Global Writers Guide

GLOBAL WRITER’S GUIDE

PART ONE: BASIC WRITING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION

I. A WORD is a meaningful unit of language sounds. Or it is a meaningful

sound or combination of sounds that is a unit of language or its

representation in a text. There are two types of words: function words

(grammatical words) and content words

A. Function Words are words such as the, and, but, in, to, because, while,

ought, must, etc. The main use of function words is to express

relationships among other words. Compare the following pairs of sentences:

F I am lonely at dark.

F I am lonely in the dark.

F The cook prepared a rich feast.

F The cook prepared the rich a feast.

B. Content Words are words having meanings beyond grammar functions. The

common content words are a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb and adverb that

primarily convey meanings rather than grammatical functions.

II. PHRASE is a group of related words that has no subject or predicate and

is used as a single part of speech. As we process language , we recognize

phrases as chunks of information that expand a basic sentence, adding to

its meaning , but we also recognize that phrases can not express complete

thoughts by themselves.

Example

1


F I fell on the side walk. (It is a complete thought.)

F on the sidewalk (It is a phrase - not a complete thought)

Typical phrases are composed of a preposition and its object (I fell on the

side walk.) or a verbal and its object (I wanted to see the parade).Phrases

are usually classified as prepositional, infinitive, participial, or gerund

phrases.

Example

F He is a man of action. (Prepositional phrase)

F I wanted to buy the house. (Infinitive phrase)

F Covered with ice, the road was dangerous. (Participial phrase)

F Making a profit is their only purpose. (Gerund phrase)

III. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The

relation of a clause to the rest of a sentence is shown by the position of

the clause or by a conjunction.

There are two kinds of clauses: (1) main, or independent, clauses and (2)

subordinate, or dependent, clauses.

1. A main clause has both subject and verb, but it is not introduced by a

subordinating word. A main clause makes an independent statement; it could

stand alone.

Example: Eagles are beautiful.

F You can see that this clause is equal to sentence.2


2. Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating

conjunction (as, since, because, etc) or by a relative pronoun (who, whom,

whose, which, that). Subordinate clauses function as adjectives, adverbs,

or nouns. They cannot stand alone but must be attached to a main clause.

They express ideas that are intended to be subordinate to or dependent on

the idea expressed in the main clause. The exact relationship between the

two ideas is indicated by the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun

that joins the subordinate and the main clause.

Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs. Eagles are

beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.

F Main clause: the underlined part in the first sentence

F Subordinate clauses: the underlined part in the second sentence

UNIT ONE: WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES

1.1. DEFINITION OF SENTENCES

We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period, a

question mark, or an exclamation mark at the end and a capital letter at

the beginning, but there is more to it than that. In order to be a

sentence, a word group must be complete enough to stand independently. In3


other words, a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete

thought. Additional definitions for a sentence are given below.

F A sentence is usually defined as a grammatically independent unit made

up of a word or group of words so related as to convey a complete

thought.

F A sentence is the basic unit of thought someone uses to express

her/himself.

The better we understand how to form and use sentences, therefore, the more

effectively we can express our thoughts to others.

1.2. CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE

Every sentence, short or long, is made up of one or more units containing

two main parts: subject and predicate.

Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a

noun or pronoun, with any of its modifiers.

Predicate is the statement made about the subject .It is a verb or verb

phrase, with any modifiers or words used to complete its meaning.

Example: Our soccer team won the state championship. Our soccer team / won

the state championship.

1. SIMPLE SUBJECT AND SIMPLE PREDICATE

Every sentence, we said, usually has a subject and a predicate.

Example:

4


F Damtew fights.

F They run

In sentence 1, John the actor is, a simple subject, and fights, the action,

is a simple predicate.

In sentence 2, the simple subject is they, the actor, and the simple

predicate is run, the act.

Simple subject (actor) Simple

predicate(act)

F Flowers bloom.

F Novels

teach.

F Men laugh.

F Candles

burn.

F Honesty

pays.

In the sentences given above, the subject (actor) has consisted of a single

word: flowers, novels, men, candles, honesty. Such subjects are called

simple subjects. The predicate (act) has also consisted of a single word:

bloom, teach, laugh, burn, pays. Such predicates are called simple

predicates.

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2. COMPLETE SUBJECT AND COMPLETE PREDICATE

Complete Subject

When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying words, the

subject thus expanded is called a complete subject.

Examples of expanded form of subject:

F Flowers are blooming. (Flowers, one word, is a simple subject)

F The flowers are blooming.

F The small flowers are blooming.

F The small red-petaled flowers are blooming.

Flowers, the simple subject in the first sentence, has been expanded by the

modifiers the, small, and red-petaled. Hence, it is a complete subject.

Complete Predicate

In the same way, when the predicate consists of a single word or a verb

phrase, it is called a simple predicate. When it is expanded by the

addition of other words, then the simple predicate plus its modifiers, plus

any other words that completes its meaning, are called complete predicate.

Examples of expanded form of predicate:

F Solomon is walking.

F Solomon is walking quickly.

F Solomon is walking quickly to school.

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F Solomon is walking quickly to school in the morning.

“is walking” ,the simple predicate in the first sentence , has been

expanded by the modifiers quickly, quickly to school and quickly to school

in the morning. Hence, it is a complete predicate.

Note:

In both cases (complete subject and predicate) though the sentences contain

expanded form of subject and predicate, each is a simple sentence because

each sentence contains only one main clause involving one subject and one

predicate and no subordinate clauses (dependent clauses).

3. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Compound Subject

A subject can be made up of two or more nouns or pronouns. In this case the

sentence has a compound subject.

Example:

F Gemechu and Chaltu saved $ 500 a year with grocery coupons.

F A right attitude and a winning personality /should be your best

principles to get a job.

F The movement of the tropical fish and the bubbles from the filter/

fascinate the young cat.

Compound Predicate7


A sentence can have two or more verbs for the same subject. In this case

the sentence is said to have a compound predicate.

Example:

F Aster chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.

F The snow fell throughout the night and blanketed the area.

F You should leave at six o’clock and arrive by midnight.

1.3. TYPES OF SENTENCES

2. FUNCTIONAL CATEGORY OF THE SENTENCE

Sentences can be categorized into four according to their purpose in a

sentence. They are: declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and

imperative sentence.

1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE: A Declarative or assertive sentence is a sentence

which makes a statement or an assertion and ends with period (.)

Examples:

F We played games all night long.

F Alemu has a good memory.

F The sun rises in the east.

F I live in Samara town.

F The earth moves round the sun.

F Kedir wants to have a bowl of soup for lunch.

F Mom made homemade cookies.

F Sara ate a slice of pizza for lunch.

F That is a very gentle pony.

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F It rained all day long.

2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE: An interrogative sentence asks a question and

end with a question mark (?). The English interrogative words are: who,

whom, where, which, what, whose, why, when and how.

Examples:

F What game do you want to play?

F What time is it Belay?

F Isn't this a beautiful night Maza?

F Have you met my daughter Sifan?

F Are you feeling well today?

3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE (Command, Request or Advice): An imperative sentence

is a request or command used to order someone to do something and ends

with period (.). A sentence that expresses a command, request (entreaty)

or an advice is called imperative sentence. The subject of the verb in

imperative is often omitted or implicitly stated.

Examples:

F Write properly….(you)

F Keep silent.

F Go away.

F Come in.

F Stop.

4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE: An exclamatory sentence show a strong emotion and

ends with an exclamation point (!). It is also used to express the

feeling or attitude of the speaker.

Examples: 9


F What a pity!

F What a piece of work is this!

F Ah that he is safe!

F Ouch!

F How pretty she is!

F I sure hope so!

SELF TEST EXERCISE I

Write four declarative sentences, three interrogative sentences,

two imperative sentences, and three exclamatory sentences

individually and compare it with your classmate. When you write,

you are supposed to write sentences that are not explained in the

above examples.

A. Declarative sentences :

1.__________________________________________________________

2.___________________________________________________________

3.___________________________________________________________

4.___________________________________________________________

B. Interrogative sentences:

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________

C. Imperative sentences:

1. ____________________________________________________________

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2. ___________________________________________________________

D. Exclamatory sentences:

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________

II. STRUCTURAL CATEGORY OF SENTENCES

In terms of their construction, there are four types of sentences:

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE

2. COMPOUND SENTENCE

3. COMPLEX SENTENCE

4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

The following is a detailed discussion of the above sentence types.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE is a sentence consisting of one subject and one

predicate, either or both of which may be compound. It, in other words,

is one main clause.

Example

F The players arrived.

F The players and the judges arrived.

F The players arrived and reported.

F The players and the judges arrived and reported.

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F The big oak tree in front of our house is a permanent house for

thousands of birds.

N.B. Don’t be confused by the length of a sentence. You should simply

count the number of clauses in the sentence.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCE is a sentence which consists of two independent

clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction or conjunctive adverbs or

when the two independent clauses are separated by a semi-colon.

Example

F I have never played tennis, but I hope to start taking lessons next

year.

F I steamed the carrots, and I baked the potatoes.

F I ate everything on the tray; I was really hungry.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCE is formed when one independent clause and one

subordinate clause are connected by a subordinating conjunction or a

relative pronoun.

Example

F Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking

lessons next year.

The subordinate clause modifies a word (a noun/ a verb/ the whole main

clause) in the sentence, and it can be either adjectival or adverbial.

Example

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F He met a student who left school last year. (adjective clause)

F After I took a nap, I felt better. (adverb clause)

F If you come late, you will miss the bus. (adverb clause).

4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX sentence is a sentence which consists of two

independent clauses and one subordinate clause. The two independent clauses

may be connected by coordinating conjunction or adverb conjunction or a

semi colon. This structure results in a compound sentence. When this

compound sentence is joined to a subordinate clause which is introduced by

either a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, the whole

combination entails a compound-complex sentence.

Example

F Although I have never played tennis, I really need the exercise, so I

have planned to start it next year.

F Although I have never played tennis, I really need the exercise;

therefore, have I planned to start it next year.

F Although I have never played tennis, I really need the exercise; I

have planned to start it next year.

F I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once because I was very

thirsty.

F My friend, who helped me in the past, is in a financial crisis now,

so I must help him.

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F Come on time; otherwise, you will miss the Sophomore English class

whose teacher is very angry at late comers.

EXERCISE

Read the following sentences and identify whether each of them is simple,

compound, complex, compound- compound, compound- complex. Then write the

answer on the space provided.

1. _______Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets nasty

sunburn.

2. ________ Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant

contact on the internet.

3. ________ A gentle man of wealth and position has been found guilty of

theft.

4. ________ If you really want me to help you wash your floors, please

give me a weekfs notice, for I am busy this month.�

5. ________ Some people are throwing garbage anywhere in the city;

consequently, the air is polluted.

6. ______My brother, who used to give me money, has been fired out of

his work, and I am in a financial problem now.

7. ______ My brother who used to give me money whenever I want is in a

financial crisis now.

8. _______ Call me whenever you need me.

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9. ______ Alemu printed pictures and sold them after school.

10. _____ Until you learn to say ”no” to your children, they will� �

continue to manipulate you.

11. _____ After Kassech completed high school when she was with her

parents in Awassa, she started training in physical education.

1.4. SENTENCE COMBINATION

In writing, you are required to keep the interest of your reader. One of

the mechanisms to do this is that you have to vary the length of your

sentences. To do this, you should combine two or more short sentences in to

one. Two or more ideas can be connected in a sentence by two methods which

are coordination and subordination.

1.1. COORDINATION is a method of joining two independent sentences by

using coordinators. In coordination, the status of the sentences is not

reduced when they are combined. In other words, when they are combined,

they still remain independent clauses.

The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are:

1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

3. ADVERB CONJUNCTIONS

1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

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Instructions: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts,

then answer the questions below. What patterns can you discover? Don't do

anything to the sentences, but do answer the questions below about these

sentences.

F Hiwot earned an A in the class, for she studied carefully.

F We went to the movies, and we ate potatoes.

F He did not study for the exam, nor did he pass.

F Collecting glass figurines is a delightful hobby, but it can be

expensive.

F Fekadu wanted to go skiing, or he wanted to go snowboarding.

F He knew the cost, yet he did it anyway.

F He knew it would not cost him, so he did it.

1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the

sentence?)

.....................................................................

..........................................................

2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location differ

form sentence to sentence?

.....................................................................

..........................................................

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3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from

sentence to sentence?

.....................................................................

..........................................................

4. What is the apparent meaning of each italicized word?

.....................................................................

..........................................................

The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions which are used in writing

are the following.

For - a more formal word for because, this shows a result- cause

relationship between two independent clauses. It shows logical consequence;

it has the same meaning as because, the reason why

And - shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as

in addition, along with, moreover, furthermore

Nor - shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a

negative point

( Note: you must reverse the normal subject- verb positions in the second

clause when using nor).

But - shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same

meaning as however, except, on the other hand

Or - shows alternatives or choices

17


Yet - shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a stronger but)

So - shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as

therefore, as a result. X happened, so Y happened.

Note: When you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join complete

sentences, use a comma before the coordinators.

EXAMPLE:

Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.

You must come early, or you will miss the bus.

The driver couldn’t control the speed of the car, for the brake was not

working.

The patient didn’t eat his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.

Haile is running very fast, so he seems to win the race.

She studied hard, but she failed the examination.

Every summer I go to Addis Ababa, and I visit my grandfather.

EXERCISE 1

Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating

conjunctions.

1. A. The dog ate the food very fast

B. The dog was very hungry

2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idols.18


B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to the next stage.

3. A. Aster didn’t bring her exercise book.

B. Aster didn’t bring her pen.

4. A. The farmer worked all day and night.

B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops.

2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join

words, phrases, and sentences. The most common correlative pairs are:

Correlative conjunctions meaning

Either…..or one of the two

Neither …. nor none of the two

Not only….. but also

both …… and both

Whether…. .or

dilemma/hesitation/confusion

Look at the following examples on how correlative conjunctions are used.

F Either go to bed early this evening or stop complaining about being

tired in class.

F Neither the contestant nor his sponsor was willing to attend the

lecture.19


F The newspaper reported that not only the hurricane but also the

ensuing floods caused millions of dollars worth of damage.

F Does anyone know whether the president or the vice president was

responsible for providing the announcement to the press?

Summary

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that are used to link two

sentences having similar subjects or similar predicates. The most important

thing to remember when using correlative conjunctions is that the words,

phrases, or clauses that are put together must be the same type. This means

that nouns must be put together with other nouns, verbs with other verbs,

adjectives with other adjectives, and so on.

Note: The units being joined by a correlative conjunction must be parallel

in grammatical structure and importance.

The followings are again more examples of how correlative conjunctions are

used. See how they are properly used.

EXAMPLE 1:

F Both my sister and my brother work with computers. The correlative

conjunction in this sentence is "both ... and." This correlative

conjunction links together two words of the same type. In this

case, the types of words are the nouns, sister and brother.

20


F For dessert, you may have either cake or ice cream. The correlative

conjunction in this sentence is "either ... or." This conjunction

also links two nouns, cake and ice cream.

F She wanted neither cake nor ice cream. The correlative conjunction in

this sentence is "neither ... nor." This conjunction links two nouns.

F He did not know whether to exit the freeway at Orange Avenue or to

exit the freeway at Cherry Avenue. The correlative conjunction in

this sentence is "whether ... or." This conjunction links two

phrases.

F Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly. The

correlative conjunction in this sentence is "not only ... but also."

This conjunction links two adjectives.

EXAMPLE 2:

F I wondered whether to make the telephone call or to see her in

person.

F The secretary is either working at her desk or visiting the dean.

F Not only my sisters but also my cousins are invited to the party.

F Both my sisters and my cousins are invited to the party.

F Neither my sisters nor my cousins are invited to the party.

EXERCISE 2

21


Choose the correct correlative conjunction to complete the following blank

spaces.

1. When they found the man who had been lost for five days, he was

______________ tired ______________ hungry

A. not only .... but also

B. either ... or

C. neither ... nor

2. He is neither my uncle ___ my cousin

A. and

B. or

C. but

D. nor

3. The student was not sure _________ to enroll in a history class or an

art class

A. as

B. whether

C. neither

D. both

4. ________ Sam nor his brother can swim.

A. Both

B. Not only

C. Neither

D. Either

5. … .Roger….. Carlos knows how to speak Russian.�

A. Not only .... but also

B. Both..........and

C. Whether.........or

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6. .….. .Roger…. Carlos know how to speak Russian.� �

A. Not only .... but also

B. Both..........and

C. Whether.........or

7. I am not sure….. I should take biology …..geology. 8. I hate the� �

science classes at all, so I want to take…... physics….. chemistry.�

A. not only .... but also

B. both..........and

C. neither.........nor

8. My advisor told me to add one optional course; therefore, I will

add.......... history.......... geography.

A. not only.... but also

B. either.........or

C. both..........and

EXERCISE 3:

Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative conjunctions

1. A. To go to Gondar, You can use a bus.

B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.

_______________________________________________________________________

2. A. Azeb is beautiful

B. Azeb is honest.

_______________________________________________________________________

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3. (I am in confusion)

A. I want to go to class.

B. I want to go to my appointment.

________________________________________________________________________

3 ADVERB CONJUNCTIONS

Adverb conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main clauses in

a sentence.

Common conjunctive adverbs are:

also still consequently however indeed

hence then furthermore moreover likewise

thus instead nevertheless therefore otherwise

EXAMPLE

F I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to

stand in line.

F Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.

Conjunctive adverbs, unlike coordinating and subordinating conjunctions,

are the only ones that can be moved from the beginning of a clause to

another position in the clause without changing the clause’s meaning. In

other words, they occupy different positions within the main clause in

which they stand.

24


Example

F The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our

song.

F The band struck up a familiar tune; they were, indeed, playing our

song.

Note:

Most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi colon and followed by a

comma. There are some exceptions, however. Adverbs conjunctions like still

and also are, for example, not preceded by a semicolon.

EXAMPLE

F Sorry I’m late. My alarm didn’t go off. Also, I had trouble starting

the car.

F He has treated you badly: still, he is your brother.

Some other adverb conjunctions like otherwise and then are preceded by a

semi colon but not followed by a comma.

EXAMPLE

F John must be sick; otherwise he would be here.�

F she made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.�

To maintain the desired relationship between independent clauses, see the

following chart to know the meaning of coordinating and adverb

conjunctions.25


F Meaning coordinating conjunction adverb

conjunction

F Addition ,and; furthermore, ;

moreover,

F Contrast ,but ,yet ;

however, ;nevertheless,

F Alternative ,or ,nor [negative] ;

instead, ; otherwise,

F Result ,so ; therefore,

; consequently, ; thus,

EXERCISE 1

Join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate conjunctive

adverbs. Be sure to punctuate it properly.

1. A. Sunshine Construction Company is building a plant in Nazareth.

B. Sunshine Construction Company is planning to build another in Bahir Dar

next year.

..........................................................................

.....................................................

2. A. Tell him to carryout his duties properly!

B. We will fire him.

26


..........................................................................

.....................................................

3. A. A computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.

B. There will be thousands of new jobs available next year.

..........................................................................

.....................................................

4. A. He worked hard.

B. He became rich.

..........................................................................

..............................................

5. A. Bahir Dar is growing fast.

B. Debre Markos is growing slowly.

..........................................................................

.....................................................

2. SUBORDINATION

Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent

clause in the same sentence by using subodinators. In subordination, the

status of one of the sentences to be combined is reduced to a subordinate

(dependent) clause. As you might recall from the above discussion, in

coordination the status of the sentences to be combined is not reduced;

they remain independent.

27


The linking devices we use in subordination are:

1. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

2. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

1. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Instructions: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts,

and then answer the questions below.

F Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are extremely adept in the

water.

F Pups also love the snow because they like to slide down inclines.

F They love to roll around in the snow if a good snowstorm hits.

F If they can punch through the ice sheet, polar bears love swimming most.

F Rachel was reading fiction while her brother was listening music.

a. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the

sentence?)

b. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location differ

from sentence to sentence?

c. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from


Subordinating conjunction is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate

clauses with independent clauses. Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand

28


alone; they must be joined to an independent clause to convey a complete

thought. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what extent an action

takes place. When a writer wants to emphasize the idea in one clause over

the other, the most important idea is contained within the independent

clause, and lesser ideas are presented in the dependent clauses. More often

we use a subordinating conjunction to show a difference in importance and

strength of ideas.

EXAMPLE

F Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.

F Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.

F Subordinate clause Independent clause

Notice

With the addition of because at the beginning of an independent clause,

the independent clause becomes a dependent clause. Similarly, when other

subordinating conjunctions are added at the beginning of independent

clause, the independent clause becomes a dependent clause.

Subordinating Conjunctions show:

F Cause: because, since, as

F Time: since, as, after, until, as soon as, before, when, while, once,

after, whenever, as long as,

F Condition: if, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, provided, as

though29


F Contrast/concession: although, even though, though, even if, whereas,

while

F Result: that, so that, in order that

F Place: where, wherever

F Comparison: as, than, as.. as�

3. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

INSTRUCTIONS: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts,

and then answer the questions below.

F The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor.

F The Crescent Moon, which was Mr. Mitchell's boat, was brand new.

F Mr. Mitchell, who was a stockbroker, liked the status a boat afforded.

F His guests, whom Mr. Mitchell chose with little care, partied on the boat to all

hours.

F One guest, whose criminal record was unknown to Mr. Mitchell, stole the boat,

then sank it when the police got too close.

a. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the

sentence? Why is it there?)

b. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location differ

from sentence to sentence?

30


c. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from


d. What are the words that begin each italicized portion?

Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to

join subordinate clauses with independent sentences. They also introduce

relative clauses.

Example

-The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor.

(The italicized part is a subordinate clause.)

What makes the subordinate clause in relative clauses different from the

other type of subordinate clauses is, the subordinate clause in a relative

clause is an adjective clause.

In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are dependent clauses

that modify a noun or a pronoun in the main clause, usually begin with

relative pronoun: who, whom , whose, which, or that.

Note:

IN RELATIVE CLAUSES:

F The adjective clauses answer the question Which one? or What kind of?

F Adjective clauses are always placed after the noun or the pronoun

they modify.31


F The relative pronoun that introduces an adjective clause can

function as a subject, as an object, or as a possessive marker.

RELATIVE PRONOUN

Use

F who, which: Subjective case

F Whom, which: Objective case

F Whose: Possessive case

Note: The relative pronoun ’that’ can be used in place of who, which or�

whom, but not in place of whose. Restrictive and non restrictive adjective

clauses

Adjective clauses may be restrictive (also called essential) or non

restrictive (non essential).

