EXCEPTIONAL TEACHERS: A CASE STUDY THAT

EMPHASISES DISPOSITIONS WHEN

DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN TEACHERS

Glenda Adelle FAULL BA(Mus), BEd, MEd

THESIS

presented in fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

The University of Newcastle

December, 2008

ii

I hereby certify that this thesis contains no material that has been accepted for the

award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution

and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously

published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in

the text. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University

Library, being made available for loan and photocopying to the provisions of the

Copyright Act 1968.

_____________________________

G. A. Faull

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A study of this nature could not have happened without the support and

encouragement of many people. I would like to acknowledge and thank:

the 12 wonderful teachers who demonstrated courage and generosity in

opening their classrooms and their hearts during the case study

the school principals for their interest in this thesis and for welcoming me

into their schools

my students for their humour and encouragement when the going was tough

my supervisor, Mitch, for his timely input.

I would like to acknowledge and thank Roy Killen for staying with me through this

long journey of learning.

In particular, I would like to acknowledge and thank my family who has stood by me

during the years and experiences that have made this journey unforgettable.

Thank you Jenna for your quiet love and gentle encouragement.

Thank you Lynden and Amanda for your humour and for keeping me “grounded”.

Thank you Kerri-Lee for helping me to retain perspective.

Thank you Rod for your creative vitality.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge three important men in my life.

Thank you, Neil, for your time and expertise.

Thank you, Dad, for your insight, enduring loyalty and for demonstrating that

“Patience is the companion of wisdom”.

Thank you, David, for your love and for believing in me.

Only as high as I reach can I grow

Only as far as I seek can I go

Only as deep as I look can I see

Only as much as I dream can I be

Karen Ravn

iv

This thesis is dedicated to

the memory of a beautiful mother

and to the living example

of a father who epitomises

what it means to be

an exceptional teacher.

v

CONTENTS Page

List of Appendixes (xiv)

List of Tables (xv) List of Figures (xix)

Abbreviations used in the text (xx) Abstract (xxi)

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Context of the study 1 1.2 Contemporary perspectives on what it means to be an 2 effective teacher 1.3 Dispositions in the context of evolving professional 4 standards 1.4 Professional teaching standards and teacher excellence 6 1.5 The problem of measurability and synthesis 8 1.6 Other contemporary ideas associated with effective 9 teachers and effective teaching 1.7 The research problem 10

1.8 The research questions 12 1.9 The research hypotheses 12 1.10 Definitions of key concepts 13 1.10.1 Exceptional teacher 13 1.10.2 Dispositions 14 1.10.3 Conceptual model 14 1.11 The research approach 14 1.12 The methodological framework 16 1.13 The significance of the study 17 1.14 The structure of the thesis 17 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 19 Part 1: Rationale for the literature review and the 20 establishment of a research context for a study of exceptional teachers 2.1 Rationale 20 2.2 Effective teaching and effective teachers – a survey 22 of research trends and contributions in the second half of the 20th century 2.2.1 Characteristics of effective teaching behaviour 23 and models of effective teaching 2.2.2 Effective teaching skills and teaching styles 25 2.2.3 Expertise and exceptional teachers 26 2.2.4 The interaction of variables such as teacher 27 values and beliefs 2.2.5 Summary 27 2.3 Giftedness and talent 28

vi

2.3.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review 28 2.3.2 The “self” of the talented adult and the exceptional teacher 28 2.3.3 Clarification of key concepts and their inter-

relatedness 29 2.3.4 Summary 29 2.4 Intelligence and effective teaching 30 2.4.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review 30 2.4.2 Different kinds of intelligence 30 2.4.3 Intelligence and the teacher 31 2.4.4 Summary 32 2.5 Creativity and teacher effectiveness 32 2.5.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review 32 2.5.2 The question of conceptualisation 33 2.5.3 The problem of focus: What aspects of creativity do we take into account when exploring what it

means to be an exceptional teacher? 34 2.5.4 Summary 34

2.6 Dispositions of effective teachers 35 2.6.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review 35 2.6.2 Renewed interest in dispositions 36 2.6.3 Some implications of a study of teacher dispositions 37 2.6.4 Summary 37 Part 2: Effective teaching and effective teachers 38 2.7 Introduction 38 2.7.1 Characteristics of master teachers 39 2.7.2 Complex dynamic of variables that characterise effective teachers – different research perspectives 41 2.8 The NSW Quality Teaching Model (QTM) 42 2.8.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review 42

2.8.2 Theoretical framework of the QTM 42 2.8.3 Underlying rationale of the QTM 46

2.8.4 The dimension Intellectual quality 47 2.8.5 The dimension Quality learning environment 49 2.8.6 The dimension Significance 52 2.8.7 Issues arising from the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model 54 2.9 The QTM and the Vialle and Quigley (2002) study: A comparison 55 2.9.1 Rationale and context for comparison 55 2.9.2 Dimensions and elements of comparison 56 2.9.3 Observations from the comparison 58 2.9.4 Summary 59 2.10 Communicativeness and the effective teachers 60 2.10.1 Concept clarification 61 2.10.2 “Communicative” implicit in the QTM 62 2.10.3 Humour and teacher communication 63 2.10.4 Socio-communicative style 64 2.10.5 Communicating passion 66 2.11 Summary 66

vii

Part 3: Literature from the field of giftedness and talent 67 2.12 Introduction and rationale for inclusion in the literature review 67 2.13 The concept passion 68 2.13.1 Passion as “drive” and “energy” that affect teacher commitment 69

2.13.2 Passion and spiritual intelligence 71 2.13.3 Passion and teacher values and beliefs 72 2.13.4 Passion a unifying force 74 2.13.5 Passion and entelechy 75 2.13.6 Passion and (over)excitability 75 2.13.7 Passion and teacher dispositions 77 2.13.8 Passion, commitment and vision 77 2.13.9 Summary of “Passion” 79

Part 4: Intelligence, engagement and the effective teacher 80 2.14 Introduction and rationale 80 2.14.1 Intelligence: the issue of definition 81 2.14.2 Intelligence, beliefs and values, and teacher authenticity 82 2.14.3 The question of engagement 83 2.15 Emotional intelligence: its nature and function 84 2.15.1 Understanding the concept 84 2.15.2 Different conceptions: the relationship to effective teaching 85 2.15.3 Interpersonal intelligence and emotional intelligence 86 2.15.4 Intrapersonal knowledge and intrapersonal

intelligence 87 2.15.5 Summary 89 2.16 Spiritual intelligence and associated characteristics 90 2.17 Authenticity, associated characteristics and intelligence 92

2.17.1 Rationale for the inclusion of authenticity in the literature review 92

2.17.2 Definitions of authenticity 93 2.17.3 Dispositions and attributes associated with teacher authenticity 94 2.17.4 Teacher authenticity, trust and relationships with students 95 2.18 Intelligence, commitment and passion 97 2.18.1 Commitment and passion 97 2.18.2 Commitment, passion and teacher values 98

2.19 Wisdom and intelligence 99 2.19.1 Wisdom, knowledge and intelligence 100 2.19.2 Wisdom and associated teacher attributes 101

2.19.3 Summary 102 2.20 Gifted teaching and intelligence: The perspective of Towers and Porath 103 2.21 Teacher excellence, intelligence and the human domain 105 2.21.1 The concept “character” and intelligence 106 2.22 Intelligence and engagement: Towards a holistic approach 108 2.22.1 Summary 109

viii

Part 5: Creativity and effective teachers 110 2.23 Rationale, themes, context and concept interpretation 110 2.23.1 Rationale and themes 110 2.23.2 Context 112 2.23.3 Adopting a conception of creativity in the context of a study of exceptional teachers 113 2.23.4 Summary 115 2.24 The relationship between creativity and personality 115 2.25 Creativity, beliefs, values and attitudes 117 2.25.1 Sternberg’s “investment theory” of creativity 117 2.25.2 Creativity: teacher values and beliefs 119 2.26 The relationship between creativity and intelligence 121 2.26.1 The relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional creativity 122 2.26.2 Summary 123 2.27 The relationship between creativity and intuition 123 2.28 The relationship between creativity, giftedness and talent 124 2.29 Summary of Part 5 126 Part 6: Dispositions and the effective teacher 128 2.30 Rationale and context 128 2.31 Definitions of dispositions 130 2.32 Assessment of dispositions 133 2.33 Dispositions in practice 135 2.34 Towards a conceptual framework for an analysis of dispositions 137 2.35 Summary of dispositions 138 2.36 Observations to be made from the literature review 139

3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY OF EXCEPTIONAL TEACHERS

3.1 Introduction and rationale 140 3.2 Case study research approach 141 3.3 Mixed method research 141 3.4 Constructivist inquiry theory 142 3.5 Activity domains 144 3.6 Summary 145

4 THE METHODLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY 147

4.1 Introduction and overview 147 4.2 The methodological framework in diagrammatic form 149 4.3 Developing the DCM (Stage 2) 151 4.4 Teacher case studies (Stage 3) 151 4.4.1 Case study participants and rationale for selection 152 4.4.2 The case study procedure 153 4.5 Development and application of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) and the use of NVivo software for

ix

Case study interview analysis (Stage 4) 154 4.6 Use of NVivo software for case study interview analysis

(Stage 5) 155 4.7 Drawing together the research data (Stage 6) 155 4.8 Major findings and implications for implementing pedagogic

models (Stage 7) 156 4.9 Summary 156

5 DEVELOPING A DISPOSITIONAL CLUSTER MODEL (DCM) 157

5.1 Introduction and rationale 157 5.2 Defining dispositions 158 5.2.1 Three examples of definitions 158 5.2.2 The working definition of “dispositions” for this

study 159 5.3 Strategies for creating and populating the DCM 159 5.4 Methodology for populating the DCM 160 5.4.1 The application of constructivist theory 160 5.4.2 The process of populating the DCM 160 5.5 Description of dispositions 162 5.5.1 Authentic (primary disposition) 162 5.5.1.1 Caring (secondary disposition) 163 5.5.1.2 Empathic (secondary disposition) 163 5.5.1.3 Open(ness) (secondary disposition) 164 5.5.1.4 Reflective (secondary disposition) 164 5.5.1.5 Summary 165 5.5.2 Committed (primary disposition) 165 5.5.2.1 Purposeful (secondary disposition) 166 5.5.2.2 Organised (secondary disposition) 166 5.5.2.3 Motivated (secondary disposition) 166 5.5.2.4 Resilient (secondary disposition) 167 5.5.2.5 Summary 167 5.5.3 Communicative (primary disposition) 167 5.5.3.1 Knowledgeable (secondary disposition) 168 5.5.3.2 Listener (secondary disposition) 168 5.5.3.3 Engagement (secondary disposition) 169 5.5.3.4 Humour (secondary disposition) 169 5.5.3.5 Summary 170 5.5.4 Creative (primary disposition) 170 5.5.4.1 Risk taking (secondary disposition) 171 5.5.4.2 Original(ity) (secondary disposition) 171 5.5.4.3 Curious(ity) (secondary disposition) 171 5.5.4.4 Problem solving (secondary disposition) 172 5.5.4.5 Summary 172 5.5.5 Passionate (primary disposition) 172 5.5.5.1 Enthusiastic (secondary disposition) 173 5.5.5.2 Excitable (secondary disposition) 174 5.5.5.3 Positive (secondary disposition) 174 5.5.5.4 Energetic (secondary disposition) 174

x

5.5.5.5 Summary 174 5.6 A diagrammatic representation of the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) 175 5.7 Observations regarding the development of the DCM 176 5.8 The DCM as an application instrument 176

6 INSTRUMENTATION FOR DATA COLLECTION 177 6.1 Introduction and rationale 177 6.2 Criteria for choosing the instruments 177 6.2.1 Validity 177 6.2.2 Reliability 177 6.2.3 Relevance and appropriateness 178 6.2.4 Appropriateness of form 178 6.2.5 Compatibility 178 6.2.6 Integrated system of coding 178 6.2.7 User friendly 178 6.3 Identification of suitable instruments 179 6.4 The NSW Quality Teaching Model (QTM) 184 6.4.1 Summary of the QTM 187 6.5 The Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC) 187 6.5.1 Summary of the TBC 192 6.6 The My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) 192 6.6.1 Summary of the MVQ 195 6.7 The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) 196 6.7.1 Summary of the EBQ 198 6.8 Summary of Chapter 6 199

7 DIFFERENTIATING TEACHERS USING INSTRUMENT DATA 201

7.1 Introduction 201 7.1.1 Case study biographical data 202 7.2 NSW Quality Teaching Model (QTM) 203 7.2.1 Data analysis 204 7.2.2 Summary 207 7.3 Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC) 207 7.3.1 Data analysis 207 7.3.2 Summary 213 7.4 My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) 215 7.4.1 Rationale 215 7.4.2 Part 1 questionnaire 215 7.4.3 Summary 222 7.4.4 Part 2 questionnaire 223 7.4.5 Summary 229 7.5 Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) 229 7.5.1 Summary 237 7.6 Conclusions from case study instrument data 238

xi

8 ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY INTERVIEWS 243

8.1 Introduction and rationale 243 8.1.1 Introduction 243 8.1.2 Rationale underlying the case study interviews 244 8.2 The Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) 245 8.2.1 Explanation of the IAF 245 8.2.2 The IAF protocol 248 8.2.3 Three examples of coding and rating using the IAF 250 8.2.3.1 Summary of examples 260 8.2.4 The interview questions 260 8.2.5 Summary of the IAF protocol 262 8.2.6 Data from the deployment of the IAF 263 8.2.6.1 Interpreting IAF data that are presented in Table 8.10 265 8.2.7 Examples of transcript extracts from each DCM cluster in the IAF analysis 266 8.2.7.1 Authentic cluster – reflective 266 8.2.7.2 Committed cluster – purposeful 268 8.2.7.3 Creative cluster – risk taking 270 8.2.7.4 Communicative cluster – knowledgeable 273 8.2.7.5 Passionate cluster – energetic 277 8.2.7.6 Summary of the IAF analysis and findings 281 8.3 NVivo analysis of the case study teacher interviews 282 8.3.1 Context and rationale for the use of NVivo 282 8.3.2 Method of analysis 283 8.3.2.1 Level 1 NVivo analysis – Tree Nodes 283 8.3.2.2 Summary of Tree Node analysis (Level 1) 287 8.3.3 Level 2 NVivo Analysis – Free Nodes 292 8.3.3.1 The process followed in gathering Free Node data 292 8.3.3.2 Findings from closer analysis of NVivo Free Nodes 294 8.3.3.3 Observations and conclusions regarding the findings of the Free Node analysis 300 8.4 Conclusions to be drawn from the interview analysis 301 9 DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN TEACHERS:

THE EXTRA DIMENSION TO EXCEPTIONALITY 305

9.1 Introduction 305 9.2 QTM data that differentiated between teachers 307 9.3 TBC data that differentiated between teachers 311 9.4 MVQ data that differentiated between teachers 316 9.5 EBQ data that differentiated between teachers 321 9.6 IAF data that differentiated between teachers 325 9.7 NVivo data that differentiated between teachers 329

xii

9.8 The contribution of the DCM to differentiating between teachers 333

9.9 Concluding observations 334

10 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF

FINDINGS 338

10.1 Introduction 338 10.2 The context and challenges of the study 338 10.3 Findings from the literature review – Stage 1 of the study 340 10.3.1 Findings from the field of effective teaching and

effective teachers 340 10.3.2 Findings from the field of giftedness and talent 341 10.3.3 Findings from the field of creativity 342 10.3.4 Findings from the field of intelligence 342 10.3.5 Findings from the field of dispositions 343 10.3.6 Summary 344 10.4 The DCM (a conceptual model) – Stage 2 of the study 344 10.5 Application of the case study instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ, EBQ) – Stage 3 of the study 346 10.5.1 Findings from the QTM 346 10.5.1.1 QTM items that most strongly differentiated between teachers 346 10.5.1.2 Summary of the QTM 347 10.5.2 Findings from the TBC 348 10.5.2.1 Summary of the TBC 349 10.5.3 Findings from the MVQ 350 10.5.3.1 Summary of the MVQ 351 10.5.4 Findings from the EBQ 352 10.5.4.1 Summary of the EBQ 352 10.5.5 Summary of the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ data 353 10.6 Findings from the case study interviews – Stage 4 of the study 353 10.6.1 Findings from the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) 353 10.6.1.1 Summary of findings from the IAF 356 10.6.2 Findings from the NVivo analysis 357 10.7 The Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) revisited 358 10.7.1 Input from the Interview Analysis Framework

(IAF) 358 10.7.2 The interview Analysis Framework (IAF) –

values 359 10.7.3 Input from the NVivo analysis 360 10.8 Reflecting on the principal findings 362 10.8.1 Effectiveness of the differentiation process 363 10.8.2 Deployment of the DCM – Stage 5 of the study 364 10.8.3 Relationship between dispositions, classroom

xiii

behaviour and educational beliefs 365 10.8.4 Effectiveness of the methodological framework 365 10.9 The working hypotheses and research questions 367 10.10 Limitations of the study 371 10.11 Implications of the study 372 10.11.1 Implications for educational policy 372 10.11.2 Implications for educational practice 372 10.11.3 Implications for educational theory 375 10.12 Closing reflection 376

xiv

LIST OF APPENDIXES

Appendix Page

A Compliance with Ethics Committee

430

B Catalogue of dispositions identified in the literature

432

C Grid showing dispositions and their references in the Literature Review

433

D My Values Questionnaire (MVQ): Technical Manual 

 

436

E Teacher responses to Knowledge of QTM  questionnaire 

 

453

F Teacher decimal scores for items in the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ.

