Olga Nefedova

On 9 July 1628 the grand embassy of the Holy RomanEmperor Ferdinand II (r. 1619–37) (Fig. 1), led by HansLudwig von Kuefstein (1582–1656), left Vienna headedfor Istanbul and the court of the Ottoman Sultan MuradIV (r. 1623–40). Just like any diplomatic envoy it carriedout numerous tasks, including commercial and politicalones. The Peace Treaty of Zsitvatorok, which ended thewar between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgmonarchy, had been signed in 1606 for a period of twen-ty years, and a new extension, which Ferdinand II strong-ly hoped for, was much needed. Neither the Habsburgsnor the Ottomans regarded a full-blown conflict as be-ing reasonable; hence, the two Empires exchanged em-bassies with the aim of finding a new solution, since thetreaty stabilized the situation on the Habsburg–Ottomanborders for half a century to the benefit of both parties.In spite of its diplomatic and political success, the Kuef-stein’s embassy is remembered first of all for its artisticlegacy documented by the ambassador’s diary, the draftof a final report to the Emperor, diplomatic correspon-dence, a list of gifts presented and received, and last butnot least, a series of gouaches, executed in Istanbul, anda series of oil paintings – which serve to illustrate vari-ous aspects of seventeenth-century Ottoman life, and pro-vide a detailed account of the ambassador’s mission.

The story of the embassy started in November1627, when Hans Ludwig von Kuefstein received an in-vitation to come to the Habsburg court on an urgentmatter. As he described the event himself: “I, Hans Lud-wig, Seigneur von Kuefstein, etc., in the Year of Our Lord1627, was observing my Duties in the Government ofLower Austria entrusted to me by His Imperial Majesty,my most gracious Lord Ferdinandus the Second, livingquietly and well in Vienna, and had no Thought what-soever that I might be needed for any other Services,and on Sunday the 21st of the Month of November inthe aforesaid Year 1627, was about to ride out in theMorning between 8 and 9 o’clock, to hear Mass and a

Sermon, when a Courier from Prague (where His Im-perial Majesty with the entire Court was staying becauseof the impending Coronation) is announced and handsme a Letter. With the Report that he had had to rideDay and Night, and was also under Orders to press foran immediate Reply and having received the same, toreturn Day and Night. In breaking the Seal of the Let-ter I found that the same had been sent by the Abbotof Kremsmünster, Imperial Privy Council Secretary andPresident of the Court Chamber, on the 18th of theMonth by 8 o’clock in the Evening, in Prague. He com-municated the following to me: That His ImperialMajesty had decided to employ me, before all Others,for the intended Legation to the Ottoman Porte as hisOrator; offering 20,000 Ducats for my Outfitting andthe first six months; should the Embassy take more thanthat Time, to release 1,200 Ducats each month; end-ing with his, the President’s, urgent Supplication to sub-mit most obediently to the Will of His Majesty and tocommunicate him, by the same Courier, my Declara-tion of Agreement”.1 Kuefstein had his own doubts andhesitations concerning this important – albeit danger-ous – mission, but the Emperor’s request could not bedisregarded, and on 11 December 1627, Hans Ludwigarrived and was received at the court in Prague.2 TheEmperor’s warm welcome and long conversationwashed away any resistance Kuefstein might still haveharboured, and when he left Prague for Vienna, on 6January 1628, it was decided and confirmed that he hadaccepted the commission wholeheartedly.

During the early stages of the embassy prepara-tions Kuefstein concentrated his efforts on twomain tasks:to assemble a collection of imperial gifts for the Ottomanofficials, and to select and outfit a proper entourage, wor-thy of such an embassy. Kuefstein’s embassy was quitenumerous, exceeding 100 people, and included many of-ficials, domestic staff, and even a chaplain and a den-tist. Kuefstein offers a lot of details in his notes about

Detail of the ImperialProcession (pp. 88–89)

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Heritage of Art Diplomacy: Memoirs of an Ambassador

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the embassy members, describing their positions and oc-cupations within the envoy: “The first place is held byFather Petrus Lubitsch, the Confessor of the Envoy, andhis chaplain, Father Kasper Bichler, both of whom aremembers of the Societas Jesu. … they were assisted bya ‘chapel servant’ who had to take care of the Mass req-uisites for the splendidly outfitted chapel … The physi-cal welfare was taken care of by a physician, a pharma-cist, a barber with medical skills, and the ‘Imperial tooth-breaker’ Franziskus de Archangelis. … Seven cavaliersof honour – among them one Scotsman, two Frenchmen,and two Italians – and six noble pages formed the clos-est entourage of the Envoy. The two Genoese who pre-sented themselves as Marchesi, Joanne Stephano andBarnabe Stephano Centurione, were not aristocrats, how-ever, but humble commoners. … The Envoy’s right-handman was his major-domo, Hans Albrecht Pollender. Hewas senior to the entire entourage, and also to the three‘house officers’ who assisted him, the Equerry, the Chef,and the Wagonmaster … There was a Chamberlain, aWardrobe Master, a Silver Chamberlain, and several table-setters, six trumpeters and an army drummer, the‘Oberzehrgadner’ and the ‘Unterzehrgadner’ [provisionsmasters], a Vintner, the first and second Cupbearer, akitchen writer, the Buyer and his carriers, the first andsecond Personal Chef, various sous-chefs, a butcher andkitchen boys. Furthermore a goldsmith, a watchmaker,a satchel-maker, a leather-worker, a Hungarian and a Ger-man tailor; the painter, then two farriers, and finallycoachmen, fore-riders, grooms, and various people forsimple auxiliary services … ”.3

It is particularly significant and important that theembassy delegation included two artists.4 It was record-ed that on 1 March 1628 the Ministry employed seven-teen embassy staff members and among them an artistnamed Franz Hörmann, with a promised salary of 6gulden per month.5 Under item 17 of the employmentlist is to be found: “Franz Hörmann, Painter, has beenhired as a Painter, he was promised Livery Clothes, inaddition to 6 Florins per Month; it was then agreed thathe may take along a Boy whom he has to clothe at hisown Expense. The Colours he needs in His Excellency’sservice shall be bought for him by His Excellency. Also,if he can make some Money without this affecting hisService for His Excellency, it shall be allowed. Under theaforesaid item 17 Abraham Hörmann, the Painter’sBrother has been hired as a Blacksmith. He has beenpromised 3 Florins per Month, and Livery Clothes, buthe will (in Addition) have to care for His Excellency’s per-

sonal Horse”.6 A few pages later the same employmentlist mentions another artist, Hans Gemminger, who, inaddition to using his artistic skills, was performing theservices of an embassy butler for a monthly wage of 6gulden.7 “Chief Table-setter Hanns Gemminger, aPainter, has been hired, apart from his Art, as a Table-setter, and has also been promised in addition to the Liv-eries 6 Florins per Month as of 1st March”.8 While onsite, both artists recorded in a series of gouaches the dif-ferent stages and events of the delegation’s journeys. Thesubjects included ceremonial scenes, important events;various places – caravanserai near Filibe, Mevlevi lodge;the customs and traditions of the Ottomans – punishmentscenes, funerals, weddings. It is widely believed that up-on returning to Vienna, Hörmann and Gemminger en-gaged the services of another artist named Valentin Müllerand together, in around 1640–50, they created a seriesof large oil panoramas based on their pre-existinggouaches.9 However, recent discoveries suggest anothername, another artist being responsible for the executionof the oil paintings – or at least of few of them: Hendrickvan Veerle (?–1690). His name, as well as the date 1654,were discovered hidden within the inscription on thepainting Dervishes at Mevlevi Lodge (private collection,Istanbul).10 This indeed might suggest that this artist wasresponsible either for the execution or the supervisionduring the process of creating large oil works based onthe original gouaches. In any case, there is no conclu-sive evidence to attribute the Kuefstein series oil paint-ings to the hand of one only artist.

By the end of July 1628 the essential preparationshad been completed and the embassy was ready to de-part. “Therefore, on the 9th of July in this Year 1628,after going to Mass and before His Majesty had gone tothe Table, in a private Audience, I most submissively tookmy Leave. I also most obediently wished His Majesty andthe Imperial House the best of Luck and Welfare for allHis Kingdoms and Territories, and also the Recom-mendation of my beloved Wife and my Children. Espe-cially if, during this long and hard Travel, I should endmy Life in the Service of His Majesty and of Christen-dom. Have His Majesty most obediently given to un-derstand that I, in full Awareness of my Shortcomings,would never have aspired to this Function and Per-formance but rather that His Majesty had chosenme pro-prio motu out of most gracious and great Trust and goodEstimate. Therefore I beg most humbly, should I notprove to be as skilful as His Majesty and the Circum-stances might require, that His Imperial Majesty not

Fig. 1Unknown from Upper AustriaPortrait of Ferdinand II, HolyRoman Emperor (1578–1637)c. 1614Oil on canvas, 132 5 96 cmKunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna

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throw his Disgrace upon me but most graciously re-member my Inappropriateness of which I ammyself verypainfully aware, and in his sublime Imperial Reasonrather find Fault with the most accidental obstacles andno less with the arrogant Nation that I am sent to. I as-sure him that in Remembrance of the abundant Gracesshown to me I would not lack in due Diligence and Alert-ness, hoping that with God’s Help I would achieve it sothat His Imperial Majesty could see Reason to favour mehenceforth. Whereupon his Imperial Majesty told mewith the most gracious Words and Gestures: That He re-membered very well that I did not aspire to this Lega-tion but had been called for it by Him. This because ofmy Diligence shown on various Occasions and my Suit-ability and also because of the special Trust he had inme. That He had no Concerns that through my Faultanything would go amiss but was certain of all good Sat-isfaction. Would not only take good Care of my Wife andmy Children (whose Number He wished to know) in myAbsence but also recognize my most obedient Pre-paredness for this Mission and the Pains in Performanceof the same at my Return with all Graces. Of which Ishould be assured. Then most graciously took my hands,made a + over me in blessing, speaking thus: I wish HimLuck and hope to see Him soon again with Me. Here-upon I asked His Majesty submissively for the Honourthat he would deign to receive my Servants, Pages andOfficers in Audience and to allow them graciously to kissHis Hands. Which He allowed forthwith and which cameabout. Whereupon His Majesty and His Imperial Con-sort betook themselves to the Table where I waited forthem for a while. After the Meal both Majesties betookthemselves to Laxenburg, and the Empress from thereto Baden to use the Baths there”.11