A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to make the meaning of the

sentence complete. For example, in the sentence The movie that I saw

yesterday won a Grammy Award, the information in the adjective clause that

I saw yesterday is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Without it, it

is difficult to the reader to identify which special movie the writer is

discussing about.

A non restrictive adjective clause merely adds information to a sentence

the full meaning of which is already clear.

EXAMPLE

32


New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world's leading

commercial, financial, and cultural centers.

Note: You can see in this example that the noun �New York is defined by

itself. So, the relative clause does not define it. In other words, it is

non-defining or non-restrictive. A non restrictive adjective clause is

separated from the main clause by commas.

EXERCISE 1

INSTRUCTION: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate

relative pronouns. Rewrite the sentences in the space provided, revising

the sentences as necessary.

who whom which whose

1. A. The woman has been arrested.

B. Her child was accused of theft.

2. A. The thief has been caught.

B. The police were looking for the thief.

4. A. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship.

B. Roberto is a talented portrait artist.

5. A. The medicine is very expensive.

B. Helen needs the medicine.

6. A. Rahel went abroad.

33


B. Daniel wanted to marry Rahel

7. A. The man called a policeman.

B. His car was stolen.

1.5. COMMON SENTENCE FAULTS

1. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence or a dependent clause

punctuated as a sentence, beginning with a capital letter and ending with a

period. A fragment may result from incomplete thought or incorrect

punctuation. It is often missing a subject and/or a verb.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FRAGMENT AND A SENTENCE

Sentence

Fragment

-expresses a complete thought -

doesn’t express a complete thought

-can stand alone and make sense -

can’t stand alone and make sense

-has a subject and a verb

- is often missing a subject or a verb

-doesn’t leave the reader with -

leaves the reader with unanswered question

unanswered question

F FRAGMENTS RESULTING FROM INCORRECT PUNCTUATION

34


Many sentence fragments occur simply because the writer inserts a period

and a capital letter too soon. This error is called a period fault. As a

result of incorrect punctuation, phrases and clauses can be misused as

complete sentences.

F PHRASES AS FRAGMENTS

A phrase is a part of a sentence; therefore, it can’t stand by itself.

F TO FRAGMENTS

Eg. I plan on working over time. To get this job finished.

The underlined word group is a fragment and can be corrected by adding it

to the preceding sentence.

Revised:

___________________________________________________________________________

__________________.

ING FRAGMENTS

No word ending in the suffix –ing can be a complete verb. If an ing ending

word is preceded by forms of be ( is am are was were been),the two words

together are a verb.

Participle

Complete verb

35


Reading

is reading

studying

were studying

running

had been running

When an –ing word appears at or near the start of a word group ,a fragment

may result .Such fragments often lack a subject and part of the verb.

e.g. I spent almost two hours on the phone yesterday .Trying to find a

garage to repair my car.

To correct this sentence add the fragment to the sentence that comes before

it.

Revised -

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________.

People sometimes write –ing fragments because they think the subject in one

sentence will work for the next word group as well. Thus, in the first

example, the writer thinks that the subject in the opening sentence will

also serve as the subject for the second word group. But the subject must

actually be in the sentence.

Fragment- At the beginning of this century. Motoring was an adventure.

Sentence-

___________________________________________________________________________36


_______________________.

Fragment-In the first place .He has had no experience.

Sentence-

___________________________________________________________________________

________________________.

Clauses as fragments

Some word groups that begin with a dependent word are fragments .Here is a

list of common dependent words :

F After

F Although

F Though

F As

F Because

F Before

Even though

In order that

Since

That

So that

Unless

How

Until

What/whatever

When/whenever

Wherever/where

Which/whichever

Who/whoever

Whether

While

Whose

If/even if

* Whenever you begin a sentence with one of these words , you must be

careful that a fragment does not result.

F E.g-1 After I learned the price of new cars. I decided to keep my

old Land Rover.

To correct the fragment, replace the period with a comma.

37


F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

F E.g-2 My daughter refused to stop smoking. Unless I quit also.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

F E.g-3 Tomas made an appointment. Which he did not intend to keep.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

*Sometimes the dependent words who, that, which or where appear not at the

very start but near the start of a word group. A fragment often results.

F E.g. The town council decided to put more lights on south street. A

place where several people have been mugged.

F Revised-

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

FRAGMENTS THAT LACK A SUBJECT/MISSING SUBJECT FRAGMENT

EXAMPLES

38


F Fragment The boy hated the medication. Wished it would end

soon.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

F Fragment The truck skidded on the rain- slick highway .But

missed a telephone pole on the side of the road of the road.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________.

F Fragment Saba tried each of the appetizers on the table .And then

found that, when dinner arrived, her appetite was gone.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

___________________________

FRAGMENTS THAT LACK A COMPLETE VERB

EXAMPLES

F Fragment She heard a deafening noise. A car horn behind her.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________39


__________________________

F Fragment The boss is appreciative of the employees ‘efforts.

He motivating them to work hard.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

FRAGMENTS THAT LACK BOTH A SUBJECT AND A VERB

EXAMPLE

F Fragment Paul finally finished his home work. At ten

o’clock.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

____________________

ADDED DETAIL FRAGMENTS

Added detail fragments lack a subject and a verb .They often begin with one

of the following words:

F Also especially except for example

including such as

E

XAMPLES

40


F I love to cook and eat Italian food .Especially spaghetti and

lasagna.

Add the fragment to the complete sentence that precedes it.

F Revised -

_____________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

F The class often starts late. For example, yesterday at a quarter

after nine instead of at nine sharp after nine instead of at nine

sharp.

Add a subject and a verb to the fragment to make it a complete

sentence.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

F He failed a number of courses before he earned his degree. Among them,

Fundamentals of literature, Communicative English 1 and Amharic Prose

Fiction.

F Revised -

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

2. RUN ON SENTENCES

41


A run on is two complete thoughts that run together with no adequate sign

given to mark the break between them.

Some run- ons have no punctuation at all. Such run –ons are known as fused

sentences; they are fused or joined together, as if they were only one

thought.

F Fused sentence My grades are very good this semester my

social life rates only a c.

In other run-ons, known as comma splices, a comma is used to connect or

‘splice‘ together, the two complete thoughts. However, a comma alone is not

enough to connect two complete thoughts. *Some stronger connection than a

comma alone is needed.

F Comma splice: My grades are very good this semester, my social life

rates only a c.

The third type of run-on occurs when a coordinating conjunction alone is

used to connect two independent clauses.

F My grades are very good this semester but my social life rates only a

c.

There are four common methods to correct run-on sentences.

1. Use a period and a capital letter

_________________________________________________________________

_______________________.

42


2. Use a comma and a joining word

_________________________________________________________________

_______________________.

3. Use a semi colon alone

_________________________________________________________________

_______________________.

4. Use subordination

_________________________________________________________________

_______________________.

3. FAULTY PARALLELISM

To communicate with your readers most effectively, you need to write clear,

smooth and direct sentences. When two or more words or group of words are

joined in a sentence, they should be parallel in construction .Each part

should have the same grammatical structure and word order.

The coordinating conjunction ‘and’ joins sentence parts of equal

weight/value: noun and noun, verb and verb, phrase and phrase, clause and

clause. The constructions are then parallel. If ’and’ is used to join

constructions of different kinds there is a lack of parallelism.

Faulty The stranger wanted a view of the west and to ride horse

back.

43


Noun

Infinitive

Parallel

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________.

Faulty Girma likes playing cards, eating exotic foods , and to

watch movies.

Parallel

___________________________________________________________________________

__________________________.

Faulty I resolved to lose weight, to study more, and watching

less Tv.

Parallel

___________________________________________________________________________

_________________________.

Faulty Kiros enjoys reading and to go to the theatre .

Parallel

___________________________________________________________________________

_________________________.

Faulty No one told Abrham to bring a note and that he has to go

to the office.

44


Parallel

___________________________________________________________________________

___.

Faulty Betty is tall, fast, and good coordination.

Parallel ____________________________________________.

Faulty The single life offers more freedom of choice; more

security is offered by marriage.

Parllel

___________________________________________________________________________

__________________.

4. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

The fundamental rule is that the subject and predicate (main verb) must

agree in number.

The present tense verb form changes in relation to the subject of the

sentence. The subject of a sentence may have two different forms : singular

and plural

BASIC RULES FOR SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

1. If the subject is a singular noun, the verb ends in s.

e.g. Jack enjoys long walks.

The cat sleeps practically any where .

One player needs to stay back in defense all the time.

2. If the subject is plural the verb doesn’t end in s.45


e.g. The boys enjoy long walks.

The cats sleep practically any where .

Two players need to stay back in defense all the time.

3. When pronouns are subjects ,here are the subject-verb agreement rules.

a) With third person singular (he, she, it),the verb ends in s .

Examples He likes to fish below the dam .

She prefers fishing in the lake above the dam.

It takes a lot of courage to admit mistakes.

b) With all other pronouns (I, you, they, we), the verb doesn’t end

in s.

4. Each present tense verb within a compound verb must agree

with the subject.

Example: George goes to college during the week and works

on weekends.

5. With compound subject use, a plural verb.

Examples: The mayor and her husband attend our church.

The mayor attends our church.

6. Use a singular verb when two parts of a compound subject

refer to a single person or thing .

Examples: His friend and partner is very patient.

7. A noun or a pronoun joined to the subject by phrases that

act as prepositions rather than conjunctions is not a subject.

46


Examples of such phrases are:

along with together with accompanied by as well

as in addition to including no less than

examples: Nuru as well as Ali is going to mosque.

In addition to a BA certificate, three years relevant work

experience is required.

8. When two or more subjects are joined by or/nor, either…or,

or neither…nor, the verb should agree with the nearest subject.

Examples:

Mary or her sisters are going to keep the appointment.

Mary or her sister is going to keep the appointment.

Neither John nor his children are required to attend.

Neither Samson nor his son is going fishing today.

*If both subjects are singular, the verb singular.

Example: Either Abebe or his friend is to be at the

stadium by 1pm.

9. Some pronouns, when used as a subject, always take

singular verbs:

It, each, either, any one, every one, every body,

much, no one, nothing, someone, such some body, nobody, etc.

Examples:

47


Each student has lunch money.

Everyone has lunch money.

Much has been written about grammar.

Some one is going to meet us at the air the air port.

It seems like years since we met.

*As a subject each takes a singular verb .But, as an

adjective in apposition with a plural subject, it needs a plural

verb.

Examples:

John and Mary each are scheduled

to meet with the president of the company.

The girls each receive invitations.

Each of the girls receives invitations.

10. In either…or and neither…nor constructions where one

subject is masculine and one subject is feminine, the pronoun

should agree with the antecedent that follows ‘or’ or ‘nor’.

Examples:

Neither Mary nor John has

applied for his visa.

Neither john nor Mary has applied for her visa.

* In this example the pronoun ‘their’ would be

incorrect because neither is singular. However, the Phrase for a

visa would be better in both cases.48


Examples:

Neither Mary nor John has

applied for a visa.

Neither John nor Mary has applied for a visa.

11. Number, majority, and total are singular if preceded by ‘the’

and plural if preceded by’ a’.

Examples:

The number of convictions is increasing.

A number of people were convicted on those charges.

The majority has voted for John.

A majority of citizens agree that the laws should be

enforced.

MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

WHAT IS A MODIFIER?

A modifier is a word or a group of words that describes (adds meaning to)

another word or group of words in a sentence.

1. A modifier may

F Identify _ the woman in the green coat

_ the hat that you just bought

_ the boy with the black hat

F Locate - the book on the table

49


F Set in time - They arrived at 9 am.

- The roses bloomed in may.

F Tell how something happened - John played the piano like a

drunken Gorilla.

- Maria combs her hair with great care.

2. As a general rule a modifier should come after the word it modifies:

-The catalog that you just ordered won’t arrive for weeks.

-The seats in the back of the theatre are ours.

3. Occasionally, a modifier is best located directly before the word it

modifies.

- Happy and excited, the children played hide

and seek.

- Bothered by the hard rain, the gardeners quit working for the

day.

5. MISPLACED MODIFIERS

Modifiers that modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one

word in a sentence are called misplaced modifiers.

Misplaced modifiers are words that because of awkward placement, do not

describe the words the writer wants to describe. Misplaced modifiers often

obscure the meaning of a sentence. To avoid misplaced modifiers, place

words as close as possible to what they describe.

Misplaced Modifiers (words)

50


I. I nearly earned a hundred

dollars last week. (You

just missed earning a

hundred dollars but in fact

earned nothing.)

II. Carlos only eats spaghetti

with clam sauce.(The word

’only’ is misplaced and can

be understood in three

different ways.)

III. Bill yelled at the howling

dog in his underwear.

(unintended meaning-the dog

wore underwear. )

IV. Bahir Dar is one of the

fastest growing cities in

Ethiopia which was

established only fifty

years ago.

Correctly

Placed Modifiers

1. ______________________________

______________________________

___________________. (meaning-

you earned a little under a

hundred dollars.)

2. ______________________________

______________________________

___________________. ______________________________

______________________________

___________________.

3. ______________________________

______________________________

_______________.

(The words describing

‘Bill’ are placed next to’

Bill’.)

4. ______________________________

______________________________

___________________

6. DANGLING MODIFIERS

51


The dangling modifiers are usually introductory phrases that do not go with

the subjects of the sentences. These phrases are called dangling modifiers

because they have nothing to modify. Dangling modifiers do not logically

seem to modify any word in a sentence.

A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the word

it is meant to describe; otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling,

and the sentence takes on unintended meaning.

1. Almost all dangling modifiers begin sentences.

2. Almost all dangling modifiers are phrases beginning with an –ing

ending word (gerund) or with an –ed ending word (past participle).

3. If an introductory phrase doesn’t modify the subject of the sentence,

it is a dangling modifier.

F D.M- Rushing to class, the books fell all over the stairs. (Books

can’t rush to class; therefore, the phrase ‘ rushing to class’

doesn’t modify the subject books.)

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

F D.M- Walking to his room in the dorms, the floor was very slippery. (A

floor can’t walk .The phrase ‘walking to his room in the dorms’

doesn’t modify the subject ‘floor’.)

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

52


_

F D.M.- While smoking a pipe, my dog sat with me by the crackling fire.

(unintended meaning-The dog was smoking the pipe; intended meaning-

The writer was smoking the pipe.)

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

_

F D.M - Swimming at the lake, a rock cut Sue’s foot.

F Revised_______________________________________________________________

__

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

__

F D.M - While eating my sandwich, five mosquitoes bit me.

F Revised_______________________________________________________________

__

F D.M- After reading the original study, the article remains

unconvincing.

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

_.

7. SHIFT IN POINT OF VIEW

53


SHIFT IN POINT OF VIEW WITH VERBS AND PRONOUNS

SHIFT IN POINT OF VIEW WITH VERB TENSES

Don’t shift verb tenses unnecessarily. Verbs should be used

consistently .If you begin writing a paper in the present tense, don’t

shift suddenly to the past .If you begin in the past, don’t shift without

reason to the present.

When two or more events occur at the same time, use the same verb tense to

describe both events.

Examples of shift in point of view with verbs

1. She returned from work at 5pm and starts cooking food.

F Revised_______________________________________________________________

__Revised_____________________________________________________________

____

2. He arrived just as the game begins.

F Revised_____________________________________________.

3. The shop lifter walked quickly toward the front of the store. When a

clerk shouts at him, he started to run.

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

___.

54


In the above sentences, the verbs aren’t consistently in the past or

present tense.

When events being described have occurred at different times, shift tenses

to show that one event precedes or follows another. For instance, we use

past perfect tense to indicate that one past action or condition began and

ended before another past action or condition started.

EXAMPLES

1. She had been the captain of the team before I became captain. (She was

captain; she stopped being captain; I became captain.)

2. Before I slipped, many other pedestrians had slipped in the same

place. (They slipped ;they finished slipping; I slipped.)

3. He had already dried the dishes by the time I arrived. (He dried the

dishes; he finished drying the dishes ; I arrived.)

SHIFT IN POINT OF VIEW WITH PRONOUNS

Like verb tense pronouns should not shift point of view unnecessarily. When

writing a paper be consistent in your use of first, second, or third person

pronouns.

Note: Any person, place, thing as well as any indefinite pronoun like one,

anyone, and someone is a third person word.

1. If someone studies the lessons regularly, they can pass the exams.

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

55


__

2. If one does physical task regularly, they will be healthy.

F Revised_______________________________________________________________

_.

3. I like watching horror movies like ‘The return of the vampire’ that

frighten you.

F Revised

______________________________________________________________________

_

2. CHAPTER TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING

I: BASIC CONCEPTS IN PARAGRAPH WRITING

Answer the following Brain storming questions:

F What is a paragraph?

F What is the relationship between each sentence in a paragraph?

F What is the main function of topic sentences in a paragraph? Where do

we put?

F Does a paragraph develop only one major idea or many ideas?

A paragraph is a unit of writing which develops one major idea. It is a

group of sentences arranged in a meaningful way and conveys one main idea.

All the details in a paragraph are related to the major idea that could be

56


stated or implied in the topic of that paragraph. The topic sentence of the

paragraph carries the main theme (idea) of that paragraph. The topic

sentence could be written at the beginning or end of a paragraph.

A well developed paragraph:

F Gives ample details to the reader about the point given in the topic

sentence.

F Presents specific details, examples and/or illustrations that make the

writing interesting.

F Tries to complete all the points of the theme under consideration does

not make the reader have unanswered questions in his mind.

F Winds up its points by supplying a concluding statement (terminator).

In order to write a paragraph, the following steps are very important.

1) CHOOSE A TOPIC:-When you choose a topic, it should not be either too

broad or too narrow. It should always be in a manageable position. If it

is too broad, it is difficult to finish it in one paragraph as there are

a wide range of choices for details. In another way, it cannot be

thought of anything to explain if it is too narrow.

Example:

F Farming in Ethiopia

F Animal farming in Ethiopia

F Dairy farming in Ethiopia

F Dairy farming in Addis Ababa

F The Sholla dairy farming

57


2) Prepare topic sentence:-Topic sentence of a given paragraph should be

manageable and make clear what the paragraph is about.

3) List the points that help you develop the central idea.

4) Check your final list and cross out any point not directly relevant.

5) Arrange the points in a logical order.

6) Put your ideas into sentences linked with appropriate transitions.

7) Read through and check your work. If possible get a partner and check

your work.

Write out your final draft.

In general, a paragraph has the following components

Topic sentence

Supporting sentences,

Concluding sentence

Take a look at the following short passage

Samuel is very shy. At parties he sits in a corner by himself all night. When he is in a crowd,

you would never notice him. When you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers

out one word replies. He never speaks in class, and I have never seen him talk to a girl. He

is a nice person, but few people ever get to know him.

1. What is the function of sentence1?

2. What is the function of sentence 2, 3, 4&5?

3. What is the function of the last sentence?

II: PRINCIPLES OF PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION

1. UNITY 58


A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops one main point or idea.

One important feature of an effective paragraph is unity: all sentences

within the paragraph are related to the main point. Here is an example of a

unified paragraph. The first sentence expresses the main point of the

paragraph and the rest of the sentences relate to the main point.

1. Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are

beautiful. Her complexion is flawless, and she has a lovely big smile.

Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is tall and slender, and

her every movement is graceful. She also dresses stylishly, and her

assortment of passant skirts and loose- fitting blouses look great on

her.

The main point of the paragraph (how attractive the woman is) is

supported by a number of specific details: beautiful eyes, flawless

skin, a lovely smile, beautiful hair graceful movements, and stylish

dress. Notice that there is even more specific detail to describe some

of these features; large, dark eyes, full, shiny black hair, and passant

skirts and loose- fitting blouses.

2. We had a terrible storm last night. The winds blew up to fifty miles an

hour and it rained very hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over,

and one tree hit a power line and blacked out the area for five hours.

Downtown the main street was flooded; the cars were left stranded in the

bumper- deep water. Before morning the river flooded its banks and

people living nearby were forced to flee their homes with whatever

belongings they could gather. It was the worst storm in the country

since 1958.59


The main point of the paragraph is that the storm was terrible. The

rest of the sentence relate to the main point by showing how bad the

storm was. It knocked down trees, flooded Main Street, caused a

blackout, and forced people from their homes. The paragraph is unified

because all the sentences relate to the main point of the paragraph.

3. The price of houses in Addis Ababa is skyrocketing. House sales are up

65 percent from two years ago. A house is sold immediately as soon as

it is constructed. The average house price has actually increased

200,000 Birr this year. There have also been lots of new housing

constructions within the city limits in the last six months. Many real

estates have got much profit from their business, and the

constructor’s union has thousands of employed members. Lumber sales

have increased over 75 percent, and the constructor’s union has bought

thousands of logging trucks and employed extra workers. It has been a

golden age for the housing industry in over twenty years.

The main point of the paragraph (the housing industry is doing well) is

supported by a number of specific facts: sales are up, house prices are

increased, construction has facilitated, more constructors are employed,

and lumber sales are increased. The last sentence concludes the

paragraph by reinforcing just how well the housing situation is

facilitated.

However, the paragraphs in the following exercise have sentences that

are not related to the main idea.

EXERCISE 1

60


Circle the letter of one sentence in each group that is not clearly related

to the topic for that group of sentences.

1. Topic: I am sick of eating 'bread'.

a. I've been eating bread twice a day all semesters.

b. It is starting to taste like dog food

c. I love pizza very much.

d. I'm getting fat from eating bread.

e. I get a stomachache just thinking about eating another bread.

2. Topic: There are many ways to study for a test.

a. You can review a few hours the night before the test.

b. You can study an hour a night the week of the test

c. You can study with friends and help each other

d. You can get up early in the morning of the test and study

e. You can improve your grades by attending classes regularly

3. Topic: Bahir Dar is a pleasant place to live

a. There are three movie theaters in the town.

b. The people are friendly.

c. There is very little crime.

d. There is a bad smell coming from the town dump.

e. There are many places to shop for clothes.

4. Topic: The baby isn't hungry this morning.

a. She keeps spitting out her food.

b. She loves eating rice for lunch.

c. She keeps playing with her food.

d. She turns her head when I try to feed her

e. Her stomach looks stuffed. 61


5. Topic: Registration this semester was confusing.

a. Many of the departments I wanted were closed.

b. I had to go to six different buildings to register.

c. The computer for registration worked very well.

d. I couldn't find the teachers whose signatures I needed.

e. I had to fill out three different applications

6) Topic: The swimming pool in Textile factory is in bad condition.

a. The bottom surface is covered with a dirty layer.

b. Algae grow on the steps.

c. Leaves float on top of the water

d. The wall of the pool is cracking.

e. The water is shining blue.