455

G Instrument code legend

457

H Example of IAF coded interview transcript

459

I List of NVivo free nodes from case study interviews

470

xv

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page 2.1 The Dimensions and Elements of the QTM

44

2.2 A Synthesis of the Dimensions and Elements of the QTM and Vialle and Quigley’s (2002) Effective Teacher Characteristics

57

2.3 A Summary of Sternberg’s (2006) Three Types of Creativity and their Eight Contributions

114

6.1 QTM Coding Sheet

186

6.2 Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC) and Coding Grid

189

6.3 Teacher Behaviors Checklist Rating Scale

191

6.4 Table of MVQ Values, Definitions and Related Concepts

194

6.5 The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ)

198

7.1 Case Study Biographical Data

203

7.2 QTM Scores for the 12 Case Study Teachers

205

7.3 Standardised QTM Scores

206

7.4 TBC Analysis Using Letter Coding

208

7.5 Summary of TBC Rating Converted to Numerical Score

209

7.6 TBC Standardised Scores

211

7.7 Combined Z-scores for QTM and TBC for All Case Study Teachers

212

7.8 Case Study Teacher Responses to Part 1 of the MVQ

216

7.9 Ranked MVQ Item Responses

217

7.10 Matrix of MVQ Values Ranked by Case Teacher Scores

219

7.11 Highest Ranked MVQ Values (with Mean Scores ≤ 10) and Case Teachers’ Z-scores ≤ 5.0 on These Values

221

7.12 Satisfaction Scores for All MVQ Values

224

7.13 Means and Standard Deviation of “Satisfaction” Scores for All MVQ Values

226

xvi

7.14 Means and Standard Deviations of “Satisfaction” Scores for

Most Important Values Deemed by Each Teacher as Being Most Important

227

7.15 The Three Philosophical Factors and Item Structure of the EQ

231

7.16 Aggregated Scores for Philosophical Orientations

232

7.17 The Percentage Weightings for Each Teacher and the Average Percentage Weightings on Each of the Three Philosophical Orientations of the EBQ

233

7.18 Raw Scores, Standard Deviation and Z-scores in EBQ Item Responses for All Case Study Teachers

234

7.19 Z-scores Ranking All EBQ Items

235

7.20 Distinguishing Between Most Important and Least Important EBQ Items

236

8.1 Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) 246

8.2 The IAF Data Grid: Structure and Guidelines for Rating the Case Study Interviews on the Five Clusters of the DCM

247

8.3 The IAF: Sample of Implementation for Rating the Case Study Interview for Teacher A, Based on the Authentic Cluster from the DCM

248

8.4 Examples of Excerpts from Case Study Interview Transcripts Relating to the Sub-disposition “Humour” from the Communicative Cluster of the DCM (Teachers D, I and K)

250

8.5 The IAF Coding Key For the Four Components of the Syntax of Dispositions

251

8.6 Coded Sample of an Excerpt from the Interview Transcript of Teacher K Using the IAF Coding

252

8.7 The Coded Rating for Case Study Teacher D on the Sub-disposition “Humour” from the Communicative Cluster of the DCM using the IAF

253

8.8 The Coded Rating for Case Study Teacher I on the Sub-disposition “Humour” from the Communicative Cluster of the DCM using the IAF

255

8.9 The Coded Rating for Case Study Teacher K on the Sub- 257

xvii

disposition “Humour” from the Communicative Cluster of the DCM using the IAF

8.10 Case Study Teacher Scores and Ranks From IAF 264

8.11 Frequency of Coding for the QTM Tree Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

284

8.12 Frequency of Coding for the TBC Tree Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

285

8.13 Frequency of Coding for the MVQ Tree Nodes for All Case Study

285

8.14 Frequency of Coding for the EBQ Three Philosophical Orientations of the EBQ Tree Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

286

8.15 A Summary of Total Frequencies of Instrument Items Coded for Each Case Study Teacher

287

8.16 Data from the IAF Interview Analysis and the NVivo “Tree Node” Interviews

288

8.17 Correlations between the IAF Data and the NVivo “Tree Node” ” Data Presented in Table 8.16

288

8.18 Example of Free Nodes (alphabetic order) in the Initial Stage of Interview Coding

293

8.19 Free Nodes from the Initial Stage of Interview Coding

295

8.20 Free Nodes with Their Orientations Grouped into 7 Categories 296

8.21 Examples of Free Node Extracts with Their Orientations 298

8.22 Examples of Usage “Stand Alone” Word Concepts of Interest 299

8.23 Correlations Between IAF Scores and Instrument Scores (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ)

302

9.1 QTM Scores with Standard Deviations of Item Scores Sorted

308

9.2 Degree to which QTM Items Differentiate Between Teachers in Terms of Standard Deviations

309

9.3 TBC Scores with Standard Deviations for Each Item Sorted 312

9.4 Analysis of Most and Least Discriminating TBC Items with Reference to High Performing Teachers

315

xviii

9.5 MVQ Scores at the 90th Percentile Level Highlighted 318

9.6 MVQ Scores at the 80th Percentile level Highlighted 320

9.7 EBQ Item Scores and Standard Deviations Sorted 322

9.8 EBQ Items Identified as Pedagogic or Dispositional/Personality 324

9.9 IAF Scores and Standard Deviations for All Teachers 326

9.10 IAF Item Standard Deviation of Scores Sorted for All Teachers 328

9.11 Frequencies of References Associated with QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ Items

330

9.12 Analysis of NVivo Free Node Categories 332

9.13 Interview NVivo Coding Scores for Items Aligned to DCM

Clusters

333

10.1 Correlation Between Conjoined QTM and TBC Scores and IAF Scores

355

10.2 Value Scores from Each of the Five DCM Clusters in the IAF

360

xix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures

Page

2.1 A representation of the three dimensions of pedagogy in NSW public schools

44

3.1 The conceptual framework

146

4.1 The methodological framework

150

5.1 The proposed Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM)

175

7.1 Graphical representation of TBC standardised scores

210

7.2 Bar chart representation of aggregated standardised scores of the QTM and TBC

212

7.3 Graphical representation of satisfaction for all MVQ values, as standardised scores

224

10.1 The DCM revisited

362

xx

ABBREVIATIONS DCM Dispositional Cluster Model DET Department of Education and Training EBQ Educational Beliefs Questionnaire IAF Interview Analysis Framework MVQ My Values Questionnaire NBPTS National Board of Professional Teaching Standards NCATE National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education NSW New South Wales NSWIT New South Wales Institute of Teachers PP Productive Pedagogy PTSs Professional Teaching Standards QSRLS Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study QTM Quality Teaching Model SD Standard Deviation TBC Teacher Behaviors Checklist

xxi

ABSTRACT

The principal aim of this study is to contribute to the debate on effective teaching and

learning by investigating the role of dispositions in differentiating between 12

teachers nominated by their school principals as being “exceptional teachers”. The

thesis is premised on the importance of human dispositions for high quality teaching

and learning. A conceptual framework is developed as a guide to structure the

investigation that is set in the context of classroom teaching in primary and

secondary schools selected from an opportunity sample of independent schools in

New South Wales, Australia.

The study submits the proposition that it is possible to examine and gain insight into

the nexus between pedagogic and dispositional variables when considering what it

means to be an “exceptional teacher”. In order to explore this proposition a case

study approach is adopted. This investigation is based on a methodology that uses

mixed methods, both qualitative and quantitative, to test four working hypotheses.

The study is aimed at identifying what it is that distinguishes “exceptional teachers”

by differentiating between teacher performances in the cohort of teachers. While

emphasising dispositional variables, this process of differentiation also takes into

account pedagogic variables and adopts the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model as a benchmark for pedagogic practice.

From an extensive review of the literature (Stage 1 of the study) a conceptual model,

the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM), is developed from five complementary

fields of research literature, namely: effective teachers and effective teaching,

giftedness and talent, intelligence, creativity, and dispositions. This comprises Stage

2 of the study. The rationale for the selection of these five fields of literature is

based on the premise that if we are to gain an insightful understanding of what it

means to be an exceptional teacher, then we need to gain a comprehensive, holistic

view by examining different perspectives. The design of the conceptual model rests

on the principles of constructivist inquiry theory and serves the purpose of organising

xxii

the plethora of dispositional variables that emanate from the literature into five

clusters of dispositions that, it is proposed, are dynamically inter-related.

Four instruments are used for Stage 3 of the investigation to gather and analyse data

from the case study. In addition to the Quality Teacher Model (QTM), the Teacher

Behaviors Checklist (TBC), My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) and Educational

Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) are also used. Pedagogic variables are considered in

terms of the teachers’ observable classroom behaviours. These are rated using the

QTM and TBC. Teachers’ personal beliefs and educational values are considered in

terms of the MVQ and the EBQ. These two instruments take into account teacher

self-reports based on their responses to questionnaires. The four instruments provide

a rich array of data to be used for differentiating between the 12 case study teachers.

The design and application of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) constitutes

Stage 4 of the study. Its purpose is to “operationalise” the DCM and it is used as an

instrument for further differentiating between the case study cohort. This is done in

the context of the case study interviews. The IAF is based on the DCM in

conjunction with Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions. This syntax provides a

theoretical framework for assessing the dispositions comprising the five clusters of

the DCM. This is best perceived as a process involving the “activation” of the

dispositions. The four syntax components used to do this are: values to be realised,

intentions in action, strategies to be utilised, and awareness of the constraints and

possibilities of a given teaching context.

In addition to the IAF, case study interviews are analysed using NVivo software

(Stage 5 of the study). This provides a different perspective from which to

differentiate between the 12 case study teachers. The NVivo analysis also provides a

means of triangulating the case study data in order to establish weight of evidence in

support of the IAF and, indirectly, the DCM.

xxiii

The results from the application of the five instruments (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ,

EBQ, and IAF) provide a rich array of data for differentiating between the case study

teachers (Stage 6 of the study). The design of the IAF, in particular, is a key

outcome of the study. The dispositional elements that differentiate most strongly

between the 12 case study teachers are identified and discussed in the penultimate

chapter of the thesis.

The findings and implications of the study constitute Stage 7 of the study. These

findings from the process of differentiating between the case study teachers, together

with the development of the IAF and the DCM, suggest ideas and direction for

further research initiatives. The major outcome of this research was the development

of the IAF as an instrument that not only operationalised the DCM, but that also

proved to be a useful and credible tool for analysing the case study interviews. It is

proposed that the IAF and the DCM have strong potential for implementation in the

areas of teacher education, in-servicing practicing teachers, and teacher assessment.

The IAF may prove to be a useful device for school principals to use for analysing

interviews with teachers and when making decisions regarding purposes such as staff

selection, providing support, and for promotion.

  1 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Context of the study

The question “What makes an effective teacher?” is an ongoing concern for those

involved in education and teaching. There is a large body of research into teacher

effectiveness, a great deal of it addressing pedagogic issues including teacher

knowledge, the acquisition of skills and prerequisite teacher competencies. The past

decade, however, has seen a resurgence of research that has been undertaken in the

affective domain, with particular reference to the role of human dispositions in

effective teaching (Diez & Raths, 2007; Freeman, 2007a, 2007b; Hare, 2007;

Wasicsko, 2007). This research into the relationship between human dispositions

and teacher effectiveness has been confined largely to the United States of America

(USA) as a result of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education

(NCATE, 2002) mandating the inclusion of dispositions in both the training and

assessment of teachers.

Current approaches to effective teaching in Australia, such as those reflected in the

New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) (NSW, DET, 2003), with their

focus on pedagogic concerns, do not address directly the nature and function of

dispositions in effective teaching. Although studies such as the Queensland School

Reform Longitudinal Study (QSRLS) (2001) referred to some teacher dispositions,

its main focus was on pedagogic issues. The premise of this study is that there is a

need for research that investigates the importance of dispositions that are associated

with “exceptional teachers” and how these relate to complementary pedagogic

models such as the QTM, with its close ties to authentic and productive pedagogies.

It we consider the QTM as a benchmark for effective teaching, we may then develop

  2 

a more holistic view of effective teaching by including a focus on teacher

dispositions.

This study, therefore, forms part of the ongoing debate regarding effective teachers

and effective teaching. It attempts to articulate new ways of approaching both the

relationship between human dispositions and effective teaching, and their

manifestations in the classroom by focusing on a case study of 12 “exceptional

teachers” in the context of a group of primary and secondary schools in New South

Wales, Australia. A variety of research instruments and methodologies have been

used to gather and analyse data. These will be introduced later in Chapter 1 and

discussed in Chapters 4 and 6 of the thesis.

1.2 Contemporary perspectives on what it means to be an effective

teacher

There are multiple conceptions of the phenomenon “effective teacher” that are

context-based and that are influenced by philosophical perspectives and other

considerations. Cole and Chan (1986), for example, proposed that an “effective

teacher is one who maximises the achievements of students…in accordance with an

explicit set of principles that have order, coherence and relevance in the particular

instructional context” (p. 64). In the decades that have ensued, attempts to define

such “an explicit set of principles” and to further extend notions of teacher

effectiveness and effective teachers have continued to develop and diversify.

Under the auspices of the Commonwealth Government of Australia, Skilbeck and

Connell (2003) prepared a comprehensive report Attracting, Developing and

Retaining Effective Teachers: Australian Country Background Report. They pointed

out that studies such as the QSRLS (2001) highlighted the complexity of unravelling

what it means to be an effective teacher. This was due, in part, to the diverse

perspectives from which the field of effective teaching may be examined.

  3 

From their review of literature in the field, Skilbeck and Connell (2003) identified

four different perspectives from which to examine the phenomenon “effective

teacher”. The first took into account the “personal qualities of the good teacher” (p.

77). They argued that this perspective was exemplified in the humanistic approach

taken by Banner and Cannon (1997). The second perspective on effective teaching

was based on the identification and cultivation of teachers’ professional knowledge

and expertise, rather than on the personal characteristics of effective teachers. They

cited the earlier research of Shulman (1992) as an example of this approach.

A third perspective for describing effective teachers was offered in terms of the

quality of pupil performance. Ayres, Dinham and Sawyer (2000), for instance,

identified effective teachers in terms of the test scores obtained by their students.

They observed these teachers in action in the classroom and noted 13 indicative

behaviours of teachers who were identified from this perspective as effective

practitioners (In Skilbeck & Connell, 2003, p. 79). The behaviours reflected both

pedagogic and dispositional elements.

As a fourth perspective for investigating teacher effectiveness, Skilbeck and Connell

(2003) presented student perceptions of the concept “effective teacher”. This was

demonstrated in the work of Lingard, Martino, Mills and Bahr (2002) as well as that

of Cook-Sather (2002). To these four perspectives could be added the increasingly

important parent and community “voice”, as well as that of other stakeholders in the

business of quality teaching and learning.

The four perspectives enunciated by Skilbeck and Connell (2003) are all important in

the context of this thesis but the emphasis is on the first perspective, that is, the role

of the personal qualities or “dispositions” as they are now called in the USA context.

This includes the question of how dispositional elements might be synthesised with

  4 

pedagogic elements to provide a holistic view of what it means to be an “exceptional

teacher”.

1.3 Dispositions in the context of evolving professional standards

The development and application of professional teaching standards has been a

significant factor in stimulating debate on effective teaching and effective teachers.

In the USA context, NCATE has been working on the inclusion of dispositions in its

professional standards since 2002. In a recent statement on professional dispositions

NCATE (2006b) made the following points “Both NCATE and the states believe that

dispositions are an essential element in teacher preparation and licensing standards.

Teachers must have appropriate content knowledge but must also have the requisite

skills and professional dispositions to help all students learn” (p. 2).

In a similar fashion, the USA National Board for Professional Teaching Standards

(NBPTS) (2002) published a document What Teachers Should Know And Be Able To

Do in which it was stated that the importance of dispositions for proficient teachers

was that they,

Exemplify the virtues they seek to impart to students: curiosity,

a love of learning, tolerance and open-mindedness, fairness

and justice, appreciation for our cultural and intellectual

heritage, respect for human diversity and dignity, and such

intellectual capacities as careful reasoning, the ability to take

multiple perspectives, to question received wisdom, to be

creative, to take risks, and to adopt an experimental and

problem-solving orientation (p. 17).

Initiatives in Australia regarding professional teaching standards were epitomised in

the introduction of A National Framework for Professional Standards for Teaching

(November, 2003) where it was stated, “Professional standards for teaching describe

the skills, knowledge and values for effective teaching” (p. 2). While the element of

  5 

values was acknowledged, the broader concept of dispositions was not. Hence, it

became evident that there was a need for further research in the area of dispositions

and the attributes that help to define effective teachers.

In an attempt to improve the quality of teaching and learning in New South Wales

schools and to establish a common reference point for the accreditation of teachers,

the New South Wales Institute of Teachers (NSWIT) (2005) produced a framework

of professional teaching standards. These standards were organised in four key

stages that were “designed as a foundation for the future accreditation of teachers”

(p. 3). The key stages were: Graduate Teacher, Professional Competence,

Professional Accomplishment, and Professional Leadership. The standards within

each key stage were intended to describe the nature of teachers’ work in three

domains: Professional Knowledge, Professional Practice, and Professional

Commitment. The framework comprised seven elements, namely: 1) Teachers know

their subject content and how to teach that content to their students, 2) Teachers

know their students and how they learn, 3) Teachers plan, assess and report for

effective learning, 4) Teachers communicate effectively with their students, 5)

Teachers create and maintain safe and challenging learning environments through the

use of classroom management skills, 6) Teachers continually improve their

professional knowledge and practice, and 7) Teachers are actively engaged members

of their profession and the wider community.

A notable characteristic of the document was its lack of emphasis on the dispositions

required by teachers to implement the professional standards, although there was

some reference to teacher qualities in the fourth key stage, “Professional

Leadership”, where the teacher’s interpersonal and leaderships skills were said to be

“underpinned by principles of fairness, compassion and integrity” (NSWIT, 2005, p.

1). Brief references to values were made in the description of the domain

“Professional Commitment”, where teachers were said to “understand and value the

importance of close links between the school, home and community in the social and

intellectual development of their students” (p. 2). There did not appear to be in-

  6 

depth references to teacher dispositions, however, and these were inferred from the

professional teaching standards themselves.

