tofour summit units) for species percent cover, frequency, and abundance:

H ’~

R

{P

pi ln pi

i~1

PC-ORD (McCune and Mefford 2006) was used to order species presence/absence, frequency, and percent cover data using the Sorensen index of similarityand Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) (McCune and Grace 2002).These methods assist in visualizing the level of similarity among target regionswithin the dataset. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and a Monte Carlotest of significance (998 runs) tested the significance of environmental variables(aspect, slope, elevation, and precipitation) in explaining variation in speciesdata. Indicator species analysis was performed using PC-ORD following themethod of Dufrene and Legendre (1997) to calculate indicator values, or the levelof taxa specificity to a particular location. Significance was determined using aMonte Carlo test of significance (4999 permutations).

Two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) using R statistical programming(R Core Team 2012) tested the influence of independent variables—ecotone andlocation—on dependent variables, which include number of taxa (speciesrichness), H9, number of endemic taxa, and percent endemism (transformed byarc sin square root to normalize data). Analyses were run on Himalayan targetregion data alone as well as on a combined dataset of 17 European GLORIAtarget regions (Pauli et al. 2012) and our nine Himalayan regions to comparespecies richness and endemism between two very different alpine areas—Europeand the Himalaya—both experiencing changes in alpine vegetation in response


to climatic change. One-way ANOVA in R was also used to assess differences inplant use by country (three Nepal regions, two Bhutan regions, and four TibetanChina regions).

Using meteorological records from national weather stations (SupplementaryMaterial, Table 2), linear regressions of temperature and precipitation changeover approximately 60 years (1950–2010) were calculated using Microsoft Excel(2007). For NMS and CCA, 20 year averages of annual precipitation were used tobetter represent present conditions.

Results

Climate Change in the Eastern HimalayaAverage annual temperatures near target regions have increased by

approximately 1.5uC over the last 60 years (1950–2010) confirming global climatechange models; total annual precipitation has increased by an average of 362 mm(Figure 4). Global warming and increasing precipitation is clearly evidenced inthe eastern Himalaya; there is great cause for concern over Himalayan climatechange.

Alpine FloraThe number of taxa sampled at all target regions totaled 762 with 373 (49%)

endemic to the Himalaya (Supplementary Material, Table 3). Target regions havemore taxa, more endemics, and more diversity at the lowest (subalpine-loweralpine) ecotone just above treeline (Figure 5); however, percent endemism is notsignificantly different among ecotones (Supplementary Material, Table 4). Thenumber of taxa, number of Himalayan endemics, and Shannon-Weiner index ofdiversity (H9) differed significantly among target regions with the greatestnumber of taxa and endemics found in western Nepal and the greatest diversityfound in western Bhutan (Supplementary Material, Table 1). The number of taxa,number of endemic taxa, and percent endemism at Himalayan GLORIA targetregions are significantly greater than at European target regions (Figure andSupplemental Material Table 4) demonstrating the extraordinary richness ofHimalayan alpine flora.

Ordinations and Indicator SpeciesNon-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS) produces high correlations

for the first three axes (p50.001; Supplementary Material, Table 5) and orderssummits similarly whether based on species presence, frequencies, or cover(Figure 6a, b, and c, respectively with each individual mountain summitrepresented by a single point). Species composition is distinguished byprecipitation, target region, and country (Figure 6). Although geographicgroupings may be overemphasized by NMS due to GLORIA’s repetitivesampling design, results show species composition to be more similar tosummits within the same target region and country than to summits locatedwithin the same ecotone.

Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) constrained the ordination oftarget regions and species by their relationships to environmental variables and


Figure 4. Himalayan climate change: In support of global climate change models, average annualtemperatures (a) near target regions have increased by approximately 1.5uC over the last 60 years(1950–2010); total annual precipitation (b) has increased by an average of 362 mm. (Meteorologicalstation data listed in Supplemental Material, Table 2). Bhutan weather data were available only assingle point averages (not graphed).


produced highly significant correlations between species composition and bothelevation and precipitation (p50.001; Supplementary Material, Table 5), althoughoccasionally slope and aspect were also significant (Figure 6d, e, and f).

Indicator species are species that distinguish an individual summit ortarget region from all other summits and regions. All nine Himalayan targetregions and nearly all summits within each region (29 out of 33 total summits)have significant indicator species (p , 0.05; Supplementary Material, Table 6),illustrating the unique vegetative character of each region and summit. Addi-tionally, indicator species distinguishing Himalayan target regions and summitsare most often Himalayan endemic species (74% or 51 endemics out of 69significant indicator species) indicating the distinct vegetation that characterizesthe Himalayan flora as well as each region and summit.