7) Topic: Tokichaw is very strong.

a. He has bulging arms and leg muscles

b. He can lift eighty pound sacks of cement easily

c. He can lift me over his head with not trouble

d. He is an excellent piano player.

e. He can push and move a car hundred meters far.

EXERCISE 2

Each of the following paragraphs contains one sentence that is not clearly

related to the topic for that paragraph. Cross out the unrelated sentence

so that the paragraph becomes unified.

1. We had a short spring this year. The weather was cold through March and

into April due to storms moving down from Canada. There was still snow on

the mountains in late April hugely. It is usually gone by the end of March.

We had only two nice weeks in May with the temperatures in the low 70s. The62


winter was unusually mild. However, by Mid- May temperatures were in the

90s, and it was hot from then on.

2. The medical service, which was being offered by Felege Hiwot Hospital,

is almost terminated. The building is in poor physical condition, and the

town cannot afford to make urgently needed repairs to roofs, floors, and

walls. Also doctors on the hospital staff have complained that surgical

facilities are dangerously obsolete. Patients to the hospital can no longer

reach it easily by public transportation because taxies serving the town

run too infrequently. And, the hospital is efficient enough to give any

services to its clients. Therefore, the hospital should be closed at once.

3 My brother is driving me crazy. First he borrows my razor and doesn't

put it back. Then he sneaks into the kitchen and eats the pancakes I have

cooked for myself. He helps me with my homework which I appreciate. Then he

borrows my car and returns it with the gas tank empty. Finally, he borrows

money from me and never pays it back. I become glad when he moves out of

the house.

4. Children may play certain roles in the family depending on their birth

order. The first child, who usually identifies with the father, takes on

the family’s more obvious social and career goals. The second child is

tuned in to the family’s emotional requirements and may act out the hidden

needs of others, especially the mother. The behavior of the third child

often reflects what is going on between the parents; for instance, if

eating is the only activity the parents enjoy doing as a couple, the third

child may be overweight. In general, families today have fewer children

than in the past.

Exercise 363


Each of the following paragraph topics is followed by two sentences that

relate to the topic. Add two more sentences of your own that are also

related to the topic, and hence, would make a unified paragraph.

1. Topic: Hailu has bad behaviors

a. He steals money from his poor mother.

b. He insults anyone whom he meets.

c. ____________________________________________________________

d. ____________________________________________________________

2. Topic: I have a lot of things to do by the coming summer

vacation.

a. I will visit my grandfather.

b. I will read different books.

c. ____________________________________________________________

d. ____________________________________________________________

3.Topic: War has many disadvantages.

a. It ruins infrastructures.

b. It causes migration.

c. ___________________________________________________________

d. ___________________________________________________________

4. Topic: My dormitory room is not suitable to study.

a. The table is not comfortable.

b. There are some noisy students.

c. ____________________________________________________________

d. ____________________________________________________________

2. COHERENCE: It means that the sentences should be organized in a logical

manner and should follow a definite plan of development. 64


Take a look at the following original student paper:

I live in a house in Izmit. It isn't old or modern. It's a normal Turkish house. We can say it is near the

sea. It takes about 10 minutes to go to the sea side on foot. We have one bedroom, one living room.

We also have two other rooms, too. We use them as a dining room. Naturally, we have a kitchen, a

bathroom, and a toilet. I live with my parents. And our house has a little garden; my parents spend

their time there to grow vegetables and fruit.

First, let's see the order of the ideas:

1. Where the house is

2. Type of the house

3. The location

4. The rooms in the house

5. The fact that he lives with his parents

6. The garden

Chronologically organized paragraph

I live in a house in Izmit. It isn't old or modern; it is a normal Turkish house. It is near the sea; it takes

about ten minutes to go to the seaside. In the house, there are two bedrooms, one living room and

two other rooms that we use as dining rooms. Naturally, we have a kitchen, a bathroom, a toilet, and

a little garden. My parents spend their time growing vegetables and fruit there.

C. Fully developed-this is the completeness of the paragraph. It has to

answer questions raised about the topic as much as possible.

III: PARTS OF PARAGRAPH65


A) Introduction: - is the general idea in which the topic sentence can be

found. Topic sentence carries the main idea of the paragraph.

B) The body: - is developing or supporting sentences arranged in unity

dealing with the main idea of the paragraph incorporated in topic

sentence.

C) Conclusion (concluding sentence):- This tells the reader that the

writer is about to sum up his/her main idea. There are different ways

of concluding a paragraph.

Some of these are:

1. Recommending solution-if the paragraph deals about certain problem.

2. Paraphrasing the topic sentence-expressing the topic sentence in other

words.

3. Repeating the idea in the topic sentence.

4. Emphasizing the main idea.

Some of the expressions that we use to conclude a given paragraph are: in

general, as a result of these, finally, in a nutshell, we can say that, to

summarize that, to sum up, etc.

SELF TEST EXERCISE

THE STUDENT CENTRE

66


Eating in the student centre is a pleasant experience. First the food is

excellent. It is well prepared, it tests delicious, and there are many

different kinds of food like hamburgers, tacos, pizza, and chicken.

Moreover each person serves him or herself, selecting just what he or she

wants. Second the environment in the student centre is positive. Many happy

young people are talking and laughing. However, the atmosphere is still

calm; it is possible to study and do homework. Finally, there are many

friendly people in the student centre. Even the stranger say, “HI” and

offer to share their tables. When that happens, practice in speaking

English and friendship often follow. For these reasons, it is nice to go to

the student centre cafeteria once in a while to enjoy the eating, studying,

and talking with new people.

Read the above short paragraph carefully and do the following activities.

1. Topic sentence:_______________________________________________________

___________________________________________

A. Food is excellent

1.__________________________________________

2. _________________________________________

2. Environment is positive

B. Happy young people talking

1. ____________________________________________________________

3. Concluding sentence:___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

_______67


Read the following short paragraphed passage and do the questions follow it

Changes in our society in recent years have weakened family life. First of

all today’s mothers spend much less time with their children. A generation

ago, most houses got by on Dad’s paycheck, and Mom stayed home. Now many

mothers work, and their children attend an after school program, stay with

a neighbor, go home to any empty house. Another change is that families no

longer eat together. In the past, Mom would be home and fix a full dinner –

salad pot roast, potatoes and vegetables, with homemade cake or pie to top

it off. Dinner today is more likely to be takeout food or TV dinners eaten

at home, or fast food eaten out, with different members of the family

eating at different times. Finally Television has taken the place of family

conversation and togetherness. Back when there were meals together, family

member would have a chance to eat together, talk with each other, and share

events of the day in a leisurely manner. But now families are more likely

to be looking at the TV set than talking to one another. Many homes even

have several TV sets, which people watch in separate rooms. Clearly modern

life is a challenging to family life.

1. Write the possible topic of the

paragraph._____________________________________

2. Topicsentence:________________________________________________________

___

3. What are the activities performed the past and today’s mothers?

A._________________________________________________________________

B._________________________________________________________________

68


4. List the eating habit described in the paragraph.

A.

___________________________________________________________________

B.

____________________________________________________________________

5. Write the concluding sentence:

___________________________________________________________________________

__

VI: TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

1. DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

Descriptive paragraph paints a word picture that appeals to the reader’s

senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell. It allows writers to pick

one element such as a person, room, or object and then explain in detail

what the subject looks like. To put this in to practice one has to employ

adjectives as effectively as possible. The other method is to use spatial

order - space order which could be from simple to complex, and/or from

right to left and vice versa. More than any other type of writing, a

descriptive paragraph needs sharp and colorful details. Therefore, use

precise and vivid words to recreate your vision and make your writing

livelier. A good description depends on the use of specific rather than

general descriptive words.

Describing a Person

69


When we describe a person we are concerned with his/her physical appearance

or personality. Certain nouns and adjectives help us to describe the person

accurately. Below is a list of words that can be used to describe the

physical appearance, and the internal or emotional qualities of a person.

1. Some of useful adjectives for describing a person’s appearance.

F Age: young, middle-aged, old, elderly, in his or her early thirties/

mid forties/ late fifties etc.

F Face: long, round, oval, attractive, beautiful, un-shaven.

F Hair: long, medium-length, short, straight, curly, wavy, dark, black,

gray, fair, white, plaited (braid), bald.

F Forehead: high, low.

F Eyes: brown, blue, gray.

F Ears: big, small, protruding, slanting.

F Nose: long, pointed, turned-up, flat.

F Build: short, fat, plump, over-weight, thin, slim, slender, skinny,

broad-shouldered, muscular.

F Clothes: cotton, wooden, hand-woven, leather, traditional, western,

colorful, attractive, well-dressed, smartly-dressed, casually dressed.

2. Useful adjectives for describing a person’s personality.

Happy, cheerful

Friendly, pleasant,

amusing kind

hard-working

polite, well-mannered

truthful

crafty clever,

intelligent, wise shy

unhappy, sad, miserable

unfriendly, unpleasant

unkind, cruel lazy

70


impolite, rude, ill-mannered

dishonest

stupid, silly, dull confident, etc

Sample Descriptive Paragraph

Almaz

Almaz, my sister, is a cat like creature. Framing her face is a layer of

sleek black hair that always looks just-combed. Her face, with its wide

forehead, sharp cheekbones and narrow, pointed chin, resembles a triangle.

Almaz’s skin is soft, velvety brown eyes slant upward at the corners, and

they emphasize their angle with a sweep of maroon eye shadow. Almaz’s habit

of looking sidelong out of the tail of her eye makes her look cautious as

if she were expecting something to sn eak upon her. Her nose is smooth and

flat. The sharply outlined depression under it leads the observer’s eye to

a pair of red-tinted lips. With their slight upward tilt at the corners,

Almaz’s lips make her seem self-satisfied and secretly pleased. Her long

neck and slim body are perfectly in proportion with her face. Almaz manages

to look elegant and sleek no matter how she is standing or sitting, for her

body seems to be made up of graceful angles. Her slender hands are tipped

with long, polished nails. Her narrow feet are long, too, but they appear

delicate even in flat – soled running shoes. Somehow, Almaz would look

perfect in a cat’s jeweled collar.

2. NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH

71


Narrative paragraphs are often used to describe what a person does over a

period of time. Read the following example of narrative paragraph, and

notice how words like 'later' are used to connect what happens.

Yesterday evening I got home from work at 6 o'clock. My wife had prepared dinner which we ate

immediately. After I had cleaned up the kitchen, we watched TV for about an hour. Then we got ready

to go out with some friends. Our friends arrived at about 9 o'clock and we chatted for a while. Later

we decided to visit a jazz club and listen to some music. We really enjoyed ourselves and stayed late.

We finally left at one o'clock in the morning.

Sample Narrative Paragraph

When I was a kid

When I was five years old, I remember doing a lot of exciting things. We

had large walnut trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I

climbed them in the summer. One time I fell down of one of the trees and

landed on my head, but I was not badly hurt. We also played baseball in the

backyard with the neighbor kids, and I remember we used my mother’s dishes

for home plate and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of

town, and we raced through the alleys after a rain, spattering water and

mud on each other. The high school was only a block away, so we walked

there in the summer, jumped the fence, and skated around the cement

corridors until a custodian chased us out. Finally, there was a big vacant

lot beside our house where we played cowboys and Indians almost every

Saturday. It seems like I did nothing but play when I was young.

3. PERSUASIVE/ARGUMENTATIVE PARAGRAPH

72


Persuasive paragraph is a written argument between two groups or

individuals where the writer tries to convince his audience by providing as

enough facts and evidences as possible. The facts provided need to be

verifiable and acceptable so that the audience is persuaded to join

him/her. It is not good for a writer to try to force the audience to accept

his/her argument. He/she would rather give as many facts, opinions,

evidences as possible but leave the audience to take any side it prefers

based on the argument.

One way of presenting an argument in a paragraph is as follows.

F First of all identify your own position on a certain issue.

F State the opposing point of view.

F State your opponent’s justification for this point of view.

F Criticize this opposing point of view.

F Present your own alternative point of view.

F Support your own point of view with reasons/evidence.

Sample Argumentative Paragraph

Some people argue that science and technology is doing more good to the

world than damage. They say that it has brought about many important

things. For example, the ancient people were talking a lot of time to reach

a distant place. Thanks to technology, this p roblem has been tackled with

the introduction of modern transport. Another importance is related to

modern war armaments. In the ancient time, when there is an invasion, a

large number of people and pack animals were involved because of lack of

73


modern weapons, but now the technology has introduced modern armament.

However, I would argue that these positive sides of science and technology

have become people’s problems. Firstly, although modern transport saves

much time, we shouldn’t forget the big interference it has on ecology. When

we look at big cities, aren’t they being polluted by the smokes from the

vehicles? Doesn’t this affect the people’s health? Secondly, with regard to

modern war weapons, I could argue that it has become a big problem. What is

the effect of atomic bomb? Doesn’t it kill the human race? Doesn’t it kill

animals and plants? What about polluting the air? Doesn’t it also pollute

the water bodies?

4. EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

An expository paragraph presents of information, opinions, or ideas. It

exposes something about a topic. This is usually done by using the

following methods.

a) Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

A writer uses this pattern when he/she wants to make something clearer to

his/her reader by showing how it is like or unlike something else. When

using this pattern, the writer would need to answer these questions for his

or her reader:

How is something similar to something else?

How is it different from something else?

In a paragraph, a writer may be discussing two or more topics. These could

be two objects, events, places, persons, or ideas, or some aspects of

74


these. Usually the writer will want to discuss their similarities only, or

their differences only within a single paragraph. The paragraph is called a

comparison paragraph when it describes similarities and it is called a

contrast paragraph when it describes differences.

Sample Paragraph showing similarities between two towns

Bahir Dar and Awassa have several things in common. First, both are big

urban communities. For example, Bahir Dar has a population of only about

250,000 people. Similarly, Awassa consists of about 235, 000 local

residents. This population swells to 246, 000 people when the college

students are attending classes. A second way in which these two towns are

similar is that they are both located near to water bodies. Bahir Dar is

situated around Lake Tana. In the same way, Awassa lies near to Lake

Awassa. Thirdly, these two towns are similar in that both contain

university campuses. Bahir Dar, for example, is a home to Bahir Dar

Univeristy which is famous for its educational, business and engineering

programs as well as for its annual sport contests. Likewise, Awassa

possesses the beautiful campus of Hawassa University which is well known

for its health and agricultural engineering programmes and also for its

yearly sport festival.

A contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at least) two

things.

Hamusit and Tana Island are both villages that are near to Bahir

Dar; however, they are noticeably different in many aspects. For

example, the physical size of each village is different. Hamusit is75


large, having an area of 114 square miles, whereas Tana Island is

only about a tenth of the size of Hamusit, having an area of only

about 12 square miles. Another difference is in the size of the

population of each village. Hamusit has about 4000 people living in

it, but Tana Island has less than 100. The two villages also differ

in the weather condition that each posses. For example, Hamusit is

dry village and receives an average of 18 millimeters of rain per

year. However, Tana Island is found at a moisten area and receives

an average of 44 millimeters of rain per year. In addition, the

location of the two villages is different. Hamusit is located on

landmass and has no surrounding water body, whereas Tana Island lies

on Lake Tana and is surrounded by water.

b) Classification

Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or

behaviors into smaller and well-defined groups. Many classification

systems are already in place; for example, movies are classified by

genre: Western, Romance, Science Fiction, Action, Comedy, Animation,

Drama, and Thriller; subjects in school are classified by

discipline: Science, Maths, English, Economics, Accounting and so

on.

Sample Classification Paragraph

76


Living Things

Scientists divide living things into two main groups-the animal kingdom and

the plant kingdom. It is usually easy to tell animals from plants. Most

animals move around, but most plants are held to the ground by roots.

Animals eat plants and other animals. Most plants make their own food from

air, water and sunlight. But, some living things, called potists seem to

fit into either the animal kingdom or the plant kingdom. They include

bacteria and some other forms of life that can be seen only under a

microscope. Many scientists believe potists should be classified in a

kingdom of their own.

c) Cause and Effect Paragraph

At times making an important idea or event fully understood in writing may

require the writer to offer information which readers may need or want to

know what led up to the event or idea—that is, what caused it to become

what it is now. Or they may need or want to know the effects of the idea or

event—that is, the results or consequences. In other words, the readers

will want the writer to give the answers to one or both of these questions:

what caused the event or idea? What effects or consequences does event or

the idea have?

Here is an example of a writing topic asking for causes of a particular

phenomenon.

These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in

alarming rate. This is the topic sentence which indicates the

effect. The supporting sentences all describe causes for the77


described event in the topic sentence. The paragraph below

illustrates the cause pattern.

Sample Cause and Effect Paragraph

Spread of Deserts

These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in

alarming rate. There are many reasons for this occurrence. First,

the clearing of vegetation cover to get new land for farming

resulted in rapid loss of forests. This depletion of forests

degraded wild life and soil. Second, the rapid growth of population

made people to push cultivation into areas that were entirely

unsuitable for agriculture. These activities of man on highly

sensitive and delicately balanced ecosystem led to a progressive

decline in the vegetation cover. Finally, the progressive

destruction of the third world’s stock of trees for the existing

demand for firewood and timber as building material is accelerating

soil erosion and reducing its capacity to feed and employ people.

If forests continue to be depleted in such ways, it is inevitable

that the problem aggravates and our globe will be affected by

desertification much higher than the present.

d) The Definition Paragraph

The definition paragraph is a definition sentence which has been expanded

into a paragraph. The definition sentence becomes the topic sentence. Each

category is expanded into major supporting sentences.

Example:78


Cholera is an intestinal infection that can be described according to its

cause, symptoms, and treatment. A bacterium, called vibrio cholera, is the

causative agent of cholera. It can be spread through contaminated food,

water, or feces. Cholera patients may exhibit different symptoms that can

vary from mild to severe. Some symptoms are watery diarrhea and loss of

water and salts. Oral or intravenous replacement of fluids and salts as

well as specific antibiotics is a possible treatment for cholera. Patients

can be treated with an oral rehydration solution or, in severe cases, an

intravenous fluid.

e) Exemplification

An example is a specific illustration of a general idea. An exemplification

paragraph explains or clarifies a general statement or idea- the topic

sentence – with one or more specific examples. Personal experiences,

classroom discussions, observations, conversations and reading (for

example, material from newspapers, magazines or the internet) can all be

good sources of examples. How many examples you need depends on your topic

sentence. A complicated, far-reaching statement might require many examples

to convince readers that it is reasonable. A simple, more straightforward

statement would require fewer examples. The following paragraph uses

examples to make the point that how people with different backgrounds and

ages wear different types of tee shirts:

Example:

People of various background and ages wear different kinds of T-

shirts. Musicians, for example, wear ragged T-shirts when they

perform on stage. Restaurant workers wear T- shirts that mark the79


name of the restaurant they work in. children, teens, parents and

elderly people wear T- shirts on which almost anything can be

pictured. At concerts, for instance, fans can buy T-shirts stamped

with the name of the group on stage. College students can wear the

name of their college on the shirt. Some popular T- shirts advertize

a brand of beer, like ‘Dashen’, or a sports goods company like

Adidas. Other T- shirts have political slogans like “Unity with

Diversity”. Other people also wear T-shirts which reflect their

religious background. For example, while some Christians wear T-

shirts on which “I Belong to Jesus!” is printed, some people from

Muslim backgrounds also wear shirts with “Alhamdulillah!” From this

one can understand that what is written or pictured on tee shirts is

as varied as the people who wear them.

CHAPTER THREE: ESSAY WRITING

80


THE ORGANIZATION OF AN ESSAY

The following explains the organization of an expository essay that is

trying to make a point about some topic and to provide supporting material

for that point. This method of organizing may vary slightly depending on

the specific type of essay that you are writing.

TITLE OF ESSAY

The title of the essay reveals the general topic of the paper and gives

some indication of the particular point being made about that topic. The

thesis statement goes here. This is one sentence which summarizes the main

point that the entire essay is making.

The first body paragraph will state and explain the first reason in support

of your thesis.

The second body paragraph will state and explain the second reason in

support of your thesis. The third body paragraph will state and explain the

third reason in support of your thesis.

The concluding paragraph begins with a repeat of the thesis statement but

with slightly different wording from the first version of the thesis

statement.

THE INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

The purpose of the introductory paragraph in an essay is to “introduce”

the reader to your topic in a gradual and logical manner. The

introductory paragraph gently “eases” into the topic so that the reader can

follow your train of thought and be better prepared for what you will be

saying later in the essay. The introductory paragraph usually ends with

the thesis statement, which is one sentence that sums up the one, main

81


point that your essay is making about its topic. Here are some

specifications about the typical introductory paragraph:

F It begins with an indentation (as do all the paragraphs in your

essay)

F It is not too long or too short --usually about four to five

sentences long.

F It should begin with an “attention grabber,” i.e., something that

will capture and keep the reader’s attention and make him want to

continue reading your essay.

This device could be:

a. an interesting or unusual little -known fact about your topic

b. a thought-provoking rhetorical question

c. a brief narrative (a little story) which illustrates a point related

to your topic

F It begins with a rather general tone and gradually gets more specific

toward the end.

F It usually ends with your thesis statement, which might also contain

a brief summary of the supporting reasons (often three or more)

for your thesis. This thesis statement should contain some of the

same important words as the title of your essay.

The following is a sample introductory paragraph that demonstrates the

points mentioned above:

THE NEED FOR PARENTAL CONTROLS OF TV PROGRAMS

Statistics show that there are more television sets in America than

bathtubs. The average American home has at least two TVs. Something else

that the average American home has is children—and often very young,82


impressionable children. This combination of children and television can

be good (as with educational programming like National Geographic), but it

can also be quite damaging (as with programs depicting excessive sex and

violence like CSI: Special Victims Unit). Clearly there needs to be some

type of regulation of what young children see on their TVs at home.

Parents should definitely monitor, screen, and control the types of TV

programs that their young children watch.

THESIS STATEMENT

(The essay would then go on to present at least three specific reasons why

the author of the essay feels that parents should control what their

children watch on TV. Each reason would be fully explained in its own

paragraph, and therefore the body of the essay would contain three

paragraphs.)