This study, therefore, concentrates on what it might take to redress the imbalance

between pedagogic and dispositional aspects of teaching in the Australian context in

terms of including and assessing the role of dispositions in effective teaching. In

doing so, the study draws on research and standards development in the USA over

the past decade.

1.4 Professional teaching standards and teacher excellence

There is evidence to suggest that while there are excellent teachers in schools, we do

not necessarily know very much about them because their excellence usually is not

recognised or used to enhance the body of knowledge on what it means to be an

“exceptional teacher”. Earlier in this chapter, reference was made to the document

What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do (NBPTS, 2002). In that document,

the claim was made that,

Many excellent teachers already work in the schools, but their

work often goes unrecognized and unrewarded. As a

consequence, many first-rate practitioners leave the schools,

and others who could be exceptional teachers never consider

teaching. Worse still, the knowledge and skills of the fine

teachers who remain are often under-utilised, their positive

influence allowed only modest scope (p. 1).

The claim that the work of excellent teachers “often goes unrecognized and

unrewarded” touches on an issue of deep concern.

Although the NBPTS (2002) tended to focus on what teachers should know and what

they should be able to do, there was an acknowledgement that “human qualities”

  7 

play a role in being an effective teacher. While the NBPTS referred to “the skills,

capacities and dispositions to employ such knowledge wisely in the interest of the

students” (p. 2), there was little follow-up explanation about the kinds of dispositions

or “human qualities” that were necessary for effective teaching to occur. The

NBPTS argued that the enumeration of skills and knowledge,

suggests the broad base for expertise in teaching but conceals

the complexities, uncertainties and dilemmas of the work. The

formal knowledge teachers rely on accumulates steadily, yet

provides insufficient guidance in many situations. Teaching

ultimately requires judgment, improvisation, and conversation

about means and ends. Human qualities, expert knowledge and

skill, and professional commitment together compose

excellence in this craft (p. 2).

The NBPTS (2002) made and elaborated on five propositions that expanded on the

notion of the standards of effective teaching. These standards were similar to those

proposed by other educational authorities, both in the USA and in Australia. The

propositions were that: 1) Teachers are committed to student learning, 2) Teachers

know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students, 3) Teachers

are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning, 4) Teachers think

systematically about their practice and learn from experience, 5) Teachers are

members of learning communities (pp. 8-20).

In the emphasis given to “human qualities” associated with professional teaching

standards, the NBPTS (2002) provided a platform for debate regarding the nature of

the effective teacher. It alluded to qualities that extend beyond the traditional

parameters of what teachers should know and be able to do, to include what teachers

need to be and the dispositions associated with effective teachers. The study of these

aspects of effective teachers, however, is not without problems.

  8 

1.5 The problem of measurability and synthesis

In Australia, researchers such as Groves, Wallace and Lauden (2001) have

challenged contemporary thinking in the field of effective teaching and learning by

arguing that,

While it is widely understood that teaching is a rich and complex

act requiring a range of qualities, many lists of standards are

reduced to a subset of ‘measurable’ attributes of teaching

(knowledge and skills) leaving aside the ‘unmeasurable’ (moral,

ethical and aesthetic domains). The teaching standards

movement, it would seem, has foundered on this important

point – how to measure that which is valued and, in turn, value

that which is measured (p. 1).

Traditionally, the question of measurability has placed limitations on these

dispositional aspects of the “rich and complex” act of teaching. The emerging

consensus from research and practice in the USA appears to be that the assessment of

dispositions can be achieved only by observing behaviours in the classroom and

through linking such behaviours to a preferred list of dispositions (Diez, 2007; Lang

& Wilkinson, 2007; Taylor & Wasicsko, 2000). These different research

perspectives are explored further in Chapter 5.

Attempts to synthesise a study of dispositions with knowledge, skills and

competencies have been met with varying degrees of success. In the USA some

states have given dispositions a place of prominence in their description of teacher

effectiveness, including teaching standards. The New Jersey Professional Standards

for Teachers and School Leaders (July, 2004) referred to “a series of indicators” for

each professional standard, comprising: knowledge, dispositions, and performance.

In that document, they showed the relationship between dispositions and behaviour

and they proposed, “The disposition statements indicate the behaviours which

communicate the traits and qualities valued by educators” (p. 7). In that context,

dispositions were expressed in terms of those aspects of teaching that teachers value

  9 

and are committed to such as “Respect for individual and cultural difference, and

appreciation of the basic worth of each individual and cultural group” (p. 11). They

also noted the importance of “The expression and use of democratic values in the

classroom” (p. 14). While the issue of dispositions was acknowledged, it was clear

that there was a need to examine more closely the nexus between dispositions and

pedagogic elements that collectively constitute a comprehensive and informative

description of effective teachers.

1.6 Other contemporary ideas associated with effective teachers

and effective teaching

A further trend in the description of effective teaching is the emphasis placed upon

student centred learning. This includes a shift towards “new” approaches to learning

that have impacted what it means to be an effective teacher. Advances in interactive

learning that make use of information technology have provided one example of this

trend. Goold, Craig and Coldwell (2007) noted that, “Advances in technology in the

last decade have opened up new ways for the delivery of learning materials and

teacher-student interactions” (p. 492). Added to this are trends such as preparing

teachers for diversity and the inclusion of all students through differentiated

instruction (Anderson, 2007; Tomlinson, 1999, 2000, 2001) and differentiated

assessment (Chapman & King, 2005; Moll, 2003; Skowron, 2006). To this can be

added the demand for more flexible pedagogies (Fendler, 2001; McLoughlin, 2001;

Pillay & Albert, 2003; Rischin, 2002; Weaver, 2003) and a more carefully

considered focus on learning outcomes (Stronge, 2002). These trends have raised

further issues regarding the “human dimension” of the effective teacher and the

dispositions that are needed for effective teaching in the context of an increasingly

technological and diverse world.

  10 

1.7 The research problem

There has been, and continues to be, growing community and government pressure

to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools in New South Wales and

elsewhere in Australia. This has resulted in initiatives such as the development of

the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) (NSW, DET, 2003) that

provides a comprehensive and coherent overview of the pedagogic practices that are

strongly correlated with effective student learning. These practices take into account

critical issues such as equity in learning. It seems that there is little evidence,

however, that these initiatives have considered in any depth the underlying teacher

dispositions and characteristics that are necessary for the implementation of such

approaches to teaching. It could be argued that if teachers are to implement at

consistently high standards the pedagogical practices described in models such as the

QTM, they need to be more than merely technically competent in those pedagogic

practices.

In their exploration of Productive Pedagogy (PP) as a framework for teacher

learning, Gore, Griffiths and Ladwig (2002) noted that, in spite of obstacles that were

found to impede many teachers in the pursuit of high quality teaching, “These

obstacles do not always impede the quality of teaching and learning produced” (p. 3).

Their research indicated that,

There are some exciting classrooms and some outstanding teaching

practices. Some teachers are able to produce high quality teaching,

despite the obstacles. An analysis of what differentiated the highest

rating teachers from those teachers with low ratings in the QSRLS

(2001), using PP, showed a much stronger sense of responsibility for,

and efficacy in relation to, student learning…Our question, here, is

whether other teachers, including those who don’t share the

dispositions of the highly rated teachers, can be assisted to produce

higher levels of PP (p. 3).

  11 

The reference to “outstanding teaching practices” and “high quality teaching” and

their association with “the dispositions of highly rated teachers” was significant and

supports the notion that it is important to examine the dispositions of highly rated or

“exceptional” teachers, together with their pedagogic skills and knowledge. The key

question was “whether other teachers…can be assisted to produce higher levels of

PP”. It can be argued that one possible response to that question is that by

examining “exceptional teachers”, including the dispositions that characterise their

teaching behaviour, we can learn more about effective teaching that can, in fact,

assist other teachers to enhance the quality of their teaching.

The aim of this thesis, therefore, is to contribute to the debate about effective

teaching through differentiating between a cohort of 12 teachers in ways that

investigate what it might mean to be an “exceptional teacher”. It does so from the

perspective of identifying and synthesising what has been written about human

dispositions in the literature of this field. In order to do this a key aspect of the study

is to design a Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) that, when applied to data from a

battery of relevant instruments, assists in differentiating between teachers so that the

nexus between pedagogic and dispositional variables of “exceptional teachers” can

be investigated.

The issue of teacher quality resonates across literature in the field of teacher

effectiveness. A variety of strategies have been proposed to enhance teacher quality

in schools internationally. These strategies include: performance based pay, more

effective teacher training programs, more effective professional development, more

effective mentoring, the introduction and implementation of professional teaching

standards, more effective teacher assessment, and the development of models of

effective pedagogy to guide teaching practice. One strategy that appears to have

been given little attention, however, is the study of “exceptional teachers” with a

view to identifying those dispositional attributes that contribute to high quality

teaching. A possible reason for this is that there are diverse opinions about what it

means to be an “exceptional” teacher. As a consequence, there is a degree of

  12 

controversy in attempting to examine a potentially important and fruitful area of

investigation.

While literature abounds with a variety of interpretations and information regarding

effective teachers and effective teaching there is a relatively small body of literature

that focuses on what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”. Gore, Griffiths and

Ladwig’s (2002) statement, “Some teachers are able to produce high quality teaching

despite the obstacles” (p. 3) is one indicator that there are “exceptional” teachers in

schools and that it is worth studying more closely these teachers in order to

understand not only the teaching behaviours that epitomise their high quality

teaching, but also the underlying dispositions that are manifest in that teaching. If

we can understand better what characterises “exceptional teachers”, themselves, then

arguably we may be able to assist other teachers to produce higher levels of quality

teaching.

1.8 The research questions

Given the research problem outlined in the previous section, three research questions

follow:

i) What does it mean to be an exceptional teacher?

ii) What is the role of dispositions in defining an exceptional teacher?

iii) How are the characteristics of an exceptional teacher manifest in practice?

1.9 The research hypotheses

The working hypotheses of this study are that:

i) A range of personal dispositions associated with exceptional teachers can be

identified and organised in a conceptual model.

  13 

ii) It is possible to differentiate between teachers considered to be exceptional

using a series of instruments that explore their classroom behaviour and

their personal reflections.

iii) Differentiation between exceptional teachers and other teachers can be

achieved through the modelling of personal dispositions.

iv) The study of the role of dispositions in differentiating between teachers may

prove useful for enhancing quality teaching and the implementation of

pedagogic models such as the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model.

1.10 Definition of key concepts

There are three key concepts that require definition in the context of this study, these

being the concept “exceptional teacher”, “dispositions” as applied to the personal

qualities of teachers, and “conceptual model”.

1.10.1 Exceptional teacher

The diversity of perspectives on effective teachers and effective teaching, together

with contemporary ideas on what it means to be an effective teacher, lead to the issue

of defining the concept “exceptional teachers”. In the context of this PhD study,

Exceptional teachers are those who not only are able to facilitate and maintain high

quality learning and teaching, but who also manifest those dispositions and

attributes that positively distinguish their teaching in tangible ways. Exceptional

teachers elevate teaching so that it is more than the manifestation of expertise or

competence.

  14 

1.10.2 Dispositions

The concept “dispositions” is subject to many differing interpretations in the

literature (Arnstine, 1967; Bunch, 2006; Burant, Chubbuck & Whipp, 2005; Diez,

2007; Freeman, 2007a, b; Katz, 1993; Raths, 2006; Sockett 2005; Taylor &

Wasicsko, 2000; Weiner & Cohen, 2003). For the purposes of this study the

following definition, derived from the literature, is used as the foundation for

theoretical and practical analysis: Dispositions are inherent qualities that incline a

person to act in consistent ways that can be observed through patterns of behaviour

in particular contexts.

1.10.3 Conceptual model

A conceptual model is a graphic representation of an abstract concept. It is a

theoretical construct that shows how information and ideas are conceptualised and

how they are related. In this study, the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) is first

designed as a conceptual model that underpins the notion of what it might mean to

be an “exceptional teacher”. This includes significant dispositions and attributes,

and the dynamic relationship that exists between them. The conceptual model

presented in this study is derived from the literature review.

1.11 The research approach

The research approach for this study is formulated around the use of case study

research as a means of investigating and testing the working hypotheses. Feigin,

Orum and Sjoberg (1991) asserted that case study is an ideal methodology when a

holistic in-depth investigation is needed and this appears to fit with the purpose of

this study. Case study research “can be based on any mix of quantitative and

qualitative evidence” (Yin 2003, p. 13) and this mix of quantitative and qualitative

  15 

evidence is essential for the analyses of the case study teachers in the research to be

undertaken in this thesis.

This approach has often been referred to in the literature as “mixed methods”

research. Mixed method research refers to studies that synthesise different research

strategies. According to Creswell (2003), “Mixed methods procedures employ

aspects of both quantitative methods and qualitative procedures” (p. xxiv). Used in

the appropriate context, it can enrich research by providing different perspectives and

thus deeper understanding of the phenomena that are studied.

In taking this approach, there is considerable reliance on the application of

constructivist enquiry theory in interpreting the nature and role of dispositions in

effective teaching. According to Charmaz (2006), “A constructivist approach places

priority on the phenomena of study and sees both data and analysis as created from

shared experiences and relationships with participants” (p. 130). Pickard and Dixon

(2004) provided a simple definition that encapsulates the kind of research undertaken

in this thesis and explained, “Constructivist inquiries present ‘rich pictures’ of

individual realities that can be applied in the same way that a model can be applied”

(p. 2).

The activity domains of relevance to the research approach of this thesis are

threefold: the educational domain, the pedagogic domain, and the affective domain.

The affective domain, consisting of personal dispositions, values and beliefs, is of

primary importance in this thesis and it is the interplay of dispositions with the other

two activity domains that informs the case study approach.

  16 

1.12 The methodological framework

The methodological framework (see Chapter 4) is designed to meet the needs of

investigating and testing the working hypotheses. The first stage of the study

involves a review of literature from the five selected fields. In the second stage of

the study, a constructivist approach is taken when interpreting the literature review.

This is done in order to identify and cluster dispositions associated with exceptional

teachers into what is to be known as the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) (see

Chapter 5) in order to meet the requirements of working hypothesis (i).

The third stage adopts a case study approach in order to explore the various

dimensions implicit in working hypothesis (ii) that uses both qualitative and

quantitative methods to organise and analyse data gathered from the case study

teachers (see Chapters 6 and 7). The case study approach has been adopted because

it is deemed the most appropriate way to investigate the complex relationships

between dispositions and effective teaching in particular individuals. Twelve case

study teachers were selected on the bases of being identified as exceptional teachers

by their school principals. These teachers were then included in a range of data

gathering exercises using a number of instruments.

Stage 3 involves collating and differentiating the case study teachers on the basis of

responses to items in the four instruments (see Chapter 7). The Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) is described and applied in Stage 4 (see Chapter 8), where the

focus is on the case study interviews. Stage 5 includes the NVivo analysis of

interview transcripts. In this stage, interview data are analysed and correlated for

purposes of further differentiation (see Chapter 8). The penultimate stage of the

study draws together all the analyses from the previous chapters in differentiating

between the teachers (see Chapter 9). Finally, Stage 7 (see Chapter 10) discusses the

findings and implications of the study.

  17 

1.13 The significance of the study

The significance of the study is that firstly, it explores new ways of looking at the

importance of dispositions in effective teaching. Secondly, it offers new insights into

ways of linking dispositions and their associated behaviours. Thirdly, it offers a new

line of thought in terms of the assessment of teacher dispositions through the use of

the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) that differentiates between teachers. A

fourth area of significance is the design and application of the Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) that is used to “operationalise” the DCM. A fifth area of

significance is the use of NVivo to analyse the case study interviews, particularly in

light of teacher contributions to the identification of dispositions that are not

associated directly with the QTM, TBC, MVQ or EBQ. Finally, the study opens up

opportunities to explore how this approach to dispositions could be used to

complement pedagogic models in the Australian context, with particular reference to

the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model.

1.14 The structure of the thesis

The thesis is structured into 10 chapters. Chapter 1 presents the context of the study

together with an overview of the three key independent concepts of the “exceptional

teacher”, “dispositions” and “conceptual model” resulting in the articulation of the

research questions and hypotheses that form the basis of the thesis. The chapter then

provides a summary of the conceptual and methodological framework used to

address the research issues and concludes with a brief summary of the significance of

the research study, together with an outline of the structure of the thesis.

Chapter 2 is devoted to a review of literature in the complementary fields of effective

teachers and effective teaching, giftedness and talent, intelligence, creativity, and

dispositions. The nature of the study called for synthesis of literature in these fields

  18 

to inform the relationship between dispositions and the concept of an exceptional

teacher.

The third chapter deals with an explanation of the conceptual framework and

research approach underpinning this study. Chapter 4 is a key chapter that describes

the methodological framework guiding the investigation and testing the working

hypotheses. The fifth chapter is devoted to the development of the Dispositional

Cluster Model (DCM) that is critical to differentiating between the case study

teachers by focusing on an investigation of the dispositions of “exceptional

teachers”.

Chapters 6 to 8 deal with the selected instruments, the data analysis and the results.

Chapter 6 describes the four instruments chosen for collecting data, namely: the New

South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM), the Teacher Behaviors Checklist

(TBC), the My Values Questionnaire (MVQ), and the Educational Beliefs

Questionnaire (EBQ). The seventh chapter presents a summary of the data collected

from the instruments, together with detailed analysis that differentiates between the

performances of case study teachers. Chapter 8 deals with the case study teacher

interviews and the data gathered from the application of two instruments, namely:

the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) and NVivo.

The ninth chapter ties together all the data analyses in order to draw conclusions

about what the concept “exceptional teacher” means in the context of this study. The

thesis concludes in Chapter 10 with the discussion and implications of the findings of

the study in the context of the identified research issues and associated working

hypotheses.