After his audience with the Emperor, and afterhaving received his first diplomatic assignment, on 20July the grand embassy left Vienna for Istanbul. A vi-sual record of this event – a large panorama painting– is preserved in the ancestral seat of the Kuefstein fam-ily, Greillenstein castle (Fig. 2). “On the 20th of Julythis Year 1628, I had Breakfast with the Stepbrother-in-law, Mr. Paul Jakob, Freiherr von Starhemberg, inthe ‘Landhaus’ [headquarters and meeting place of thearistocracy of Lower Austria, in the Herrengasse] afterI had taken Leave of my dear Wife and my Children,and at 2 o’clock in the Afternoon, with my Cortège andServants, with the Music playing, in the Company ofseveral Cavaliers and Ladies (among themmy dear Wifewho had come to the Landhaus, to bless me again) and

an innumerable crowd, I went from there to the Boatsthat were in Readiness underneath the Slaughter Bridgenear the Red Tower [city gate of Vienna, on the Danube].And after I had taken my Leave of Everybody who sowished – and there were many – I gave Orders around4 o’ clock in the Evening to take to the River. AlthoughI could, because of increasing strong Winds, go no fur-ther than Green Pleasance Pavilion [in the Prater, anold recreational park in Vienna]. I took my Dinner inthe Hall there, and lay down alone in one of the Cham-bers of Pleasance Pavilion. However, my Cortège andthe Servants were in the Boats. And the Turkish Envoyé,who had stayed for many Months in Prague and Vien-na and had departed together with me, was in the Woodson the other Side of the River. After I had landed there,I sent a Page to his Imperial Majesty who had gone fromLaxenburg to the Little Prater to hunt Deer there, andreceived his most gracious Wishes for my Journey andalso the Order that I should take good Care that my Peo-ple would not fire a Gunshot or otherwise drive theGame away. For the former, I most humbly expressedmy thanks; as for the second, I informed my People andthe Turks about Prohibition. The following Day I hadto stay at the Green Pavilion because of the strong Wind.And as my dear Wife came to visit me there early inthe Morning, I made her stay for Breakfast and ac-companied her in the Afternoon to Vienna; and stayedthere overnight. The following Day, the 22nd, I arrivedat the Boats with my Wife when the Gates were locked.I blessed her and took to the River; arriving early thesame Day at Preßburg”.12 The embassy was equippedwith at least eleven boats, with a personal ambassador’sboat built specially for him. At the end of the Danubetrip the envoy would continue its journey on land.

On 28 September 1628, the ambassador’s fleetarrived in Ofen (Buda), and on 29 September, Kuefsteinwas received by the Vizier Murteza Pasha, who was theGovernor of Ofen from 1626 to 1630.13 This meetingwas of significant importance, being one of the majordiplomatic events of the embassy. However, the re-ception did not go as smoothly as had been expected.The protocol was grossly violated when Kuefstein wasinvited to enter the ceremonial tent without the Viziereven being present there; after waiting for a long timethe Vizier finally did arrive, although he sat down with-out even welcoming or acknowledging Kuefstein’s pres-ence. Nevertheless, credentials were exchanged, as wellas gifts. Kuefstein received forty-two ceremonial kaftans.Upon returning to his own tent, he sent a formal com-

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Fig. 2Attributed to Franz Hörmannand Hans Gemminger(assisted by Valentin Müller)Departure of the GrandEmbassy from ViennaOil on canvasGreillenstein Castle

No. 1 Quartermaster andbuyerNo. 2 Kitchen boat andprovision chamberNo. 3 Equerry, painter, watch-maker, goldsmith and otherofficersNos 4 and 5 Turkish presents,silver chamber and pharmacyNo. 6 The personal boat ofHis Excellency, the envoyNo. 7 The cavaliers-in-waiting,paschy [pages], secretary andtheir servantsNo. 8 The father confessor,the major-domo, personalmedicus and chapel requisitesNos 9–11 Boats for carriagesand horses

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Fig. 3Franz Hörmannor Hans Gemminger“Audientz bey dem Vesirzu Ofen”Empfang des Großbotschaftersbeim Wesir von OfenReception of the EmbassyDelegation with the Vizierof Ofen1628–29Gouache on parchment,27.1 5 40.2 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.18

A. His Excellency theHonourable AmbassadorB. The Vizier of OfenC. The Turkish bassa [Pashas]in the DivanD. The interpreterE. The major-domo andequerry of His ExcellencyF. His Excellency’s cavaliers-in-waiting and officersG. The Turkish TshorBashi / Captains and captainsof horsesH. The present for the VizierI. His Excellency’s men andother servants who werepresent in this audience

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plaint to the official representative of the Governor’s of-fice and demanded an apology. The reception ceremo-ny was depicted in detail in one of the gouaches (Fig.3), concentrating mainly on the exchanging of gifts. Ac-cording to the “List of Particulars” the presents includednumerous gifts, for example a large basin and a jug andsix larger bowls to be used for sweets, made out of sil-ver and heavily gilded, weighing a total of 36 (Viennese)marks, 2 lots, and 3 ½ grains (i.e. more than 10 kilo-grams). The tower-like object depicted in the gouacheat the right is a clock.

To this day, one of the elements inherent to diplo-macy is the exchanging of gifts.14 Whether small or ex-pensive, giving presents would signal a friendly attitude,help in establishing contacts, warm relationships, leadpartners in negotiations to alleviate their positions anddecision-makers to make favourable judgements. It wasalso a way of honouring the recipient as well as being ameaningful demonstration of the status, power and po-sition of the donor. Selecting these presents was a sen-sitive matter, and many things needed to be taken intoconsideration. They had to be worthy of an Emperor andstill not give the impression of being a tribute. Of course,they had to conform to Turkish taste. This caused a greatdeal of worry, and their value had to correspond to therank of the recipient. Kuefstein recorded the list of giftsin a special document, indicating the quantity and thequality of valuable presents (Fig. 4). It is also known thatone of the gifts was a silver chunk weighing 140 kilos,“Silber im Gesamtgewicht von 493 Mark 4 Lot und 3Quintlein”, at that time worth 1000 ducats.15 The preci-sion and detail of the gouache illustrating the receptionin Ofen, as well as the list of gifts help us to take a clos-er look at these beautiful, expensive items.

One of the gifts brought by the Emperor’s del-egation was a silver-gilt lavabo set visible in the cen-tre of the gouache. The habit of traditional feasting re-quired a fitting ambience, including tableware that wassufficient in number as well as quality, first amongwhich silver and gold-plated vessels. A hand-washingset, made of tincture and a bowl, was the most par-ticular element of all the tableware. Before the secondhalf of the sixteenth century, when the use of person-al forks at the dining table became widely establishedacross Europe, dining could be a very messy affair. Al-though knives and spoons were frequently used, forkswere largely confined to the final “banqueting” course,for eating sticky sweetmeats and fruits. As a result, thehand-washing ceremony was of great significance. At

the beginning and end of a meal, an ewer and basin(lavabo set) were brought to the dining table by ser-vants so that diners could wash their greasy hands fromthe basin replenished with flower-scented waterpoured from the ewer. Since basins were brought toeach guest and appreciated at close range, they wereoften elaborately decorated (Figs. 5 and 6). In the six-teenth and seventeenth centuries richly decoratedNuremberg and Augsburg sets were especially popular.These were decorated with figurative and ornamentalrepoussé reliefs. The decorations often featured water-related topics, such as the mythological godheads ofthe sea. Hence, such lavabo sets were probably madefor public show, a demonstration of magnificence,rather than for use. Of particular interest and worthmentioning is the unusual example of a lavabo set madefor Ioan Serban Cantacuzino, grand duke and ruler ofWallachia in the second half of the seventeenth cen-tury. It combined the ornate Northern Baroque floralstyle with the exotic shape of Islamic objects. The beau-tiful ewer and basin are rare survivors, since most sil-ver objects from the Balkans were melted down.

Among the gifts for Murad IV there were also sixlarger bowls for sweets known as “tazzas”. This dish wasinspired by an ancient vessel: it consisted of an origi-nal ceramic tile with a wide bowl supported on a footand used as a cup of wine (Figs. 7 and 8). The tazza wasa form of utilitarian vessel that during the early Ital-ian Renaissance became increasingly popular, nodoubt because of its very obvious classical shape. Thefashion spread north of the Alps, and in the sixteenthand the first half of the seventeenth centuries it was verypopular in all of Europe. Glass cups but above all worksof gold were especially popular. These were truly mas-terpieces made by highly skilled artists-cum-goldsmiths.The flat area of the tazza bowl, which is about 15–30cm in size, was frequently embossed and chased witha scene in relief. They showed scenes with a large num-ber of characters and the action took place on severalplanes, the subject being usually drawn from classicalmythology or standard Christian iconography. It alsodepicted subjects such as the twelve months of the year,the Four Elements (Fire, Earth, Water and Air) and theVirtues. Such scenes were based on projects conceivedby outstanding European artists. The tazza was quiteoften the work of two goldsmith workshops – the baseand the bowl were made separately by two differentartists and then joined. Although this artistic treatmentof the bowl transformed the tazza into a work of vir-

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Fig. 4“Ungefähr(lich)e Beschreibungderjenigen Präsenten”Liste der Geschenke fürSultan MuradList of Gifts for Sultan Muradnineteenth centuryCardboard, 26 5 41 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.29

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Fig. 5Unknown artistEwer and basin, Venice, Italyc. 1580Silver, gilded, raised,chased, embossed and cast,h 43.9 cm, 6.42 kgVictoria & Albert Museum,LondonM.237&A-1956

Fig. 6Ewer and basin (lavabo set)probably made at the ChisinauCourt workshop, Moldovac. 1680–85Silver, partially gilded,h 53 cm, 4.4 kgThe Metropolitan Museumof Art, New York2005.62.1, 2 a, b

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Fig. 7Paul HübnerTazza, Augsburgc. 1595Silver-giltThe British Museum, London

Fig. 8Drawing projectfor a tazza, Germany1581The British Museum, London

Porte”, which began in 1548 as a payment from the HolyRoman Emperor to Suleiman the Magnificent to pre-vent an Ottoman invasion of the Empire, produced ademand for lavish automated clocks and automata.Guidebooks and handbooks for Europeans visiting theOttoman Empire often suggested taking along as pres-ents clocks and other automatons as they were highlyappreciated and esteemed in the East.