The following information about the body of an essay applies to all types

of essays in which you are trying to make a point about something and

support it. The body of the essay is the part between the introduction and

the conclusion. It is the longest and most important part of the essay,

because its purpose is to provide support for your thesis statement. This

support can come in the form of examples, facts or statistics, short

narratives about the personal experience of the author, or simply more

details explaining what you mean. Usually the body of an essay contains at

least three paragraphs and often more. Each paragraph discusses one idea

that supports your thesis statement. For example, if you have four main

ideas to support your thesis statement, then four paragraphs will be in the

body of your essay – one separate paragraph to discuss each idea. These

83


supporting paragraphs can be as long or as short as necessary, but the

average length is usually about five or six sentences.

Your body paragraphs should be arranged in an increasing order of

importance. That means to begin by explaining the supporting idea that is

only slightly important and end with the supporting idea that is VERY

important.

When you begin each new body paragraph, you should use a transition, which

could be one word, a phrase, or even a full sentence. A transitional word

would be something like First, Secondly, Thirdly, Next, or Finally.

Sometimes slightly longer phrases can be used such as: In the first place,

On the other hand, or by contrast.

NOTE: The first transitional word or phrase would be used at the very

beginning of the second body paragraph and would appear at the start of the

first sentence of each body paragraph after that one until you get to the

concluding paragraph.

The purpose of the transition is to remind the reader of your paper about

the main idea of the previous paragraph before he begins reading the new

paragraph. Do not use a transition at the end of one paragraph to tell the

reader what the next paragraph is going to be about. In other words, a

properly used transition would remind the reader of what has already been

said in the previous paragraph, not what is going to be said in the next

paragraph. It’s a review of the past, not a prediction of the future.

The Concluding Paragraph of an Essay

The concluding paragraph of an essay is almost as important and as

carefully structured as the introductory paragraph. Here are some general

points about a properly written concluding paragraph: 84


F The first line should be indented or written in a full block.

F The concluding paragraph should not be too long or too short; the

average length is about four or five sentences.

F The concluding paragraph should begin with a repeat of the thesis

statement (main idea) of the essay but with slightly different

wording from the original thesis statement in the introduction.

F The main purpose of the concluding paragraph is to sum up the major

ideas of the essay by reviewing the important points that have been

made and by reminding the reader what the main point (the thesis

statement) of the essay was.

F No new information or new ideas should be in the conclusion.

F If possible, the concluding paragraph should end on a positive,

upbeat note.

F It is not necessary or desirable to begin the concluding paragraph

with the trite phrase, “In conclusion…” There are better phrases to

use to imply that this is the concluding paragraph of the essay.

Here is a sample concluding paragraph that exemplifies the above traits:

Repeat of thesis First reason Second reason. It is clear, then, that

responsible parents have a definite obligation to monitor their children’s

TV watching. First of all, from an educational standpoint, parents could

help their children learn better by urging them to watch educational

programs that relate to the topics that the children are studying in

school. Secondly, it is the civic responsibility of parents to help their

children grow up as law-abiding, dependable members of society. Finally,

and perhaps most importantly, parents have an ethical responsibility to

ensure that their children become moral, decent adults. By keeping a85


careful and loving eye on what their children watch on TV, parents can make

television time a pleasant family experience.

Sample Five-Paragraph Narrative Essay

Learning something new can be a scary experience. One of the hardest things

I’ve ever had to do was learn how to swim. I was always afraid of the

water, but I decided that swimming was an important skill that I should

learn. I also thought it would be good exercise and help me to become

physically stronger. What I didn’t realize was that learning to swim would

also make me a more confident person.

New situations always make me a bit nervous, and my first swimming lesson

was no exception. After I changed into my bathing suit in the locker room,

I stood timidly by the side of the pool waiting for the teacher and other

students to show up. After a couple of minutes the teacher came over. She

smiled and introduced herself, and two more students joined us. Although

they were both older than me, they didn’t seem to be embarrassed about not

knowing how to swim. I began to feel more at ease.

We got into the pool, and the teacher had us put on brightly colored water

wings to help us stay afloat. One of the other students, May, had already

taken the beginning class once before, so she took a kickboard and went

splashing off by herself. The other student, Jerry, and I were told to hold

on to the side of the pool and shown how to kick for the breaststroke. One

by one, the teacher had us hold on to a kickboard while she pulled it

through the water and we kicked. Pretty soon Jerry was off doing this by

himself, traveling at a fast clip across the short end of the pool.

Things were not quite that easy for me, but the teacher was very patient.

After a few more weeks, when I seemed to have caught on with my legs, she86


taught me the arm strokes. Now I had two things to concentrate on, my arms

and my legs. I felt hopelessly uncoordinated. Sooner than I imagined,

however, things began to feel “right” and I was able to swim. It was a

wonderful feeling - like flying, maybe - to be able to shoot across the

water.

Learning to swim was not easy for me, but in the end my persistence paid

off. Not only did I learn how to swim and to conquer my fear of the water,

but I also learned something about learning. Now when I am faced with a new

situation I am not so nervous. I may feel uncomfortable to begin with, but

I know that as I practice being in that situation and as my skills get

better; I will feel more and more comfortable. It is a wonderful, free

feeling when you achieve a goal you have set for yourself.

BASIC FIVE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION: The introductory paragraph should identify the topic and expl

ain why it is important and worthy of discussion. The sample essay begins w

ith a general statement: “Learning something new can be a scary experience.

” This statement introduces the subject of the essay, which is a particular

learning experience the author had.

1. BODY PARAGRAPH:A,

The first body paragraph should support and expand upon the thesis, main

idea, and/or argument presented in the introductory paragraph.

2. BODY PARAGRAPH:B,

The second body paragraph should further develop the idea presented in t

he first two paragraphs, and may introduce a second viewpoint and/or sup

plementary evidence to support the argument. 87


4. BODY PARAGRAPH: C

The third body paragraph should relate to the thesis statement in the intr

oductory paragraph, and present the final idea or evidence.

5. CONCLUSION

The concluding paragraph may be the most important. The writer must not m

erely repeat the introductory paragraph, but explain in expert‐like detai

l what has been learned, explained, decided, proven, etc. The writer must

reveal the ways in which the paper’s thesis might have significance in so

ciety. In the final paragraph of the sample essay, the author reflects on

the larger meaning of the experience described. The author concludes that

learning to swim helped her feel more confident about herself in other ne

w situations, and the idea that self‐confidence comes from conquering fea

rs is something all people can relate.

Here is a diagram to show where transitional phrases usually go in the

average essay:

TRASITIONS

88

Introduction

Body paragraph I

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Body

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Body


Some important Transitions

1. Additional information of the same nature as what has just been given.

F and Furthermore,

F Similarly, Just as . . . , so

also . . . . .

F Likewise, Also,

F In the same way, In addition,

F Moreover, By the same

token, . . . .

F Along the same lines . . .

2. Opposite or contradictory information from what has just been given

F but In spite of

this, . . .

F However, . . . .

Nevertheless, . . .

F Although . . . . . .

Nonetheless, . . .

F On the other hand, . . . . On the contrary, . . . .

F By contrast (or In contrast, . . .)

3. A choice between two options

F or

F Either . . . or (one of two things or people mentioned)

F Neither . . . nor (no choice of two things mentioned)

F If . . . ., then . . . . .

4. A reason for some occurrence or some course of action 89


F because

F by reason of . . .

F due to . . .

(Avoid “due to the fact that . . . .” Just use because

instead.)

5. Coming to or drawing a conclusion; “finishing up.”

F then so

F therefore We see, then, that . . . .

F thus (Avoid “In conclusion It’s

too stuffy and artificial.)

F hence Finally, . . .

6. Beginning or just starting to establish main points:

F To begin with, First of all, (primary

point)

F At first, Secondly, . .

(drop “of all” after first )

F Initially,

7. Words designating a certain time sequence or order:

F While . . . .

F After . . . .

F Before . . .

F During . . . 90


F As . . . .

Meantime, (or In the meantime) Meanwhile, . . .

Miscellaneous:

8. To introduce a sudden idea distantly related to what has just been

said:

F Incidentally, . . . .

F By the way, . . . .

F Speaking of . . . .

9. To introduce surprising information or more correct or more

accurate information.

F As a matter of fact, . .

.

F Actually, . . .

F In fact, . . .

CHAPTER FOUR: BUSINESS LETTER WRITING

4.1. APPLICATION LETTERS

The letter of application is essentially a sales letter in which you are

marketing your skills, abilities, and knowledge. Remember that you may be

91


competing with many other applicants. The immediate objective of the

application letter and accompanying resume/CV/ is to attract the attention

of the person who screens and hires job applicants. Your ultimate goal is

to obtain an interview.

The successful application letter accomplishes three tasks: It catches the

reader's attention favorably; it convinces the reader that you are a

qualified candidate for the job, and it requests an interview.

When you are writing a letter of application, do the following:

F Identify the job by title and let the recipient know how you heard

about it.

F Summarize your qualifications for the job, specifically your work

experience, activities that show your leadership skills, and your

education.

F Refer the reader to your enclosed resume.

F Ask for an interview, stating where you can be reached and when you

will be available.

F If you are applying for a specific job, include information pertinent

to the position that is not included in your general resume.

Those who make hiring decisions review many letters of application. To save

them time as well as to call attention to your strengths as a candidate,

you should state your objective directly at the beginning of the letter.

I am seeking a position as a manager in your Data Center. In such a

management position I can use my master's degree in information systems and

experience as a programmer/analyst to solve business problems.

In the succeeding paragraphs, expand on the qualifications you mentioned in

your opening. Add any appropriate details, highlighting experience listed92


on your resume that is especially pertinent to the job you are seeking.

Close your letter with a request for an interview. Prepare your letter with

utmost care, proofreading it carefully.

Sample application Letter

Woreda 15 Kebele 2

House No 333

P.O.Box 40

June 15, 2006

Mr. Asfaw Zekarias, Editor

Readers Review Magazine, Inc.

P.O.Box 1000

Addis Ababa

Dear Mr. Asfaw,

I am applying for the position of administrative assistant that was called

to my attention by the Placement Office of your organization. I am

confident that you will find my qualifications for this position merit your

serious consideration.

93


A summary of my qualifications is enclosed. You will find that my college

training provides an excellent foundation for the position for which I am

applying. I have always been interested in writing, and you will see from

my resume that I have concentrated heavily on English and the communication

arts. I have held editorial positions in both high school and college.

Furthermore, my skill in shorthand and typewriting has been used in these

positions, as well as in part-time jobs I held while attending college.

As an administrative assistant, I would welcome the opportunity to assist

in an editorial capacity as well as to use my secretarial skills in

performing my duties as your assistant. I have had experience in both

proofreading and layout. My secretarial skills are well above average, and

I enjoy working with others. You will find that I am eager to learn and

happiest when I keep busy.

If you wish to telephone me to arrange a personal interview, you can reach

me at 0911-976744 between 3 and 5:30 p.m. any weekday. I can make

arrangements to come to your office at your convenience.

Sincerely yours,

Girma Menan

Enclosure

2. WRITING CURRICULUM VITAE (CV) OR RESUME

94


A resume is an outline or summary of a job applicant’s background and

qualifications for a job. The way in which it is prepared and the

information it supplies help determine whether the applicant will be

requested to appear for a personal interview. Poorly prepared resumes

usually wind up in the wastebasket. Therefore, your resume should be

prepared with great care and should emphasize your qualifications that best

meet the requirements of the job you are seeking. During the interview, the

resume may serve as an agenda of topics to be discussed. Prepare a cover

letter or letter of application to mail with your resume.

Because you may apply for several job openings, it may not be practical to

type an original copy of a resume for each job. On the other hand, a carbon

copy

If you are looking for a job, then it is very important that you understand

how to offer yourself in the best way to an employer. This is done by

writing a 'CV' (curriculum vitae, = 'life story' in Latin), called in some

countries a 'resume'.

Different countries may have different requirements and styles for CV

resumes. So you must follow the correct practice for your culture and

country. However, there are some important principles which are forwarded

by different writers.

A. WHAT IS A CV FOR?

A CV is quite simply an 'advert' to sell yourself to an employer. You

should send a CV to an employer when they ask for one in a job advert, or

when you are enquiring if any jobs are available. So the purpose of your CV

is to make you attractive, interesting, worth considering to the company

and so receive a job interview. 95


An employer may have several hundred enquiries about a single job; he or

she will only choose a few people who appear suitable for interview.

A CV or Curriculum Vitae is:

F Your Life History

F Your Job History

F Your Achievements

F Your Skills

A CV or curriculum vitae is a marketing tool. With your CV you will be able

to promote yourself. Imagine the CV as being a brochure that will list the

benefits of a particular service. The service being your time and skills!

When writing a CV look at it from your employers point of view. Would you

stand out against the competition (the other candidates) and would the

manager want to talk you for a possible job? You have to ask yourself these

questions when writing your CV or curriculum vitae.

Remember a CV is usually your first contact with potential employers and

will open the door. If you are invited for an interview you would then be

in a position to explain and expand on what is in your CV.

A CV is an essential tool in your job search. When applying for a vacancy

you generally first have to send your CV to present yourself to the

prospective employer.

B. WHAT TO INCLUDE

Although one resume may vary from another in organization and lay out, most

are commonly divided into the following sections:

Personal details

Name, home address, college address, phone number, email address, date of

birth, marital status, nationality, If your name does not obviously show if96


you are male or female, include this!

Education

Give places of education where you have studied - most recent education

first. Include subject options taken in each year of your course. Include

any special project, thesis, or dissertation work.

Pre-college courses (high school, etc.) should then be included, including

grades. Subjects taken and passed just before college will be of most

interest.

Work experience

List your most recent experience first. Give the name of your employer, job

title, and very important, what you actually did and achieved in that job.

Interests

They will be particularly interested in activities where you have

leadership or responsibility, or which involve you in relating to others in

a team. A one-person interest, such as stamp-collecting, may be of less

interest to them, unless it connects with the work you wish to do. Give

only enough detail to explain. (If you were captain of a sports team, they

do not want to know the exact date you started, how many games you played,

and how many wins you had! They will ask at the interview, if they are

interested.) If you have published any articles, jointly or by yourself,

give details. If you have been involved in any type of volunteer work, do

give details.

Skills

Ability in other languages, computing experience, or possession of a

driving licence should be included.

97


References: You should include some individuals who can witness about your

abilities if the organization towards which you are applying requires more

information. The individuals could be your instructors, your advisor, your

former employers, etc.

Look at the following Resume (CV) for the above applicant 1. PERSONAL DATA

Name: Girma Menan Date of birth: June 14, 1971 Place of birth: Woldya Marital status: Single Nationality: Ethiopian Address: P.O.Box 40 Addis Ababa Tel. 0911-976744

98


2. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Year School 1978 - 1985 Goh Elementary and Junior School 1986 - 1990 Kokebe Tsibah Senior Secondary School 1991 -1994 Addis Ababa University

3. WORK EXPERIENCE July, 1995- Sept. 1997 : Center Furniture Manufacturing Company, AddisAbaba Duties: General secretarial work in sales department, including takingand transcribing dictation; accounting; filing; Sept 1997 to present: Assistant editor of Addis Zemen newspaper.

4. LANGUAGE Good command of written and spoken English

5. SPECIAL SKILLS Computer literate

6. REFERENCES ( with permission) 1. Mr. Feleke Hailu, President Center Furniture Manufacturing Company Woreda 10 Tel. 0911 543323 2. Ato Kedir Shenkute Addis Ababa University Tel. 0911 323344

REFERENCES 99


Alamirew Gebremariam. (2005).College writing skills.Addis Ababa:n.p.

Ebest , Sally et. al. (2003).Writing from A to Z (4th ed). Boston:

Macmillan.

Joy ,Littell.(1985).Building English skills. Evanston: Macmillan.

Keen , M & Peritz J.(2002).Easy access(3rd ed.).Boston: McGraw Hill.

Langan, John. (2005).College writing skills (6th ed).New York: McGraw Hill.

Maimon, E &Peritz,J.(2003).A Writer’s resource.New York : McGraw Hill.

Prentice Hall writing and grammar.(2004).New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Tyner,Thomas E.(1987).College writing basics. California:Wadsworth.

Walker , Bonnie L.(2001). Basic English Composition. Minnesota: American

Guidance service, inc Circle Pines.

Writers Choice: Grammar and Composition

100


PART TWO: ADVANCED WRITING

CHAPTER ONE: ESSAY WRITING

1.WHAT IS AN ESSAY?So far you have studied that paragraphs are groups of related sentences

that develop a single main idea and all the sentences included in a

paragraph,in one way or the other,deal with developing that main idea.

Question:What is an essay for you? Can the above idea about the paragraph

has any relationship with what you think about an essay? If yes,how?

Definition:

An essay is an extended piece of writing with several paragraphs. It

discusses, describes or analyses a topic directly or indirectly, seriously

or humorously. It can describe personal opinions, or just report

information. It begins with an introductory paragraph which includes a

thesis statement that explains to the reader what the essay is about. A

thesis statement for an essay is longer and more detailed than the topic

sentence. It requires supporting details (paragraphs) that elaborate on the

points made in the thesis statement. Essays contain at least three

paragraphs: they're composed of an introductory paragraph (which includes

the thesis statement), at least one supporting paragraph and a concluding

paragraph that summarizes the content of the essay and reiterates the

101


thesis statement with different phrasing. The conclusion paragraph usually

revisits the points introduced in the supporting paragraphs to prove to the

reader that, from the writer's point of view, the thesis statement was

correct.

Ways of Generating Ideas

1. Free writing: write whatever idea comes to your mind.

2. Branching: breaks into its components or parts. These component parts are the

elements of the essay.

3. Brain storming: listing the main important points from what you know about

the given topic.

4. Questioning: asking questions for the topic.

E.g. Dream

1. What is dream?

2. When do we dream?

3. How dream is interpreted?

4. When dream is frightening?

Planning Essay

1. Selecting your topic.

2. Develop your thesis statement.

3. List and arrange your points.

4. Writing the first draft.

5. Edit your work.

Structure of the Essay

1. Introduction- introduces the whole content

2. Body/ supporting paragraph/

3. Concluding paragraph: summarizing the important points of the essay102


THE FORM OF AN ESSAY

Introductory Paragraph

Introduction

Thesis sentence

Plan of development:

Points 1, 2, 3 (and

more)

The introduction attracts the reader's

interest. The thesis sentence states the main

idea advanced in the paper.

The plan of development is a list of the

points that support the thesis. The

points are presented in the order in

which they will be developed in the

paper.

First Supporting Paragraph

Topic sentence (point

1)

Specific evidence

The topic sentence advances the first

supporting point for the thesis, and the

specific evidence in the rest of the

paragraph develops that first point.

Second Supporting Paragraph

Topic sentence (point

2)

Specific evidence

The topic sentence advances the second



paragraph develops that second point.

Third Supporting Paragraph

Topic sentence (point The topic sentence advances the third

103


3)

Specific evidence



paragraph develops that third point.

Concluding Paragraph

Summary, conclusion,

or both

A summary is a brief restatement of the

thesis and its main points. A conclusion is

a final thought or two stemming from the

subject of the paper.

IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT THE ESSAY

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

An introductory paragraph has certain purposes or functions and can be constructed

using various methods.

Purposes of the Introduction

An introductory paragraph should do three things:

1. Attract the reader's interest. Using one of the suggested methods of introduc-

tion described below can help draw the reader into your paper.

2. Present a thesis sentence — a clear, direct statement of the central idea that

you will develop in your paper. The thesis statement, like a topic sentence,

should have a key word or words reflecting your attitude about the subject.

For example, in the essay on the apple plant job, the key word is dreadful.

104


3. Indicate a plan of development—a preview of the major points that will

support your thesis statement, listed in the order in which they will be

presented. In some cases, the thesis statement and plan of development may

appear in the same sentence. In some cases, also, the plan of development may

be omitted.

The thesis statement found at the end of introductory paragraph.

Approaches of Writing

1. Deductive approach. From general to specific

2. Inductive approach. From specific to general

WAYS OF ARRANGING IDEAS

1. Emphatic order: it is organized from the most important to the least or

from the least to the most.

2. Chronological order: it is organized according to time order.

3. Spatial order: arranging or organizing ideas based on certain space.

E.g. Bottom, top, out, in, behind, up, down, in front, before, after

4. Size: it is the way of arranging or organizing ideas based on quantity

or size. E.g. small, big

ESSAY SAMPLE 1

MY JOB IN AN APPLE PLANT

Introductor

y paragraph

(Thesis)

1In the course of working my way through school, I have taken many

jobs I would rather forget. 2I have spent nine hours a day lifting

heavy automobile and truck batteries off the end of an assembly belt.

3I have risked the loss of eyes and fingers working a punch press in

a textile factory. 4I have served as a ward aide in a mental

105


hospital, helping care for brain-damaged men who would break into

violent fits at unexpected moments. 5But none of these jobs was as

dreadful as my job in an apple plant. 6The work was physically hard;

the pay was poor; and, most of all, the working conditions were

dismal.

First

supporting

paragraph

7First of all, the job made enormous demands on my strength and

energy. 8For ten hours a night, I took cartons that rolled down a

metal track and stacked them onto wooden skids in a tractor-trailer.

9Each carton contained twelve heavy cans or bottles of apple juice.10

A carton shot down the track about every fifteen seconds. 11I once

figured out that I was lifting an average of twelve tons of apple

juice every night. 12When a truck was almost filled, I or my partner

had to drag fourteen bulky wooden skids into the empty trailer nearby

and then set up added sections of the heavy metal track so that we

could start routing cartons to the back of the empty van. While one

of us did that, the other performed the stacking work of two men.

Second

supporting

paragraph

13I would not have minded the difficulty of the work so much if the

pay had not been so poor. 14I was paid the minimum wage of that time,

two dollars an hour, plus the minimum of a nickel extra for working

the night shift. 15Because of the low salary, I felt compelled to get

as much overtime pay as possible. 16Everything over eight hours a

night was time-and-a-half, so I typically worked twelve hours a

night. 17On Friday I would sometimes work straight through until

Saturday at noon -- eighteen hours. 18I averaged over sixty hours a

week but did not take home much more than one hundred dollars.

Third

supporting

paragraph

19But even more than the low pay, what upset me about my apple plant

job was the working conditions. 20Our humorless supervisor cared only

about his production record for each night and tried to keep the

106


assembly line moving at a breakneck pace. 21During work I was limited

to two ten-minute breaks and an unpaid half hour for lunch. 22Most of

my time was spent outside on the truck loading dock in near-zero-

degree temperatures. 23The steel floors of the trucks were like ice;

the quickly penetrating cold made my feet feel like stone. 24I had no

shared interests with the man I loaded cartons with, and so I had to

work without job companionship. 25And after the production line shut

down and most people left, I had to spend two hours alone scrubbing

clean the apple vats, which were coated with a sticky residue.