19

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review is structured in six parts. Part 1 provides a rationale for identifying

and organising the literature into five complementary fields in order to establish the

research context for this study of exceptional teachers. Part 2 focuses on the area of

effective teachers and effective teaching. Within this context, particular emphasis is

placed upon the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (NSW, DET, 2003) as a

benchmark for high quality pedagogic practice. Part 3 explores giftedness and talent and

examines the contribution of literature from this field to our understanding of the

dispositional variables that are associated with talented adults, including teachers.

Literature in the field of intelligence provides a fourth perspective from which to examine

what it might mean to be an exceptional teacher. In particular, Part 4 surveys different

kinds of intelligence associated with teacher variables that were considered to have the

potential to differentiate between teachers. The field of creativity is the focus of Part 5.

Literature in the field of creativity provides further insight into the dispositions associated

with exceptional teachers and how they may be manifest in classroom behaviour. Finally,

Part 6 surveys literature from the important and complex field of dispositions.

These five complementary fields of literature have not often been connected in a study of

this kind. They encompass pedagogic and dispositional variables associated with high

performing teachers. Findings from the literature review provide the basis for the

development of the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) that is discussed in Chapter 5.

These pedagogic and dispositional variables from the literature provide the foundation for

an examination of the dispositions that are associated with exceptional teachers in this

study. It will be seen that literature from these five complementary fields is infused with

recurring themes that indicate the close relationship between dispositional variables and

high quality pedagogy.

20

PART 1: Rationale for the literature review and the establishment of a

research context for a study of exceptional teachers

2.1 Rationale

The rationale for this study of exceptional teachers is based on two fundamental

premises. The first is that although there is a large body of research and literature

available in the field of effective teaching and effective teachers, the study of

exceptional teachers has received minimal attention. This thesis argues that the

phenomenon “exceptional teacher” is a reality and that it is worth finding out as

much as we can about this phenomenon. The second premise is that if we can

identify and study what it means to be an “exceptional teacher” then we can put that

information to use in assisting those involved with teaching to improve the quality of

teaching and, therefore, the quality of learning experienced by students.

Two broad research themes that are explored in this literature review are pedagogic

concerns and the personal characteristics of exceptional teachers. In order to find out

what literature can tell us about what it means to be an “exceptional teacher” five

complementary fields of research have been selected. These are the fields of:

effective teaching and effective teachers, giftedness and talent, creativity,

intelligence, and dispositions.

In Chapter 1, the concept “exceptional teacher” was defined by the researcher as the

teacher who is able to facilitate and maintain high quality learning and teaching,

and who also demonstrates a range of distinctive dispositions that distinguish his/her

teaching in tangible ways. Given that exceptional teachers are those teachers who

consistently are able to maintain high levels of quality teaching and learning, it is

logical to begin the literature review with an examination of different perspectives

and interpretations of what it means to be an effective teacher. By implication, this

includes the identification of pedagogic and dispositional attributes that distinguish

teachers as being highly effective or exceptional.

21

In the context of this study, the descriptor “exceptional” shares characteristics with

the concepts “gifted” and “talented”. Indeed, models of giftedness and talent, such

as Gagné’s (1995a, 1995b) differentiated model, provide insight into the nature of

exceptionality, including the process of developing the potential to be an exceptional

teacher into fulfilment of that potential, as demonstrated in outstanding practice. The

inclusion of literature from the field of giftedness and talent provides a research

perspective that assists not only with understanding the personal attributes that

contribute to the meaning of the concept “exceptional teachers” but that also

provides insight into the processes involved in fulfilling the potential to become an

exceptional teacher.

While there is convincing evidence to support the idea that effective teachers need to

facilitate and nurture the intellectual development of their students, as well as their

social and personal development, an area of effective teaching that calls for further

study is that of the teacher’s own intellectual quality. Also, there appears to be a

substantial link between creativity and intelligence, on the one hand, and between

intelligence and giftedness and talent, on the other. For this reason, the related field

of intelligence has been included in the literature review. With the recent burgeoning

of knowledge and research into the nature and meaning of the concept “intelligence”

there is evidence to suggest that the teacher’s own intelligence(s), as well as that of

his/her students, is an area of teaching that is worth investigating, particularly in

relationship to a study of “exceptional teachers”.

The inclusion of the field of creativity has been influenced by several factors.

Firstly, much of the literature on effective teachers refers to creativity as a defining

characteristic of such teachers. Secondly, there is strong evidence in the literature in

the field of giftedness and talent to support the inclusion of creativity as a potentially

important field of investigation in the study of exceptional teachers. Finally,

contemporary models of pedagogy such as the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model (NSW, DET, 2003) point strongly to the need for teacher creativity as it

pertains to problem solving and multiple ways of thinking about and resolving issues,

particularly in the domains of Intellectual Quality and Significance.

22

An important inclusion in the literature review is the field of dispositions. The

concept “dispositions” has been variously interpreted. In Chapter 1 “dispositions”

was defined as inherent qualities that incline a person to act in consistent ways that

can be observed through patterns of behaviour in particular contexts. For the

purpose of differentiating between exceptional teachers and other teachers, the

context of these patterns of behaviour focuses on the school classroom where the

actions of teachers are observed, including their interaction with students during the

processes of teaching and learning. While literature from the field of effective

teaching and effective teachers provides a variety of perspectives about what teachers

need to know and what they need to do, literature from the field of dispositions has

been selected because of the need to consider more deeply what teachers need to be

in order to be exceptional.

By taking into account these five fields of investigation, the literature review

attempts to provide a synthesis of perspectives that is aimed at moving towards a

holistic understanding of what it means to be an exceptional teacher. This takes into

account both pedagogic and dispositional variables of the teacher.

2.2 Effective teaching and effective teachers – a survey of research

trends and contributions in the second half of the 20th century

A survey of literature indicates that conceptions of what it means to be an effective

teacher have changed according to a variety of considerations such as the historical

context, prevailing socio-cultural expectations, economic constraints placed upon

schools and their governing bodies, teacher characteristics such a personality, the

processes of teaching and learning, and student characteristics. In addition, the

enduring influence of theorists such as Dewey (1916, 1938, 1968), together with

different theoretical viewpoints such as those of Bruner (1966, 1977) and Rogers

(1969) have provided a rich array of perspectives and a vast quantity of research from

which to approach a study of effective teaching and effective teachers. As Thibodeau

and Hillman (2003) noted, however, “Despite the vast quantity of research devoted to

the topic of teacher effectiveness, variables that comprise effectiveness have not been

23

clearly delineated” (p. 169). They pointed out the apparent ambiguity of research

findings in the area of teacher effectiveness and suggested that there were different

possible reasons for this anomaly. These reasons took into account “the wide range

of methodology used in investigating teaching” (pp. 169-170), including different

approaches to identifying effective teachers and different research protocols. These

variables, together with numerous research focuses and teaching-learning contexts

have produced a plethora of information about what it means to be an effective

teacher.

In Chapter 1 of this thesis a definition of and rationale for the study of exceptional

teachers was presented. The main thrust of the rationale was that if we can identify

and investigate exceptional teachers in terms of pedagogic considerations and

dispositional attributes, then we may be able provide insights that can assist teachers

and teacher educators in their pursuit of quality teaching and quality learning. A brief

review of the major trends and influences on thinking in the field of effective teachers

and effective teaching, particularly during the latter half of the twentieth century,

provides a platform from which to explore this important field of investigation.

2.2.1 Characteristics of effective teaching behaviour and models of

effective teaching

Research into the characteristics of effective teaching behaviour, including teaching

skills and techniques, variables such as teacher personality, beliefs and values

together with professional attributes has been given prominence in the literature from

the 1960s and 1970s onwards. The work of researchers such as Dunkin and Biddle

(1974), Eggleston, Galton and Jones (1976), Gage (1963, 1972, 1978), Getzels and

Jackson (1963), and Nuthall and Church (1973) has contributed considerably to

thinking in this field. McIlrath and Huitt (1995) reviewed five influential models of

effective teaching in the context of the teaching-learning process that focused on what

happened in the classroom. These models emphasised different variables that were

believed to contribute to effective teaching and they represent some of the major

concerns and variables that have influenced the focus of thinking in the field during

the latter part of the 20th century. In general, the main variables considered in the

24

models have been school variables, classroom variables, teacher characteristic

variables, student characteristic variables, or contextual variables. The trend in

contemporary pedagogic models such as the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model (2003) has been to focus attention on a synthesis of variables and research

input.

The first model cited by McIllrath and Huitt (1995) was by Carroll (1963) who

focused on the quality of time spent by teachers when engaged with students in the

teaching-learning process. They noted the influence of Bloom’s (1976) Mastery

Learning Model where the focus was on the time taken to learn the information

taught in school and the quality of the instruction provided by the teacher. Two

critical considerations in Carroll’s model were the amount of time the teacher spent

teaching the students and student aptitude for learning. From this perspective, time

was found to be the most significant variable in the teaching-learning process.

Therefore, the most effective teachers were those who were able to maximise use of

time to ensure that effective learning occurred.

The second model discussed by McIlrath and Huitt (1995) was Proctor’s (1984)

model. They observed, “Prior to the sixties the research on important school- and

classroom-related variables was directed toward the best traits or characteristics of

teachers in an attempt to identify good teaching” (p. 2). Proctor’s model, according

to McIlrath and Huitt, included “important teacher and student behaviors as

predictors of student achievement” (p. 2). From this perspective, the effect of teacher

expectations was of particular note in the quality of teaching and learning. Emphasis

was placed upon the social nature of the teaching-learning process, rather than

individual teacher-pupil relationships. Key considerations associated with Proctor’s

model included the school’s social climate, student characteristics, teacher attitudes,

teacher efficacy and the nature of “the interaction among individuals involved in the

schooling process” (p. 3), thus highlighting the social context of teaching and

learning. A similarity between Proctor’s model and Carroll’s (1963) earlier model

was the emphasis placed upon the quality of instruction as demonstrated in teacher

classroom behaviours. In this context, teacher effectiveness was gauged according to

each student’s level of achievement.

25

Cruickshank’s (1986) model has had a marked influence on thinking in the field of

effective teaching and effective teachers. Based on classroom relationships and

teacher behaviours, McIlrath and Huitt (1995) pointed out that Cruickshank’s model

was influenced strongly by the work of Mitzel (1960), Biddle (Biddle & Ellena, 1964;

Good, Biddle & Brophy, 1975), and Flanders (1960a, 1960b). In particular, Mitzel’s

conceptualisation of product, process and presage variables impacted strongly on

Cruickshank’s thinking where presage variables, such as the teacher’s intelligence,

level of experience and personal characteristics affected the process of interaction

(process variables) between the student and the teachers. Process variables were seen

to impact on product variables, notably student learning. Biddle’s focus on non-

cognitive variables helped to define those aspects of teaching and learning that

contributed to the student’s affective domain (McIlrath & Huitt, p. 4). Flander’s

(1970) Interaction Analysis Categories and his work on “verbal influence” in the

classroom, including what he referred to as “teacher talk” and “pupil talk” provided

another dimension to Cruickshank’s thinking about effective teaching.

Two later models that have influenced thinking about effective teaching and effective

teachers were those of Gage and Berliner (1992) and Huitt (1995). Gage and Berliner

focused on the classroom and the teacher, including student motivation and

instructional design variables that characterised effective classroom teaching. Huitt’s

model extended the research paradigm to include teacher characteristics such as

personality, student characteristics, and contextual variables such as the quality of

time spent in the teaching-learning engagement.

2.2.2 Effective teaching skills and teaching styles

Emphasis on the importance of effective teaching skills was predominant in the late

1970s and 1980s when researchers and theorists such as Clark and Peterson (1986),

Kyriacou (1986, 1998), Leinhardt and Greeno (1986), Perrott (1982), and Wragg

(1984) examined the effect of teaching skills on the quality of student learning. The

critical role of experience and student engagement in the processes of teaching and

learning was emphasised by theorists such as Steinaker and Bell (1979) in their

Experiential Taxonomy. The use of taxonomies such as Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy

26

of Educational Objectives and Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia’s (1964) Taxonomy of

Affective Experience added dimension and clarity to the growing body of research

and theory on the relationship between teaching and learning, including the nature

and function of the relationship between the teacher and student(s). A closely related

area of research resulted in literature that focused on effective teaching styles. At the

forefront were researchers such as Anthony (1979), Bennett (1976, 1987, 1988),

Eggleston, Galton and Jones (1976), Hazelwood (1988), and Rutter, Maughan,

Mortimor and Ouston (1979).

2.2.3 Expertise and exceptional teachers

Research in the area of expertise and skill mastery, such as that of Ericsson (1996),

Ericsson and Charness (1994), and Ericsson and Lehmann (1996) provided yet

another dimension of literature in the area of effective teaching and effective teachers

that resulted in an examination of whether or not expertise was synonymous with

exceptionality. A key question was whether or not being an expert teacher equated

with being an exceptional teacher. Ericsson and Charness argued that, essentially,

expertise was the product of extended practice and skill acquisition over time. When

linked with specific kinds of intelligence, such as creativity, expertise was seen to be

important because of the emphasis on the mastery of knowledge and skills. This was

evident in the research of Mumford, Supinski, Threlfall and Baughman (1996) whose

studies indicated that, “Knowledge, or expertise, may make a unique, independent

contribution to both creative problem solving and real-world achievement” (In

Vincent, Decker & Mumford, 2002, p. 165).

Literature in the area indicated that expertise was associated predominantly with

knowing how and knowing what. It involved the acquisition of the knowledge, skills

and competencies prerequisite for expert performance. It was evident, therefore, that

this area of expert performance is of considerable interest in the study of exceptional

teachers and needs to be examined in some detail. Of particular importance was the

study of the personal variables, including dispositions, that are necessary for the

acquisition of expertise and how those variables were connected to the concept of an

exceptional teacher.

27

2.2.4 The interaction of variables such as teacher values and beliefs

Research on effective teaching in the late twentieth century indicated a move towards

a study of the interactive influences of variables that were at work in the effective

teacher. The interplay of the teacher’s values and beliefs, in particular, together with

variables such as wisdom (Arlin, 1999; Collinson, 1999) and creativity (Cropley,

2001; Jeffrey & Craft, 2004; Lubart, 2000-2001) provided further insight into teacher

effectiveness. Other qualities identified in the research, such as commitment

(Renzulli, 1978, 1998), passion (Wisehart, 2004) and a sense of mission or vision

(Korthagen, 2004; Hammerness, 2004), together with pedagogic skills and

knowledge, provided an alternative focus and moved the field of study into the arena

of the twenty-first century.

An examination of the link between these variables provides a more holistic

perspective from which to establish the qualities of an exceptional teacher. In his

explanation of “successful intelligence”, for example, Sternberg (1997a) noted,

“Research shows that people do their most creative work when they love what they

do” (p. 219). This suggests a link between creativity and love or passion for the work

at hand, be it in the domain of teaching or other domains of human endeavour.

2.2.5 Summary

Literature from the field of effective teachers and effective teaching offers a variety

of perspectives from which to examine what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”.

These perspectives range from pedagogic models that focus on teaching skills,

teacher knowledge and expertise, to dispositional attributes. There appears to be a

growing interest in the teacher’s personal values and educational beliefs that underpin

“best practice” in the classroom.

28

2.3 Giftedness and talent

2.3.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review

The majority of literature on teacher effectiveness is concerned with “mainstream”

teaching and learning. In the context of a study of exceptional teachers, however,

there is a need to extend this focus. The field of giftedness and talent provides one

avenue for providing this added dimension. A survey of literature in the field

indicates points of congruence with literature from the field of effective teaching and

effective teachers. Of note are the following points of similarity:

(i) the pattern of dispositions that typify talented adults (Piechowski,

1998; Piirto, 1999; Clark, 2002) share strong commonalities with the

attributes of highly effective teachers;

(ii) the processes involved in talent development (Gagné, 1995a, 1995b),

including knowledge acquisition and skill mastery, have much in

common with the processes involved in the development of effective

teachers;

(iii) many of the behaviours that are typical of talented adults (Piirto, 1995,

1999) are also typical of highly effective teachers (Wisehart, 2004;

Day, 2004; Kottler, Zehm & Kottler, 2005).

2.3.2 The “self” of the talented adult and the exceptional teacher

A key focus of this study of exceptional teachers is the teacher as “self”, including the

dispositions that help to define the teacher as a person. Literature from the field of

giftedness and talent provides another perspective from which to study the “self” of

the exceptional teacher. While pedagogic skills, knowledge and competencies are of

critical importance in teacher effectiveness, this thesis argues that of equal

importance are the teacher’s characteristic dispositions. In order to identify these

dispositions, it is necessary to examine the teacher as self. Research and theory in the

field of giftedness and talent, such as that of Clark (2002), Feldman (1988), Feldman

& Goldsmith (1991), Piirto (1995, 1999), and Simonton (1984, 1986, 1994) provide

insight into the kinds of dispositions and other attributes that are associated with

29

talented adults. In comparing Piirto’s proposed “pyramid” model of talent and

Feldman’s theory of coincidence, Piechowski (1998) noted that, “Personality

attributes are more fundamental than intellectual competence” and that, “Making

personal attributes the base agrees with Feldman’s emphasis that in the center of the

revolving and undulating field of forces is the whole person” (p. 192).

Piechowksi (1998) pointed out that these models shared intrapersonal strengths or

dispositions such as “motivation, drive, and determination” (p. 192). This

complements the notion that if we are to understand what it means to be an

exceptional teacher, then we need to extend the focus to include not only the teacher’s

classroom behaviours and practices, but also an understanding of the teacher as self.

This includes dispositions such as motivation, drive, and determination that underpin

observable teacher behaviour.