But going back to the embassy of Kuefstein, weshould perhaps note that the protocol of the Peace Treatyanticipated an exchange between the embassies, and al-though two diplomatic envoys, Ottoman and Habsburg,

were planning to depart simultaneously, owing to de-lays in Prague, the Ottoman envoy, led by Receb Pasha,arrived in Vienna first (while Kuefstein was still on hisway to Istanbul). Actually, after departing from Ofen andupon arriving in Belgrade, Kuefstein received the newsthat the Ottoman embassy had already reached Viennaon 21 October. Further details of the Kuefstein trip canbe found in the ambassador’s very detailed diary. Forexample, as illustrated in one of the gouaches, we knowthat the embassy spent the night of 10 November in theHan of Harmanli, just a two days’ journey from Edirne(Adrianople). At the time the Han was considered to beone of the finest caravanserais, a crossroads of traderoutes between Belgrade and Istanbul, a major meetingplace for traders, diplomats and travellers.

But just as every trip ends, Kuefstein’s long jour-ney came to an end: on 25 November the embassy, es-corted by high-ranking Ottoman officials, entered Is-tanbul (Fig. 13). Kuefstein’s initial attempts to organ-ize an entry worthy of a mighty Habsburg Empire werenever realized. Neither the Ottoman ambassador in Vi-enna, nor Kuefstein received permission form theircounterparts to make a ceremonial entry into the cap-itals. And even though the embassy started the marchin the early morning of 25 November with flying coloursand music that could be heard half a mile away fromthe city, the Istanbul Resident of the Vizier of Ofen re-quested that the ambassador finish the music and furlthe embassy flags. Only after that did the cavalcade pro-ceed. Kuefstein wrote as follows: “With this Arrange-ment that has been described in Short, I was receivedhonourably and escorted into the City, where the Win-dows and Streets were incredibly crowded by the Spec-tators, and until the Lodgings or Han where at otherTimes the Imperial Orators used to be accommodated[this was the Nemçe Hanı, in Tavuk Pazarı]. In front ofthe same, both mounted Pashas with their Cavalcadetook Leave. The Ragusan Ambassador however, with theaforesaid French and Venetian Emissaries, accompaniedme as far as my chamber. Whereupon I gave them Leaveto return to their Masters; however, I made the Ragu-san stay with me at the Table”.16

Themost important official diplomatic events wereaudiences with the Sultan, who was visible to an am-bassador only upon arrival and departure. Kuefstein wasreceived by Sultan Murad IV twice – on 5 December 1628to present his credentials,17 and on 24 July 1629 to in-form the Sultan about his departure.18 Sultan Murad IV,one of the last powerful Ottoman rulers, was known both

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tuosity in keeping with the tastes of Mannerist court art,it did not forgo the functional aspect of the tazza. Theywere used either for drinking or as a dish to be placedon the table with fruit piled up high on it. No doubt ban-quets held at the courts of Renaissance princes wouldrequire large sets of silver tazzas, so that each guest hadhis or her own individual piece. This vessel had founda permanent place in aristocratic dining culture and waspreserved in many works of art. The tazza often appearson canvases depicting the feasts of mythologicaldeities, Bacchus’s entourage, and in Dutch still lifes. Onesuch example is that of the tazza depicted in Caravag-gio’s famous painting of Bacchus.

At the bottom of the illustration one of the en-voys passes another interesting vessel – the double cup.It consists of a pair of folded cups, of which the upper(turned upside down) stands for the cover and a sepa-rate cup (the lip of one being designed to fit snugly in-side the lip of the other). Such constructs were moresplendid than single vessels, and this made them at-tractive among a selection of silverware. The oldest dou-ble cups date back to the fourteenth century, the peakof their popularity came during the sixteenth century,and they were produced until the end of the seventeenth.A variety of cups were paired (Fig. 9). The vessel illus-trated on the gouache indeed presents two so-called“lobed cups”. A lobed cup is one of the most recogniz-able and interesting among the goldsmith’s vessels ofthe Late Middle Ages. These objects were often made inNuremberg, where the most beautiful examples of thistype of work hail from. The items were made by ham-mering from silver a vessel whose base and bowl wereornamented with regular, spherical lobes, reminiscentof water drops. What is particularly interesting about thisobject is that the repoussé was not just used as a deco-rative technique, but it also had a structural function.The teardrop volumes stiffened the whole structure, whileat the same time showing off the superior reflective abil-ity of silver. Soft and wave-like, giving the impressionof a whirling motion and the illusion of movement, thelobes reflected light in various ways and were proof ofthe quality and preciousness of the silver and the skillof the goldsmith. These vessels were a show of their mak-ers’ highest talents. The correct making of the cup poseda number of problems. The goldsmith who began work-ing on a simple sheet of metal first had to very accu-rately plan the form of the vessel, then manually chis-el a row of perfectly symmetrical fields of suitable sizeand shape, taking care neither to deform the vessel nor

to damage the delicate silver tin. Double cups are alsoknown to us from drawings by painters and artists suchas Albrecht Dürer (whose father was a goldsmith).

Also of interest is a popular superstition that theshape of the vessel was supposed to help in detectingattempts of poisoning the user. We should not overlookthe fact that on the inside the edges of these areas wouldbe the first to react to the presence of poison, whichmeant that even the slightest discoloration was no-ticeable due to its shape.

Tower-shaped clocks (also known as tabernacleclocks or tureen clocks) are especially interesting. In thepicture the larger one stands before the Vizier along-side the other vessels, and the other, smaller one is car-ried by one of the participants in the visit. Tureen typeclocks were among the first portable clocks (Figs. 10 and11).They have a mechanism made of steel and brass in-side a gold- and silver-plated copper cover. The towershape goes back to the mighty tower clocks markingthe time for town dwellers, a symbol of consistency, re-liability and something that stands on a solid founda-tion. The rich ornament on the cover normally depictedscenes related to the passing of time and human fate.They often contained extensive iconography and deepsymbolic meaning. They were linked to the religious be-liefs of Christianity, theology, classic mythology. Whatwas valued however, was not the decoration itself, butmost of all the mechanism. The mechanism in such de-vices often consisted of a spring-driven, verge escape-ment with a balance, fusse, striking-train and time in-dication. The most advanced mechanisms did not justmeasure time, chime hours or possess an alarm clockfunction; they also indicated many astronomical meas-urements. So-called “astronomical clocks” showed thephases of the moon, days and months, the length of boththe day and the night, the rising and the setting of thesun and the moon and, lastly, the Zodiac signs. How-ever, the tower-shaped clock was a particularly popu-lar type, and portable clocks often featured very so-phisticated forms. The clock-mechanism was hidden inthe traditional tower as well as in the form of people,animals or mythical creatures. One of the most prolif-ic centres for the manufacture of these magnificent toyswas Augsburg in Southern Germany. In the last quar-ter of the sixteenth century the fashion for clocks withautomated figures (and for machines that were solelyautomata) reached a peak at the courts of the Holy Ro-man Empire and with the rich customers from the Ot-toman Empire. The so-called “Tribute to the Sublime

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Fig. 9Caspar Beutmüller the ElderDouble cup, Nuremberg,Germany1590–1600Silver, partially gilded,h cup a 22.9 cm,h cup b 23.2 cmThe Metropolitan Museumof Art, New York17.190.609 a, b

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Fig. 10Astronomical table clock,Germany (Augsburg)second quarter of theseventeenth centuryThe Metropolitan Museumof Art, New York

Fig. 11Guillaume CouldroitTable clock, Bloisc. 1540The British Museum, London

I was led away by the two Chamberlains and with thesame Pomp as before rode home”. Kuefstein was relievedand had the right to triumph: “And thus this Audiencewent Thanks to God felicitously and well. Nor did Any-one say a Thing against the Gifts. But rather the CourtOfficials held them in their Hands when I went to theAudience, not expressing anything else but that they werepleasant. From which I have seen again that one shouldnot give in to these People or be frightened by them butmust face them with Ragione (reason). And that I wouldhave done wrong to follow their Impositions and Adviceto buy something in Addition to these Gifts”.

A detailed account of Kuefstein’s presence in Is-tanbul is provided below, described day by day, untilthe day of his departure from Istanbul on 18 August1629 and his arrival in Vienna on 8 December 1629.Although the mission was important, Kuefstein longedto return home, counting every day and precisely stat-ing in his diary that he spent “nine months minus sev-en days” in Istanbul. The day after his return, Kuefsteinwas received by the Emperor in a long private audienceduring which he gave the first account of his mission.Ferdinand II thanked him in a most gracious manner,suggesting the prospect of his holding the position ofGovernor of Upper Austria. And as early as 18 Decem-ber, Kuefstein submitted his “Report” to the Presidentof the Imperial War Council. Thus his Grand Embassyhad also formally come to an end. This journey markeda decisive point in the rise of the Kuefsteins. Upon hisreturn, the Emperor indeed appointed him Governor ofthe Land above the Enns, and on 20 February 1634,he was made a Hereditary Imperial Count, as pointedout in the diploma for the “well-absolved Embassy tothe Ottoman Porte”.20 On 27 September 1656, HansLudwig von Kuefstein died at the age of 74 in Linz. Hewas buried in the Landhaus Church, in the family vaulthe himself had had built. One century later, the tombof the Kuefsteins was destroyed during work to convertthe old abbey church into the late Baroque church thatis still standing today. Indeed, Hans Ludwig Kuefstein’slast resting place has disappeared.