Plant UseAcross all Himalayan target regions, half of the alpine flora is reported by

our local collaborators as being used, predominantly for medicines and animalgrazing (Figure 3; Supplementary Material, Table 7). Although Nepal has thehighest percentage (68%) of useful plants, there is no statistical difference among

Figure 5. Comparisons of Himalayan and European alpine flora—number of taxa and number ofendemics. The Himalaya have significantly more taxa, endemic species, and percent endemics (seeSupplementary Material, Table 4 for statistics). Ecotones are comparable: (a) subalpine-lower alpine;(b) lower alpine-upper alpine; (c) upper alpine-subnival; and (d) subnival-nival. However, theseecotones are found at strikingly different elevations (Europe: between ,1000–3000 masl; Himalaya:between ,4000–5000 masl).


countries in percentage of useful plants as reported by local collaborators (df52;F50.42; p50.66).

Climate Change MitigationInterviews with and observations of Himalayan peoples managing their

natural resources through TEK uncovered at least five major ways that theymitigate climate change: 1) biodiversity conservation; 2) afforestation;3) agroforestry; 4) soil amendment; and 5) a carbon negative livelihood.Himalayan peoples are not always aware that their TEK is mitigating climatechange yet it does and should be noted and potentially emulated elsewhere.

Figure 6. Ordinations of Himalayan Alpine Vegetation: non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS)ordered summits similarly whether based on (a) species presence-absence, (b) frequencies, or(c) percent cover. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) also shows similar trends based on(d) species presence-absence, (e) frequencies, and (f) percent cover. Elevation and precipitation bestdetermined vegetation similarities (p50.001), although occasionally (f) slope and aspect (not shown)were also significant. Vegetation is distinguished by target region (from east to west: Da Xue Shan[DXS], Run Zi La [RZL], Ma Ji Wa [MJW], and Mei Li Shui [MLS] in TAP, China; Tampela, WangchuckCentennial Park [TPL] and Jomolhari, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Park [JML] in Bhutan;Kangchenjunga Conservation Area [KCJ], Langtang National Park [LNP], and Manang, AnnapurnaConservation Area [MNG] in Nepal), precipitation (precipitation gradient labeled from low to high in aand b), and biogeography (countries: Bhutan, Nepal, or TAP designated by ovals). Ecotones designatedby shape: ¤ subalpine-lower alpine (,4000 masl); N lower alpine-upper alpine (,4300 masl); & upperalpine-subnival (,4700 masl); m subnival-nival (,5000 masl) show little similarity in speciescomposition among target regions.


Biodiversity Conservation

Throughout the Himalaya, sacred sites, sacred mountains, and wholemountain ranges are conserved for their sanctity, which also has the ecologicallybeneficial effect of harboring great biodiversity that sequesters carbon from theatmosphere. Most of the mountains and several mountain ranges where ourresearch is conducted are sacred (Figures 2 and 3).

Afforestation

In many places where indigenous Himalayan peoples practice TEK in theirdaily lives, there is increased forest cover; in contrast, where non-indigenouspeople enter subalpine environments, deforestation (through logging andagriculture) can be a serious problem.

Agroforestry

Himalayan peoples traditionally cultivate and manage many tree crops,including walnuts, apples, pomegranates, pears, quince, citrus, and seabuckthorn. As climatic conditions in the Himalaya change (temperature andprecipitation have increased; Figure 4), tree crop cultivation, like natural treeline,is extending to higher elevations.

Soil Amendment

The incorporation of mulch and manure into soils is a common practice inthe Himalaya, where steep slopes and newly formed mineral soils are the norm.This addition of organic matter reduces soil erosion (Figure 3), and is a seldom-recognized method of carbon sequestration.

Carbon Negative Livelihood

The traditional Himalayan livelihood is carbon negative. Himalayan peoplessequester great amounts of carbon as described above while releasing very littlecarbon into the environment. They do burn wood and dung, and consume smallamounts of electricity (for many in the area there is a single, hydro-electric-powered light bulb in their dwellings). However, they seldom pollute, do notconsume more than they produce, rarely have automobiles, and do notrely on manufactured goods, coal powered electricity, central heating, or airconditioning.