2.3.3 Clarification of key concepts and their interrelatedness

Literature on teacher effectiveness abounds with references to teacher attributes such

as passion, creativity, energy, motivation, imagination, wisdom, and enthusiasm. In

spite of their recurrence in the literature, however, some of these concepts remain

loosely defined and require clarification, particularly in the context of a study of

exceptional teachers. Theorists and researchers in the field of giftedness and talent

have provided clarity not only regarding the nature of ubiquitous concepts such as

“passion” (Hillman, 1996; Piirto, 1999) and “energy” (Dabrowski, 1964, 1972;

Dabrowski & Piechowski, 1977; Lovecky, 1986; Piechowski, 1998), but also

regarding the nature of their interrelatedness. This, in turn, has provided another

perspective from which to explore what it means to be an exceptional teacher and, for

this reason, it is worth including the field of giftedness and talent in the literature

review.

2.3.4 Summary

The inclusion of literature from the field of giftedness and talent provides depth to

our understanding of what it might mean to be an “exceptional teacher” by

30

complementing literature from the fields of effective teaching and intelligence.

Dispositional variables that characterise talented adults, such as passion, energy,

excitability and drive, together with the strength of the individual’s values and beliefs

may be key determinants underpinning the classroom behaviour of exceptional

teachers and, therefore, are worth investigating in the literature.

2.4 Intelligence and effective teaching

2.4.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review

The inclusion of intelligence as a field of research in the literature review was

motivated by the need to examine the nature and role of different kinds of intelligence

as variables that contribute to our understanding of what it means to be an exceptional

teacher. At the same time as the concept “effective teaching” was evolving, research

in the area of intelligence provided an important perspective from which to explore

the nature of effective teaching and effective teachers. As different conceptions of

intelligence emerged, there arose a need to consider how these conceptions might

influence the way theorists and practitioners viewed the relationship between

teaching and learning.

2.4.2 Different kinds of intelligence

The work of Binet and Simon (1916) and Terman and Merrill (1916) established a

tradition of research and theory that focused on “academic” intelligence and school

achievement. Subsequent research in the field of intelligence, particularly in the

latter part of the 20th century, has opened the way for an examination of different

kinds of intelligence and their influences on the quality of teaching and learning.

Theories such as Gardner’s (1983) Multiple Intelligence, Goleman’s (1995, 1998)

Emotional Intelligence, Sternberg’s (1991, 1997a, 1999) Triarchic Theory of Human

Intelligence, Zohar and Marshall’s (2000) exposé on Spiritual Intelligence, and

Moon’s (2003) conception of “personal intelligence” extended the traditional canon

of literature that emanated from earlier theorists in the field of intelligence.

31

2.4.3 Intelligence and the teacher

Different kinds of intelligence have been associated with different teacher

dispositions and behaviours. The idea of the effective teacher as a lifelong learner is

a recurring theme in literature in the field of effective teaching. Day (1999), for

example, focused on this theme and argued that, “A vision of lifelong learning

demands emotionally intelligent teachers who are educated to think, reflect, evaluate,

look for and provide opportunities for the development of individual achievement

which challenge and support each student in their care” (p. 208).

While Day (1999) associated the disposition of teacher reflection and the desire for

lifelong learning with emotional intelligence, MacGilchrist, Myers and Reed (2004)

used a different perspective and focused on the relationship between pedagogic

intelligence and teacher reflection. They maintained, “Pedagogical intelligence is at

work where the relationship between learning and teaching is regularly being

reflected on, strengthened and developed” (p. 140). Thus, two different kinds of

intelligence were seen to come into play when considering the nature of reflection

and its role in the quality of teaching and learning.

Earlier research conducted by Rubin (1989) explored the link between “pedagogical

intelligence” and teacher expertise. Ruben argued that we should not simply observe

teacher behaviours, but that we also should take into account expert teachers’

decision making, including their underlying beliefs and motivations in order to

understand the interplay between pedagogical intelligence and instructional

effectiveness.

One further example of the link between intelligence and effective teaching is found

in the work of Maingay (2006). He referred to the concept “teaching intelligence”

and used the term

to describe a package of generally uncodified skills and abilities

that all teachers possess to some degree, all of which help teachers

to teach as well as possible, paying careful attention to the moment

and avoiding the trap of mechanical and inappropriate teaching (p. 2).

32

2.4.4 Summary

The body of research and literature in the field of intelligence adds an important

dimension to the study of effective teaching and the exploration of what it might

mean to be an exceptional teacher. While a considerable amount of the literature

focuses on the role of emotional intelligence in effective teaching and learning, there

is evidence from recent literature to support the notion that if we consider different

kinds of intelligence, there may be significant links between the concepts

“intelligence” and “exceptional teachers”.

2.5 Creativity and teacher effectiveness

2.5.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review

The inclusion of the field of creativity in the literature review is based on three

premises. The first is that there is strong evidence to suggest that highly effective

teachers are creative in their approaches to teaching and learning. There is a

considerable amount of literature on teaching and teacher effectiveness that includes

the concept “creativity” (see, for example, Cropley, 2001; Fleith, 2000; Goertz,

2000; Jeffrey & Craft, 2004; Sheidecker & Freeman, 1999; Starko, 2005). Implicit

in models of pedagogy such as the New South Wales Quality Teacher Model (NSW,

DET, 2003) is the need for teachers to be effective problem-solvers and problem-

designers. It is axiomatic that if quality teaching and learning are to be fostered in

the classroom, then teacher creativity is required.

A second premise for the inclusion of literature from this field of research and theory

is that creativity works in conjunction with other variables such as attitudes, beliefs

and values (see Goertz, 2000; Perkins, 1981; Sternberg, 2000a). In her study of

effective leadership in contemporary schools, for instance, Goertz found that there

were specific traits of creativity such as passion for work, independence, originality,

goal setting, flexibility, motivation and enthusiasm. Arguably, all these traits are

important considerations for teacher effectiveness.

33

Creativity has been associated with effective teacher behaviours (Cropley, 1994) and

teacher dispositions (Simplicio, 2000). Variables that have been shown to be

associated with creativity, such as resilience, risk-taking, divergent thinking, and the

ability to adapt to changing circumstances and contexts are important considerations

when exploring the nature of teacher effectiveness in a world that increasingly is

characterised by change.

In the context of this study, literature suggests that the concept “creativity” may be

an integral component of exceptionality. From the perspective of literature in the

field of giftedness and talent, there are a number of influential theories and models of

creativity such as those of Feldman, Csikszentmihalyi and Gardner (1994), Getzels

and Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1976), Renzulli (1978, 1998), and Runco (1993a,

1993b, 1994). Tannenbaum (1983, 1986) conceptualised creativity as an integral

component of his Psychosocial Model of talent. From this perspective, it is

important to acknowledge that literature in the field of creativity can enhance our

understanding of what it might mean to be an exceptional teacher.

2.5.2 The question of conceptualisation

There have been different conceptualisations and definitions of “creativity” and this

has resulted in considerable debate about the nature of creativity. Feldhusen and

Goh (1995) argued the proposition that,

Creativity is often defined as a parallel construct to intelligence,

but it differs from intelligence in that it is not restricted to

cognitive or intellectual functioning or behavior. Instead, it is

concerned with a complex mix of motivational conditions,

personality factors, environmental conditions, chance factors,

and even products (pp. 231-231).

Feldhusen and Goh also argued, “Although creativity may be specifically linked to

the fields or disciplines in which it is manifested, most researchers propose general

conceptions of creativity applicable across domains, disciplines, or fields” (p. 232).

34

This more generalised conception of creativity is pursued in the proposed study of

exceptional teachers.

2.5.3 The problem of focus: What aspects of creativity do we take

into account when exploring what it means to be an

exceptional teacher?

An important consideration when including the field of creativity in the literature

review is that of the research focus. Just as there are different kinds and domains of

intelligence, so there are different kinds and domains of creativity. Fleith (2000)

noted that “No consensus exists, however, about how to define creativity” (p. 148).

She also argued “Creativity cannot be understood by isolating individuals and their

works from their contexts” (p. 148). This view corresponded with that of

Csikszentmihalyi (1996) who advocated that when examining creativity, it is

essential to take into account personal variables as well as the socio-cultural context.

From this perspective, when studying exceptional teachers it is important to take into

account not only the teachers’ interpersonal and intrapersonal variables, such as their

beliefs and values, motivations, and teaching strategies, but it is also important to

take into account the socio-cultural contexts of the school and the classroom.

2.5.4 Summary

In their integrative review of theory, research and development in the field of

creativity Feldhusen and Goh (1995) concluded, “Creative thinking and creative

problem solving are aspects of human cognition and behavior that probably can be

accessed through training programs that focus on cognitive skills and methods,

personality factors, motivation, cognitive styles, and metacognitive skills” (p. 244).

They also argued the importance of environmental conditions that were “conducive

to change, flexibility, and openness” (ibid). A third point they raised was the

importance of domain specific and subject specific contexts. The review of literature

from the field of creativity that has been undertaken for this study of exceptional

teachers takes into account the domain of effective teaching and, in particular,

35

exceptional teachers. It does this in the context of teacher dispositions and

behaviours, as evident in classroom practice.

There are numerous references in the literature that associate creativity with high

quality teaching, such as those found in the Hay McBer (2000) report on research

into teacher effectiveness. The concepts “creative”, “creativity”, and “creatively”,

however, have been variously used in the literature. As with concepts such as

“passion” and “energy”, there is a need for clarity regarding the use and meaning of

the concept “creativity”. The inclusion of this field in the literature review not only

adds an important dimension to the study of what it means to be an exceptional

teacher but also, as with literature from the field of giftedness and talent, it

contributes to the clarification of key concepts associated with exceptional teachers.

2.6 Dispositions of effective teachers

2.6.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review

Literature and research on teacher effectiveness consistently refer to two general

themes. The first is associated with pedagogic considerations such as teaching skills,

different kinds of teacher knowledge, and teacher competencies. The second theme

is associated with the personal variables of the teacher, including teacher

dispositions.

With the focus on a synthesis of the dynamics involved in effective teaching and the

facilitation of quality learning, the last decade has seen renewed attention given to the

personal or human dimension of the effective teacher. While this research focus was

not new, the synthesis of the behavioural and personal variables of the teacher that

contributed to effective teaching was new. In their exposé on the dispositions of

effective teachers, for example, Taylor and Wasicsko (2000) described effective

teaching as the intersection of teacher knowledge, pedagogic skills, and dispositions

which they noted, “are often defined as the personal qualities or characteristics that

are possessed by individuals, including attitudes, beliefs, interests, appreciations,

values and modes of adjustment” (p. 2). They cited the work of Collinson, Killeavy

36

and Stephenson (1999) and Combs (1974) as indicative of the research into the

dispositions of effective teachers.

One of the most compelling arguments for renewed research interest into teacher

dispositions, according to Taylor and Wasicsko (2000), was its implications for

teacher education in that, “It is important for teacher educators to know and

understand the dispositions of effective teachers, so as to design experiences that will

help to develop these characteristics in students and to help students discover if they

have the dispositions to teach” (p. 2).

The inclusion of the field of dispositions in the literature review is based on the key

premise that if we are to understand what it means to be an exceptional teacher, then

we need to take into account a holistic view of the teacher. This necessitates a

synthesis of teacher dispositions and the personal attributes of the teacher, as well as

pedagogic considerations.

2.6.2 Renewed interest in dispositions

Raths (2006) traced the interest in dispositions back to an even earlier phase and

argued that perhaps the first use of the term “dispositions” in relation to teaching and

teacher education was to be found in the seminal book “Philosophy of Education:

Learning and Schooling” authored by Donald Arnstine (1967) of the University of

Wisconsin. He said that Arnstine made “dispositions the centrepiece of his work,

advocating the teaching dispositions is perhaps the most important thing that schools

and teachers can do” (p. 154).

As an example of the new generation of thinking on the dispositions of effective

teachers, Usher (2002) explicated the five areas of belief posited by Combs (1999) by

identifying several key dispositions associated with effective teachers, namely:

empathy, positive view of others, positive view of self, authenticity and, meaningful

purpose. Usher also noted that the term disposition has been, “revived in recent years

and serves well to displace the more confusing term ‘belief’” (n.p.).

37

2.6.3 Some implications of a study of teacher dispositions

Research on the dispositions of effective teachers, particularly in the context of

establishing appropriate relationships with students so that meaningful learning could

be facilitated, was pursued by Wubbles, Levy and Brekelmans (1997) who found,

“Teachers’ interpersonal skills are essential to creating a positive classroom climate”

(p. 82). The interplay between the personal variables that characterised the teacher

and teacher effectiveness was explored in the research of Leithwood (1990) and,

later, Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall (1998) who found that teachers at the highest

levels of professional expertise and psychological development were: reflective;

capable of understanding the assumptions, beliefs and values behind choices; capable

of balancing the student’s intellectual achievements and interpersonal learning in the

classroom; used a collaborative approach with students to control the classroom; and

encouraged creativity and flexibility to create interactive classrooms (in Taylor &

Wasicsko, 2000, p. 3).

The implications of the interplay between these personal variables is notable in the

context of theoretical models of pedagogy, such as the New South Wales Quality

Teaching Model (NSW, DET, 2003) because they indicate the abilities and

dispositions that the teacher needs to demonstrate in order to ensure intellectual

quality, a quality learning environment and significance for the students. Of note,

too, is the emphasis placed upon the teacher’s ability to understand the assumptions,

beliefs and values that motivate the choices they make in their engagement with and

relationship to their students.

2.6.4 Summary

One of the most compelling arguments for renewed research interest into teacher

dispositions, according to Taylor and Wasicsko (2000), was its implications for

teacher education in that, “It is important for teacher educators to know and

understand the dispositions of effective teachers, so as to design experiences that will

help to develop these characteristics in students and to help students discover if they

have the dispositions to teach” (p. 2).

38

An underlying premise of this thesis is that a study of exceptional teachers may

contribute to the debate about effective teachers by yielding worthwhile information

that can be used to enhance the quality of classroom teaching and learning. The

inclusion of the field of dispositions provides an important element in the synthesis of

research perspectives that is likely to move towards a holistic interpretation of what it

means to be an exceptional teacher.

The survey of literature across the different fields included in this review indicates

complementary ties between research and theory in the fields of giftedness and talent,

creativity, and the field of intelligence. Further, there appear to be close links

between literature in the field of giftedness and talent and the field of dispositions.

Taken together, these fields have the potential to enrich our understanding of the

concept “exceptional teachers”.

In summary, literature from the five selected fields offers a rich variety of

perspectives relating to the study of exceptional teachers. By examining recurring

themes in these different fields, we may be able to identify key variables that deepen

our understanding of what it means to be an “exceptional teachers”.

PART 2: Effective teaching and effective teachers

2.7 Introduction

Literature in the field of effective teaching and effective teachers has been

characterised by different theoretical perspectives that have given rise to diverse

explanations of what it means to be an effective teacher. Most perspectives have

been expressed in terms of skill mastery, knowledge, teacher competencies, and the

personal qualities of the teacher. Indicative of the scope of research in the area of

effective teaching and effective teachers are the seven clusters of research identified

by Cruickshank (1990) in his review of literature in the field. Those clusters were:

teacher character traits, teacher knowledge, what the teacher taught, how the teacher

39

taught, teacher expectations, how the teacher reacted to pupils, and how the teacher

managed the classroom. In general terms, these clusters can be narrowed down to

two basic areas of literature on effective teachers and effective teaching: namely,

teacher competencies and the teacher as self.

In a comprehensive review of literature in the area of effective teaching, Harris

(1998) identified five dimensions of research and theory. These were similar to the

dimensions identified by Cruickshank (1990) and included: effective teaching

behaviour, teaching skills, teaching styles, models of effective teaching, and teacher

artistry.

A study of student perceptions of effective teachers was conducted by Minor,

Onwuegbuzie, Witcher and James (2002) who applied a phenomenological approach

that resulted in the identification of seven themes that operated across the variables of

skill mastery, knowledge, teacher competencies and personal qualities. They found

that effective teachers were student-centred. They demonstrated effective classroom

and behaviour management and were perceived as competent instructors. They were

ethical, enthusiastic about teaching and were knowledgeable about the subject(s) they

taught. These teachers were also found to be personable.

2.7.1 Characteristics of master teachers

An examination of the variables that characterised master teachers was the theme of

research conducted by Buskist, Sikorski, Buckley and Saville (2002) and a later study

by Buskist (2004) that resulted in the identification of 10 basic principles of effective

teaching. Buskist found that while master teachers were “bright, knowledgeable,

well-organized, highly prepared, well-spoken, and incredibly hardworking” (p. 2),

these qualities did not necessarily distinguish master teachers from other teachers.

Rather, they were “the starting point and not the destination for excellence in

teaching” (ibid). In other words, these were qualities that set a benchmark for most

teachers.

40

It was found that master teachers focused on thinking processes and problem-solving

skills rather than mere facts and figures. This inferred a connection between effective

teaching and creativity that was demonstrated in conceptions such as that of

Feldhusen and Goh (1995) who noted that,

Creative thinking is a complex cognitive activity, and modern

conceptions of creativity are so diverse and comprehensive that

in defining creativity, it is necessary to deal with related cognitive

activities of developing and using the knowledge base, as well as

critical thinking, decision making, and metacognition (p. 231).

A second principle enunciated by Buskist (2004) was that master teachers kept the

content of their courses current. Third, they were enthusiastic about their subject

matter, teaching and students – they made their passion for teaching obvious and

developed positive rapport with their students. Fourth, master teachers made learning

fun, but not necessarily entertaining – they attempted to make teaching and learning

authentic by connecting content to the “real-world” life experiences of their students.

A fifth principle characterising master teachers was that they were high in self-

monitoring and, therefore, were sensitive to how their teaching affected their

students’ learning experiences. Sixth, they showed a genuine concern for their

students’ academic welfare. Seventh, master teachers viewed teaching as an

experimental endeavour that entailed risk. The eighth principle was that they used

assessment for both evaluative and instructional purposes. Ninth, they established

high academic standards and, finally, master teachers possessed a deep sense of

humanity and demonstrated a seemingly boundless capacity for caring about others

(Buskist, 2004, pp. 1- 2).