Concluding

paragraph

26I stayed on the job for five months, hating all the while the

difficulty of the work, the poor money, and the conditions under

which I worked. 27By the time I quit, I was determined never to do

such degrading work again.

1. Which words in the plan of development announce the three majorsupporting points in the essay? Write them below.

a. ______________________________________________b. _______________________________________________c. _______________________________________________

2. Which method of introduction is used in the essay?

a. General to narrow b. Incident or story c. Stating importance of topic d. Questions3. Does the thesis statement appear in the last sentence of theintroductory paragraph?_______________________________________________________________4. Does the writer use a transitional sentence between the supporting

paragraphs? _________________________107


5. If your answer is yes, write the transitional sentences ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

6. Write the sentence which summarizes the thesis statement

_______________________________________________________________

7. Write the sentence which concludes the main points of the essay

_______________________________________________________________

Common Methods of Introduction

Here are some common methods of introduction. Use any one method, or a combination

of methods, to introduce your subject in an interesting way.

1. Broad statement. Begin with a broad, general statement of your topic and narrow

it down to your thesis statement. Broad, general statements ease the reader into

your thesis statement by providing a background for it. In "My Job in an Apple

Plant," Gene writes generally on the topic of his worst jobs and then narrows

down to a specific worst job.

2. Contrast. Start with an idea or situation that is the opposite of the one you

will develop. This approach' works because your readers will be surprised, and

then intrigued, by the contrast between the opening idea and the thesis that

follows it. Here is an example of a "contrast" introduction:

When I was a girl, I never argued with my parents about differences between

their attitudes and mine. My father would deliver his judgment on an issue, and

that was usually the end of the matter. Discussion seldom changed his mind, and

disagreement was not tolerated. But the situation is different with today's108


parents and children. My husband and I have to contend with radical differences

between what our children think about a given situation and what we think about

it. We have had disagreements with all three of our daughters, Stephanie, Diana,

and Gisel.

3. "Relevance." Explain the importance of your topic. If you can convince your readers

that the subject applies to them in some way, or is something they should know

more about, they will want to continue reading. The introductory paragraph of

"Sports-Crazy America" (page 243) provides an example of a "relevance"

introduction.

4. Anecdote. Use an incident or brief story. Stories are naturally interesting. They

appeal to a reader's curiosity. In your introduction, an anecdote will grab the

reader's attention right away. The story should be brief and should be related

to your central idea. The incident in the story can be something that happened

to you, something that you have heard about, or something that you have read

about in a newspaper or magazine. Here is an example of a paragraph that begins

with a story:

The husky man pushes open the door of the bedroom and grins as he pulls out a

.38 revolver. An elderly man wearing thin pajamas looks at him and whimpers. In

a feeble effort at escape, the old man slides out of his bed and moves to the

door of the room. The husky man, still grinning, blocks his way. With the face

of a small, frightened animal, the old man looks up and whispers, "Oh God,

please don't hurt me." The grinning man then fires four times. The television

movie cuts now to a soap commercial, but the little boy who has been watching

the set has begun to cry. Such scenes of direct violence on television must

surely be harmful to children for a number of psychological reasons.

109


5. Questions. Ask your readers one or more questions. These questions catch the

readers' interest and make them want to read on. Here is an example of a

paragraph that begins with questions:

What would happen if we were totally honest with ourselves? Would we be able

to stand the pain of giving up self-deception? Would the complete truth be too

much for us to bear? Such questions will probably never be answered, for in

everyday life we protect ourselves from the onslaught of too much reality. All

of us cultivate defense mechanisms that prevent us from seeing, hearing, or

feeling too much. Included among such defense mechanisms are rationalization,

reaction formation, and substitution.

Note, however, that the thesis itself must not be a question.

6. Quotation. A quotation can be something you have read in a book or an article. It

can also be something that you have heard: a popular saying or proverb ("Never

give advice to a friend"); a current or recent advertising slogan ("Reach out

and touch someone"); a favorite expression used by your friends or family ("My

father always says ..."). Using a quotation in your introductory paragraph lets

you add someone else's voice to your own. Here is an example of a paragraph that

begins with a quotation:

"Evil," wrote Martin Buber "is lack of direction." In my school days as a

fatherless boy, with a mother too confused by her own life to really care for

me, I stayed down a number of dangerous paths. Before my eighteenth birthday, I

had been a car thief, a burglar, and a drug seller.

SUPPORTING PARAGRAPHS

110


Most essays have three supporting points, developed in three separate paragraphs.

(Some essays will have two supporting points; others, four or more.) Each of the

supporting paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence that states the point to

be detailed in that paragraph. Just as the thesis provides a focus for the entire

essay, the topic sentence provides a focus for each supporting paragraph.

Activity

1. What is the topic sentence for the first supporting paragraph of “My Job

in an Apple Plant?” (Write the sentence number here.)__________

2. What is the topic sentence for the second supporting paragraph?

__________

3. What is the topic sentence for the third supporting paragraph?

TRANSITIONAL SENTENCES

In paragraphs, transitions and other connective devices are used to help link

sentences. Similarly, in an essay transitional sentences are used to help tie the

supporting paragraphs together. Such transitional sentences usually occur near the

end of one paragraph or the beginning of the next.

In "My Job in an Apple Plant," the first transitional sentence is:

I would not have minded the difficulty of the work so much if the pay had not been

so poor.

In this sentence, the key word difficulty reminds us of the point of the first

supporting paragraph, while pay tells us the point to be developed in the second

supporting paragraph.

Activity 111


Here is the other transitional sentence in “My Job in an Apple Plant”:

But even more than the low pay, what upset me about my apple plant

job was the working conditions.

Complete the following statement: In the sentence above, the key words

___________echo the point of the second supporting paragraph and the key

words_____________________announce the topic of the third supporting

paragraph?

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

The concluding paragraph often summarizes the essay by briefly restating the thesis

and, at times, the main supporting points of the essay. Also, the conclusion brings

the paper to a natural and graceful end, sometimes leaving the reader with a final

thought on the subject.

112


ESSAY SAMPLE 2

GIVING UP A BABY

As l awoke; l overheard a nurse say, “It’s a lovely baby boy. How could amother give him up?” “Be quiet,” another voice said .She’s going to wake upsoon.” Then I heard a baby cry, but l never heard him again. Three yearsago, l gave up ma child to two strangers, people who wanted a baby butcould have one I was in pain over my decisions and I can still hear thevoices of people who said I was selfish or crazy. But the reason gave up mychild were important at least to me.

I gave up my baby first of all because I was very young I was onlyseventeen and I was only seventeen and I was unmarried because I was soyoung I did not yet feel the desire to have and raise a baby I knew that Iwould be a child raising a child and that when I had the experience in lifethat could make me a responsible giving parent what could I teach my childwhen I barely knew what life was all about myself?

Besides my age another factor in my decision was the problems my parentswould have I had dropped out of high school before graduation and I did nothave a job or even the chance of a job at least for a while. My parentswould have to support my child and me possibly for years. My mom and dadhad already struggled to raise their family and were not well offfinancially. I knew I could not burden them with an employment teenager andher baby. Even if I eventually got a job my parents would have to helpraise my child. They would have to be full time baby sitters while I triedto make a life of my own. Because my parents are good people they would

113


have done all this for me. But I felt I could not ask for such a bigsacrifice from them.

The most important factor in my decision was, I suppose, a selfish one. Iwas worried about my own future. I didn’t want to marry the baby’s father Irealized during the time I was pregnant that we dint love each other. Myfuture as unmarried mother with no education or skills would certainly havebeen limited. I would be struggling to survive, and I would have to give upfor years my dreams of getting a job and my own car and apartment. It is sohard to admit, but I also considered

ESSAY SAMPLE 3

SPORTS-CRAZY AMERICA

Almost all Americans are involved with sports in some way. They may play

basketball or volleyball or go swimming or skiing. They may watch

football or basketball games on the high school, college, or professional

level. Sports may seem like an innocent pleasure, but it is important to

look under the surface. In reality, sports have reached a point where

they play too large a part in daily life. They take up too much media

time, play too large a role in the raising of children and give too much

power and prestige to athletes.

The overemphasis on sports can be seen most obviously in the vast media

114


coverage of athletic events. It seems as if every bowl game play-off,

tournament, trial, bout, race, meet, or match is shown on one television

channel or another. On Saturday and Sunday, a check on TV Guide will show

almost forty sports programs on network television alone, and many more on

cable stations. In addition, sports make up about 30 percent of local

news at six and eleven, and network world news shows often devote several

minutes to major American sports events. Radio offers a full roster of

games and a wide assortment of sports talk shows. Furthermore, many daily

papers such as USA Today are devoting more and more space to sports

coverage, often in an attempt to improve circulation. The paper with the

biggest sports section is the one people will buy.

The way we raise and educate our children also illustrates our sports

mania. As early as age six or seven, kids are placed in little leagues,

often to play under screaming coaches and pressuring parents. Later, in

high school, students who are singled out by the school and by the

community are not those who are best academically but those who are best

athletically. And college sometimes seems to be more about sports than

about learning. The United States may be the only country in the world

where people often think of their colleges as teams first and schools

second. The names Penn State, Notre Dame, and Southern Cal mean “sports” to

the public.

Our sports craziness is especially evident in the prestige given to

athletes in the United States. For one thing, we reward them with enormous

salaries. In 1995, for example, baseball players averaged over $ 1,000,000115


a year; the average annual salary in the United States is $25,000.Besides

their huge salaries, athletes receive the awe, the admiration, and

sometimes the votes of the public. Kids look up to a Kobe Bryant or a Roger

Clemens as a true hero, while adults wear the jerseys and jackets of their

favorite teams. Ex-players become senators and congressmen. And an athlete

like Mia Hamm or Tiger Woods needs to make only one commercial for

advertisers to see the sales of a product boom.

Americans are truly made about sports. Perhaps we like to see the

competitiveness we experience in our daily lives acted out on playing

fields. Perhaps we need heroes who can achieve clear-cut victories in the

space of only an hour or two. Whatever the reason, the sports scene in this

country is more popular than ever.

116


ESSAY SAMPLE 4

AN INTERPRETATION OF LORD OF THE FLIES

Modern history has shown us the evil that exists in human beings. 2 Assassinations

common, governments use torture to discourage dissent, and six million Jews were

exterminated during World War II. 3 In Lord of the Flies, William Golding

describes a group of school boys shipwrecked on an island with no authority figures

to control their behavior. 3 One of the boys soon yields to dark forces within

himself, and his corruption symbolizes the evil in all of us. 5First, Jack Merridew

kills a living creature; then, he rebels against the group leader; and finally, he

seizes power and sets up his own murderous society.

6The first stage in Jack’s down fall is his killing of a living creature. 7 Jack

aims at a pig but is unable to kill. 8His upraised arms pauses “because of the

enormity of the knife descending and cutting into living flesh, because of the

unbearable blood,” and the pig escapes. 9However,, Jack leads some boys on a

successful hunt. 10He returns triumphantly with a freshly killed pig and reports

excitedly to the others. “I cut the pig’s throat.” 11Yet Jack twitches as he says

this, and he wipes his bloody hands on his shorts as if eager to remove the stains.

12There is still some civilization left in him.

13After the initial act of killing the pig, Jack’s refusal to cooperate with Ralph

shows is that this civilized part is rapidly disappearing. 14With no adult around

117


Ralph has made some rules. 15One is that a signal fire must be kept burning. 16But

had temple the boys watching the fire to go hunting, and the fire goes out.

17Another rule is that at a meeting, only the person holding a special seashell has

the right to speak.18Another boy is speaking when Jack rudely tells him to shut up.

19Ralph accuses Jack of breaking the rules. 20Jack shouts: “Bollocks to the rules!

We’re strong__we hunt! If there’s a beast, we’ll hunt it down! We’ll close and beat

and beat and beat_______!” 21He gives a “wild whoop” and leaps off the plat form,

throwing the meeting into chaos. 22Jack is now much more savage than civilized.

23The most important proof of Jack’s corruption comes in when he establishes his

own murderous society. 24Insisting that Ralph is not a “proper chief” because he

does not hunt, Jack asks for a new election.25After he again loses, Jack announces,

“I’m going off by myself …Anyone who wants to hunt when I do can come too.”

26Eventlly, nearly all the boys join Jack’s “tribe.” 27Following his example, they

paint their faces like savages, sacrifice to “the beast,” brutally murder two of

their schoolmates, and nearly succeed in killing Ralph as well. 28Jack has now

become completely savage_____and so have the others.

29Through Jack Merridew, then, Golding shows how easily moral laws can be

forgotten. 30Freed from grown-ups and their rules, Jack learns to kill living

things, defy authority, and lead a tribe of murdering savages. 31Jack’s example is

a frightening reminder of humanity’s potential for evil. 32The “beast” the boys try

to hunt and kill is actually within every human being.

Questions

118


1.In which essays does the thesis statement appear in the last sentence

of the introductory paragraph?

_____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________

2. In the essay on Lord of the Flies, which sentence of the introductory paragraph

contains the plan of development?

_____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

3. Which method of introduction is used in the essay?

a. General to narrow b. Incident or story c. Stating importance of topic d. Questions4. Complete the following brief outline of the essay. I gave up my baby for threereasons:

a.___________________________________________________________________b.___________________________________________________________________c.___________________________________________________________________

5. Which two essays use a transitional sentence between the first second

supporting paragraphs?

__________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

7.Complete the following statement: Emphatic order is shown in the last

supporting paragraph of “Giving up a Baby” with the words most

important factor; in the last supporting paragraph of “Sports –Crazy

America” with the words____________________________, and in the last119


supporting paragraph of “ An Interpretation of Lord of the Flies’ with the

words____________________________________________________________

8.Which essay uses time order as well as emphatic order to organize its

three supporting paragraphs?

________________________________________________________________

9. List four major transitions used in the supporting paragraphs of “An

Interpretation of Lord of the Flies.”

a._____________________________ c. __________________

b._____________________________ d. __________________

10. Which two essays include a sentence in the concluding paragraph that

summarizes the three supporting points?

_______________________________________________________________________

___________________________

11. Which essay includes two final thoughts in its concluding paragraph?

_______________________________________________________________

PLANNING THE ESSAY

OUTLINING THE ESSAY

When you write an essay, planning is crucial for success. You should plan you essay

by outlining in two ways:

1 Prepare a scratch outline. This should consist of a short statement of the

thesis followed by the main supporting points for the thesis. Here is Gene's

120


scratch outline for his essay on the apple plant:

Working at an apple plant was my worst job.

1. Hard work

2. Poor pay

3. Bad working conditions

Do not underestimate the value of this initial outline—or the work involved

in achieving it. Be prepared to do a good deal of plain hard thinking at this

first and most important stage of your paper.

2 Prepare a more detailed outline. The outline form that follows will serve as

a guide. Your instructor may ask you to submit a copy of this form either

before you actually write an essay or along with your finished essay.

ESSAY WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

Hints: Keep the following points in mind when writing an essay on any of the topics

below.

1 Your first step must be to plan your essay. Prepare both a scratch outline and a

more detailed outline, as explained on the preceding pages.

2 While writing your essay, use the checklist below to make sure your essay

touches all four bases of effective writing.

Base 1: Unity

— Clearly stated thesis in the introductory paragraph of your paper

— All the supporting paragraphs on target in backing up your thesis

121


Base 2: Support

— Three separate supporting points for your thesis

— Specific evidence for each of the three supporting points

— Plenty of specific evidence for each supporting point

Base 3: Coherence

— Clear method of organization

— Transitions and other connecting words

— Effective introduction and conclusion

Base 4: Sentence Skills

— Clear, error-free sentences (use the checklist on the inside front cover of

this book)

122

WALIA WRITER’S GUIDE

Next study the following model essay about the influence of

Native Americans' on modern U.S. culture and notice its

structure.It is also important to note that in our dicussions

about the essay and its structure we will refer to the following

sample essay;so you need to cerefully examine it.

SAMPLE ESSAY

NATIVE AMERICAN INFLUENCES ON MODERN U.S. CULTURE

When the first Europeans began to settle the North American continent, they

encountered a completely new culture: the Native American tribes of North America.

Native Americans, who had a highly developed culture in many respects, must have

been as curious about the strange European manners and customs as were the

Europeans about Native Americans. As always happens when two cultures come into

contact, there was a cultural exchange. Native Americans adopted some of the

Europeans’ ways, and the Europeans adopted some of their ways. As a result, Native

Americans have made many valuable contributions to American culture, particularly in

the areas of language, art, food, and government

First of all, native Americans left a permanent imprint on the English language. The

early settlers borrowed words from several different Native American languages to

name the new places and new objects that they had found in their new land. All across

the country, one can find cities, towns, rivers, and states with Native American names.

For example, the states of Delaware, Iowa, Illinois, and Alabama are named after Native

American tribes, as are the cities of Chicago, Miami, and Spokane. In addition to place

names, English has adopted many everyday words from various Native American

123BY: BELAYNEH ADAMU (MA in TEFL)


languages. The words chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk, moccasin, and potato are just

a few examples.

Although the vocabulary of English is the area that shows the most Native American

influence, it is not the only area of American culture that was changed by contact with

Native Americans. Art is another area showing the mark of Native American contact.

Wool rugs woven by women of the Navajo tribe in Arizona and New Mexico are highly

valued works of art in the United States. Also, Native American jewelry made from silver

and turquoise is very popular and very expensive. Especially in the western and

southwestern regions of the United States, native crafts such pottery, handcrafted

leather products, and beadwork can be found in many home. Indeed, native art and

handicrafts have become a treasured part of American culture.

In addition to language and art, agriculture is another area in which Native American

had a great and lasting influence. Being skilled farmers, the Native Americans of North

America taught the newcomers many things about farming techniques and crops.

Every American school child has heard the story of how Native American taught the first

settlers to place a dead fish in a planting hole to provide fertilizer for the growing plant.

Furthermore, they taught the settlers irrigation methods and crop rotation. In addition,

many of the foods we eat today were introduced to the Europeans by Native Americans.

For example, potatoes, corn, chocolate, and peanuts were unknown in Europe. Now

they are staples in the American diet.

Finally, it may surprise some people to learn that Americans are also indebted to one

tribe for our form of government. The Iroquois, who were an extremely large tribe with

many branches and sub-branches (called “nations”), had developed a highly

sophisticated system of government to keep the branches of the tribe from fighting one



another. Five of the nations had joined together in a confederation called “The League

of the Iroquois.” Under the League, each nation was autonomous in running its own

internal affairs, but the nations acted as a unit when dealing with outsiders. The

League kept the Iroquois from fighting among themselves and was also valuable in

diplomatic relations with other tribes. When the thirteen American colonies were

considering what kind of government to establish after they won their independence

from Britain, someone suggested that they use a system similar to the League of the

Iroquois. Under this system, each colony or future state would be autonomous in

managing its own affairs but would joining forces with the other states to deal with

matters that concerned them all. This is exactly what happened. As a result, the

present form of government of the United States can be traced directly back to a Na6ive

American model.

In conclusion, we can easily see form these few examples the extent of native American

influence on our language, our art forms, our eating habits, and our government.

Modern Americans are truly indebted to Native Americans for their contributions to

their culture. Hopefully, the cultural exchange will one day prove to be equally positive

for them.

3.2. STRUCTURE AND FEATURES OF A GOOD ESSAYA GOOD ESSAY STRUCTURE: Is made easier by prior planning Makes it clear how you are going to address the question, whereyou are going and why Sets out your main ideas clearly Makes it clear how the main ideas relate to each other Takes the reader through your answer in a logical, progressiveway Helps the reader to remember what you’ve said 125BY: BELAYNEH ADAMU (MA in TEFL)


Organizes groups of related information in paragraphs Uses connecting words and phrases to relate each point/idea toearlier and later points.

A good essay consists of three elements of composition: content,structure, and mechanics. If the writer deals effectively witheach of these, the result will be an essay that expresses thewriter’s thinking in an effective, interesting, and organizedmanner.

Content: - The content of the essay is the writer’s message. Goodessays develop the writer’s main points through thoroughdiscussion and by the use of specific details to support thewriter’s explanations.

Structure: - The structure of the essay is its organization. Aneffective essay is organized with an introduction, main body, andconclusion. The introduction should begin in an interesting waythat gains the reader’s attention; it should then lead the readerinto the writer’s thesis statement: one sentence that states thewriter’s position, what the writer will explain and support inthe essay.

The main body should consist of several well developedparagraphs. The writer should use transition words and phrases tomove the reader smoothly from one idea to another within aparagraph and from one paragraph to another.

Mechanics “Mechanics” refers to the use of language. A good essayis well written and carefully edited in terms of grammar,punctuation, word usage, and spelling.

Finally, the conclusion should “wrap it up” by giving the readera sense of closure.

3.2.1 Introductory part of the Essay

The introduction of an essay consists of two parts: a few

general statements to attract your reader's attention and a



thesis statement to state the main idea of the essay. A thesis

statement for an essay is like a topic sentence for a paragraph:

It names the specific topic and gives the reader a general idea

of the contents and organization of the essay.

Activity: Look at the model essay above and underline the thesis

statement.

Introductory paragraphs of essays can be written in different

ways, but the most common is a funnel introduction. For instance,

the introductory paragraph of the above model essay(sample essay

1) is a funnel introduction. This introduction is so called

because it is shaped like a funnel-wide at the top and narrow at

the bottom. It begins with one or two very general sentences

about the topic. Each subsequent sentence becomes increasingly

focused on the topic until the last sentence, which states very

specifically what the essay will be about. Writing a funnel

introduction is like focusing a camera with a photo lens. You

start with a wide picture and gradually narrow the focus so that

just one object appears in the camera's viewfinder: your thesis

statement.

←General

statement

←Narrow

statement

(Thesis



statement

)

Other kinds of introductions are good for capturing your reader's

attention. Look at the following introductory paragraph for

further example:

The ability for migrant people to adjust to life in the adopted land has

depended on several factors.

Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the

United States in their choice of where they live, whom they marry, and

what their job is.

The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major

effects on a city's ability to provide housing, employment, and adequate

sanitation services.

Activity:

A. Work out on Introductory Paragraphs

Step 1. Read each of the following sets of sentences. When put

in the correct order, they will form introductory paragraphs.

Step 2. Write each paragraph, beginning with the most general

statement first. Then add each sentence in the correct order

until the introduction becomes more specific. Write the thesis

tatement last.

Step 3. Identify the type of introduction (funnel,

dramatic/interesting/funny story, surprising statistics,

historical).

Paragraph 1



1. If done properly, a handshake gives the impression of

strength and honesty, and if done improperly, it conveys

weakness and dishonesty.