Discussion

Himalayan Alpine Vegetation and Climate ChangeClimate change models for the eastern Himalaya predict greatly increased

temperatures and precipitation (e.g., Solomon et al. 2007). These predictions aresupported by weather station data showing temperature and precipitationincreases over time (Figure 4). Elevation is also a proxy for temperature (,6uCdecrease/1000 m elevation; Fang and Yoda 1988). Our results show thesignificance of elevation and precipitation in determining Himalayan alpinevegetation, and in turn corroborate predictions that climate change—increasing


temperature and precipitation—will greatly affect Himalayan diversity. Thepredominance of Himalayan endemics among significant indicator species(Supplementary Material, Table 6) reveals the importance of endemic plants indifferentiating alpine vegetation. These threatened species may be particularlyaffected by climate change if, as in Europe (Gottfried et al. 2012; Grabherr et al.1994; Pauli et al. 2012), they are outcompeted by faster growing, more aggressivelower elevation species extending their range to higher elevations with achanging climate. Most suitable alpine habitat in the Himalaya lies below5000 masl, above which soil is scarce and scree habitats dominate. The outlookfor useful, rare, and endemic Himalayan alpine species, left with nowhere to go,is of great concern for conservation.

Comparative Himalayan and European GLORIA ResultsThe extraordinary species diversity in the eastern Himalaya (Figure 5;

Supplementary Material, Tables 1 and 3) is largely due to extrinsic environmentalfactors including temperature, precipitation, elevation gradients, and biogeo-graphic mixing of independently diverse temperate, tropical, and high Tibetanplateau floras; these factors are not independently monitored by GLORIAmethodologies. Himalayan plant endemism is high (49% of all species found;Supplementary Material, Table 3) and indicates the unique and independentlyevolved flora in the Himalaya.

The present study greatly extends and agrees with our previous work (Salicket al. 2009)—biogeography, elevation (with covariable temperature), andprecipitation determine alpine vegetation. These results are also confirmedelsewhere (Giorgi et al. 1997; Gottfried et al. 2012; Kohler and Maselli 2009; Pauliet al. 2012; Thuiller et al. 2005; and others). Our previous studies using repeatphotographs show observable effects of climate change: tree and shrub lines aremoving up mountains; glaciers are melting; and alpine meadows are decreasingin size (Moseley 2011; Salick and Moseley 2012; Salick et al. 2005). Localinhabitants relate similar observations (Byg and Salick 2009; Konchar et al. inprep.). Furthermore, this study uniquely adds an abundance of quantitative datathat will be used to monitor the effects of Himalayan climate change on alpinevegetation into the future.

The Global Observational Research Initiative in Alpine environmentscolleagues in Europe (Gottfried et al. 2012; Grabherr et al. 1994; Pauli et al.2007, 2012; and others: see www.gloria.ac.at) have re-monitored 66 mountainsummits at 17 target regions from northern Scandinavia to Greece andfrom the Scottish Cairngorms to the Russian Urals. Their results show thatvegetation extends to higher elevations than previously, that species numbershave increased (except where precipitation is decreasing), and that rare andendemic species make up a smaller proportion of the flora. After a sevenyear interval, we have just begun to re-monitor the nine Himalayan GLORIAtarget regions (33 mountain summits). Since temperatures and precipi-tation are expected to increase yet more in the Himalaya, we hypothesizethat Himalayan alpine vegetation will be more strongly affected by climatechanges than European alpine vegetation; this hypothesis awaits furtherstudy.


Climate Change Mitigations through Traditional Ecological KnowledgeThis study substantiates previous work, quantifying half the Himalayan

alpine flora as useful, predominantly as medicinal and grazing plants (our work:Byg and Salick 2009; Ghimire et al. 1999, 2005a, 2005b, 2006; Salick et al. 2005;Salick et al. 2009; Salick et al. in press; Salick and Byg 2007; Salick and Moseley2012; Salick and Ross 2009a; and others’ work: Ives 2004; Vedwan 2006; Vedwanand Rhoades 2001). Here, we add a new perspective on human dimensions ofclimate change in the eastern Himalaya by concentrating on climate changemitigation by Himalayan peoples through TEK.

Few traditional people in the Himalaya understand the causes of climatechange. Although they are keenly aware of climate change itself—especiallywarming, melting glaciers, and unpredictable rain patterns (Byg and Salick2009)—many people attribute spiritual causes with prayer and propitiation assolutions (Salick et al. 2012). Nonetheless, Himalayan peoples actively mitigateclimate change through implementation of TEK. In particular, we found thatfactors with mitigating effects include sacred site conservation, afforestation, treecrops, soil carbon sequestration through incorporation of mulch and manure, andcarbon negative livelihoods. Traditional ecological knowledge in and of itself doesnot recognize climate change nor its mitigation, but TEK does provide valuablemethods of climate change mitigation. These TEK methods of climate changemitigation are valuable not only to Himalayan peoples but also to the world.

Often, discussions of climate change mitigation are dominated by ‘‘ReducingEmissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation’’ (REDD; e.g., Griffiths2008; Kohl et al. 2009). However, climate change is too great a challenge andsolutions too few and tenuous for us to narrow our options to these two coarsescale variables. In addition to scientific solutions, TEK from indigenous peoplesaround the world has much to offer (Nakashima et al. 2012). In the Himalayaalone, we have uncovered five prominent climate change mitigation practicesthat could be adopted elsewhere.