If we were to analyze the diplomatic and politi-cal outcome of his mission, we would consider the em-bassy to have been successful. Or at least as fruitful aspossible, considering the current circumstances. Peacewas preserved, and at Szöny the basic agreement wasconfirmed and a treaty concluded for the next twenty-five years. Kuefstein’s diary and the detailed descrip-tion of his journey can also be considered as a valuable

historical reference, while his gouaches are vivid illus-trations of Ottoman life. And as Kuefstein wrote him-self, ending his notes: “And thus have completed withgood Fortune and God’s Grace this arduous, tiresome,and dangerous Mission, and absolved myself with Fameand Honour. Wherefore I thank God’s Majesty from theBottom of my Soul and also beg from Him the Graceand the Means that all my Actions and Omissions shallbe for the Honour of God’s Majesty, to the Advantageand Pleasure of my gracious Master, and Welfare of myCountry and for the secular and eternal Well-being ofmyself and my Family. Amen, Amen!”21

Calendarium of the Kuefstein Turkish Voyage22

1628

20 JulyFarewell of the embassy at Slaughter Bridge in Vienna.

27 July – 1 SeptemberThe embassy is idly halted at the border fortress of Raab.

2 SeptemberChange of position in Komorn. Before the existing dif-ferences are effectively settled, the journey must onceagain be interrupted for more than three weeks.Kuefstein’s wife follows her husband.

14 SeptemberKuefstein acknowledges receipt of the original instructionsand the accreditations. He also reports that InternuntiusMehmed Beg, who is returning with him to Turkey, hasfor the past 24 days failed to receive the provisions he wasdue, and has had to borrow 100 ducats from him.

25 SeptemberLate in the evening the provincial of the HungarianFranciscans and a frater arrive. They have orders tosearch for the relics of the crusade preacher JohannesKapistran, who in 1456, together with Johannes Hun-yadi, saved Belgrade from the Turks, and take themback to Christendom. An Imperial letter instructs Kuef-stein to assist them in that task.

26 SeptemberCeremonious exchange of the two Grand Embassies andthe special envoys between Szöny and Almasch.

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for restoring the authority of the state and for the bru-tality of his methods. He addressed the issues of cor-ruption with policy changes, and increased the power ofjudicial regulations by introducing a very strict systemof punishments. But his reign was most notable for hismilitary achievements, for instance, its conflict with Per-sia in alliance with the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, aswell as the recapture of Baghdad in 1638 when the Sul-tan was commanding the army himself and proved tobe an outstanding field commander. The Sultan had risento the throne as a young boy, and when Kuefstein methim he was only seventeen years old. At the time of hisreign he was overseen by a series of Grand Viziers as wellas his relatives, notably his mother Kösem Sultana.

The ambassadorial reception ceremony was fol-lowed as per the protocol, which had remained un-changed since the fifteenth century. The ambassador wasreceived at the imperial Topkapı Palace – the Sultan’sresidence and the Empire’s political and administrativecentre. After proceeding through the first, outer gate ofTopkapı Palace (Bâb-ı Hümâyûn), the procession wouldreach the Bâb-ü’s-selam (or the Gate of Salutation). There,the ambassador and his retinue would disarm, leavingtheir swords before entering the next courtyard and ar-riving at the council chamber (the Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn, orthe Imperial Council) where the dinner by a Grand Vizieron behalf of the Sultan would be served (Fig. 14). In fact,the first folio depicts a scene from the Farewell Audi-ence of 24 July 1629, proven by the inscription statingthat both the “old” Resident and the “new” one reliev-ing him of his duty took part in the banquet.

After dinner the ambassadors would proceedthrough the Bâbü’s-saade (the Gate of Felicity) to thethrone room (Arz Odası) to be received by the Sultan(Fig. 15). The ambassador would enter bearing gifts tobe presented to the Sultan. We know that the main pres-ent for the Sultan was a gilded silver table service anda Sini, “a round solid Silver Table Top with a matte fin-ish and decorated all around with golden Triangles, setupon a low Pedestal very artfully made out of Ebony,which was collapsible”. … The gift for the Sultan wasa big round “mirror clock” on an ebony pedestal. Thismasterpiece of Baroque horology was both a clock andan astrolabe. It told the time according to Western andTurkish chronology and had an alarm and a chimingmechanism, as well as displaying the calendar date andthe positions of the Sun, the Moon and the planets inthe Zodiac. For the Vâlide, the mother of the reigningSultan and First Lady of the court, a big mirror in a gild-

ed frame and “an Instrument that plays three tunes; sit-ting on a red velvet cushion, a dog that looks left andright and has a clock in its breast”.19

After the gifts were presented, a letter contain-ing the ambassador’s credentials would be passed overto the Dragoman and then from one official to anoth-er, to finally be placed on the pillow next to the Sultan.The Grand Vizier would respond on behalf of the Sul-tan and this would end the ceremony. The audience it-self was described by Kuefstein in detail: “The Sultanwas sitting on a Stage that was covered with a Blanketwrought with Pearls and precious Stones. Opposite him,six Viziers were standing. As soon as I came through theDoor and made my Reverence for the Emperor, with myHat off, they both held me gently by my Arms and ledme towards him and gave me his Coat to kiss. Duringwhich Leading and Coat-kissing the Emperor was look-ing at me tyrannically, which almost resembled a wildand affected Character; maybe it was supposed to be aGrandezza. I kept my Calm, however, but when they hadme led to a Wall and left me standing there, my backto the Wall, I covered myself with my Hat again and wait-ed until all my Men, who were wearing Kaftans, had per-formed the same Ceremony. They were immediately ledoutside, though. Only the Honourable Resident, IbrahimEfendi (who was born a German from Pösing – UpperPalatinate – but was now a Turk and upon the Recom-mendation of Mr Lustrier was employed as an Interpreter)and Ernst Hazy, my Interpreter, stayed with me in theRoom. And also – on my right – the aforesaid two cham-berlains. Then I held my Speech. At the Beginning andevery Time I mentioned His Imperial Majesty, my mostgracious Lord, I doffed my Hat which otherwise was onmy Head, and as soon as I had finished a Point or Para-graph I had my Interpreter say the same in Turkish. Al-so the written Instruments each Time were taken fromthe Hands of the Resident and given to one of the Cham-berlains who gave it to the first Vizier, this one to thesecond, and so on, and finally to the Kaymakam. Whocarried them to the Emperor and laid them down be-side him on the Stage. And that was the Way it was. Noone replied or said a Thing. Except that the Emperortwice asked the Kaymakam a Question. One time if allmy Men who were led in clad with Kaftans were mem-bers of the Nobility. The Lustrier could not hear the oth-er question; he could only understand from the Answergiven by the Kaymakam that the Emperor may haveasked about my Ceremonies, my Speeches and the like.After finishing my Speech and making my Reverences,

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Fig. 12Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Ein Türkische Herberg oderCaravansaray”, “EinTürckische Begräbnuß”Türkischer Einkehrgasthofund Türkisches BegräbnisA Turkish HostelA Turkish Funeral1628–29Gouache on parchment,26.2 5 39.3 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.19

• A Turkish Hostel[or caravanserai]A. The gate or entranceB. The rooms upstairsC. The wall around thecaravansarayD. A large cobbled courtyardE. Two conduit wells with fourconduits hewn from stone, andby each one big stone throughF. Arcade, beneath which tobe lodged in the dryG. Shack where they sell horsefodder for moneyH. Two entrances side by sideI. Large high vaultK. The stables on both sideswhere 400 or 500 horses canbe housed

• A Turkish FuneralA. The deceased’s servant whocarries a chest containingincenseB. Three Hoggia [Hodsha] /or priests who plug their earswith their thumbs and arescreaming very hideouslyC. The people going with thefuneral trainD. The corpse borne by fourpersons, covered with a goldenpiece [?], also a coat. And gold-sewn handkerchiefs / near thehead a turban decorated withthree small aigrettes andgolden gauze

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Fig. 13Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Einzug des Großbotschaftersin Konstantinopel”Einzug des Großbotschafters inKonstantinopelEntry of the EmbassyDelegation in Constantinopleon 25 9b[bris] [November] 16281628–29Gouache on parchment,26.5 5 40 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.20

A. Turkish captains / c. 200B. The Hon. Orator’sdrummer, aloneC. The Hon. Orator’s six fieldtrumpetersD. H. Frantz Friedrich GeimanFreyherr (Baronet) with thebannerE. Four chamberlainsF. Six noble pagesG. The two couriersH. The Hon. Orator’s cavaliers-in-waitingI. Major-domo and equerryK. Two envoys of the city ofRagusaL. Mr. Sebastian Lustrier,Resident of his Imp. MajestyM. The horses of the two Bassa[Pashas] who escort HisExcellency in their midst,whose horses are led in frontof themN. The lackey of HisExcellencyO. His Excellency, the Hon.Orator between two PashasP. Two interpetersQ. The secretaries of theFrench and Venetianembassies and otherdistinguished servants /who receive and accompanyHis ExcellencyR. Officers and servantsS. His Excellency’s personalcarriageT. Various folksV. Two State coachesW. Apothecary wagonX. [no explanation]

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Fig. 14Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Solchergestalt pflegt derSultan die Herren kaiserlichenOratores durch seine Vesier imDivan oder Orth da man Rathhält mit Essen bedienen zulassen”Gastmahl bei den WesirenThus the Viziers Entertainthe Imperial Envoys(or Ambassadors) at Dinner inthe Divan, or Place of Council,on Behalf of the Sultan1628–29Gouache on parchment,24.8 5 38.3 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.21

A. The place / or Divan /where council is held iscovered with fine Persiancarpets. The benches arecovered with silk carpetsand fine cushions.B. On the wall is Turkishpaintwork.C. A large ostrich egg paintedin the Turkish manner fromwhich several strands of pearlsare hanging.D. A window in the wall,1 werck schuh wide[1 werk schuh = working shoe= c. 0.33 m], with a fine trellis/ from which the Sultan canlook into the Council / but isnot seenE. The table is a large roundsilver plate, circa a span high.Here were dining theHonourable Orator, Mr.Lustrier and the new Resident,also the Kaimakam and theGrand Mufti.F. InterpreterG. Three other Viziers togetherwith the confessor of theHonourable OratorI. Two Kadilesker [ChiefJudges] with two officersof the Honourable OratorK. Chief and vice Defterdar[High tax officials]L. Major-domo, equerry andtwo cavaliersM. The Chancellor and Mr.Thanrädl with two officersN. FoodrunnerO. Those who give to drink inchinawareP. The Chamberlain and trainofficersQ. Chaushes and otherservants on duty in the Divan