2. In some cultures, people bow, and in others, they shake

hands.

3. In English-speaking countries, shaking hands is the

custom.

4. A proper handshake has four ingredients: pressure,

pumps,! eye contact,and verbal message.

5. The way people greet each other when they meet for the

first time varies from

culture to culture.

6. How one shakes hands sends an important message about

one's character.

Type of introduction:

_____________________________________

Paragraph 2

Note: The order of this sentence can vary.

1. Currently under study are four main methods for predicting

when and where the next Big One will occur.

2. In 1976, an earthquake in Tangshan, China, killed over

250,000 people.

3. In an average year, earthquakes kill 10,000 people worldwide

and cause millions of dollars worth of property damage.

4. Iran suffered more than 80,000 deaths in two massive quakes

in 1996 and 2003.



5. Scientists keep trying to find ways to predict earthquakes-

so far without much success.

Type of introduction: ______________________________

B. Study these thesis statements from two different essays on the

topic of the status of women in Utopia, an imaginary country. One

of the essays uses a comparison/contrast pattern, the other a

time sequence (chronological order) pattern. Which statement

indicates which pattern?

1. Beginning in World War II and continuing through the period of

economic boom, the status of women in Utopia has changed

remarkably.

Pattern of organization: _______________________________

C. In each of the following two thesis statements, both the

method of organization and the major subdivisions of the topic

are indicated. Each subdivision will itself become the topic of a

separate paragraph in the body of the essay. Underline the topics

of each paragraph. How many paragraphs will the body of each

essay probably contain?

1. The status of women in Utopia has changed remarkably in recent

years due to increased educational opportunities and changes

in the country's laws.

Probable number of body paragraphs:

___________________________________

2. The status of women in Utopia has improved remarkably in

recent years in the areas of economic independence, political

rights, educational opportunities, and social status.



Probable number of body paragraphs:

______________________________________

Thesis statement pitfall

Look at the following three groups of thesis statements and

decide what is right or wrong with each of them.

Group 1:

A: A college education is a good investment.

B: A college education is a good investment for four

reasons.

C: Lasers are very useful.

D: Lasers have several applications in industry

and medicine.

Group 2:

A: I am going to write about sports injuries.

B: Avoid sports injuries by taking a few simple

precautions.

Group 3:

A: The Internet is a communication superhighway.

B: The explosion of the Internet has had both

positive and negative consequences.

Note: In group 1, ‘A’ is too general and ‘B’ is the improved

version; and ‘C’ is too general and ‘D’ is the improved version.

In group 2, thesis ‘A’ makes a simple announcement and ‘B’ is the

improved version. Finally, thesis ‘A’ in group 3 states an obvious

fact and ‘B’ is the improved version. This demonstrates the fact

that a thesis statement is the most important sentence in your



essay and should be written with special thought and care. That

is, a thesis statement should not be too general or make a simple

announcement or state an obvious fact.

The easiest way of preparing a good thesis statement is to follow

the following simple ABC Thesis formula with an example and apply

the same to the thesis you develop:

A) Topic: identifying the topic

Example: nuclear power

B) Opinion: stating the opinion

Example: nuclear power should not be used

C) Why? Stating the reason(s)

Example: 1. It is potentially dangerous.

2. It is more expensive than other

alternatives.

3. It causes water, land and air pollution.

Thesis statement = A+B+C

Can you try writing the thesis for A+B+C on the following space

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

______________.

Well,your answer may look like the following:

(Nuclear power should not be used because it is potentially

dangerous; it is more expensive than other alternatives, and it

causes water, air and land pollution.)



Activity: Write a thesis statement for logical division of ideas

in which will allow you to divide your topic into subtopics so

that discuss each subtopic in a separate paragraph.

1. Clothing, hair, or shoe styles in your school.

2. The advantages (or the disadvantages) of living in a large

city/a small town.

3.2.2. Body of the Essay

To beging with the discussion of the body of an essay we would

like you go back to the beginning of this unit and identify the

following in the sample essay about ‘Native American Influences

on Modern U.S. Culture’ :

A. Which paragraphs are the body of the essay?

B. Why did we have those parapgraphs as the body of the

essay?

The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph

develops a subdivision of the topic stated inn the thesis

statement; so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary with

the number of subdivisions or subtopics in the thesis statement.

It can be said that the body paragraphs in an essay are like the

supporting sentences in a paragraph. They are the place to

develop your topic and prove your points. You should organize

body paragraphs according to some sort of pattern, such as



chronological order or comparison/contrast. Sometimes, depending

on your topic, you will need to use a combination of patterns.

Howver, a basic pattern for essays is logical division of ideas.

In this pattern, you divide your topic into subtopics and then

discuss each subtopic in a separate paragraph. Logical division

is an appropriate pattern for explaining causes, reasons, types,

lands, qualities, methods, advantages, and disadvantages.

Activity: Read the following Essay about ‘The basics of Good

essay Form’ and do the following:

1. Rearrange the scrambeld paragraphs.

2. Identify the introductory paragraph and the thesis.

3. How many body paragrphs are there in this essay? How do you

know?

4. Identify the concluding paragraph,too.

The Basics of Good Essay Form

1. To be sure, organization is the next most important aspect of

an essay; it helps the reader follow the points being made. The

best way to do this is by using a predictable form, like the one

demonstrated here. This essay is organized with an introduction

that clearly states a thesis, three body paragraphs that refer

back to the thesis statement and a conclusion that summarizes the

main ideas for the reader. The organization of an essay can come

about by outlining or listing the main points before starting to

write. Generally, each body paragraph will develop one of the

ideas mentioned in the thesis statement. Notice that each

paragraph begins with a topic sentence that tells the reader134BY: BELAYNEH ADAMU (MA in TEFL)


which point will be developed in the paragraph and how it relates

to the thesis. The information in the paragraph explains the

topic sentence and gives details about it by providing a vivid

image for the reader. You may also notice that the last sentence

of each paragraph leads the reader into the next one; this is

called a transitional sentence. Transitions help the essay flow

smoothly form beginning to end. Good organization helps keep the

writer and the reader on track, and helps the writer avoid

repetition and/or straying form the point.

2. Focus is the single most important component of a good essay.

Every part of the essay should pertain to this point. The best

place to state this point or thesis statement is at the end of

the introductory paragraph; look at the last sentence in the

previous paragraph and see that the thesis of this essay is

underlined and tells the reader exactly what will be covered in

this essay. The Exit Exam often requires that the essay have a

persuasive approach. In the thesis statement written above, the

words "most important" provide the persuasive approach because

the elements of writing this author has selected (focus,

development & organization) may not be considered the most

important by another writer. The purpose, then, is to prove the

thesis; to convince the reader that this position is the true

position. The best way to persuade a reader is to provide a well-

thought out organization.

3. The ability to write a good essay is important to your college

success. Besides its importance for passing the Basic Writing



Skills Course, the essay is basic to nearly all classes. It is

not really difficult to write a good essay once the writer

understands the logic behind it. The form illustrated in this

handout, along with other handouts the tutor may provide, should

help provide the basics to arranging an essay. The subject of the

essay will depend on the assignment, but the basic format will

apply in many situations. Although there are many ways to write

well, the most important elements in writing essays are focus,

organization and development.

4. Of course, focus, organization and development are not the

only considerations in writing a successful essay. After writing

the essay, it is important to go back through it and check for

errors in spelling, sentence structure, punctuation, etc. Care

must be taken to cite any outside sources you may have used. You

must cite these borrowed sources both in the paragraphs and on

the Works Cited page at the end of the essay when required; a

writing tutor can help with these things. Although mechanics like

spelling and punctuation are important, the three elements

described in the body of this essay really show the level of a

writer's skill. If these concepts can be mastered, a writer will

be able to handle almost any writing assignment that comes along.

5. Another essential element of writing is development. Essay

development is the element of writing that draws the picture for

the reader – it is the information provided that will help

persuade the reader that this interpretation is the best.

Paragraphs are developed with details, examples from personal



experiences, information that comes from research or with sound

reasoning which is explained to the reader. Each paragraph should

contain some explanation or support for the point made in the

topic sentence of that paragraph. A well-developed essay makes

the reader feel like he has been provided with a full discussion

of the topic. It is important not to get emotional when

developing these points; logical reasons are the best way to

convince the reader. It is also essential to stay on topic when

developing these ideas.

Activity: For another Activity in logical organization, let us

look at the scrambled five paragraphs of this essay and

1. Put them into logical order.

2. How many body paragraphs are there? What clue(s)

did you use to know those body paragraphs?

Scrambled Paragraphs Logic

al

Order

Everyone has an excuse for not exercising: a heavy

schedule at work or school; being rushed in the

morning and exhausted at night; too many other

responsibilities. However, one solution is simply

to get up half an hour earlier in the morning.

Look at it this way: if you're already getting up

too early, what's an extra half hour? Of course,



that time could be cut to 15 minutes earlier if

you could lay out your clothes, set the breakfast

table, fill the coffee maker, and gather your

books and materials for the next day before you go

to bed.

Establishing an Activity program isn't difficult,

but it can't be achieved by reading about it,

talking about it, or watching models Activity on

television. It happens only when you get off that

couch and do something about it. As my doctor

likes to say, "if you don't use it, you'll lose

it."

Finally, use common sense in getting started.

Common sense isn't so common, as anyone who reads

the newspapers and watches the world can tell you.

If this is your first attempt at exercising, begin

slowly. You do not need to do each movement the

full number of times at first, but you should try

each one. After five or six sessions, you should

be able to do each one the full number of times.

Try to move in a smooth, rhythmic way; this will

help prevent injuries and pulled muscles. Pretend

you're a dancer and make each move graceful, even

if it's just getting up off the floor. After the

last Activity, give yourself five minutes to relax



and cool off-you have earned it. Finally, put

those sore muscles under a hot shower and get

ready for a great day.

Regular Activity is something like the weather-we

all talk about it, but we tend not to do anything

about it. Activity classes on television and

Activity programs on videos and CDs-as well as

instructions in books, magazines, and pamphlets

now make it easy to have a low-cost personal

Activity program without leaving home. However,

for success in Activity, you should follow a

simple plan consisting of arranging time, making

preparations, and starting off at a sensible pace.

Next, prepare for your Activity session. To begin

with, get yourself ready by not eating or drinking

anything before exercising. Why risk an upset

stomach? Then, dress comfortably in something that

allows you to move freely. Since you'll be in your

own home, there's no need to invest in a high-

fashion dance costume. A loose T-shirt and shorts

are good. A bathing suit is great in summer, and

in winter, long underwear is warm and comfortable.

If your hair tends to flop in your eyes, pin it

back or wear a headband or scarf. Prepare the

Activity area, too. Turn off the phone and lock



the door to prevent interruptions. Shove the

coffee table out of the way so you won't bruise

yourself on it or other furniture. Then get out

the simple materials you'll need to Activity with.

3.2.3.Concluding part of the Essay

The conclusion, like the concluding sentence in a paragraph, is a

summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.

The conclusion is the final paragraph in an essay. It has three

purposes.

1. It signals the end of the essay. To do so, begin your

conclusion with a transition

signal.

2. It reminds your reader of your main points, which you can do

in one of two ways: You can

• summarize your subtopics.

• paraphrase your thesis.

3. It leaves your reader with your final thoughts on the topic.

This is your opportunity to convey a strong, effective message

that your reader will remember.

Here are techniques that you can use to write a memorable

conclusion.

Make a prediction.

We have seen how the costs of attending college have been rising

while, at the same time, sources of financial aid for students

have been disappearing. If this trend continues, fewer and fewer



families will be able to send their children through four years

of college.

Suggest results or consequences.

To sum up, the costs of attending college are up and financial

aid for students is down. Fewer and fewer future members of the

workforce are able to educate themselves beyond high school. As a

result, the nation will waste the intelligence, imagination, and

energy of a large segment of the present college-age generation.

Suggest a solution, make a recommendation, or call for action.

It is clear that the U.S. system of higher education is in

trouble. For many students, four years of college is no longer

possible because of increasing costs and decreasing financial

aid. To reverse this trend, we must demand that government

increase its financial support of colleges and universities and

restore financial aid programs. Our future depends on it.

Quote an authority on the topic.

In conclusion, costs are rising and financial aid is declining,

with the result that many can no longer afford to go to college.

If our nation is to prosper, increased government funding for

education is essential, even if it requires higher taxes. As

Horace Mann argued in his Fifth Annual Report, a nation's economic

wealth will increase through an educated public. It is therefore

in the self-interest of business to pay the taxation for public

education.

Activity 1. Identifying concluding paragraphs



Read the following essay and the two possible concluding

paragraphs. Then answer the questions that follow.

Culture Shock

Moving to a new country can be an exciting, even exhilarating

experience. In a new environment, you somehow feel more alive:

seeing new sights, eating new food, hearing the foreign sounds of

a new language, and feeling a different climate against your skin

stimulate your senses as never before. Soon, however, this

sensory bombardment becomes sensory overload. Suddenly, new

experiences seem stressful rather than stimulating, and delight

turns into discomfort. This is the phenomenon known as culture

shock. Culture shock is more than jet lag or homesickness, and it

affects nearly everyone who enters a new culture-tourists,

business travelers, diplomats, and students alike. Although not

everyone experiences culture shock in exactly the same way, many

experts agree that it has roughly five stages.

In the first stage, you are excited by your new environment. You

experience some simple difficulties such as trying to use the

telephone or public transportation, but you consider these small

challenges that you can quickly overcome. Your feelings about the

new culture are positive, so you are eager to make contact with

people and to try new foods.

Sooner or later, differences in behavior and customs become more

noticeable to you. This is the second stage of culture shock.



Because you do not know the social customs of the new culture,

you may find it difficult to make friends. For instance, you do

not understand how to make "small talk," so it is hard to carry

on a casual, get-acquainted conversation. One day in the school

cafeteria, you overhear a conversation. You understand all the

words, but you do not understand the meaning. Why is everyone

laughing? Are they laughing at you or at some joke that you did

not understand? Also, you aren't always sure how to act while

shopping. Is this store self-service, or should you wait for a

clerk to assist you? If you buy a sweater in the wrong size, can

you exchange it? These are not minor challenges; they are major

frustrations.

In the third stage, you no longer have positive feelings about

the new culture. You feel that you have made a mistake in coming

here. Making friends hasn't been easy, so you begin to feel

lonely and isolated. Now you want to be with familiar people and

eat familiar food. You begin to spend most of your free time with

students from your home country, and you eat in restaurants that

serve your native food. In fact, food becomes an obsession, and

you spend a lot of time planning, shopping for, and cooking food

from home.

You know that you are in the fourth stage of culture shock when

you have negative feelings about almost everything. In this

stage, you actively reject the new culture. You become critical,



suspicious, and irritable. You believe that people are

unfriendly, that your landlord is trying to cheat you, that your

teachers do not like you, and that the food is making you sick.

In fact, you may actually develop stomachaches, headaches,

sleeplessness, lethargy, or other physical symptoms.

Finally, you reach the fifth stage. As your language skills

improve, you begin to have some success in meeting people and in

negotiating situations. You are able to exchange the sweater that

was too small, and you can successfully chat about the weather

with a stranger on the bus. Your self-confidence grows. After

realizing that you cannot change your surroundings, you begin to

accept the differences and tolerate them. For instance, the food

will never be as tasty as the food in your home country, but you

are now able to eat and sometimes even enjoy many dishes. You may

not like the way some people in your host country dress or behave

in public, but you do not regard their clothes and behavior as

wrong-just different.

Concluding Paragraph A

To sum up, culture shock is a very real phenomenon that has been

studied for more than 30 years by psychologists and

anthropologist$. Its five phases are (1) positive feelings toward

the new culture, (2) awareness of small differences, (3) growing

discomfort and need for contact with home culture, (4) negative

feelings, and (5) acceptance and adjustment. Symptoms may vary,

and not all people experience all five phases. In the end,



however, people who suffer culture shock are stronger from having

overcome the difficulties and frustrations of adapting to life in

a new land.

Concluding Paragraph B

In conclusion, nearly everyone moving to a new country feels some

degree of culture shock. Symptoms may vary, and not all people

experience all five stages. Newcomers with a strong support group

may feel at home immediately in the new culture, while others may

take months to feel comfortable. Staying in touch with friends

and family, keeping a positive attitude, and, above all, learning

the language as soon as possible are ways to overcome the

difficulties and frustrations of adapting to life in a new land.

Questions:

1. Which concluding paragraph is a summary of the subtopics?

Which one paraphrases the thesis statement?

2. Which concluding paragraph gives suggestions? Which one makes

a prediction?

Activity 2:Writing Concluding Paragraphs

Read the following "skeleton" essays. Only the introductory

paragraph and topic sentences for the body paragraphs are given,

and then write a concluding paragraph for each essay.

ESSAY 1

CONTROLLING STRESS

Introductory Paragraph



The busy schedules that most adults face every day have created a

growing health problem in the modern world. Stress affects almost

everyone, from the highly pressured executive to the busy

homemaker or student. It can cause a variety of physical

disorders ranging from headaches to stomach ulcers and even

alcoholism. Stress, like the common cold, is a problem that

cannot be cured; however, it can be controlled. A person can

learn to control stress in four ways.

TOPIC SENTENCES FOR BODY PARAGRAPHS

A. Set realistic goals.

B. Take up a hobby.

C. Activity regularly.

D. Maintain close relationships with family and friends.

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

ESSAY 2

STUDYING IN GREAT BRITAIN

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

People come from all over the world to the United Kingdom to

pursue education. Some come for a year, while others may stay

four years or longer to complete a program or earn a degree. Of

course, the first few weeks in a new country are always a little

stressful, but knowledge of a few British characteristics and

customs can smooth the path for new arrivals.



Topic Sentences for Body Paragraphs

A. British people are usually reserved. 1

B. British people are very orderly, so waiting in a queue 2 for a

bus or in a shop is a must.

C. The weather is no joke-it rains a lot.

D. Cars drive on the left side of the road, and stepping off a

curb can be

dangerous if you are not used to looking to the right instead of

to the left.

Concluding Paragraph

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

3.3. Transition Signals in an essay

As in paragraphs, transitional signals or connective devices play

valuable roles in essay writing.However, unlike in paragraphs,

which uses words or phrases, these transitions can be usually

sentences at the end of a paragraph or at the beginning of the

next paragrph in an essay. Before explaining their roles, let us

deal with the follwoing model essay to see how thransitional

signals work in essays:

Study the following model, and notice how the paragraphs are

linked.

Aggressive



Drivers·

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH The number of vehicles on freeways and

streets is growing at an alarming rate.This increase of motor

vehicles is creating hazardous conditions. Moreover, drivers are

in such a rush to eir destinations that many become angry or

impatient with othElrm o are too slow or who are in their way.

Aggressive drivers react ward others in several dangerous ways.

TRANSITION

WORDS

BODY PARAGRAPH1 One way an angry driver may react is is to cut

off another motorist. (+ Supporting sentences)

_________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

_______________.

TRANSITION WORDS

BODY PARAGRAPH 2 Another way is to tailgate the other car. (+

supporting sentences)

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

______.

TRANSITION PHRASE

BODY PARAGRAPH 3 In addition to cutting off and tailgating other

cars, aggressive drivers often use rude language or gestures to

show their anger. (+ supporting sentences)



________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

TRANSITION CLAUSE

BODY PARAGRAPH 4 Although law enforcement authorities warn

motorists against aggressive driving, the number who act out

their angry impulses has not declined.(+ supporting sentences)

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

_.

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH To conclude, aggressive drivers are

endangering everyone because they create hazardous

conditions by acting and driving foolishly. They should control

their anger and learn to drive safely. After all, the lives they

save could be their own.

Note: Transition Signals between Paragraphs in an essay:

Unlike transitional signals in paragraphs which are used to link

words in a sentence or sentences togather, in essays they are

used to link paragraphs.Moreover, since the body of essays are

usually more than one,it becomes makes it mandatory for the use

of appropriate transitional signal between paragraphs in the

essay as well as between the sentences in the paragraphs

themselves.

An essay has unity and coherence, just as a paragraph does.



Transition signals and the repetition of key nouns link the

paragraphs into a cohesive whole.

Linking paragraphs with transitions helps your reader see

how the subtopics are related.

Link one paragraph to the next by adding a transition to the

topic sentence of the second paragraph.

This transition may be a single word, a phrase, or a

dependent clause that repeats or summarizes the main idea in

the preceding paragraph.

Activity: Transitions between Paragraphs

Connect the ideas in the following paragraphs by adding a

transition word, phrase, or clause to the topic sentences of the

third, fourth, and fifth paragraphs. Try to vary the transitional

linking expressions you use. You may rewrite the topic sentences

if necessary. The first one has been done for you as an example.

Icebergs: A Potential Source of

Water

1. In countries where rainfall is very sparse, scientists must

constantly seek ways to increase supplies of water. One

method being considered is the use of desalination plants,

which would remove salt from seawater. Another method being

considered is the towing of icebergs. According to this

method, large icebergs from Antarctica would be wrapped in

cloth or plastic, tied to powerful tugboats by strong ropes,

and towed to the countries needing freshwater. While this



plan may have some potential, there are certain practical

problems that must be solved.

2. The first problem is the expense. According to estimates, it

would cost between $50 million and $100 million to tow a

single 100-million-ton iceberg from Antarctica to, for

example, the coast of Saudi Arabia.

3. ________________________ is the possibility that the iceberg

would melt en route. 2 No one knows if an iceberg could be

effectively insulated for such a long journey. At the very

least, there is the possibility that it would break up into

smaller pieces, which would create still other problems.

4. _______________________ there is the danger that a huge

block of ice floating off an arid 3 coast could have

unexpected environmental effects. The ice could drastically

4 change the weather along the coast, and it would probably

affect the fish population.

5. _______________________ the cost of providing freshwater

from icebergs would be less than the cost of providing water

by desalinization, according to most estimates. It would

cost between 50 and 60 cents per cubic meter to get water

from an iceberg, as opposed to the 80 cents per cubic meter

it would cost to get the same amount by desalinization.

6. In conclusion, before icebergs can become a source of

freshwater in the future, problems involving cost, overall

practicality, and most important, environmental impact 5

must be solved.



CHAPTER TWO: ARGUMENTATION

1. INTRODUCTION

In this kind of essay, we do not only give information but also

present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS

(opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly

take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an

opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary

objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of



them do not want to change. Choosing an argumentative topic is

not an easy task. The topic should be such that it should be

narrowed down and it should contain an argument supported (with

statistics, outside source citations, etc.