Buskist’s conception of “master” teachers included both pedagogic and dispositional

variables that were found to resonate with other notions of effective teaching such as

Haberman’s (2005) conception of “star” teachers.

41

2.7.2 Complex dynamic of variables that characterise effective

teachers – different research perspectives

Literature from the area of effective teachers indicates that the most convincing

theories express the nature of the effective teacher in terms of the complex dynamic

that occurs through the interaction of different variables, including their effect on the

relationship between the teacher, the pupil and the teaching-learning context. The

identification and listing of the personal characteristics of effective teachers, per se,

did not appear to be particularly helpful in the study of highly successful teachers

because it did not explain how they were able to engage students in worthwhile and

meaningful learning experiences. When personal variables were considered in

conjunction with pedagogic variables such as teacher knowledge, skills, and styles of

teaching, however, it was found that the identification of such variables could be

useful tools for informing theory and practice in the field of effective teachers and

effective teaching. A synthesis of these variables also contributed to a general

theoretical framework that could be used for organising thinking about research that

explored the concept “exceptional teachers”. From the literature, it becomes clear

that by the beginning of the 21st century research and theory in the field of effective

teaching needed to take into account and synthesise multiple dimensions of variables

that are indicative of effective teachers.

In an earlier study of effective teachers, Bain, Lintz and Word (1989) used superior

student performance (top 15%) as the main criterion for selecting the most effective

teachers in the Student Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) project that involved a

longitudinal study of the effects of reduced class size. Within that context, there

emerged a set of characteristics of effective teachers that had a strong focus on

external, observable variables such as: the demonstration of high expectations and the

setting of high standards for students and for themselves, clear and focused

instruction, the use of a variety of strategies for teaching and reteaching, the use of

positive reinforcement to motivate students, such as incentives and rewards, and

excellent personal interactions with the students. There was, however, little

indication of those personal or human variables that the teacher introduced into the

equation of effective teaching.

42

An alternative perspective on the variables that distinguished the effective teacher

was proposed by Vialle and Quigley (2002) who examined selective students’ views

of the essential characteristics of effective teachers that included three dimensions:

the teacher’s knowledge and skills, teaching and management strategies, and

interpersonal qualities. These three dimensions are discussed further in the light of an

examination of the NSW Quality Teaching Model (NSW, DET, 2003) that is a

benchmark for effective teaching in New South Wales schools.

2.8 The NSW Quality Teaching Model (QTM)

2.8.1 Rationale for inclusion in the literature review

The New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) has a dominant role in this

study for several reasons. In addition to being established as a benchmark for

effective teaching in New South Wales, Australia, it also has a strong research

foundation that focuses on pedagogic variables associated with quality teaching and

learning. Research indicates that the QTM is an effective instrument for

differentiating between teachers on the basis of these pedagogic variables. The QTM

presents as a valid and reliable instrument for examining and reflecting on teachers’

classroom behaviours. It is for these reasons that the QTM is given considerable

focus in the literature review.

2.8.2 Theoretical framework of the QTM

The schools reform movement in education, particularly in America and Australia,

with its focus on standards of teaching and learning, competencies and learning

outcomes has produced a growing body of research. The issues of school and

classroom environments, intellectual quality and teacher effects on learning have

resulted in a new generation of theory about teaching and learning. Drawing from

research such as that conducted by Newmann and Associates (1996), Newmann,

Brandt and Wigging (1998), and Newmann, Marks and Gamoran (1996), the

Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study (2001), Productive Pedagogy

43

(Lingard, Gore, Griffiths & Ladwig 2001, 2002) and other complementary sources,

the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) (NSW, DET, 2003) presented

a benchmark in the practice of teaching in New South Wales schools.

In 2003, the New South Wales Department of Education and Training (NSW, DET)

published two landmark documents on quality teaching in New South Wales Public

Schools. The Discussion Paper (May 2003) and the Annotated Bibliography (June

2003) indicated a significant development in the conceptualisation of quality teaching

and learning and, by implication, quality teachers. Grounded on the principles of

Productive Pedagogy, the QTM was concerned with the challenging issues of

intellectual quality and equitable student outcomes. Based firmly on the philosophy

that “it is the quality of pedagogy that most directly and most powerfully affects the

quality of learning” (NSW, DET, 2003, p. 4), this model conceptualised the nature

and function of “pedagogy” in terms of learning outcomes that focused on intellectual

quality, including not only the learning process but also the assessment of learning

outcomes. The fundamental premise underlying the nature of pedagogy was that “the

term pedagogy recognises that how one teaches is inseparable from what one

teachers, from what and how one assesses and from how one learns” (ibid). The

model was given early impetus by Jennifer Gore and James Ladwig who were also

involved in the Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study (2001). Subsequent

to the publication of the Discussion Paper (NSW, DET, May 2003), further research

and debate have contributed to the development of the QTM and to the

implementation of the underlying principles of Productive Pedagogy (see, for

example, Gore, Griffiths & Ladwig, 2004; Griffiths, Gore & Ladwig, 2006; Ladwig,

Gore, Griffiths & Amosa, 2004; Ladwig et al., 2007).

The theoretical framework of the QTM comprises three dimensions of pedagogy that

are linked directly to improved student outcomes. Each of the three dimensions was

conceptualised as being inter-related and inter-active in nature (see Figure 2.1). At

the heart of the model was the dimension Intellectual quality. The principles of

Authentic Pedagogy enunciated by Newmann et al. (1996, 1998) had a direct

influence on the core dimension Intellectual quality. The influence of constructivist

theory was also evident in the notion of knowledge as being constructed.

44

Figure 2.1. A representation of the three dimensions of pedagogy in NSW public

schools (NSW, DET, May 2003, p. 9).

Each of the three dimensions comprised six elements that further defined and

clarified the nature and function of the model in terms of classroom behaviours and

practices (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1

The Dimensions and Elements of the QTM (NSW, DET, 2003, p. 10)

45

The model focused on the interaction between the variables in the teaching-learning

process that were described in terms of Intellectual quality, Quality learning

environment, and Significance. Quality teaching and learning was seen as a complex

dynamic between the teacher, the student and the learning environment. Diverse

research and theory were called upon to support the inclusion of the elements in each

dimension of the QTM and were summarised in the annotated bibliography that

accompanied the publication of the Discussion Paper on the QTM.

Teacher involvement in the process of teaching and learning was expressed in terms

of how effectively it facilitated quality outcomes for students. With regard to the

dimension Intellectual quality, the teacher was called on “to select and organize the

essential knowledge, understanding, skills and values from the syllabus” (NSW,

DET, May, 2003, p. 11). This was based on the assumption that the teacher was able

to construct his or her own meaning and knowledge that demonstrated the defining

characteristics of intellectual quality. The teacher’s role also included the ability to

develop “the students’ deep and critiqued understanding of the selected knowledge,

understandings, skills and values and of the connections among them” (ibid). This

necessitated that the teacher had mastered the prerequisite skills and strategies for

facilitating students’ active involvement in the learning process.

The dimension Quality learning environment called upon the teacher to demonstrate

the ability to create, maintain and promote a quality learning environment that could

extend well beyond the classroom to include “all adults who share the learning

environment” (NSW, DET, May, 2003, p. 13). Finally, the dimension Significance

necessitated that the teacher demonstrate the ability to promote the significance of

students’ learning by making “the connections between and among the student as an

individual and social being, the nature of the work at hand, and the contexts in which

such work matters” (NSW, DET, May 2003, p. 14). It followed that if teachers were

to effectively and successfully facilitate quality learning, taking into account each

element of the three dimensions of the QTM, then they needed to demonstrate the

abilities and qualities that they sought to promote in their students.

The QTM clearly enunciated the classroom practices and teacher and student

behaviours that were prerequisite for quality teaching and learning to occur. It did

46

not, however, indicate in any depth the qualities that teachers needed to possess in

order to engage effectively with students in consistently high levels of quality

teaching and quality learning. The three models – Authentic Pedagogy, Productive

Pedagogy and the NSW Quality Teaching Model –described what teachers needed to

know and what they should do in order to facilitate learning that was authentic,

productive and that could be described as having worthwhile intellectual quality.

They did not, however, pursue an investigation into the kind of individual the teacher

needed to be in order to implement these ideas. It can be argued that while it is

essential that teachers have the knowledge and skills needed to facilitate quality

learning, and while it is essential that they know how to implement pedagogic models

such as these, it is also imperative that they reflect upon and understand those

personal qualities that are needed to effectively facilitate the highest levels of quality

teaching and learning.

2.8.3 The underlying rationale of the QTM

In order to understand the underlying rationale of the QTM, the New South Wales

Department of Education and Training (DET, June 2003) published an annotated

bibliography that provided theoretical and research background. While the

theoretical framework of the model drew upon well developed research on effective

teaching and learning theory, according to Killen (2007),

What is new in the Quality Teaching model is the way in which

these diverse aspects of effective teaching are grouped into a

consistent framework that emphasises the social and cultural

aspects of teaching and learning as well as the academic aspects (p. 30).

In their revision of Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Anderson

and Krathwohl (2001) noted, “Current conceptions of learning focus on the active,

cognitive and constructive processes involved in meaningful learning” (p. 38). This

emphasis was evident in the QTM, as indicated by the conceptual framework of the

three dimensions and eighteen elements of quality teaching. One of the important

distinguishing features of the QTM was the inter-relatedness of these dimensions and

elements. Active student engagement in all three dimensions was necessary if quality

47

learning was to occur. The influences of well established theory and substantial

research added strength and credibility to the model.

A key question posed by Killen (2007) was, “What type of person does a teacher

need to be in order to be able to implement each of the elements of Quality Teaching

effectively?” (p. 33). This question is of considerable significance in terms of

informing the methodology for this thesis, with its focus on “exceptional teachers”.

2.8.4 The dimension Intellectual quality

The dimension Intellectual quality was conceptualised as being at the heart of the

QTM and was described as pedagogy that

Focused on producing deep understanding of important, substantive

concepts, skills and ideas. Such pedagogy treats knowledge as

something that requires active constructions and requires students

to engage in high-order thinking and to communicate substantively

about what they are learning (NSW, DET, May, 2003, p. 5).

The contribution of constructivist theory and the principles of authentic pedagogy

enunciated by Newmann, Marks and Gamoran (1996) as well as Newmann and

Associates (1996), and Newmann, Bryk and Nagaoka (2001) played an important part

in the conceptualisation and framing of this aspect of the QTM.

The element of deep knowledge required that the teacher and learner be able to

identify and explore the central concepts and ideas of a topic or module of work, and

to see increasingly complex relationships between these ideas. The dimension

Intellectual quality also included the element of deep understanding that focused on a

holistic conception of knowledge that promoted an integrated understanding of the

relationships between the central concepts. This view of understanding was

compatible with that posited by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) who explained,

“Students are said to understand when they are able to construct meaning from

instructional messages” (p. 70).

48

The third element of the dimension Intellectual quality, higher order thinking, was

described in terms of the transformation of information and knowledge so that

students were engaged in manipulating ideas and constructing new hypotheses and

knowledge. The principles of Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of cognitive objectives and

Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) cognitive processes were highly compatible with

this view of knowledge and understanding, as were the findings of Newmann (1990,

1992). According to Killen (2003), “When learners engage in higher-order thinking,

they will typically be required to explain, generalise, synthesise, hypothesise,

interpret and construct new knowledge” (p. 14), all of which help them to develop

deep understanding, a core component of intellectual quality.

In order to engage in teaching and learning of a high intellectual quality, the QTM

proposed that knowledge must be conceptualised and treated as being problematic.

By recognising that knowledge was problematic and that the construction of

knowledge was open to different interpretations and perspectives, the dimension

Intellectual quality promoted pupil engagement in an active process of learning and

enquiry. This element demonstrated the influence of constructivist theory and

research such as that of Mayer (1999a, 1999b). The conception of knowledge as

being problematic had obvious associations with the highest level of Anderson and

Krathwohl’s (2001) cognitive processes, the ability to create. They argued that while

the process of creating did include “objectives that call for unique production” and

that the concept “to create” also referred to “objectives calling for production that all

students can and will do…many students will create in the sense of producing their

own synthesis of information or materials to form a new whole” (p. 85). Their

proposition was that if students were to operate at the highest levels of intellectual

engagement, then they needed to be facilitated in the processes of analysis, evaluation

and creation of new products, knowledge or understanding.

The elements of metalanguage and substantive communication were important

inclusions in the dimension Intellectual quality of the QTM because they indicated

the need for interaction between all participants in the teaching-learning experience.

While the element of substantive communication promoted a shared understanding of

knowledge, the element of metalanguage provided students with the vocabulary and

language required for quality discourse and discussion. If the ideas and meanings of

49

a substantive topic that had intellectual substance were to be shared and developed,

then the participants needed to have the linguistic tools with which to dialogue, to

reason and to build on the ideas and shared knowledge.

2.8.5 The dimension Quality learning environment

Research in the area of effective teaching and learning, such as that of Bernstein

(1990, 1996) and Biggs (1992b) has indicated that amongst the variables contributing

to quality student outcomes, the learning environment is highly significant. A high

quality learning environment was identified as the second dimension of the QTM.

Quality learning environment refers to pedagogy that creates classrooms where

“Students and teachers work productively in an environment clearly focused on

learning. Such pedagogy sets high and explicit expectations and develops positive

relationships between teachers and students and among students” (NSW, DET, May,

2003, p. 10). If intellectual quality was to be sustained in the teaching-learning

engagement, then a quality learning environment needed to be established and

nurtured. In terms of the QTM, this meant that teachers needed to establish and

communicate explicit quality criteria that provided clearly defined expectations and

student outcomes.

The element of explicit quality criteria was found to be one of the twelve

characteristics of effective teaching identified by Saunders (2004) who used the term

“disclosure” that included explicit expectations. The need for quality criteria

explicated by the QTM was highly compatible with earlier theory and research such

as the SOLO Taxonomy that originated from the work of Biggs and Collis (1982).

The influence of Bernstein (1990) was evident also in the way the element of explicit

quality criteria was conceptualised. This element of the dimension Quality learning

environment was linked closely to the element of substantive communication from

the dimension Intellectual quality. This illustrated the interplay between the three

dimensions and their elements.

50

Linked directly to the idea of intellectual quality was that of engagement. A large

body of compelling research indicated that engagement was of fundamental

importance to meaningful learning (see for example, Brady, 2004: Crosswell &

Elliott, 2004; McFadden & Munns, 2002; Munns, McFadden & Koletti, 2002;

Newmann, 1992; Rutter & Jacobson, 1986). Indicators of engagement were

enthusiasm, attentiveness and active involvement in the teaching-learning process,

including substantive communication, questioning, and challenging established

meaning and interpretation of ideas. In their research on student achievement in

American schools, Newmann (1992), Darling-Hammond (1997, 2000) and others

found that student engagement was a critical factor in effective teaching and learning.

The element of engagement was at the heart of the dimension Quality learning

environment. Research has indicated that “When students and teachers respond to

each other culturally in continual negotiations over the terms, conditions and results

of the learning environment there are few neatly anticipated or realised lines of

engagement” (Munns, McFadden & Koletti, 2002, p. 2). Rather, there is a need for

openness to diverse responses to and outcomes arising from student engagement. The

research conducted by McFadden and Munns (2002) at Corramar School indicated

that it was “the students themselves who will be able to tell us that they are engaged

and who will be able to tell us whether education is working for them in a culturally

sensitive and relevant way” (p. 364). The conception of “the messy space” of

discourse between the participants in the learning experience proposed by Munns et

al. was based on the premise that,

When students are allowed to be active participants in classrooms

and involved in interruptions to the discourses of power, there are

real chances that they will develop a consciousness that “school is

for me”, rather than one of defeat, struggle and giving up (p. 2).

This, in essence, was what characterised a quality learning environment. High quality

learning outcomes were found to be directly associated with the element of high

expectations. Research on rates of academic success in American schools conducted

by Bernard (1995) found that there was a high positive correlation between the level

and quality of teacher expectations and student achievement. As Killen (2007)

observed, “Schools that establish high expectations for all students – and provide the

51

support necessary for students to achieve these expectations – have higher rates of

academic success than schools who routinely expect some students to be

unsuccessful” (p. 24).

The critical factor in the elements of high expectations and engagement was that all

students were included and that a quality learning environment that supported all

students was established. This highlighted the important principle of equity and the

right of all students to experience high quality teaching and learning. Therefore, the

element of social support for student achievement was a significant aspect of the

QTM. For this reason, an essential characteristic of the quality classroom was that a

sense of acceptance and community was established so that all students, irrespective

of difference, were included in the process of learning.

Student self-regulation was an important aspect of quality teaching and learning. A

key to student self-regulation was the concept “engagement”. In the context of the

QTM several conditions of student engagement were identified as being of critical

importance to the likelihood that students would regulate their own behaviour so that

lessons proceeded without the interruption of teacher talk that focused on negative

student behaviour. One condition was that student engagement was characterised by

deep knowledge and deep understanding. Another condition of engagement was that

knowledge was presented as problematic so that it promoted higher order thinking.

This concept was supported by the research findings of Glasser (1996) and

Zimmerman (1989).

In a similar line of thought, the element of student direction was also based on the

idea of a pupil-centred learning environment that was characterised by negotiation

and interaction so that students were given opportunity to influence the learning and

activities with which they engaged. This aspect of a quality learning environment

facilitated students taking increased responsibility for their own learning. As with all

three dimensions of the QTM, there was a strong research basis for the inclusion of

student regulation as an element of the dimension Quality learning environment.

Examples were found in the work of Biggs (1992a) and Bernstein (1990) who have

contributed a considerable body of research to the principles underlying student

direction.

52

2.8.6 The dimension Significance

The third dimension of the QTM was Significance, where “significance” referred to

“Pedagogy that helps make learning more meaningful and important to students.