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Fig. 15Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Ihrer Exc[ellenz] DeßKay[seriche] Herrn OratorisAudienz”Empfang des Großbotschaftersbeim SultanAudience of the EmbassyDelegation with the Sultan1628–29Gouache on parchment,26.4 5 39.3 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.22

1. The Turkish Emperor2. His Excellency,the Hon. Ambassador3. The Imperial regularResident / Herr SebastianLustrier4. The Dragoman orinterpreter / who was anItalian renegade5. A chamberlain / who ledHis Excellency to the audienceand to the kissing of theTurkish Emperor6. Two chamberlains / whoreceived the cavalier of theHon. Ambassador for the saidkissing7. The Viziers / and secretcounsellors / of the TurkishEmperor Amurat [Murad],as it happened on the 3rdDecem[bris] 1628

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Fig. 16Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Die schene Moschea oderKirch, so Sultan Amuraterbauet”Türkische MoscheeThe Beautiful Mosque orChurch, Which Sultan Amurat(Murad) Has Built1628–29Gouache on parchment,26.7 5 39 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.23

A. The beautiful mosque orchurch which Sultan Amurathas had builtB. The wall and the courtyardaround the mosqueC. Pyramid or pointed columnin this squareD. A threefold twined columnof iron with three serpents’headsE. A pyramid of square stones/ which is old and decayedin placesF. In this manner the Turksuse to exercise themselvesevery Friday in horseracingand stick-throwingG. People watch in a circleH. In this manner thecommon folks trainthemselves in wrestling andexercise their bodiesI. These have already taken offtheir clothes and prepare towrestleK. The wrestling-master / whogives the wrestlers his blessingand takes care / that in thematch no blows to the genitalsand no strangleholds are used

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Fig. 17Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Ein Türckische Predig”Eine Türkische PredigtA Turkish Sermon1628–29Gouache on parchment,27.7 5 37.7 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.24

A. There are two sermonchairs where the superiorof the Dervishes, or TurkishMonks /B. preaches / while anotherC. reads to him the text /which he is to interpretD. These are Dervishes / whoafter the sermon whirl in oneplace and afterwards will makea reverence before the onewho was sitting on the carpetand kiss his handE. These are also Dervisheswho are standing by / and willrelieve the others /when theyare tired from whirlingF. Turks / who attend thisservice

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Fig. 18Franz Hörmann orHans Gemminger“Türkische Strafen”Türkische StrafenTurkish Punishments1628–29Gouache on parchment,27 5 40.5 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.25

A. A woman in a sack withbent knees hanged up in ashop / from which she hasstolen a woman’s hatB. In this manner the men arehanged at the place wherethey have been caught in theircrime / naked to the waist andcut up at the neck or in thebellyC. Subassa [Subashi] as ProvostGeneralD. Two janissaries secondedto himE. One / who weighs the waresof the grocers / if they arecorrect or notF. In this manner they punishthe grocers / if their waresare poor or not sufficient inweight / by tying their handsand nailing them to theirown shop through the earand letting them stand therea full day to be mockedby all peopleG. Or they lay him on theground / two hold his feetup / two are beating his soleswith sticks / until the judgecalls out / stop it / there isalways one who will count theblows / then the grocer mustgive the janissary one Kreutzerper blowH. A shop nearby where thebaker keeps bread for saleI. Thus they punish those /who have committed a gravecrime / by two who arekneeling upon their Hands /two who are holding their Feet/ and two who beat their loins/ and two their feetK. In this manner they punishthe bakers and the butcherswho keep wares for sale withtoo little weightL. This is an extremepunishment of the Turks fortheir rebellious enemies andthose who have been Turks /and have become ChristiansM. In this manner the Turksuse to feed charities to thedogs and the cats

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Fig. 19Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Geselliges BeisammenseinTürkischer Frauen”Türkische FrauenSocial Gathering of TurkishWomen1628–29Gouache on parchment,24.8 5 38.1 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.26

As the womenfolk of thedistinguished Turks are notoften allowed to leave houseor to come near strange menfolk / they will invite eachother to their houses / andamuse themselves with suchdances, playacting andpastimes

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Fig. 20Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Türkischer Brautzug”Türkische HochzeitTurkish Wedding1628–29Gouache on parchment,27.2 5 38.7 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.27

• [upper row] In this mannerthe Turks will honour theirbrides before the wedding andcome to lead them into theirhouses. This one carriessilverware and jewellery forthe bride. These two carrygolden and silk cloth for awoman’s dress. This one iscarrying the boots and slippersof the bride. This one carrieswooden shoes which they callopanken. This one carries twogolden bonnets or hats.• [middle row] This one carriesa threefold kanich [?] keg[censer] that is for use in therooms. This one carries twocandlesticks, the first slavegirl, who serves in the kitchen.On this mule are ready dressesand linen clothes in a chest.This mule carries themattresses and what belongsto the bed. The other slavegirl, who does the laundry.The third slave girl, who waitsupon the bride, the fourth thelike• [bottom row] A Turk who[incomprehensible]. ThreeTurks who as decoration […] atall high tree that is beautifullypainted and draped in flowersof carved wood and tinsel. Thefifth is also a Turkish womanwho has to wait on her all thetime. Under this baldachin orcurtain rides the bride herself

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Fig. 21Franz Hörmann or HansGemminger“Reiterspiele zu Ehren desBotschafters”Türkische ReiterspieleEquestrian Games in Honourof the Envoy (or Ambassador)1628–29Gouache on parchment,24 5 38.7 cmOttoman Museum,Perchtoldsdorf, AustriaOSM 03.28

• [first row] A. Ring-joustingfor three rings / in a fullgallop / where the copy [fromRuss. kopje = lance] must becouched each time anew / andthe three rings gallantlyremoved• [second row] B. Has in a fullgallop poured the priming /and touches with the match.C. Shoots a long rifle from hischeek. D. This one shoots fivearrows in his racing / andquite accurate. E. Turns aboutin racing / also shoots in alldirections / and quite accurate• [third row] F. Draws in fullgallop his sabre to the point /so that it does not come out ofthe scabbard. G. Draws thesabre fully / exercises with it /and puts it back in gallop. H.Slides down from the saddleon the left side / so / that hetouches the ground with hisright hand / and still remainswith his feet in the stirrups. I.Touches the ground with hisright hand and foot. K. Turnsabout and about in the saddle/ so that he ends up sitting inthe saddle. L. Stands up in hisgallop and plays with thepusican [mace].• [fourth row] M. Stands onthe saddle / and swings asmall javelin three timesaround his shoulder. N. Standson the saddle and plays withthe sabre. O. Stands upon thesaddle, has on top a roundhoop, like a cartwheel / withthree sabres in it / with theiredges upwards / and playswith the pusican. P. does somewriting in gallop standingupon such saddle. Q. Standsup in gallop and shoots a rifle/ by pulling a string / tied tothe trigger. R. Does asomersault in the saddle / sothat his feet are in the air /and swings back into thesaddle

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Fig. 22Attributed to Franz Hörmannand Hans Gemminger(assisted by Valentin Müller)A Scene from the TurkishHarem, 1654Oil on canvas, 130 5 193.5 cmPera Müzesi, Istanbul

3 NovemberKuefstein attends a Turkish service in the former Churchof St Sophia.

4 NovemberIn the morning Kuefstein visits one of the town’s warmbaths, and in the afternoon, at the Cohadžijski-Han,which was the Ragusan merchant colony’s large cloth-ing store, he buys several hundred cubits of red and vi-olet cloth for new liveries. Eight German and Polish cap-tives throw themselves at Kuefstein’s feet, begging fortheir liberation. Through the Kadi he obtains the re-lease of three men, while the others will be handed overto him on his way back. But because of the interces-sion of one of the owners, a Jew, he cannot even keepthe three.

6 November“With great arduousness” across the mountains, whichform the watershed between the Sofia Basin and theMaritza Valley, past the ruins of the legendary “Trajan’sPorte”, allegedly built by Emperor Trajan.Philippopolis. The Müfti of Ofen would like to attendthe daily morning Mass, for which permission is glad-ly granted.

10 NovemberThe night is spent in the immense Han of Harmanli.

11 NovemberThe many-vaulted Mustafa Pasha Bridge over the Mar-itza is crossed.

12 NovemberThe embassy is escorted into the ancient Sultan’s res-idence Edirne, with an especially magnificent array ofhorsemen and infantry as well as two elephants. Kuef-stein on his part, “as in all distinguished Places has Mu-sic playing and Colours flying”.

13 NovemberThe elephants he had admired so much the day beforeare presented to him in the Han during mealtime. Inthe afternoon Kuefstein visits the mosque of Sultan Se-lim, a masterpiece of Ottoman architecture built bySinan, and climbs the “150 Staffel” (steps) of a minaret.

14 NovemberDeparture for the last leg of the great journey.

16 November“When I got up before Daylight, and before Sunrisehad Breakfast with many of my Men, I saw a Sign inthe Sky. Namely a Flame that was running fast fromEast towards Midnight. It soon broke up in Parts. Andone Part became a Ball, like a Sun, the other Part,somewhat smaller, formed Something like severalStars. Which all assembled later to form a Ball or Sun;it hurried fast after the first Ball. This went on un-til the real Sun came up and concealed them by andby. Whether this had any natural Causes (maybeClouds in Flames from the Sunrise) or was an un-natural Sign, is only known to God the Almighty, whomay preserve us”.

18 NovemberAfter Selimbria (Silivri), “a fine town on the WhiteSea”, Kuefstein is greeted by the Resident SebastianLustrier. In spite of the admonishments of his Mih-mandar, henceforth not to pass through the townswith music playing and colours flying, Kuefstein be-lieves that he can indeed insist on it. At Ponte Pic-colo (Küçük Çekmece), one mile before Istanbul, thiscauses a severe incident with the escorting officer,Sahin Aga. Annoyed, he declines any responsibilityshould the embassy be attacked by the Spahi andMoors camped there. Contrary to his outward calm,Kuefstein is very concerned. But nothing happens. Be-fore the entrance into Istanbul a camp is pitched out-side the city.