SAMPLE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY:

Many employers are now requiring mandatory drug testing for

applicants and current employees. Drug use has risen sharply over

the past years and employers now need to take further precautions

in order to maintain a reputable work environment. I believe this

extra precaution will improve the workplace by creating a safer

atmosphere, keep integrity and honesty in the staff, and

eliminate many illegalities that go along with drug use in the

workplace. These qualities would be further infused if drug

screenings were mandatory.

First, drug use has been proven to alter judgment, which can

create unnecessary hazards. Mandatory drug screenings will

therefore create a safer work environment by keeping employees

drug free and in an unaltered state of mind. In many jobs, even

the slightest mistake could be crucial, or even fatal. Drug use

was the cause of 31 percent of all workplace-related death in the

past year alone. This percentage could decline immensely if

drug use was eliminated.

Subsequently, drug use also creates unfaithfulness between staff

and employer. Drugs are an illegal substance and would be used in

a surreptitious manner, presumably without the knowledge or

consent of the company. Secretive abuse initiates lying and


http://www.123helpme.com/search.asp?text=work+environment

http://www.123helpme.com/search.asp?text=drug+use


devious behavior. Honesty and integrity should be a foundation;

otherwise, work relations could become corrupt.

Next, there are many laws and regulations against drug use in the

workplace already. If an employee is found using drugs, there

leaves reason to believe the employer did nothing to prohibit him

or her to do so. This may instigate that the company itself is

not against illegal drug use, or if in the case of accident, the

company may be at risk of a lawsuit. Knowing employees are drug

free completely eliminates all chances of drug-related lawsuits a

company could face.

To conclude, I strongly believe mandatory drug testing would be

exceedingly beneficial in the workplace. It would establish a

safer atmosphere, keep integrity and honesty in the staff, and

eliminate many illegalities that go along with drug use in the

workplace. Although a number of employers already require drug

testing, I believe it should be enforced in every workplace.

SELF-MANAGED ACTIVITY:

Write essays of at least three paragraphs on the following titles

and give to your friend for feedback.

Cheating is beneficial for students.

Stress is good for the human body.

Polygamy is quite natural.


http://www.123helpme.com/search.asp?text=drug+testing


2.FALLACIES IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

This topic discusses common logical fallacies that you may

encounter in your own writing or the writing of others. The topic

provides definitions, examples, and tips on avoiding these

fallacies.



Most academic writing tasks require you to make an argument—that

is, to present reasons for a particular claim or interpretation

you are putting forward. You may have been told that you need to

make your arguments more logical or stronger. And you may have

worried that you simply aren’t a logical person or wondered what

it means for an argument to be strong. Learning to make the best

arguments you can is an ongoing process, but it isn’t impossible:

“Being logical” is something anyone can do, with practice.

Each argument you make is composed of premises (this is a term for

statements that express your reasons or evidence) that are

arranged in the right way to support your conclusion (the main

claim or interpretation you are offering). You can make your

arguments stronger by

1. using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe

are both true and relevant to the issue at hand),

2. making sure your premises provide good support for your

conclusion (and not some other conclusion, or no conclusion

at all),

3. checking that you have addressed the most important or

relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your premises

and conclusion focus on what is really important to the

issue), and

4. not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you

can’t really support them.



You also need to be sure that you present all of your ideas in an

orderly fashion that readers can follow. See our handouts on

argument and organization for some tips that will improve your

arguments.

This topic describes some ways in which arguments often fail to

do the things listed above; these failings are called fallacies.

If you’re having trouble developing your argument, check to see

if a fallacy is part of the problem.

It is particularly easy to slip up and commit a fallacy when you

have strong feelings about your topic—if a conclusion seems

obvious to you, you’re more likely to just assume that it is true

and to be careless with your evidence. To help you see how people

commonly make this mistake, this handout uses a number of

controversial political examples—arguments about subjects like

abortion, gun control, the death penalty, gay marriage,

euthanasia, and pornography. The purpose of this handout, though,

is not to argue for any particular position on any of these

issues; rather, it is to illustrate weak reasoning, which can

happen in pretty much any kind of argument. Please be aware that the

claims in these examples are just made-up illustrations—they haven’t been researched,

and you shouldn’t use them as evidence in your own writing.

WHAT ARE FALLACIES?

Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to look

for them in your own and others’ writing, you can strengthen your



ability to evaluate the arguments you make, read, and hear. It is

important to realize two things about fallacies: first,

fallacious arguments are very, very common and can be quite

persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener. You can

find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers,

advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is sometimes hard

to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious. An argument might

be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An

argument that has several stages or parts might have some strong

sections and some weak ones. The goal of this handout, then, is

not to teach you how to label arguments as fallacious or fallacy-

free, but to help you look critically at your own arguments and

move them away from the “weak” and toward the “strong” end of the

continuum.

So what do fallacies look like?

For each fallacy listed, there is a definition or explanation, an

example, and a tip on how to avoid committing the fallacy in your

own arguments.

Hasty generalization

Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of

cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is

atypical or too small). Stereotypes about people (“librarians are

shy and smart,” “wealthy people are snobs,” etc.) are a common

example of the principle underlying hasty generalization.



Example: “My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the

one I’m in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!”

Two people’s experiences are, in this case, not enough on which

to base a conclusion.

Tip: Ask yourself what kind of “sample” you’re using: Are you

relying on the opinions or experiences of just a few people, or

your own experience in just a few situations? If so, consider

whether you need more evidence, or perhaps a less sweeping

conclusion. (Notice that in the example, the more modest

conclusion “Some philosophy classes are hard for some students”

would not be a hasty generalization.)

Missing the point

Definition: The premises of an argument do support a particular

conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.

Example: “The seriousness of a punishment should match the

seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for drunk

driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious

crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty should

be the punishment for drunk driving.” The argument actually

supports several conclusions—”The punishment for drunk driving

should be very serious,” in particular—but it doesn’t support the

claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted.



Tip: Separate your premises from your conclusion. Looking at the

premises, ask yourself what conclusion an objective person would

reach after reading them. Looking at your conclusion, ask

yourself what kind of evidence would be required to support such

a conclusion, and then see if you’ve actually given that

evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or

extreme conclusion is being drawn, so be especially careful if

you know you’re claiming something big.

Post hoc (also called false cause)

This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase “post hoc, ergo

propter hoc,” which translates as “after this, therefore because of

this.”

Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of

course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that

comes later—for example, if I register for a class, and my name

later appears on the roll, it’s true that the first event caused

the one that came later. But sometimes two events that seem

related in time aren’t really related as cause and event. That

is, correlation isn’t the same thing as causation.

Examples: “President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of

violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in

crime.” The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in

the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn’t shown us that one

caused the other.



Tip: To avoid the post hoc fallacy, the arguer would need to give

us some explanation of the process by which the tax increase is

supposed to have produced higher crime rates. And that’s what you

should do to avoid committing this fallacy: If you say that A

causes B, you should have something more to say about how A

caused B than just that A came first and B came later.

Slippery slope

Definition: The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction,

usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but

there’s really not enough evidence for that assumption. The

arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the “slippery

slope,” we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or

she assumes we can’t stop partway down the hill.

Example: “Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If

we don’t respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant

of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become

a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives.

It will be the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible

consequence, we should make animal experimentation illegal right

now.” Since animal experimentation has been legal for some time

and civilization has not yet ended, it seems particularly clear

that this chain of events won’t necessarily take place. Even if

we believe that experimenting on animals reduces respect for

life, and loss of respect for life makes us more tolerant of



violence, that may be the spot on the hillside at which things

stop—we may not slide all the way down to the end of

civilization. And so we have not yet been given sufficient reason

to accept the arguer’s conclusion that we must make animal

experimentation illegal right now.

Like post hoc, slippery slope can be a tricky fallacy to

identify, since sometimes a chain of events really can be

predicted to follow from a certain action. Here’s an example that

doesn’t seem fallacious: “If I fail English 101, I won’t be able

to graduate. If I don’t graduate, I probably won’t be able to get

a good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or

flipping burgers for the next year.”

Tip: Check your argument for chains of consequences, where you

say “if A, then B, and if B, then C,” and so forth. Make sure

these chains are reasonable.

Weak analogy

Definition: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more

objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being

compared aren’t really alike in the relevant respects, the

analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits

the fallacy of weak analogy.

Example: “Guns are like hammers—they’re both tools with metal

parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be



ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions on

purchasing guns are equally ridiculous.” While guns and hammers

do share certain features, these features (having metal parts,

being tools, and being potentially useful for violence) are not

the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather,

we restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill large

numbers of people at a distance. This is a feature hammers do not

share—it would be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the

analogy is weak, and so is the argument based on it.

If you think about it, you can make an analogy of some kind

between almost any two things in the world: “My paper is like a

mud puddle because they both get bigger when it rains (I work

more when I’m stuck inside) and they’re both kind of murky.” So

the mere fact that you can draw an analogy between two things

doesn’t prove much, by itself.

Arguments by analogy are often used in discussing abortion—

arguers frequently compare fetuses with adult human beings, and

then argue that treatment that would violate the rights of an

adult human being also violates the rights of fetuses. Whether

these arguments are good or not depends on the strength of the

analogy: do adult humans and fetuses share the properties that

give adult humans rights? If the property that matters is having

a human genetic code or the potential for a life full of human

experiences, adult humans and fetuses do share that property, so

the argument and the analogy are strong; if the property is being



self-aware, rational, or able to survive on one’s own, adult

humans and fetuses don’t share it, and the analogy is weak.

Tip: Identify what properties are important to the claim you’re

making, and see whether the two things you’re comparing both

share those properties.

Appeal to authority

Definition: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring

to respected sources or authorities and explaining their

positions on the issues we’re discussing. If, however, we try to

get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a

famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really

isn’t much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to

authority.

Example: “We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected

people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated their

opposition to it.” While Guy Handsome may be an authority on

matters having to do with acting, there’s no particular reason

why anyone should be moved by his political opinions—he is

probably no more of an authority on the death penalty than the

person writing the paper.

Tip: There are two easy ways to avoid committing appeal to

authority: First, make sure that the authorities you cite are

experts on the subject you’re discussing. Second, rather than



just saying “Dr. Authority believes X, so we should believe it,

too,” try to explain the reasoning or evidence that the authority

used to arrive at his or her opinion. That way, your readers have

more to go on than a person’s reputation. It also helps to choose

authorities who are perceived as fairly neutral or reasonable,

rather than people who will be perceived as biased.

Ad populum

Definition: The Latin name of this fallacy means “to the people.”

There are several versions of the ad populum fallacy, but what

they all have in common is that in them, the arguer takes

advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit

in with others and uses that desire to try to get the audience to

accept his or her argument. One of the most common versions is

the bandwagon fallacy, in which the arguer tries to convince the

audience to do or believe something because everyone else

(supposedly) does.

Example: “Gay marriages are just immoral. 70% of Americans think

so!” While the opinion of most Americans might be relevant in

determining what laws we should have, it certainly doesn’t

determine what is moral or immoral: there was a time where a

substantial number of Americans were in favor of segregation, but

their opinion was not evidence that segregation was moral. The

arguer is trying to get us to agree with the conclusion by

appealing to our desire to fit in with other Americans.



Tip: Make sure that you aren’t recommending that your readers

believe your conclusion because everyone else believes it, all

the cool people believe it, people will like you better if you

believe it, and so forth. Keep in mind that the popular opinion

is not always the right one.

Ad hominem and tu quoque

Definitions: Like the appeal to authority and ad populum

fallacies, the ad hominem (“against the person”) and tu quoque

(“you, too!”) fallacies focus our attention on people rather than

on arguments or evidence. In both of these arguments, the

conclusion is usually “You shouldn’t believe So-and-So’s

argument.” The reason for not believing So-and-So is that So-and-

So is either a bad person (ad hominem) or a hypocrite (tu quoque).

In an ad hominem argument, the arguer attacks his or her opponent

instead of the opponent’s argument.

Examples: “Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that

pornography harms women. But Dworkin is just ugly and bitter, so

why should we listen to her?” Dworkin’s appearance and character,

which the arguer has characterized so ungenerously, have nothing

to do with the strength of her argument, so using them as

evidence is fallacious.

In a tu quoque argument, the arguer points out that the opponent

has actually done the thing he or she is arguing against, and so

the opponent’s argument shouldn’t be listened to. Here’s an



example: imagine that your parents have explained to you why you

shouldn’t smoke, and they’ve given a lot of good reasons—the

damage to your health, the cost, and so forth. You reply, “I

won’t accept your argument, because you used to smoke when you

were my age. You did it, too!” The fact that your parents have

done the thing they are condemning has no bearing on the premises

they put forward in their argument (smoking harms your health and

is very expensive), so your response is fallacious.

Tip: Be sure to stay focused on your opponents’ reasoning, rather

than on their personal character. (The exception to this is, of

course, if you are making an argument about someone’s character—

if your conclusion is “President Jones is an untrustworthy

person,” premises about her untrustworthy acts are relevant, not

fallacious.)

Appeal to pity

Definition: The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries

to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry

for someone.

Examples: “I know the exam is graded based on performance, but

you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down,

and I’ve had a cold, so it was really hard for me to study!” The

conclusion here is “You should give me an A.” But the criteria

for getting an A have to do with learning and applying the

material from the course; the principle the arguer wants us to



accept (people who have a hard week deserve A’s) is clearly

unacceptable. The information the arguer has given might feel

relevant and might even get the audience to consider the

conclusion—but the information isn’t logically relevant, and so

the argument is fallacious. Here’s another example: “It’s wrong

to tax corporations—think of all the money they give to charity,

and of the costs they already pay to run their businesses!”

Tip: Make sure that you aren’t simply trying to get your audience

to agree with you by making them feel sorry for someone.

Appeal to Ignorance

Definition: In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically

says, “Look, there’s no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand.

Therefore, you should accept my conclusion on this issue.”

Example: “People have been trying for centuries to prove that God

exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore, God

does not exist.” Here’s an opposing argument that commits the

same fallacy: “People have been trying for years to prove that

God does not exist. But no one has yet been able to prove it.

Therefore, God exists.” In each case, the arguer tries to use the

lack of evidence as support for a positive claim about the truth

of a conclusion. There is one situation in which doing this is

not fallacious: if qualified researchers have used well-thought-

out methods to search for something for a long time, they haven’t

found it, and it’s the kind of thing people ought to be able to



find, then the fact that they haven’t found it constitutes some

evidence that it doesn’t exist.

Tip: Look closely at arguments where you point out a lack of

evidence and then draw a conclusion from that lack of evidence.

Straw man

Definition: One way of making our own arguments stronger is to

anticipate and respond in advance to the arguments that an

opponent might make. In the straw man fallacy, the arguer sets up

a weak version of the opponent’s position and tries to score

points by knocking it down. But just as being able to knock down

a straw man (like a scarecrow) isn’t very impressive, defeating a

watered-down version of your opponent’s argument isn’t very

impressive either.

Example: “Feminists want to ban all pornography and punish

everyone who looks at it! But such harsh measures are surely

inappropriate, so the feminists are wrong: porn and its fans

should be left in peace.” The feminist argument is made weak by

being overstated. In fact, most feminists do not propose an

outright “ban” on porn or any punishment for those who merely

view it or approve of it; often, they propose some restrictions

on particular things like child porn, or propose to allow people

who are hurt by porn to sue publishers and producers—not viewers—

for damages. So the arguer hasn’t really scored any points; he or

she has just committed a fallacy.



Tip: Be charitable to your opponents. State their arguments as

strongly, accurately, and sympathetically as possible. If you can

knock down even the best version of an opponent’s argument, then

you’ve really accomplished something.

Red herring

Definition: Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a

tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from

what’s really at stake. Often, the arguer never returns to the

original issue.

Example: “Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair

thing to do. After all, classes go more smoothly when the

students and the professor are getting along well.” Let’s try our

premise-conclusion outlining to see what’s wrong with this

argument:

Premise: Classes go more smoothly when the students and the

professor are getting along well.

Conclusion: Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair

thing to do.

When we lay it out this way, it’s pretty obvious that the arguer

went off on a tangent—the fact that something helps people get

along doesn’t necessarily make it more fair; fairness and justice

sometimes require us to do things that cause conflict. But the

audience may feel like the issue of teachers and students170BY: BELAYNEH ADAMU (MA in TEFL)


agreeing is important and be distracted from the fact that the

arguer has not given any evidence as to why a curve would be

fair.

Tip: Try laying your premises and conclusion out in an outline-

like form. How many issues do you see being raised in your

argument? Can you explain how each premise supports the

conclusion?

False dichotomy

Definition: In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the situation

so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then

eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with

only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the

first place. But often there are really many different options,

not just two—and if we thought about them all, we might not be so

quick to pick the one the arguer recommends.

Example: “Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down

and put up a new building, or we continue to risk students’

safety. Obviously we shouldn’t risk anyone’s safety, so we must

tear the building down.” The argument neglects to mention the

possibility that we might repair the building or find some way to

protect students from the risks in question—for example, if only

a few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldn’t hold classes

in those rooms.



Tip: Examine your own arguments: if you’re saying that we have to

choose between just two options, is that really so? Or are there

other alternatives you haven’t mentioned? If there are other

alternatives, don’t just ignore them—explain why they, too,

should be ruled out. Although there’s no formal name for it,

assuming that there are only three options, four options, etc.

when really there are more is similar to false dichotomy and

should also be avoided.

Begging the question

Definition: A complicated fallacy; it comes in several forms and

can be harder to detect than many of the other fallacies we’ve

discussed. Basically, an argument that begs the question asks the

reader to simply accept the conclusion without providing real

evidence; the argument either relies on a premise that says the

same thing as the conclusion (which you might hear referred to as

“being circular” or “circular reasoning”), or simply ignores an

important (but questionable) assumption that the argument rests

on. Sometimes people use the phrase “beg the question” as a sort

of general criticism of arguments, to mean that an arguer hasn’t

given very good reasons for a conclusion, but that’s not the

meaning we’re going to discuss here.

Examples: “Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a

decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape



suffering through death.” Let’s lay this out in premise-

conclusion form:

Premise: It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human

being escape suffering through death.

Conclusion: Active euthanasia is morally acceptable.

If we “translate” the premise, we’ll see that the arguer has

really just said the same thing twice: “decent, ethical” means

pretty much the same thing as “morally acceptable,” and “help

another human being escape suffering through death” means

something pretty similar to “active euthanasia.” So the premise

basically says, “active euthanasia is morally acceptable,” just

like the conclusion does. The arguer hasn’t yet given us any real

reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has left us

asking “well, really, why do you think active euthanasia is

acceptable?” Her argument “begs” (that is, evades) the real

question.

Here’s a second example of begging the question, in which a

dubious premise which is needed to make the argument valid is

completely ignored: “Murder is morally wrong. So active

euthanasia is morally wrong.” The premise that gets left out is

“active euthanasia is murder.” And that is a debatable premise—

again, the argument “begs” or evades the question of whether

active euthanasia is murder by simply not stating the premise.

The arguer is hoping we’ll just focus on the uncontroversial



premise, “Murder is morally wrong,” and not notice what is being

assumed.

Tip: One way to try to avoid begging the question is to write out

your premises and conclusion in a short, outline-like form. See

if you notice any gaps, any steps that are required to move from

one premise to the next or from the premises to the conclusion.

Write down the statements that would fill those gaps. If the

statements are controversial and you’ve just glossed over them,

you might be begging the question. Next, check to see whether any

of your premises basically says the same thing as the conclusion

(but in different words). If so, you’re probably begging the

question. The moral of the story: you can’t just assume or use as

uncontroversial evidence the very thing you’re trying to prove.

Equivocation

Definition: Equivocation is sliding between two or more different

meanings of a single word or phrase that is important to the

argument.

Example: “Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So

charities have a right to our money.” The equivocation here is on

the word “right”: “right” can mean both something that is correct

or good (as in “I got the right answers on the test”) and

something to which someone has a claim (as in “everyone has a

right to life”). Sometimes an arguer will deliberately, sneakily

equivocate, often on words like “freedom,” “justice,” “rights,”



and so forth; other times, the equivocation is a mistake or

misunderstanding. Either way, it’s important that you use the

main terms of your argument consistently.

Tip: Identify the most important words and phrases in your

argument and ask yourself whether they could have more than one

meaning. If they could, be sure you aren’t slipping and sliding

between those meanings.

ACTIVITY

Spot which types of fallacies are in the following sentences. You

can use one answer twice.

Appeal to pity Post hoc

Weak analogy Appeal to

ignorance False Dichotomy

Hasty generalization Appeal to

authority Begging the question

1. __________________You will get pregnant if you kiss a boy.

I have seen Hanna kiss boys three times, and now she is

pregnant.

2. __________________There is no proof that the secretary

“leaked” the news to the papers, so she can’t have done it.

3. __________________Your honor, how can the prosecution dare

try to send this poor, defenseless child to jail for the



murder of his father and mother. Have a hearth; the boy is

now an orphan.

4. ___________________I am a good worker because Sammy says

so. How can we trust Sammy? Simple: I will promise for him.

5. ___________________A black cat crossed Joe’s path

yesterday, and he died last night.

6. ___________________My paper is like a mud pond because they

both get bigger when it rains.

7. ____________________Even though it is only the first day, I

can tell this is going to be a boring course.

8. ____________________We can either stop using car or destroy

the earth.

9. ____________________We should stop the death punishment.

Many respected people, such as actor gentleman good-looking,

have publicly stated their position to it.



CHAPTER THREE: EXPOSITION

1. INTRODUCTION

Expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents

a balanced analysis of a topic. The writer explains or defines a

topic based on facts, using statistics, comparison and contrast,

examples, process, and cause and effect to the intended audience.

It can also be used to give a personal response to a world event,

political debate, football game, work of art and so on.

2. Important characteristics of expository essay:177BY: BELAYNEH ADAMU (MA in TEFL)


To keep reader’s attention, you should:

Have a well defined thesis. Start with a thesis

statement/research question/statement of intent. Make

sure you answer your question or do what you say you set

out to do. Do not wander from your topic.

Provide evidence to back up what you are saying. Support

your arguments with facts and reasoning. Do not simply

list facts, incorporate these as examples supporting your

position, but at the same time make your point as

succinctly as possible.

The essay should be concise. Make your point and conclude

your essay. Don’t make the mistake of believing that

repetition and over-stating your case will score points

with your readers.

3. MODEL EXPOSITORY ESSAY

UNDERSTANDING AND SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF ILLITERACY

I we can send a people to the moon, should not every person on

earth have the ability and opportunity to read and write well?