Such pedagogy draws clear connections with students’ prior knowledge and

identities, with contexts outside of the classroom, and with multiple ways of knowing

or cultural perspectives” (NSW, DET, May, 2003, p. 5).

The principles underlying this dimension of the model were highly compatible with

the thinking of educational researchers such as Dewey (1916, 1938, 1968), Bruner

(1966, 1977), and Bernstein (1970, 1990, 1995, 1996) and with the sociological

perspective enunciated by Munns, McFadden and Koletti (2002), and McFadden and

Munns (2002).

The importance of the element of background knowledge was that students are

facilitated in making direct links between their own experiences and the knowledge

they have internalised, and the new knowledge and competencies that are studied in

the school context. The students’ background knowledge and experience “might

have been derived from personal experience, prior formal study, or community and

cultural sources” (Killen, 2007, p. 27). As Bruner (1977) postulated, the inclusion of

students’ background knowledge in the process of learning meant that they were

connecting the “known” with the “now”. Earlier thinking in the area of cognition,

such as the principles underlying Anderson’s (1994) conception of “goodness of fit”

and research on schemata acquisition and cognitive load theory (Sweller & Chandler,

1991, 1994; Sweller, 1989; Sweller & Cooper, 1985) were compatible with the

dimension Significance and provided support for the importance of building on

students’ background knowledge and experience in order to maximise the quality of

their learning.

In the context of Australia’s multicultural society, cultural knowledge is an essential

element in the QTM dimension Significance and was a central component in the

theme of quality learning for all students. Were they to be given equitable

53

opportunity to engage in quality learning, then the cultural beliefs and practices of all

students, together with their “way of knowing” were essential considerations for

planning. This idea resonated strongly with the research of Ashman and Conway

(1992) and with the thinking of Killen (2005) who argued,

Teachers should explicitly acknowledge the legitimacy of the beliefs,

languages, cultural practices and ways of knowing of all students from

all cultural groups. Culturally responsive approaches to teaching help

to create learning experiences that make the content meaningful for all

students (p. 18).

The element of cultural knowledge presupposes the element of inclusivity where, in

terms of their social and academic needs, each student, irrespective of difference, is

accommodated in the learning experience so that there is no exclusion on the basis of

criteria such as socio-cultural background, gender or beliefs. This places a high level

of responsibility on the teacher and, arguably, calls for strong levels of commitment

and cultural sensitivity.

If students are to experience deep knowledge and deep understanding, then it is

essential that they also experience knowledge integration, thus ensuring that

traditional boundaries between subject areas are bridged. In the context of the QTM,

knowledge integration accommodates the practice of integrating knowledge from

multiple subject domains. Further, if meaningful learning is to occur, then students

are to be facilitated in making connections between what they learn in the school

context and the value of that learning in the broader social context where they would

encounter “real life” problems and challenges. Knowledge integration, therefore, was

conceptualised as that element of quality teaching that involved the student in making

explicit connections between different areas of subject knowledge from multiple

subject areas in order to construct meaning and to engage in learning that is

significant for them.

It is worth iterating that the principles of quality learning underpinning the QTM were

not new and had been enunciated by earlier theorists as early as Dewey (1916) and

Bruner (1966), and later by Newmann and Wehlage (1993). What was new,

however, was the connectedness between the elements and dimensions of the model,

54

and the synthesis of well researched theoretical perspectives. If students were to

engage in substantive communication or if they were to participate in student-directed

learning experiences, for example, it was essential that those learning experiences

were inclusive; and that diversity and difference were not only acknowledged but also

valued and incorporated into the quality learning environment so that each participant

could experience learning that was significant to his or her shared world of reality.

2.8.7 Issues arising from the NSW Quality Teaching Model

While the QTM provided a most convincingly researched and comprehensive

theoretical framework for conceptualising effective teaching, it was not without

problems, chief of which was the issue of implementation. Two key questions that

arose from the inception of this model were: 1. What is the nature of the teacher’s role in the implementation of the NSW

Quality Teaching Model?

2. What professional and personal characteristics are required of teachers so that

they can implement the model effectively?

In the research analysis of the Productive Pedagogy Model that was used in the

Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study (2001), it was found that relatively

few teachers were able to perform at consistently high levels of productive pedagogy.

Gore, Griffiths and Ladwig (2002) cited various reasons for this. Curriculum design

may have restricted the scope of teacher performance. The organisational structures

in the schools, themselves, may have imposed limitations on teacher performance and

effectiveness. Time constraints may have precluded teachers’ mastery of the

demands of the model. In spite of these limitations, however, it was found that a

relatively small percentage of teachers were able to sustain consistently high levels of

productive pedagogy across all four dimensions of that model.

A possible explanation for this phenomenon, and one that is relevant to this study, is

that the behaviour of teachers who consistently demonstrate high levels of teaching

expertise may be driven by certain personal qualities that have not previously been

emphasised or synthesised in teacher effectiveness research. While the teachers’

55

classroom behaviours were observed and rated, other important variables such as

teacher attributes and dispositions were not examined in any detail because this

extended beyond the scope of the study. Subsequent research in America and

Australia, such as that of Bunch (2006), Burant, Chubbuck and Whipp (2005), Diez

(2005), Diez and Raths (2007), Edick, Danielson and Edwards (2007), Erickson,

Hyndman and Wirtz (2005), Freeman (2007a, 2007 b), and Raths (2006), however,

has indicated the examination of teacher attributes and dispositions may enhance our

understanding of what it is that distinguishes between competent teachers and

exceptional teachers, in the context of models of pedagogy such as the QTM.

2.9 The QTM and the Vialle and Quigley (2002) study: A

comparison

2.9.1 Rationale and context for comparison

A survey of literature across diverse research perspectives on the characteristics of

effective teachers demonstrates that there are teacher behaviours and attributes that

recur, irrespective of the research context. This is demonstrated by a comparison of

the QTM (2003) and Vialle and Quigley’s (2002) study of selective students’

perceptions of the characteristics of effective teachers. Vialle and Quigley expressed

their findings in terms of a three-dimensional model encompassing: teacher

knowledge and skills, teaching and management strategies, and interpersonal

qualities. A comparison of this model with the QTM yields some interesting

perspectives on what makes effective teaching and effective teachers.

While the research of Vialle and Quigley (2002) was conducted in the context of

teachers of high ability students, it could be argued convincingly that the teacher

characteristics they identified were desirable for effective teachers interacting with

students across all domains of need and levels of ability. An analysis and synthesis of

these two perspectives indicates the strength of their similarities in identifying the

characteristics of effective teachers (see Table 2.2).

56

2.9.2 Comparison of dimensions and elements

As has been demonstrated, the QTM was conceptualised in terms of three interrelated

dimensions. At the heart of this model was the dimension Intellectual quality. This

was linked to the dimensions Quality learning environment and Significance. Each

domain comprised six elements that were expressed in terms of observable teacher

and pupil performance and behaviour, with emphasis placed upon what each element

looked like in the classroom and how these elements were demonstrated in

assessment tasks.

Vialle and Quigley (2002) also conceptualised the characteristics of effective teachers

as being grouped across three dimensions, namely: knowledge and skills (K&S),

teaching and management style (T&M), and interpersonal qualities (IPQ) (p. 2).

Unlike the QTM, however, Vialle and Quigley’s study included the interpersonal

qualities of the teachers as an integral component of effective teaching. The inclusion

of that dimension provided some indication of the “human” qualities that teachers

need in order to be effective teachers. A summary of the parallels between the two

perspectives is provided in Table 2. 2.

57

Table 2.2

A Synthesis of the Dimensions and Elements of the QTM and Vialle and Quigley’s

(2002) Effective Teacher Characteristics

NSW QTM VAILLE AND QUIGLEY: teacher characteristics CODE

Deep knowledge In-depth knowledge of subject matter IPQ Deep understanding Insights-cognitive, emotional, social needs K and S Problematic knowledge Thinks creatively IPQ Higher order thinking Encourages higher level thinking K and S Metalanguage In-depth knowledge of subject matter IPQ Substantive communication Excellent communication skills IPQ Explicit quality criteria Is well organized T and M Engagement Enthusiastic; sense of humour IPQ High expectations Thinks creatively IPQ Social support Creates non-threatening learning environment T and M Students’ self-regulation ‘Facilitator’ or ‘guide on the side’ T and M Student direction Provides student centred learning T and M Encourages independent learning K and S Background knowledge Insights - cognitive, emotional, social needs K and S Cultural knowledge Broad interests – literary and cultural IPQ Knowledge integration Thinks creatively – makes links IPQ Inclusivity Differentiating curriculum K and S Creates non-threatening learning environment K and S Connectedness Thinks creatively, possess in-depth knowledge IPQ Narrative Excellent communication skills IPQ Broad interests, often literary and cultural K and S 3 DIMENSIONS (NSW QTM)

KEY THREE DIMENSIONS (Vialle & Quigley)

Intellectual Quality K and S = Knowledge and skills Quality Learning Environment T and M = Teaching and management Significance IPQ = Interpersonal qualities

It is worth noting, at this stage, that in both the QTM and Vialle and Quigley’s (2002)

study there appears to be relatively little discussion of the beliefs and values of the

teacher or explanation of how these variables might affect the quality of teaching and

learning.

58

2.9.3 Observations from the comparison

While this comparison was somewhat arbitrary, the characteristics of effective

teachers proposed by Vialle and Quigley (2002) appeared to be highly compatible

with the dimensions and elements comprising the QTM, with one possible exception.

In the context of their study of gifted students’ perceptions of effective teachers,

Vialle and Quigley found that above average “intelligence” was a characteristic of

effective teachers. The issue of intelligence is pursued later in the literature review

(see Part 4). It is sufficient at this point to note that literature and research in the area

of intelligence indicate that there are multiple intelligences (see, for example,

Eysenck, 1981, 1985; Gardner, 1983, 1993; Goleman, 1995; Guilford, 1967

Sternberg, 1997a, 1997b, 1999; Zohar & Marshall, 2000) and that there are multiple

perspectives on the study of intelligence. Further, models of giftedness and talent,

such as that of Renzulli (1978), Tannenbaum (1986) and Gagné (1993, 1995a, 1995b)

include “above average intelligence” as a component of the gifted and talented

construct. While most of the models and theories of giftedness and talent referred to

intelligence in terms of the “g” factor, it is worth noting that there are different kinds

of intelligence from which an effective teacher can draw.

A comparison of the two theoretical perspectives proposed by the QTM and Vialle

and Quigley (2002), albeit cursory, pointed to several potentially significant

observations about effective teaching and effective teachers. Firstly, there appeared

to be a strong relationship between the interpersonal qualities that characterised

effective teachers in Vialle and Quigley’s study and the dimension Intellectual quality

in the QTM. In particular, it seemed likely that, were teachers to sustain consistently

high levels of intellectual quality, then they needed to demonstrate in-depth

knowledge of subject matter, think creatively, and manifest effective communication

skills. In addition, in the context of Vialle and Quigley’s research, there was

evidence to suggest that the most effective teachers were characterised by a strong

ability to facilitate and model higher level thinking. Further, those teachers also

demonstrated a high degree of insight into the cognitive, emotional and social needs

of their students.

59

A second point of comparison was that there appeared to be an equally strong

relationship between the dimension Quality learning environment in the QTM (2003)

and the dimensions “teaching and management style” and “interpersonal qualities” in

Vialle and Quigley’s (2002) profile of the effective teacher. The ability to be well

organised, to focus on student-centred learning in a non-threatening environment, and

to act as facilitator or “guide on the side” from the dimension of teaching and

management style appeared to be balanced by the interpersonal qualities of excellent

communication skills, enthusiasm and a sense of humour that were seen to promote a

positive relationship between the teacher and his or her students.

The dimensions “knowledge and skills” and “interpersonal qualities” that

characterised effective teachers in Vialle and Quigley’s (2002) study appeared to

complement the dimension Significance in the QTM (2003). In particular, this

dimension of the QTM called for teachers who encouraged independent learning and

who had rich insights into the cognitive, emotional and socio-cultural needs of all

their students. The QTM also called for teachers who demonstrated the ability to

differentiate the curriculum so that all students were included in meaningful,

significant learning. Of the interpersonal qualities identified by Vialle and Quigley,

the teacher’s ability to demonstrate a broad interest in literary and cultural issues, and

the ability to think creatively appeared to be prerequisite for high levels of

significance to occur in the process of teaching and learning.

2.9.4 Summary

This descriptive comparison and synthesis of the dimensions and elements of the

New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (2003) and Vialle and Quigley’s (2002)

research on the essential characteristics of effective teachers indicates that there

appear to be strong connections between the elements of the respective dimensions of

quality teaching and the effective teacher, and the interaction between each set of

elements. The nature of the teacher’s values, beliefs and dispositions and how they

influence the manifestation of effective teaching behaviour, however, emerge as an

area that deserves further investigation, particularly in relation to the challenges

60

inherent in measuring or assessing teacher effectiveness in terms of teacher

dispositions and attributes.

Usher (2002) concluded that, in the context of teaching and learning, it is essential

that we find a way to understand the “internal dispositions” that underpin effective

teacher behaviour. Research led him to conclude that dispositions are expressed in

terms of “certain more stable, characteristics and recurring perceptions of self,

students, the job and its purposes, people and the world-in-general which are

operative in a teacher’s perceptual world and render much of the effect of their

efforts” (n. p.). He noted the need for further research on the question of the

distinguishing features of the teacher that are manifest in effective teaching

behaviour.

2.10 Communicativeness and the effective teacher

Literature from the field of effective teachers invariably includes some aspect(s) of

communication. The notion of the teacher as communicator is of fundamental

importance to successful teaching and learning, especially in the context of a study of

exceptional teachers. There is an extensive body of literature and research to support

this proposition. Irrespective of personal and professional differences, according to

Kottler, Zehm and Kottler (2005), “There is one critical feature they share: They are

all accomplished communicators” (p. 61). Teachers not only communicate ideas,

information and knowledge, they also communicate attitudes, values and emotions.

This may occur through overt verbal, written or visual communication or, equally,

this may occur through more subtle ways such as body language, facial expression

and tone of voice. Research conducted by Tirassa (1999) supported this premise.

With a focus on the cognitive dynamic that drives it, Tirassa described

communication as, “the interplay of several epistemic and volitional primitives. The

former comprise beliefs and shared beliefs; the latter comprise desires, future-

directed intentions, and present-directed intentions” (p. 431). This interplay between

the teacher’s beliefs and intentions appears to be of critical importance in motivating

communication with students and with other participants in the teaching-learning

experience, such as colleagues and parents or carers.

61

The notion that shared beliefs and shared or common knowledge are integral to

effective communication was proposed by Airenti, Bara and Colombetti (1993). In

the context of the QTM the application of this aspect of teacher-student

communication was inferred in all three dimensions. The dimension Significance,

for example, indicated that the quality and effectiveness of communication between

the teacher and students was critical, particularly in the context of elements such as

background knowledge, cultural knowledge, and knowledge integration. The

communicative intention of the teacher, together with that of the students, as partners

in the teaching-learning experience, was seen to be of central importance to the

success and quality of the communication that occurred.

2.10.1 Concept clarification

In the context of a study of exceptional teachers, it was important to clarify the

difference between the teacher’s ability and desire to communicate, on the one hand,

and the teacher’s ability to be communicative, on the other. In a general sense, the

verb form “communicate” is defined as the ability or intention “to share or exchange

information, news, or ideas” or to “impart or pass on information, news, or ideas:

convey or transmit in a non-verbal way: succeed in conveying one’s ideas or in

evoking understanding in others” (Pearsall, 1998, p. 371). The descriptor

“communicative” is defined as “willing, eager, or able to talk or impart information”

(ibid). In an attempt to distinguish between these two closely related concepts,

Smiley (2005) pointed out that there were two critical differences between the verb

“communicate” and the adjective, “communicative”. First, the adjective refers to a

single person and gives us information about the individual. Second, the verb

“communicate" infers a relationship. The criterion for success is that at least two

individuals are required to engage in communication if the action “communicate” is

to occur.

This distinction is important because it focuses on two facets of the teacher as

communicator. The first is that the teacher communicates ideas about self to the

students. Often, these ideas are communicated covertly or unintentionally. Student

62

perceptions of the teacher as self, however, are critical in determining the quality of

the relationship that exists between the teacher and the student (see Aylor &

Oppliger, 2003). The second facet of the teacher as communicator is the idea of

inclusivity and shared experience. If quality communication is to occur, then it is

assumed that a quality relationship needs to be established. Communication, in this

sense, is a two-way process that involves both the teacher and the student(s). This

aspect of communication tends to be more overt and intentional. Focusing on the

social nature of communication, Tirassa (1999) proposed that, “Communication is a

form of social interaction between two (or more) agents, one meaning something by

a certain action and the other(s) abducting to its presumed meaning” (p. 427).

In addition to the effect of student perceptions on the success of the process of

communication, out-of-class communication was found to be as important as that

which occurred in the formal setting of the classroom. Research, such as that of Kuh

(1996), referred to how “Seamless learning environments encourage students to view

out-of-class and in-class experiences not as distinct learning opportunities, but rather

as experiences that intimately bound together” (In Aylor & Oppliger, 2003, p. 122).

A clear message that emerged from literature regarding student perceptions was the

importance of the covert or tacit aspects of communication that are associated with

emotional and subliminal messages. Of critical importance is how these messages

are sent by the teacher and received by the student. Support for this aspect of

communication was provided by Munson (1991) who found that, “Every action we

take affects us and those around us. We are like dominoes. When we move, we

cause others to move… Many times we are communicating most loudly when we say

nothing” (pp. 45-46).