25 NovemberEntrance into Istanbul.

5 DecemberFirst audience with Sultan Murad IV.

9 DecemberKuefstein attends the spectacle of the victorious GrandVizier Hüsrev Pasha entering the city. The captive AbazaMehmed Pasha is one of his following.

18 DecemberWith a visit to the Bas-Defterdar (the Administrator ofthe Empire’s finances), Ebûbekir Pasha, Kuefstein fin-ishes his series of ceremonial first visits. This time, too,he is honourably received “with Black Water, Sherbet,and Smoking”. Kuefstein is not yet familiar with theterm “Kahve”.

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In the Western provinces of the Ottoman Empire theplague is rampant. The embassy is forced to camp out-side the towns and villages out in the open.

28 SeptemberCeremonious reception of the embassy flotilla in Ofen.

29 SeptemberAudience with the Vizier Murteza Pasha that is over-shadowed by differences. Still, upon the ambassador’srequest five Christian captives are released. Among themis the soldier Matthias Hofer whose wife Katharina hadbeen making every effort for him to be liberated by thePresident of the Imperial War Council.

5 OctoberThe journey to Istanbul continues. The Müfti of Ofenhas been appointed to escort the Ambassador as Mih-mandar (“guest escort”) and to provide the Tayın theprovisions for the men and horses granted by the Sul-tan. A Frenchman who has been allowed by the Am-bassador to travel on the boat with the carriages diesof the plague.

6 OctoberAnother death is caused by the plague.

7 OctoberThe Ragusan merchant from Belgrade whom Kuefsteinhas taken into his service for the transmittance of se-cret correspondences must be left behind in a village.This third case of the plague causes panic-stricken fear,but it will be the last.

10 OctoberThe Catholic priest from a village welcomes the Am-bassador with bread and cheese.After listening to the priest’s complaints about the ha-rassment his parish suffers at the hands of the Calvin-ists, Kuefstein promises to recommend him to the Vizierof Ofen. On many occasions the boats are endangeredby the many water-mills anchored in midstream.

11 OctoberThe Ambassador’s personal boat is almost destroyed be-cause of a tree standing in the water.

12 OctoberValpovár is passed. Kuefstein ransoms a captive,

ChristophWeber, from Vienna, who claims to be a broth-er-in-law of the government secretary Khapff, for 5,500Asper (equal to 98 florins and 20 kreutzers).

14 OctoberArrival at Belgrade.

15 OctoberA delegation from the Ragusan merchant colony wel-comes Kuefstein; they assure him of their loyalty to-wards the Emperor and the House of Habsburg. Theypromise to send the Emperor several hunting falconsas an honorary present.

17 OctoberKuefstein appoints the merchant Francesco Vlatkifrom Ragusa to transmit secret correspondences be-tween Vienna and Istanbul. Vlatki is handed 5,000 As-per, and promised the same sum when the embassyreturns.

18 OctoberThe Ragusan community celebrates the day of the Evan-gelist St Luke with a festive Mass. Kuefstein listens tothe music played in the chapel and is also an honoraryguest at their banquet.

20 OctoberDespite the rain and never-ending muddy conditions,the Ambassador’s 7 carriages and 65 peasant carts, eachdrawn by three horses provided by the Turks, contin-ue their journey along the Old Army Road.

21 OctoberSolemn entrance of the Turkish Ambassador in Vienna.

29 OctoberDay of rest at Niš. Here Kuefstein finds the report ofthe Imperial Resident in Istanbul that the rebelling gov-ernor of Erzerum has capitulated. The effects of this vic-tory immediately become noticeable in the behaviourof the Turks. The caravan of carriages fights its waythrough the narrow and steep valley of the Nišava, asfar as the Dragoman Pass.

2 NovemberThe “Great and Populous Merchant City of Sofia”, seatof the Beglerbegi of Rumelia, is reached. Ceremonial re-ception and accommodation in the Great Han.

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grims and monks compensate for the restricted mobili-ty. They bring him valuable news, even from the remoterparts of the Ottoman Empire. So the Dominican FraEmidio Portelli d’Ascoli, prefect of Tataria and Cherkessia,tells him about the situation in his province.

7 MarchKuefstein visits the Bends (reservoirs) and aqueducts inthe Belgrade Woods (Belgrad Ormani, a recreational areaup until today) that provide Istanbul with drinking wa-ter. The Sultan has “a Wooden Pleasure Pavilion there,which is not up to his Grandezza and the beautiful Lo-cation, however”.

15 AprilEaster is solemnly celebrated.Kuefstein receives news that his wife has given him adaughter. She was baptized by Cardinal Khlesel and giv-en the name Constantia. “She received this Name be-cause at the Time of her Birth her Father was Imperi-al Orator in Constantinople.She was born on 17 February 1629 and was still alivewhen her Father returned, but she died of Smallpox on19 April 1630.”

23 AprilOn St George’s Day, the day of his patron saint, the hap-less file-thrower has converted. He is the sixth personto be converted to Catholicism by Kuefstein.

28 MayThrough the courier Leukauff, Kuefstein sends his wifethe bulbs and seeds of hyacinths, anemones, lilies andtulips.

Early JuneThe Grand Vizier Hüsrev Pasha and his army depart forthe Persian frontier.

14 JuneFeast of Corpus Christi. Kuefstein, along with a greatcortège, joins the procession in Galata (to point out hisprecedence before the French Ambassador…).

29 JuneNews arrives that the vessel with the two Centurionesaboard has been captured by a galley of the Dey of Tu-nis off Kephalonia. It is said that the Genoese were giv-en as a present to the Turkish Kapudan Pasha, the Grand

Admiral. Kuefstein immediately lodges a complaint withthe Kaymakam.

1 JulyThe eagerly awaited new Resident arrives in Ponte Pic-colo.

4 JulyKuefstein has him escorted by Lustrier and several ofhis officers into the Han.

24 JulyFarewell audience with the Sultan. Kuefstein introduceshim to Johann Rudolf Schmid as the successor of thesoon to be former Resident Lustrier.

31 July – 3 AugustWith great entertainment and festive illumination of themosques the Turks celebrate Büyük Bayram, the “Feastof the Sacrifice”. As there is no one available duringthese days, Kuefstein undertakes an obligatory Bospho-rus trip by boat (on 2 August). On a small rocky islandwhere the Bosphorus meets the Black Sea is the so-called“Column of Pompey”: “It’s rather hard and dangerousto get up there and down again, but I was up there withall my men and had my name chiselled in”.

4 AugustFarewell audience with the Kaymakam.

11 AugustWith the help of an Armenian merchant, Kuefstein sendsa secret letter to Krakow.

18 AugustAt 7 o’clock, departure. The Turks have sent 35 peasantcarts, 10 more than the Ambassador rented. Riding infront of his carriage is the Çorbaci, who is escorting theembassy, and two Chaushes. Behind them are the trum-peters and drummer, “without noise or sound”, and theflag is furled as well. But immediately upon leaving thecity, Kuefstein orders the music to begin and the coloursto fly. This time the Turks have no objections. The firstday ends in Ponte Piccolo. From there Wolf Leukauff issent to the Emperor with the report of departure.

20 AugustIn Selimbria the embassy is stopped because of its hors-es, weapons and the ransomed slaves.

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27 DecemberKuefstein wishes to attend Mass in Galata on St John’sDay, as well as to visit the grave of his half-brother GeorgEhrenreich. The Grand Vizier refuses his polite request“with the barbarous reply: If I left the Han without hispermission he would not only cut off the head of theChaush but mine as well!”

1629

4 JanuaryThe courier Leukauff is sent to Vienna with reports andthe Resident’s request to be relieved. In a private let-ter addressed to Governor Count Breuner, Kuefsteinwrites: “With due Reverence I kiss the skirt of His Spouseand of the young Ladies – in particular the beautiful La-dy Gödl who last Easter shared a red Egg with me – andrecommend to themmost loyally their Servant, my dearWife”.Kuefstein sends felicitations to Abaza Mehmed Pasha,who has been reprieved and appointed Governor ofBosnia. The latter – totally unfamiliar with Europeanmatters – inquires if Vienna and Prague are “borderfortresses”.

11 JanuaryKuefstein gives the two Lesser Franciscans, frater Ansel-mus and frater Petrus who are returning to Jerusalem,30 Florins for their fare and “a nice Neck-Watch” aswell as a large clock for the Franciscan Convent there;he also endows them with “a silver Lamp to be hangedat the Holy Grave, and my Wife’s Coat of Arms andNames”. In return he is given by the monks a “Rosarymade from Olive Stones from the Holy Mount of Olives”.At once Kuefstein has the olive stones set in gold bythe goldsmith. In 1655 he bequeaths this rosary “useddaily” to his wife.The arrival of the Franciscan provincial BonaventuraKoszlovary who has followed him against expectationsis somewhat of an embarrassment to Kuefstein, as thesame, notwithstanding the hopelessness of his causeand the evident reluctance on the part of the Turks,insistently urges for an intercession. He is relievedwhen the Seyh ül-Islâm shifts the case over to theVizier of Ofen, and the father, after a three-month stayin the Han, returns to Hungary. His other endeavoursare likewise in vain. The relics of Kapistran have stillnot been found.

27 JanuaryThe privy correspondent Tomaso Orosine turns up atthe Han in shock. The Vizier has banned him from thecity without providing any reason for doing so.

8 FebruaryFather Josef, a Carmelite from Sicily, calls on Kuefstein.He tells him that three years ago he was taken prison-er by the Turks, but that he has since then already savedup most of his ransom, which was set at 300 Florins,thanks to the charity of the Christian ambassadors. Kuef-stein gives him 40 florins and he regains his freedom.

9 FebruaryThe wife of the Turkish Grand Ambassador, who is nowin Vienna, sends her young son Mehmed with a basketof grapes and other fruit, as a token of their friendship.The boy leaves happily with a gift in return, a large bowlof pastries.

22 FebruaryAs “Carnival Entertainment”, Kuefstein organizes agame of bingo for his people. This he deems more ap-propriate than a “King’s Banquet or the like, as was thecustom with the prior Orators”.