Knowing how to read and write, or being literate, is a

prerequisite for succeeding in today’s technologically advanced

and quickly evolving global society. Every person needs to

acquire literacy in his/her early development, because reading

and writing are useful skills in so many daily activities, from

reading newspapers, medicine bottles, and product warning labels,



to writing letters, emails, and reports. Being literate also

develops the mind, imagination, and critical thinking skills.

However, many people in the world are not literate, and many do

not even have the opportunity to become literate in their

lifetime. In fact, UNESCO Institute for Statistics,

the international organization that collects data for the United

Nations, estimated in 2004 that 800 million people (nearly 1 in 6

people in the world) are illiterate, and more than 65% of that

number are women. This number is increasing as well, due to the

high birth rates in illiterate societies. Therefore, in order to

understand more about this significant phenomenon, a few of the

causes, effects, and solutions to illiteracy will be discussed.

One of the major causes of illiteracy is poverty and the

subsequent lack of access to reading and writing materials.

Realistically, students who would have gone on to continue

their education past the 5th year sometimes quit school in

order to work on the farm or in a factory in order to assist

with the family income. Also if a family is poor, food and

the basic necessities of life take precedence before books can

be purchased. Related to this issue is Maslow’s theory on the

hierarchy of needs. Maslow, a well-known psychologist, wrote

that people deprived of basic needs, such as shelter, food,

clothes, and basic safety, are less likely to develop

themselves with higher education (University of Tennessee

Website, 2004). In other words, economic instability can

affect the ability of a population to become literate. 179BY: BELAYNEH ADAMU (MA in TEFL)


The effects of illiteracy often negatively impact a nation’s

ability to develop its human resources. Countries with a high

illiteracy rate are more likely to be disadvantaged in the

global economy. If a populace is not literate, it cannot be as

involved in high tech jobs. New careers in the

sciences, mathematics, and technology are primarily

established in countries that have literate populations.

Another major effect of illiteracy is not having access to

basic information that is distributed via books, newspapers,

or the Internet. This type of information could include

practical advice to increase the quality of life, such as how

to participate in microfinance projects. In short, illiteracy

does not encourage positive social change, personal growth, or

the preservation and development of language and culture.

How can illiteracy be overcome? One of the best solutions to

solving the stubborn problem of literacy is to teach parents

to read, so that they can in turn teach their children. In a

document published by the Departments of Education of

Colorado, Iowa, Nebraska, and others, Judith Schickendanz

explains that “Children learn about written language in a …

socially mediated way…. Children also learn about the

functions of written language as they observe and help parents

make lists, write letter to family members or friends, or read

menus in a restaurant” (1999). If the adult women are educated

first, each generation will be able to read and write, since



mothers are the first educators of children. The women will

teach their children, both male and female, who will in turn

teach their children. Once more people in a society are

literate, that society tends to develop further capacities,

and further value literacy.

In conclusion, illiteracy has many interrelated causes and

effects. In many countries literacy rates are increasing,

notably in India, due to literacy campaigns (EFA, 2000).

Economic development of many of these countries is also

increasing in a similar fashion. Thus, one could easily argue

that the increase in literacy is directly correlated with

positive economic growth. In the past, education was

not required, but in this day, universal education is becoming

a necessity. Therefore, innovative solutions should be

implemented to take advantage of this unique time in history.



CHAPTER FOUR: DESCRIPTIONS

1.INTRODUCTION

Descriptive essay is a wide-spread paper type that is intended to

describe an object, a topic, a place,a building, a person or an

event. When you start writing you should think about your

descriptive essay topic and a place,event or a process you are

going to describe. The thesis statement can be in a form of a

question the answer to which you give in the body part of an

essay.

Activity: Read the following excerpts from descriptive essays and

understand how these essays can be written:

I have always been fascinated by carnival rides. It amazes me

that average, ordinary people eagerly trade in the serenity of

the ground for the chance to be tossed through the air like

vegetables in a food processor. It amazes me that at some time in

history someone thought that people would enjoy this, and that

person invented what must have been the first of these terrifying



machines. For me, it is precisely the thrill and excitement of

having survived the ride that keeps me coming back for more.

My first experience with a carnival ride was a Ferris wheel at a

local fair. Looking at that looming monstrosity spinning the life

out of its sardine-caged occupants, I was dumbstruck. It was

huge, smoky, noisy and not a little intimidating. Ever since that

initial impression became fossilized in my imagination many years

ago, these rides have reminded me of mythical beasts, amazing

dinosaurs carrying off their screaming passengers like

sacrificial virgins. Even the droning sound of their engines

brings to mind the great roar of a fire-breathing dragon with

smoke spewing from its exhaust-pipe nostrils.

The first ride on one of these fantastic beasts gave me an

instant rush of adrenaline. As the death-defying ride started, a

lump in my throat pulsed like a dislodged heart ready to walk the

plank. As the ride gained speed, the resistance to gravity built

up against my body until I was unable to move. An almost

imperceptible pause as the wheel reached the top of its climb

allowed my body to relax in a brief state of normalcy. Then there

was an assault of stomach-turning weightlessness as the machine

continued its rotation and I descended back toward the earth. A

cymbal-like crash vibrated through the air as the wheel reached

bottom, and much to my surprise I began to rise again.

Each new rotation gave me more confidence in the churning

machine. Every ascent left me elated that I had survived the



previous death-defying fall. When another nerve-wracking climb

failed to follow the last exhilarating descent and the ride was

over, I knew I was hooked. Physically and emotionally drained, I

followed my fellow passengers down the clanging metal steps to

reach the safety of my former footing. I had been spared, but

only to have the opportunity to ride again.

My fascination with these fantastic flights is deeply engrained

in my soul. A trip on the wonderful Ferris wheel never fails to

thrill me. Although I am becoming older and have less time, or

less inclination, to play, the child-like thrill I have on a

Ferris wheel continues with each and every ride.

Activity: Read the following excerpt and write an essay

describing about the first visit to the students café in the

university. Use the first paragraph as a sample to develop your

writing.

Here is a descriptive essay about a first visit to a favorite dinner written by a student at

Roane State Community College:

"When entering the door at Lou’s, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is

rarely empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the

door, is the main part of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off

to the right. It was added during the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main

dining room is yet another room; it guards the door leading into the kitchen. This room

contains the most coveted table in the place. The highest tribute Lou can bestow on

anyone is to allow them access to seats at this table. This table is the family table; it is

reserved for Lou’s, and her daughter Karen’s, immediate family and treasured friends."



CHAPTER FIVE: NARRATION

1. INTRODUCTION The purpose of a narrative report is to describe something.

Narrative essays are generally written in the first person, that

is, using I. However, third person (he, she, or it) can also be

used. Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey

their point. These details should create a unified, forceful

effect, a dominant impression. More information on the use of

specific details is available on another page. Narratives, as

stories, should include these story conventions: a plot,

including setting and characters; a climax; and an ending. It

offers writers a chance to think and write about themselves.

Activity:

Use the following guideline and write a five paragraph narrative

essay

The Andheri Children's Club

Name:

Age:

Date of Birth:

Father's Name:

Father's Occupation:



Mother's Name:

Mother's Occupation:

Address:

Name of School:

Sports:

Hobbies:

Any Special Interest

Self-managed Activity:

Here are some popular essay topic examples for your narrative

essay type. Select three of them and write a narrative essay. The

essay topic you choose should be interesting and important to

you, because the best essays are written on the topics that

really matter to the writer.

First Day at College

The Moment of Success

A Memorable Journey

The Biggest Misunderstanding

The Difficult Decision

The Trip of Your Dreams

The Day You Decided to Change Your Life



CHAPTER SIX: WRITING REPORTS AND SUMMARIES

1.REPORT WRITING

1.1. Introduction:

In academic area, from the day you walk into university until the

day you leave, there are many reports you’ll have to write. As a

student, these reports might be essential in your university life

–but it’s true that you’ll have to write them after leaning



university, as a professional. Your reports might range from

simple work assessment report to the high order technical reports

which are common form of workplace communication. You may have to

write a report to a “client” or an assessing manager. Thus,

report writing is an essential skill for professionals; master it

now and writing reports won’t have to be a pain in your future

carrier. Before you go to the detail, do the following

brainstorming activity.

Activity: Discuss the following questions in groups of three.

1. Have you ever read or written report?

2. What makes report different from essay writing?

3. What are some of the things you need to be careful as you

complete report?

4. What could the purposes of report be?

5. On what kinds of topic do people write report?

A report is a structured written presentation directed to

interested readers in response to some specific purpose, aim

or request. It communicates information which has been

compiled as a result of research and analysis of data and/or

issues.

Report can cover a wide range of topics, but usually they

focus on transmitting information with a clear purpose, to a

specific audience. They should also be well written, clearly



structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader’s

attention and meets their expectations. There are many

varieties of reports, but generally their function is to

give an account of something, to answer a question, or to

offer a solution to a problem.

A report generally differs from an essay in that it is

designed to provide information which will be acted on,

rather than to be read by people interested in the ideas for

their own sake. Because of this, it has a different

structure and layout.

A Report

Presents information

Is meant to be scanned quickly by the reader

Uses numbered headings and sub-headings

May not need references and bibliography/reference list

Uses short, concise paragraphs and dot-points where

applicable

Uses graphics wherever possible (tables, graphs,

illustrations)

May need an abstract( sometimes called an executive summary)

May be followed by recommendations and/or appendices

1.2. Characteristics of an Effective Report



Report writing is a part of the job of those delivering

development such as experts, policy makers, planners, development

administrators and researchers. These professionals are often

required to analyze and synthesize ground realities based on

primary data that are very often generated by them. They also

draw further information from secondary sources. Considering the

data and information gathered, they reach at a certain conclusion

and recommend specific actions for implementation. Rational,

clear and persuasive writing helps the writer to present facts as

facts and thus attracts the attention of his reader.

A good report is a document that is accurate, objective, and

complete. Thus, a report is:

appropriate to its purpose and audience;

accurate;

logical

clear and concise; and

well organized with clear section headings.

Activity

1. When one says a report should be rational, what does it

mean?

2. How can the organization of your report be maintained? List

some techniques of organizing a report in general.

3. What is the importance of knowing the audience of report?



4. How many kinds of audiences a writer can have?

5. In order to make your report clear and concise, what are

some helping characteristics you need to consider as you

compile?

Generally, rational conclusion and persuasive recommendations

seldom fail to be appealing to the reader. On the other hand, if

a report lacks those above mentioned elements, it is very likely

to be misunderstood and/or misrepresented by the readership. A

report can be defined as well written only when the writer

systematically and consistently articulates his/her views and

makes a convincing presentation in such a way that would attract,

excite and attract the reader.

TYPES OF REPORTS

Reports are classified according to 1) their style, 2) their

purpose, and 3) format/structure. Based on their style reports

can be formal or informal. Formal reports are long, analytical

and impersonal. They contents of formal reports are title page,

an abstract, table of contents, bibliography and appendix.

Examples of formal reports are annual report of a company and

external proposal. Informal reports on the other hand are shorter

than formal reports and have no preliminary parts (such as title

page, abstract…) and supplementary parts (such as bibliography

and appendix). Informal reports are concerned with everyday

matters that require little background. Sales report in which the

writer summarizes sales for a specific period and internal proposal



which is used to analyze an internal problem and recommend a

solution are two examples of informal reports.

Formal reports based on their purpose can be categorized into

two: informational and interpretive (analytical). An informational report

contains only the data collected or the facts observed in an

organized form. In other words, its objective is to present

information or facts and includes very little analysis. It does

not contain any conclusions or recommendations. It is useful

because it presents relevant data put together in a form in which

it is required by the management or concerned body to take

decisions.

An interpretive (analytical) report, like an informational

report, contains facts but it also includes an evaluation or

interpretation or analysis of data and the reporter’s

conclusions. It may also have recommendations for action. An

interpretive report which consists principally of recommendations

is also called recommendation or recommendatory report.

Formal and informal reports can be written using different

formats. Formal reports are written in manuscript format.

Informal reports are short, each containing one to three pages of

narrative and occasionally attachments such as drawings,

photographs, and calculations. Short reports such as these are

often written as memorandums, sometimes as letters, and occasionally as

semiformal reports with a title at the top of the page. They may be transmitted

using electronic mail. There are different types of informal



reports. We will see some of them as follows. To make the concept

clear let us discuss some types of informal reports as follows.

Incident Reports

An incident report (sometimes called an occurrence or accident

report) describes an event that has happened, explains how and

why it occurred, and indicates what effect the event had and what

has been done about it. It may also suggest that corrective

action be taken, or what should be done to prevent the event from

recurring.

Field Trip Reports

Trip reports are written whenever people leave their usual place

of work to do something elsewhere. Their reports can cover many

kinds of events, such as:

What did the report writer set out to do?

What was actually done?

What could not be done, and why?

What else was done?

Reporting Conference Attendance

The trip report compartments can be used to describe attendance

at a conference or meeting.

The most difficult one to write is the Trip Activities

compartment, and the most efficient way to organize it is to

divide it into sub compartments that focus on

what you expected to gain, learn, or find out by attending

the conference,

what the program promised would be covered,



what sessions you attended and why you chose them (this is

important for a conference

with several simultaneous sessions),

what you gained or learned by attending these sessions,

what you gained or learned from meeting and talking to other

persons attending the conference, and

what other activities you attended.

Inspection Reports

An inspection report is similar to a field trip report in that

its writer has usually gone somewhere to inspect something. Other

typical situations that would require you to write an inspection

report include:

examination of a building to determine its suitability as a

storage facility,

inspection of construction work, such as a bridge,

building, or road,

checks of manufactured items, to assure they are of the

required quality, and

inspection of goods ordered for a job, to check that the

correct items and quantities have been received.

Progress Reports

Progress reports keep management informed of work progress on

projects that span a lengthy period, which can vary from a few

weeks for a small manufacturing contract to several years for

construction of a hydroelectric power station and transmission

system.



There are two types of progress reports:

Occasional progress reports are written at random intervals and

usually concern shorter-length projects.

Periodic progress reports are written at regular intervals

(usually weekly, biweekly, or monthly) and concern projects

spanning several months or years.

Before we move on to the next section which deals with the

structure of a report, it is important to define what a technical

report is. By definition, a technical report is a formal report

designed to convey technical information in a clear and easily

accessible format. It is divided into sections to allow different

readers access different levels of information.

The following section explains the commonly accepted format for a

technical report; explains the purpose of the individual

sections; and gives hints on how to go about drafting and

refining a report in order to produce an accurate professional

document.

THE STRUCTURE OF A REPORT

A technical report contains the following things: front matter, main

body, and back matter.

Each of these parts has its own sub-components.

FRONT MATTER

Title page

The title page of the research report normally contains four main

pieces of information: the report title; the name of the person, company,



or organization for whom the report has been prepared; the name of the author and

the company or university which originated the report; and the date the report was

completed.

Acknowledgements

Unless you have given credit elsewhere, mention diligently the

names of persons and organizations that have helped you in the

production of the report. When you include published material and

the list of sources is very long, use a separate page for the

purpose.

Clearly indicate that permission has been taken for the

reproduction of copyright material, if any.

Table of Contents

Most reports will contain a Table of Contents that lists the report’s

contents and demonstrates how the report has been organized. You

should list each major section in your Table of Contents.

Sometimes you may want to use additional descriptive headings

throughout your report and for your Table of Contents. Using

descriptive headings can help readers to see how your report is

organized if the section headings are not clear enough. This is

likely to be true especially if most of your report is contained

in one long section called Body or Discussion that includes

everything from the materials and methods you used to the results

you found and the conclusions you draw. In this case, it might be

best to include additional headings to indicate where readers can

look specifically to read about your materials and methods or

conclusions.



List of illustrations

A separate list of illustrations is given immediately after the

table of contents if there are a large number of tables and

figures. Its layout is the same as that of the table of contents

and it gives information about the number, title, and page

reference of each illustration.

Abstract

An abstract is an accurate representation of the contents of a

document in an abbreviated form”. An abstract can be the most

difficult part of the research report to write because in it you

must introduce your subject matter, tell what was done, briefly

explain the methodology you used and present selected results,

all in one short (about 150 words) paragraph. As a result, you

should usually write the abstract last. You will need to write an

abstract when your dissertation for a higher degree (M.S. or

Ph.D.) is accepted, when you submit an article for publication,

or when your report will be disseminated to an audience that

needs a summary of its contents. An abstract serves an important

function in a research report; it communicates the scope of your

paper and the topics discussed to your reader and, in doing so,

it facilitates research. Abstracts help scientists to locate

materials that are relevant to their research from among

published papers, and many times scientists will only read a

paper’s abstract in order to determine whether the paper will be

relevant to them.

MAIN BODY



The section of your report called the body matter contains:

introduction, main body and conclusion/recommendations. I discuss

what each of the sub-section are concerned with how we have to

consider it.

Introduction

The importance of the Introduction in all forms of exposition is

that it prepares the reader to receive, with the greatest economy

of effort, what the writer intends to present. Reports, like any

form of exposition, attempt to make information and ideas clear

and convincing. The Introduction permits you to launch

immediately into the task of relating your readers to then

subject matter of the report. Specifically the Introduction makes

clear the precise subject to be considered, indicates the reasons

for considering the subject, and lays out the organization and

scope of the report. This is where you tell the reader what you

plan to tell and why and how you will tell it.

The Introduction should focus your readers' attention on the

subject to be treated. It should enable them to approach the body

of the report naturally and intelligently. Your prospective

readers and subject material will influence both your point of

view in writing the Introduction and the amount of material you

use. The union of reader and subject must be achieved with a

firm, but not heavy, hand. Readers should never be confused,

unpleasantly surprised, or disappointed with what they are told

throughout the report.



The (Main) Body of Your Report

The body is usually the longest part of the research report, and

it includes all of the evidence that readers need to have in

order to understand the subject. This evidence includes details,

data, and results of tests, facts, and conclusions. Exactly what

you include in the body and how it is organized will be

determined by the context in which you are writing. Be sure to

check the specific guidelines under which you are working to see

if your readers are expecting you to organize the body in a

particular way. In general, the body of the research report will

include three distinct sections:

a section on theories, models, and your own hypothesis

a section in which you discuss the materials and methods you

used in your research

a section in which you present and interpret the results of

your research. You will usually use a heading to identify

the beginning of each of these sections.

Conclusions

The conclusion gives the overall findings of the study. It is

important to realize that conclusion' does not just mean `the last

bit of the report'. Your conclusions should really be statements

that can be concluded from the rest of the work. A conclusion is

not a summary. (You can include a summary as well, if you like).

When I mark students' reports, one of the questions I ask about

them is `do the conclusions follow from the body of the report?'



Recommendations

You may or may not need to include a section titled

“Recommendations.” This section appears in a report when the

results and conclusions indicate that further work needs to be

done or when you have considered several ways to resolve a

problem or improve a situation and want to determine which one is

best. You should not introduce new ideas in the recommendations

section, but rely on the evidence presented in the results and

conclusions sections. If you find that you need to include a

recommendations section you have another opportunity to

demonstrate how your research fits within the larger project of

science, and the section can serve as a starting point for future

dialogue on the subject. It demonstrates that you fully

understand the importance and implications of your research, as

you suggest ways that it could continue to be developed. Do not

include a recommendations section simply for the sake of

including one; this will waste your readers’ time and take up

unnecessary space in your report.

BACK MATTER

The back matter of your report contains references, list of

appendices, glossary, and index.

References

The reference list is placed at the end of the report. It is

arranged in alphabetical order of authors' surnames and

chronologically for each author. The reference list includes only

references cited in the text. The author's surname is placed



first, immediately followed by the year of publication. This date

is often placed in brackets. The title of the publication appears

after the date followed by place of publication, then publisher

(some sources say publisher first, then place of publication).

There are many other minor differences in setting out references

(eg use of commas, colons, full stops) depending upon personal

preferences or house styles. The important thing is to check for

any special requirements or, if there are none, to be consistent.

Some lecturers require only a reference list. Others require, in

addition, a bibliography. While the reference list includes only

those texts cited in the body of your paper, a bibliography

includes all material consulted in the preparation of your

report. Notice that the titles of books, journals and other major works

appear in italics (or are underlined when handwritten), while the

titles of articles and smaller works which are found in larger

works are placed in (usually single) quotation marks.

Appendices: The appendices are where the author will usually

place any material that is not directly relevant to the report,

and will only be read by small number of people. I usually use

appendices for mathematical proofs, electrical circuit diagrams

and sections of computer programs. You should place information

in an Appendix that is relevant to your subject but needs to be

kept separate from the main body of the report to avoid

interrupting the line of development of the report. Anything can



be placed in an appendix as long as it is relevant and as long as

you made reference to it in the body of your report. You should

not include an appendix simply for the sake of including one,

though. An appendix should include only one set of data, but

additional appendices are acceptable if you need to include

several sets of data that do not belong in the same appendix.

Label each appendix with a letter, A, B, C, and so on. Do not

place the appendices in order of their importance to you, but

rather in the order in which you referred to them in your report.

You should also paginate each appendix separately so that the

first page of each appendix you include begins with 1.

Glossary

A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and

their explanations. If, however, the number of such words is

small, they are generally explained in the footnotes. Whether you

should include a glossary in your report will depend upon who is

going to read your report. If the reader’s field of expertise is

the one to which your report relates, there is no need for a

glossary. But if the audience is drawn from other areas, it is

advisable to give a glossary.

Index

The index is intended to serve as a quick guide to the material

in the report. It enables the reader to locate easily any topic,

sub-topic or important aspect of the contents. There is a need

for giving and index only in bulky reports where the Table of

contents cannot do this job. Entries in the index are made in



alphabetical order and cross-referenced. All page numbers on

which information about an entry is available are mentioned

against it.

References

Alexander, L. G. (1998). Essay and Letter Writing. Longman.

John S. (2000). The Oxford Guide to Writing and Speaking. Oxford: OUP.



Langan, J (2001) College Writing Skills : Boston: MacGraw Hill.

Langan, J. (2007). College Writing skills with Readings. Boston:McGraw Hill.

Oshima. A and Hogue,A(1991) Writing Academic English : Longman.

Reinking, J.A. & Roberfuon der Osten (2007). Strategies forSuccessful Writing. Upper

Saddle: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Rudolph F. and Lass, A.H., (1996). The Classic Guide to Better Writing.New York.

Solomon G/Giorgis. (1991). Writing for academic purpose. AAU printingPress.

Stanley, Et al. (1992). Ways to Writing: Purpose, Task and Process. New York: MacMillan


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