Sacred Himalayan Sky-Island Archipelago for Cultural Heritage andConservation of Alpine Flora

If the projections from our data are correct—suggesting that climate change,especially temperature and precipitation, threatens the endemic Himalayanalpine flora—then what are our options for conservation? Developing conserva-tion strategies that take climate change into consideration is challenging. Short ofreducing climate emissions, fixing excess CO2 already in the atmosphere, andrapidly developing non-carbon based energy systems—undeniably the onlysustainable solution to climate change—conservationists are recommendingstrategies such as migration corridors (Malhi et al. 2008) and assisted migration(McLachlan et al. 2007). If climate change continues to cause elevation shifts inplant communities and phenology to the threshold of local extirpations andincreased biological invasion, neither of these options seems feasible in theHimalaya. The reproductive constraints of many alpine plant populations inhibitreproduction, dispersal, and colonization (e.g., Law et al. 2010; Poudeyal andGhimire 2011) and corridors would have to span huge elevation gradients overwhich alpine plant populations cannot migrate.


We suggest a biocultural conservation strategy that unites cultural practicesand biodiversity conservation. Sacred peaks abound in the Himalaya, surroundmost of our research summits (Figure 2), and form an archipelago of ‘‘skyislands’’ among which alpine vegetation might disperse and migrate. Ourprevious work in the eastern Himalaya has shown that biodiversity is wellconserved in sacred areas (Anderson et al. 2005; Salick and Moseley 2012; Salicket al. 2007). We know that conservation strategies not supported by localpopulations do not work (e.g., Liu et al. 2001; Muller and Guimbo 2011). Sacredmountains are culturally supported and relevant to local ethnic populations(Salick in prep.; Salick and Moseley 2012). Nonetheless, there are still manychallenges. Indigenous concepts of Himalayan sacred mountains are spiritualand do not include conservation (Salick et al. 2007; Salick et al. in prep.); sensitivecross-cultural and cross purpose negotiations would have to be judiciouslyembarked upon. Policy would have to be internationally integrated across anarea where governments do not always have diplomatic relationships. Alpinefloral areas are small (and getting smaller as lower elevation species movehigher) and scattered across vast distances. Island biogeography holds that asisland size is reduced, diversity diminishes and that distance determinesthe likelihood of dispersal (MacArthur and Wilson 1967; Simberloff 1974).Determining the necessary size and distances between these sky islands as astrategy for conservation would be an exercise in applied island biogeographyyet to be tested.

Conclusion

Elevation (considered a proxy for temperature) and precipitation, are themost significant environmental variables determining Himalayan alpine vegeta-tion. Temperature and precipitation records show significant increases over thelast half century. In the future, these variables are projected to change the mostdramatically with climate change; disrupting people’s lives, livelihoods,landscapes, water supplies, and both wild and cultivated plants in substantialways. Thus, as we begin re-monitoring our long-term Himalayan target regions,we anticipate seeing effects of climate change comparable to or greater than thoseseen in Europe—increases in biodiversity, lower elevation plant populationsmoving to higher elevations, and decreased representation of threatened andendemic species. These trends represent a process whereby diverse, lowerelevation plants move into the alpine, outnumbering the high elevation plants,resulting in overall increases in biodiversity. Although we must simultaneouslyreduce carbon output from the developed world, indigenous mitigation practicespresent in the Himalaya can be used worldwide and may be key strategies foralpine plant conservation in the face of a rapidly changing climate.

Acknowledgments

International research on this scale can only be done with the collaboration of manypeople, institutions, and governments. Our list of collaborating authors acknowledges


those people directly involved in the research. In addition, we are thankful for the supportof Drs. Xu Jianchu and Yang Yongping (Kunming Institute of Botany, China); TashiYangzome Dorji (National Biodiversity Centre, Bhutan); Krishna K. Shrestha (CentralDepartment of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Nepal); and Georg Grabherr and HaroldPauli (GLORIA, University of Vienna, Austria). Government permits for this researchwere issued by national, provincial, and/or park/conservation authorities, without whichwe could not have done the work. Funding was provided by National Geographic Society,The Nature Conservancy, Ford Foundation, National Cancer Institute, and NationalScience Foundation along with salaries of the authors and collaborating authors from theirhome institutions. For all of these services, we are profoundly grateful. Our special thanksto the Missouri Botanical Garden, a farsighted institution that supports and encouragescreative international botanical research and conservation.

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Himalayan Alpine Vegetation, Climate Change and Mitigation