3 MarchThe envoy takes advantage of the mild spring day tocircle Stambul by boat and on horseback. With twochamberlains and some of his men Kuefstein goes tothe house of the Resident by the seaside. A perma takesthe small party to Yedikule Castle, the “Seven Towers”.Here, the horses are ready. The party travels along thegreat Land Walls as far as Eyüb on the Golden Horn,from which they return to the Nemçe Hanı by boat inthe evening. But this pleasant day almost ends in dis-aster twice. First, Kuefstein takes such a severe fall thathe is hardly able to get up; then, the perma collides witha rock and is in danger of capsizing.The confinement of the living quarters causes manyproblems and differences of opinion.

4 MarchEarly in the morning the jeweller Hans Dietrich Mor-nauer dies. Three weeks earlier, the clockmaker GeorgSchneider had “thrown a file at him in jest”, thus in-juring him, albeit not fatally, it had seemed.Because of harassments, Kuefstein renounces most of thetime leaving the Han. Visits from passing merchants, pil-

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25 AugustArrival in Edirne. Kuefstein has to surrender six ran-somed slaves.

9 SeptemberSofia. A number of people fall ill because of the sum-mer heat. Although the embassy has avoided infectedplaces, it seems that the plague flares up.

14 SeptemberThe First Chef, Michael Hunckh, dies of a “high fever”.A blacksmith is taken along upon his urgent demandand receives the Extreme Unction, but he dies at thenext night camp.

15 SeptemberIn Kuefstein’s six-in-hand train, the fifth horse dies.

21 SeptemberArrival in Griechisch-Weißenburg (Belgrade). The Am-bassador is received with honours and accommodatedin a fine house. In the afternoon the Kaymakam visitshim and brings the salutations and felicitations of theVizier of Ofen.

23 SeptemberKuefstein entertains the Kaymakam, the Kadi and theÇavus Bası.

24 SeptemberReturn invitation. The Kaymakam of Belgrade givesKuefstein a beautiful horse.Two Christian merchants from Bosnia bring lemons andbiscuits as presents and ask the ambassador to mosthumbly recommend them and the land of Bosnia to theEmperor.

2 OctoberVukovár is reached. The place is the fief of the formerTurkish Internuntius Mehmed Beg. He receives Kuef-stein honourably, and upon bidding him farewell kind-ly presents him with a beautiful Arab horse. The Am-bassador gives him a neck-watch in return and a finenecktie for Mehmed Beg’s son.

3 OctoberThe military bridge measuring 8,565 steps in length thatSultan Süleyman has had built across the swamps of theDanube-Drava confluence is crossed.

11 OctoberEntrance in Ofen. The embassy is received by 2000horsemen. From the Stambul Gate as far as the Am-bassador’s Losament (lodgings) janissaries form aguard of honour.During a pleasure ride Kuefstein asks Murteza Pasha tointercede for the release of the Centuriones and the cap-tives that had to be left behind.

18 OctoberEquestrian games are played on Fakosfeld in Kuefstein’shonour.

19 OctoberLustrier and the confessor of the ambasssador who areboth ill are given leave to depart for Vienna early. Theambassador himself has to stay on in Ofen to arrangecertain affairs and to wait for the opposite ambassador.He visits the famous warm baths of the city, goes hunt-ing for wild boar and partridge with the Vizier, and isled through the ancient Royal Palace from the times ofMatthias Corvinus.

25 OctoberThe ambassador receives permission (which is veryrarely granted) to visit the library. However, he findsthis once splendid library in a terrible state. He wouldlike to take five manuscripts but as this would haverequired the Sultan’s authorization, he refrains fromasking.

9 NovemberKuefstein implores the Emperor “to be relieved of thesepeople”. Their accommodation is poor, he says, and theonset of the cold weather makes their situation moredismaying every day; almost half of his people have fall-en ill.

30 NovemberExchange with the Ottoman Grand Ambassador who isreturning from Vienna, “in good order, peacefully andkindly”.

8 DecemberArrival in Vienna.

9 DecemberDuring a long private audience Kuefstein gives Emper-or Ferdinand II an account of his mission.

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1 K. Teply, Die kaiserliche Gross-botschaft an Murad IV. Im Jahre1628 (Vienna, 1976), p. 18.2 Ibid., p. 21.3 Ibid., pp. 2, 23.4 In 1970 Madeleine Welsershe-imb, while conducting researchon the person of the envoy,came upon a list of the en-tourage of the embassy. Itturned out that there were twopainters in Kuefstein’s service:Franz Hörman(n), and HansGem(m)inger. Hörmann was ac-companied by the apprenticeValentin Müller. See Teply 1976,p. 58.

5 Teply 1976, p. 59.6 Teply 1976, p. 58.7 Teply 1976, p. 59.8 Teply 1976, p. 58.9 The series of gouaches (eachmeasuring around 26.4 5 39.3cm) created in Istanbul, wereoriginally kept in the Kuefsteinnative castle of Greillenstein, andin the 1970s eleven of them be-came the property of the Ot-toman Museum in Perchtolds-dorf, where they are currentlypreserved. Oil versions of thesame were executed in the 1640sor 1650s. Most of them are inprivate collections in Istanbul

and London, while others havebeen placed in the Turkish Hallof Greillenstein Castle, nearHorn. Others still can be foundin public institutions, such as theSuna and Inan Kirac FoundationCollection, Istanbul, and theOrientalist Museum, Doha.10 Johannes Auersperg, Studiolo,London, 2012 and Rainer ZietzLtd, London, 2012.11 Teply 1976, p. 26.12 Ibid.13 Ibid., p. 38.14 I would like to thank Dr An-na Frackowska for writing theentry related to the history of sil-

versmith. Dr. Frackowska is agraduate of the Nicolaus Coper-nicus University of Torun. Shewrote her Ph.D. thesis on thesubject of Gdansk Silver Tan-kards from the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries. She is aleading scholar in the field ofGdansk and Prussian silver.15 Teply 1976, p. 25.16 Ibid., p. 74.17 Ibid., p. 42.18 Ibid., p. 45.19 Ibid., p. 75.20 Ibid., p. 12.21 Ibid., p. 53.22 Ibid., p. 37.

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1.Attributed to Franz Hörmannand Hans Gemminger(assisted by Valentin Müller)Imperial Processionc. 1640Oil on canvas, 129 5 195 cmOrientalist Museum, Doha(OM.754)

Inscribed at the lower left:Abbildung Was die Türkenzu Constantinopel alljährlichihrem Mohammed zu Ehrenfür eine Prozession abhalten:“A” Zwei reiten voran undführen die Prozession an“B” ein Mönch (= Derwisch)zu Ross sowie Geheiligte folgenmit des MohammedWeissagungsfahne(eine Fahne, auf der dieWeissagungen des Mohammedgeschrieben stehen)“C” eine andere gleichartigeFahne“D” Diejenige so amVorübergehen hinzulaufenund aus Andacht die Fahnenküssten und dieselben mitTüchern berühren und ihreAngesicht zu wischen (sollheißen: D zeigt Leute, die,als die Prozession an ihnenvorbeikommt, auf die Fahnezulaufen und sie küssen usw.)“E” die folgende ScharDerwische und gemeineTürken schreien mit lauterStimme „gelobt sei Gott undMohammed““F” ein Mönch so vor Andachtund Schreien ohnmächtiggeworden.“G” die Tafel darauf desMohammeds Weissagungen.“H” Zwen so die Rauchfaß(Rauchfässer) tragenzu Verehrung der folgenden7 Tafeln“I” Die 7 Tafeln darauf desMohammeds Weissagungengeschrieben“K” Die Form oder das Modellvon des Mohammeds Grab“L” Diejenigen so auf Andachtmit ihren Sacktüchern (?)das Grab berühren und dieAngesichter wischen“M” 8 Janitscharen so (die)das Grab tragen“N” Eine große Menge derenso der Prozession folgt.

This magnificent painting rep-resents a religious procession ofgreat historical importance,which most probably took placein May 1629 in Istanbul; more-over, according to the inscrip-tion, it records an annual cere-mony in honour of the ProphetMuhammad PBUH. The in-scription does not clearly indi-

cate exactly which procession isrecorded in this painting, asthere were numerous festivitiesheld in the capital of the Ot-toman Empire every year. Suchmeaningful and honoured cere-monies were an essential part ofeveryday life in the Empire.Among the feasts frequently re-ferred to in Ottoman accountswere the Kılıc Alayı (or the Cer-emony of the girding of thesword, either that of the ProphetPBUH, or of Osman, the founderof the Ottoman dynasty), theBaklava Alayı (or the Baklavaprocession involving the Sultan’sceremonial offering of a tray ofbaklava, a well-known Turkishdessert made from flaky pastryinterlaced with crushed pista-chios and honey) and the SurreAlayı (or Procession of the Roy-al Purse, a colourful processionheld annually centred aroundthe transportation of the surre –the large leather purse or pouchcontaining gifts of gold in coinsand bullion from the OttomanSultan to the Emirate of Mecca).One possible suggestion is thatthe ceremony depicted in theKuefstein painting was the Hir-ka-i Serif (or Procession of theSacred Mantle).The ceremony would take placeon the fifteenth day of the HolyMonth of Ramadan in the prem-ises of the Topkapi Palace andwould be witnessed by the Roy-al princesses, the ministers, highdignitaries of the State andfunctionaries of the highestrank. It is not clear whether for-eign diplomats would ever be ad-mitted to witness the ceremony.This would be highly unlikely asit had a sacred religious mean-ing and nonbelievers would nev-er have been allowed to witnessit. In 1629 the Month of Ra-madan fell at the end of April,but if we refer to Kuefstein’s di-ary we find no mention or ref-erence to the Holy Month fes-tivities or to any procession hemay have witnessed. In the di-ary entry dated 23 April 1629,just a few days before the Ra-madan, the ambassador recordsthe celebration of St George’sday and his success in convert-ing yet another man, his sixth,to Catholicism.1 On 28 May, afew days after the grand cele-brations of the end of Ramadan,the EId al Fitr (or Seker Bayra-mı in Turkish), all that Kuefsteinrecorded in his diary was thatthrough a courier namedLeukauff he sent his wife thebulbs and seeds of hyacinths,daffodils, lilies and tulips, with-out a single word about the re-

ligious festivities in the capital ofthe Ottoman Empire.2 It hasbeen suggested that the ambas-sador may have received a de-tailed description of the cere-mony from a third party – anOttoman official; this would al-so explain certain mistakes inthe painting’s depiction of theprocession.The procession, as it has beenmentioned, was dedicated to theHırka-yı Saadet (or the Cloak ofHappiness), a mantle belongingto the Prophet MuhammedPBUH, which was brought to Is-tanbul by the Sultan Selim I inthe early sixteenth century. Theceremony would take place onthe fifteenth day of the HolyMonth of Ramadan. The cloakwould be exhibited in a sealedglass container (probably de-scribed in the painting’s in-scription as a “casket”). Anoth-er important relic demonstratedduring the ceremony would bea Sacred Standard of the ProphetPBUH, or Sancagı Serif (a possi-ble reference to the “flag ofprophecy” in the inscription).The muslin handkerchiefs, men-tioned a few times in the in-scription, were used to brushagainst the coffer with the sacredrelics. The procession is led bythe Sultan Murad IV on horse-back accompanied by janis-saries. The entire procession ispreceded by large banners onwhich embroidered in silver let-ters were the names of theProphet PBUH and his compan-ions. Although executed in anaïve manner and style, the sev-enteenth-century painting is ofhuge historical significance anda very rare record of a religiousevent.

1 “23 April 1629 – Am Tag deshl. Georg, seines Namenspa-trons, konvertiert der unglück-liche Feilenwerfer. Er ist dersechste, den Kuefstein zurkatholischen Religion bekehrthat”. Teply 1976, p. 45.2 “28 Mai 1629 – Kuefsteinsendet seiner Gattin durch denKurier Leukauff Zwiebeln undSamen von Hyazinthen, Amo-nen, Narzissen, Lilien undTulpen”. Teply 1976, p. 45.

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2.Attributed to Franz Hörmannand Hans Gemminger(assisted by Valentin Müller)Dinner Given by theGrand Vizier in Honourof the Ambassadorc. 1640Oil on canvas,127.4 5 186.3 cmOrientalist Museum, Doha(OM.760)

Inscribed at the upper left:[left sector:]Solcher […] Pfleget der Sultandie […] oratores vor deraudientz durch seineVezirios im diwan oder orthda man Rath helt mit essenTracktieren zu laßen.

[right sector:]A. der orth der ihrderselber daman Rath helt, ist mit schönen[…] Teppichen Vt 1 die […]Vt 2 belegtB. An der Wandt Türckischgemahl werckC. ein großes Strauseney nachTyrckischer manir gemahletdaran hencken etliche schnurvon BerlD. ein fenster in der wandteines werck schuchs groß engvergittert darauß der Sultan inRath sehen kann, er aber nichtgesehen wirdE. der Tisch ist ein großesRundes Silberes Blatungefehr einer Span hoch,darauf geßn haben herrOrator herr Lustrier undder neue Resident auchChaimecham und groß mufti,wie 1. und 2. anzägetF. TollmaischG. 3 [?] andere Vezier sambtdes herrn Orator BeichtvatterI. zwen Cadileskier sambt desherrn orator 2. officierK. Ober und Vice Tefterdar,L. hofmaister stalmaisterund 2 aufwartterM. Cantzler und herr Thanrädl:sambt 2. officier.N. SpeisentragerO. die in Porcellana zutrinckhen göbenP. die Cantzley dienner.Diwan officierenQ. Chiausen und andereministrij so im diwanaufwardten

The most important officialdiplomatic events were audi-ences with the Sultan, who wasvisible to an ambassador onlyupon arrival and departure.Kuefstein was received by theyoung Sultan Murad IV (r.1623–40) twice – on 5 Decem-ber 1628 to present his creden-

tials,1 and on 24 July 1629 to in-form the Sultan about his de-parture.2 To record this mo-mentous occasion, ambassadorswould commission an embassyartist to create a visual record ofit. The Kuefstein collection in-cludes at least two gouaches rep-resenting the stages of this cer-emony. The oil painting fromthe Orientalsit Museum collec-tion is dedicated to the event ofa dinner, given by the GrandVizier in honour of the ambas-sador.The ambassadorial receptionceremony was followed as perthe protocol, which had re-mained unchanged from the fif-teenth century. After proceedingthrough the first, outer gate ofTopkapı Palace (Bâb-ı Hümâ-yûn), the procession would reachthe Bâb-ü’s-selam (or the Gate ofSalutation). There the ambassa-dor and his retinue would dis-arm, leaving their swords beforeentering the next courtyard andarriving at the Council Chamber(the Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn, or theImperial Council) where thedinner by the Grand Vizier onbehalf of the Sultan would beserved. In meeting the principalmembers of the Ottoman court,an ambassador would then wit-ness all of its luxury and glory.In the wall of the ImperialCouncil Chamber there was ahidden window through whichthe sultan could observe thepresentation ceremony and din-ner while remaining unseen.The window was called the“window of justice”, and the for-eign dignitaries were usuallyaware of the Sultan’s possible“presence”. The ambassadorsare depicted sitting on stools,facing the Grand Vizier, sur-rounded by the embassy drago-mans and members of the em-bassy. The two supreme judgesor Kazaskers are depicted eatingalone, for as servants of Islam-ic law they were forbidden to eatat the same table with Chris-tians.The oil painting depicts a scenefrom the Farewell Audience of24 July, 1629. This is proven be-yond a doubt by the fact thattaking part in the banquet along-side the “old” Resident was the“new” one relieving him.3 Theinscription on the painting givesthe details of the reception,stating that “the place wherecouncil is held is covered withfine … carpets … ; on the wallis Turkish paintwork; a large os-trich egg painted in the Turkishmanner from which severalstrands of pearls are hanging; a

window in the wall, … with afine trellis from which the Sul-tan can look into the Council butis not seen himself; the table isa large round silver plate, circaa span high, here were diningthe Honourable Orator, Mr Lus-trier, and the new Resident, al-so [the] Kaimakam and theGreat Mufti, as is shown … in-terpreter; other Viziers togetherwith the Confessor of the Hon-ourable Orator; two Kadilesker[Chief judges] with 2 officers ofthe Honourable Orator; Chiefand Vice Defterdar [high tax of-ficials]; Major-domo, Equerry,and 2 cavaliers; [The] Chancel-lor and Mr. Thanrädl:4 with 2 of-ficers; Foodrunner; those whogive to drink in porcelain; thechancellery servants, diwan of-ficers; Chaushes and other ser-vants who are on duty in the di-wan”.Being one of the earliest knownillustrations of such an impor-tant political event, the Kuef-stein gouaches were amongthose that set an iconographictype for similar illustrations un-til the end of the eighteenth cen-tury.

1 Teply 1976, p. 42.2 Ibid., p. 45.3 Ibid., pp. 74–75.4 Georg Christoph Thonradl,who was a nephew of the am-bassador, was immortalized herefor his mother Eva, Kuefstein’ssister.

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3.Attributed to Franz Hörmannand Hans Gemminger(assisted by Valentin Müller)Janissaryc. 1640Oil on canvas, 237,3 5 118 cmOrientalist Museum, Doha(OM.757)

The word janissary derives fromthe Ottoman Turkish yeniçeri,meaning “new soldier”. Thisforce, forming the Sultan’shousehold troops and body-guards, was established in thefourteenth century and it wasonly in 1826 that it was abol-ished by Sultan Mahmud II (r.1808–39) as a result of the re-volt. The janissaries became thefirst Ottoman standing army andwere significant in a number ofways: they wore uniforms, werepaid in cash quarterly, and re-ceived certain privileges andbenefits; they also marched todistinctive music, the mehter,comparable to a modern march-ing band. A defence force ofjanissaries, having a Sultan astheir supreme commander andled by their supreme aga, was adistinctive element in the Ot-toman power structure, settingthe janissaries apart from mostother soldiers of the time.European travellers were veryimpressed by the janissaries andleft many descriptions, mostlycharacterizing them as a symbolof threat and power. One of theearliest references was given byOgier de Busbecq: “At Buda Ifirst came across the Janissaries,which is the name they give totheir footguards … They wearrobes reaching to their anklesand on their heads a coveringconsisting of the sleeve of acloak (for this is the accountwhich they give of its origin),part of which contains the head,while the rest hangs down be-hind and flaps against the neck.On their forehead rises an ob-long silver cone, gilded andstudded with stones of no greatvalue”.1

1 The Turkish Letters of OgierGhiselin de Busbecq: ImperialAmbassador at Constantinople,1554–1562, edited by Karl A.Roider, translated by EdwardSeymour Forster (Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,2005), p. 6.

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4.Attributed to Franz Hörmannand Hans Gemminger(assisted by Valentin Müller)Spahyc. 1640Oil on canvas,228 5 115.5 cmOrientalist Museum, Doha(OM.758)

Inscribed at the lower right:… Spahy Ein TürggischerKriegsmannwie sie zu Fridszeit pflegen [...][...]zu gehen

Spahy was the name of severalOttoman cavalry corps. Thepresent portrait most probablyrepresents a spahy of the Porte(or cavalry part of the Ottomancourt household troops) – amember of the established mil-itary elite. Two military units –janissaries and spahis – wereconstant rivals. And the tensionsmight even have been evidentwhile Kuefstein was in Istanbul,as they were de facto ruling theEmpire during the early years ofthe young Sultan’s reign. Thisregular rioting would result inbloody violence. It was ended in1632 by Murad IV, who de-scribed it as follows: “Everymorning the Bosphorus threwon its shores the corpses of thosewho had been executed duringthe previous night; and in themthe anxious spectators recog-nized Janissaries and Spahis,whom they had lately seenparading the streets in all thehaughtiness of military license”.1

Unlike janissaries, sipahis werealways exclusively ethnic Turks,and by the time of the reign ofMurad IV they had become oneof the largest divisions of the Ot-toman cavalry.

1 Gerald MacLean, The Rise ofOriental Travel: English Visitorsto the Ottoman Empire, 1580–1720 (Basingstoke: Palgrave,2004), p. 124.