2.10.2 “Communicative” implicit in the QTM

Implicit in models of pedagogy such as the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model is the teacher’s disposition and ability to be communicative, as well as the

teacher’s ability to communicate effectively. The dimension Intellectual quality, for

example, includes substantive communication as one of its defining elements and the

63

dimension, Significance, includes narrative as an element. In order to ensure

engagement and explicit quality criteria, two of the six defining elements of the

dimension Quality learning environment, it is implicit that the effective teacher

demonstrates the ability to be communicative and to communicate with his or her

students. Further, the effective teacher should be able to facilitate and nurture

students’ abilities to be communicative. The teacher’s ability to communicate

effectively pervades the school curriculum and extends into the quality of

relationships and communication with the wider community.

The idea of teacher talk as a vital component of the teacher as communicator is

evident in literature based on anecdotal evidence as well as empirical research. As a

result of the study of highly effective teachers McEwen (2002) noted,

Teachers are talkers. An individual would not likely choose

a teaching career, if that individual did not like to talk. Highly

effective teachers, however, know when to stop talking and

start listening. They are masters of what I call ‘wordless’

advice” (p. 39).

Listening, as a critical factor in effective communication, was the theme of educators

and researchers such as Collard (1994), and Gronbeck, German, Ehninger and

Monroe (1998), and Rhodes and Schaible (1992).

2.10.3 Humour and teacher communication

Research also indicated that students related strongly to teachers who, in their

communication style, demonstrated humour. In their study of out-of-class

communication, Aylor and Oppliger (2003) found that the teacher’s humour

orientation and socio-communicative style influenced the way they were perceived

by their students. The purpose of the study was “to extend our knowledge of teacher

characteristics associated with increased instructor-student interactions beyond the

classroom” (p. 123). In an earlier study on individual differences in the way we

communicate humour and the effects of humour on learning, Booth-Butterfield and

Booth-Butterfield (1991) found that humour orientation was “a communication-

based variable enabling some individuals to more skilfully produce humorous

64

messages on a regular basis” (In Aylor & Oppliger, p. 124). A theme of Gorham and

Christophel’s (1990) research was that there was a strong association between

teacher humour and student motivation. A unifying theme in the research was that

student perceptions about the teacher were important determinants in the process of

communication that took place between the teacher and the students. This included

the way humour was perceived and the messages students received from the teacher.

This underpinned the importance of the teacher’s ability to be communicative so that

student perceptions were accurate and appropriate.

2.10.4 Socio-communicative style

The thesis that the teacher’s socio-communicative style also affects interactions

between the teacher and students, especially outside the classroom, was supported by

the research of Thomas, Richmond and McCroskey (1994) as well as Aylor and

Oppliger (2003). Thomas et al. defined socio-communicative style as “consisting of

two primary dimensions, assertiveness and responsiveness” (In Aylor & Oppliger,

p.125). Further evidence for this view came from the work of Richmond and Martin

(1998) who reinforced the notion that effective teacher communication involved a

degree of openness and honesty, two variables that characterise teacher authenticity.

Support for this aspect of teacher communication was found in the work of McEwan

(2002) who argued, “The highly effective teacher is positive and real, demonstrating

the qualities of respect, caring, empathy, and fairness in his or her communications

with students, parents and colleagues” (p. 29).

This coincided with the work of Kottler, Zehm and Kottler (2005) who found that the

nature of the communication that occurs in the classroom is of critical importance to

the quality of the teaching and learning that occurs. In the study of the human

dimension of being a teacher, they proposed five principles of being an effective

communicator. These principles included the teacher’s ability to provide a base of

genuine caring, the belief that all students can be effective communicators, planning

for effective classroom communication, making classroom communications realistic,

and regular practice for effective communication.

65

Kottler et al. (2005) argued, “Realistic forms of communication…encourage active

student engagement, as well as spontaneous, authentic encounters” (p. 69) and

stressed the importance of the teacher “listening to and responding to the authentic

feelings and ideas” (p. 75) of the students. A further essential element of effective

communication was that the teacher reflected on ways of improving his or her

communications with a view to enhancing the quality of relationships with students

and others involved in the process of teaching and learning.

Earlier research in the area of teacher effectiveness and communication style, such as

that of Norton (1977) and Reisbeck (1983) identified specific variables associated

with effective communication, both in and out of the classroom. Norton identified

two simple but critical components of the teacher’s communication style as what the

teacher says and how the teacher says it. Further research conducted by Norton

resulted in the identification of six variables that were associated with effective

teacher communication: good communicator image, attentiveness, impression

leaving, relaxed, not dominant, and precise (In Reisbeck, 1983). Variables such as

good communicator image and impression leaving were linked closely to student

perceptions of the teacher as communicator and relied, to a large extent, on the

teacher’s ability to communicate accurately at both the overt and covert levels.

Variables such as “attentiveness” and “not dominant” were associated directly with

the teacher’s ability and intention to engage in the process of communication as a

listener, as well as a speaker.

The principles of being an effective communicator identified by Kottler et al. (2005)

were similar to the research findings enunciated by Aylor and Oppliger (2003) who

concluded that, “Perceived instructor qualities such as kindness, compassion, and

helpfulness – much like instructor humor orientation – promote student instructor

conversations that extend to issues beyond the specifics of course assignments and

information” (p. 132).

These qualities, it could be argued, are fundamental to the establishment and

maintenance of a Quality learning environment, one of the three dimensions of the

New South Wales Quality Teaching Model. In order to promote social support and

student engagement, for example, it is essential that the teacher demonstrates the

66

disposition to be communicative, in the sense of conveying positive messages about

him- or herself, as well as being able to communicate with his or her students

regarding knowledge and subject content. This ties in closely with the perceptions

students have about the teacher’s motivation for teaching. This is particularly true of

the exceptional teacher. It is not sufficient that the teacher has positive beliefs,

attitudes or emotions. It is essential that the teacher actually conveys this to his or

her students through appropriate action.

2.10.5 Communicating passion

In her study of highly effective teachers McEwan (2002) found that, “In addition to a

calling, highly effective teachers have a passion to be with students and to help them

be successful” (p. 28). Echoing the theme of passion, Palmer (1998) observed,

“Many of us became teachers for reasons of the heart, animated by a passion for

some subject and for helping people learn” (p. 17). Fried (1995) observed that

highly effective teachers “become deeply stirred by issues and ideas that challenge

our world, drawn to the dilemmas and potentials of the young people who come into

class every day” (p. 1). Literature and research indicate that it is essential that

teachers communicate this passion and motivation to their students. Research

evidence points strongly to the fact that highly effective teachers not only do this, but

they do it exceptionally well.

2.11 Summary

In Chapter 1 of this thesis it was posited that a study of the distinguishing features of

exceptional teachers, including their dispositions and classroom behaviours, could

contribute insight into the debate on teacher effectiveness. A key focus was to

discuss teacher effectiveness in the context of the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model (NSW, DET, 2003) as an example of a well-researched pedagogic framework

and benchmark for highly effective teaching. At the beginning of the literature

review, a rationale was provided for broadening the scope of the survey to include the

fields of intelligence, giftedness and talent, creativity, and dispositions. Part 3 of the

67

review investigates the field of giftedness and talent, and the contribution this can

make to our understanding of what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”.

PART 3: Literature from the field of giftedness and talent

2.12 Introduction and rationale for inclusion in the literature review

The inclusion of literature from the field of giftedness and talent is warranted because

it may provide important alternative perspectives on the personal variables impacting

on the study of exceptional teachers. References to literature from this field have

been included in Parts 2 and 4 of the review and indicate the strong inter-relatedness

between the five fields that form the focus of the literature review.

In her survey of literature in the field of giftedness and talent, Piirto (1999) referred to

the following personal variables that recurred in research in the area of talent,

namely: “Androgyny; creativity; imagination; openness; over excitabilities; passion

for work in a domain; perceptiveness; perfectionism; persistence; resilience; risk

taking; self-discipline; self-efficacy; tolerance for ambiguity; volition or will” (p. 31).

It can be seen that some of these indicators of talent, such as creativity, passion for

work in a domain, persistence, resilience and risk taking, resonate with those

identified by researchers such as Buskist (2004) and Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher

and James (2002) as being characteristic of master teachers. This is supported further

by the work of Taylor and Wasicsko (2000) and Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall (1998).

In her Pyramid Model of talent development, Piirto (1995) proposed five aspects that

contributed to talent in adult life. These included genetic, emotional, cognitive,

talent, and environmental elements that contributed to the manifestation of talent in

adulthood. Of particular interest in the literature review for this thesis are the

emotional, cognitive and talent aspects because of the obvious congruence with those

attributes and dispositions that appeared to define exceptional teachers.

68

2.13 The concept passion

A notable distinguishing feature of talent or exceptionality, as stated by Piirto (1999),

is that “talent is not enough for the realization of a life of commitment” (p. 34). She

proposed, “The entire picture of talent development ensues when a person is pierced

or bothered by a thorn, the daimon, that leads to commitment” (ibid). This

metaphorical thorn was what she referred to as “passion” or “inspiration” or “soul”.

Piirto’s conception of this daimon was synonymous with Hillman’s (1996) notion of

an individual’s sense of vocation or calling. The role of passion, or what Piirto

referred to as inspiration, as an indicator of exceptionality was explored by Hillman

who proposed, “Talent is only a piece of the image; many are born with …talent, but

only when the talent serves the fuller image and is carried by its character do we

recognize exceptionality” (p. 251).

In the context of classroom teaching, this was a significant observation because it

implied a distinction between having the potential to be an exceptional teacher and

realising that potential as exceptionality, “When the talent serves the fuller image and

is carried by its character” (Hillman, 1996, p. 251). Both Piirto (1999) and Hillman

argued that a core component of fulfilled talent or exceptionality was the individual’s

sense of vocation and the underlying passion that motivated the individual to action.

In his exposé on the passion to teach, Soltis (1973) argued, “The heart of the matter in

teacher education, whatever one’s approach or allegiance, should be the importance

of keeping clearly in mind the fundamental goal of reaching, informing, and

enhancing our students’ passion to teach” (p. 12). Later theorists such as Smith,

Hurst and Skarbek (2005) examined the concept “passion” in a more contemporary

context and linked it directly with teacher dispositions, including the important area

of teacher beliefs. One issue that has emerged from literature in the area of passion

and teaching, however, is that of concept definition and interpretation.

It has been noted that theorists and researchers such as Day (2004), Croswell and

Elliott (2004), Fried (1995), Soltis (1973) and Wisehart (2004), have indicated that

passion is an important teacher attribute. They have argued that passion, together

69

with other dispositions, particularly commitment, defines effective teaching and the

effective teacher. Because of the fairly amorphous nature of the concept “passion”,

however, the way the concept has been used calls for greater clarity and rigour.

Wisehart proposed a definition of “passionate teachers” as those,

living a life as a reflective educator, making it a priority to build

positive relationships with students, creating a classroom community in

which students share responsibility for their own learning and the

learning of their peers, nurturing a climate that focuses on learning rather

than rules, developing strategies that grow from students’ emerging

strengths as learners rather than by dwelling on learning deficiencies (p. 46).

Wisehart (2004) inextricably linked this conception of passion to characteristics such

as being a reflective practitioner, building positive relationships with students and

nurturing student centred learning. He also focused on the ideas of commitment and

persistence as being integral qualities of passionate teachers and argued that, “The

passionate teacher can explicitly discuss the students’ concepts such as ‘persistence’

and describe what it looks like” (p. 48). He expressed commitment in terms of the

teacher’s ability to recreate him- or herself as an educator. These observations further

consolidated the idea of a dynamic inter-relatedness between dispositional variables

such as passion, commitment and persistence.

2.13.1 Passion as “drive” and “energy” that affect teacher

commitment

An important aspect of the concept “passion” was highlighted by Day (2004) who

defined passion as “a driver, a motivational force emanating from strength of

emotion” (p. 11). This notion of passion as drive and energy was further supported

by Day’s argument that, “Being passionate generates energy, determination,

conviction, commitment and even obsession in people” (ibid). The emphasis given to

the role of passion as a “driver’ and a “motivational force”, together with the notion

of passion as generating “energy, determination, conviction and commitment” is a

theme that has been pursued by other theorists. For example, Day cited the work of

Fried (1995) who argued that “Passion is not just a personality trait that some people

70

have and others lack, but rather something discoverable, teachable or reproducible”

(p. 6). Fried also argued that,

Passion and practicality are not opposing notions; good planning

and design are as important as caring and spontaneity in bringing

out the best in students. Although not the whole story, passion,

uncomfortable as the word may sound, is at the heart of what

teaching is or should be (In Day, 2004, p. 11).

The idea that passion is an important element in understanding the nature of

exceptional teachers and how they impact on student learning was explored by

Kottler, Zehm and Kottler (2005) who made direct links between passion and

commitment by stating, “Passionately committed teachers are those who absolutely

love what they do. They are constantly searching for more effective ways to reach

their children, to master the content and methods of their craft” (p. 149). This

conception of teacher passion and commitment was allied closely to the notion of the

teacher as a learner and to the theme of teacher creativity.

The literature, therefore, provided evidence for suggesting that passion and

commitment work together in the case of highly effective teachers. While it was

possible to be committed to teaching without being passionate about teaching and

learning, the students or the subject, it was clear that commitment without passion

lacked the psychic energy and drive that was characteristic of exceptionality. Kottler,

Zehm and Kottler (2005) referred to commitment without passion as typifying the

“wake-me-up-when-it’s-time-to-retire teachers” (p. 149).

It can be seen that literature from the field of giftedness and talent and from the field

of effective teaching and effective teachers, yielded support for the idea that the

concept “passion” is associated with psychic and emotional energy. This focus was

supported by the research of Metcalfe and Game (2006). In a study of teachers who

change lives, they used interviews and anecdotal evidence to explore the nature of the

relationship between exceptional teachers and their students. A recurring theme in

the interviews was that, “Teachers who change lives are invariably characterised by

their passion and their enthusiasm” (p. 59). In addition, Metcalfe and Game explored

the inextricable link between passion and energy from a different perspective. They

71

posited that, “Passion, as its etymology implies, is an energy that involves passivity.

It is something you receive, something that moves you; it is the compassion of patient

devotion” (p. 63). Their reference to passion as “an energy that involves passivity”

suggested a link with the notion of the teacher as a reflective practitioner. Further,

the reference to passion as “the compassion of patient devotion” added an almost

oxymoronic qualitative dimension to the disposition of being passionate, in the

context of teaching and learning. This highlighted the multi-dimensional conception

of passion as both energy and synergy.

2.13.2 Passion and spiritual intelligence

Metcalfe and Game (2006) described passion in terms of energy that was linked

directly with the idea of spiritual intelligence. They observed,

Passion, enthusiasm and inspiration are all concepts from

religious tradition, pointing to a soulful vitality that emerges

when people come together. The hum of the classroom involves

everyone, yet is beyond the control of even the teacher:

something happens, without anyone making it happen (p. 60).

These observations led Metcalfe and Game (2006) to focus on a key aspect of

effective teaching that drew upon the spiritual and emotional intelligences, not only

of the teacher, but also of his or her students. Because of the abstract nature of this

phenomenon, objective observation and measurement were almost impossible. This,

however, did not preclude an attempt to explore the idea from philosophical and

experiential perspectives because, as a phenomenon, these qualities were a reality in

the teaching and learning experienced by highly effective teachers and their students.

Further, the idea of extending the study of effective teaching to include such

phenomena opened a relatively new field of research and literature that presented a

different perspective from which to examine what it might mean to be an exceptional

teacher.

In their landmark study of spiritual intelligence, Zohar and Marshall (2000) combined

neurological studies with philosophical discourse to argue that thinking was a process

72

that extended beyond the cerebral (IQ) to include emotional intelligence (EQ) and

spiritual intelligence (SQ). In the context of spiritual intelligence, their description of

the process of thinking was expressed in terms of variables such as “our vision, our

hopes, our sense of meaning and value” (p. 43). They defined spiritual intelligence as

“The intelligence with which we address and solve problems of meaning and value,

the intelligence with which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer,

meaning-giving context, the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of

actions or one life-path is more meaningful than another” (pp. 3-4).

The likelihood that passion was related directly to both emotional and spiritual

intelligence necessitated a review of Goleman’s (1995, 1996, 1998) theory of

emotional intelligence and Zohar and Marshall’s (2000) conception of spiritual

intelligence. The difference between Goleman’s conception of emotional intelligence

(EQ), and Zohar and Marshall’s conception of spiritual intelligence (SQ) was that,

My emotional intelligence allows me to judge what situation I am

in and then to behave appropriately within it… But my spiritual

intelligence allows me to ask if I want to be in this particular

situation in the first place (p. 5).

From this perspective it could be argued that spiritual intelligence is likely to be an

important variable in identifying and understanding what it means to be an

exceptional teacher because of its dynamic role in the development and manifestation

of the teacher’s values and beliefs about teaching and learning, and about life in

general.

2.13.3 Passion and teacher values and beliefs

The literature review indicated that in spite of the many references to passion in the

fields of effective teaching and effective teachers, intelligence, and giftedness and

talent, “passion” remains one of the most elusive characteristics of highly effective

teachers and high quality teaching because the concept requires clear definition

within the context of the study of the phenomenon “exceptional teacher”. We know,

intuitively, that passion is associated with the individual’s beliefs and values, but

73

there appears to be little research that explains this relationship. Literature in the field

did suggest that there was a connection between different intelligences (Van der Zee,

Thijs & Shakel, 2002) and passion. This, in turn, pointed to the important area of the

teacher’s values and beliefs. The research of Zohar and Marshall (2000) enriched the

understanding of the relationship between “passion” and values by focusing on the

dimension of spiritual intelligence, that rests deep in that part of the self that is connected to wisdom

from beyond the ego, or conscious mind, it is the intelligence with

which we not only recognize existing values, but with which we

creatively discover new values (p. 9).

Definitions of the concept “passion” have varied considerably in literature from the

different fields selected for this review. While, traditionally, passion was associated

with emotion there was a need to infuse thinking about this concept with a richer

understanding grounded in well-researched theory. Goleman’s (1995, 1996, 1998)

thesis on emotional intelligence provided some clarity. Passion was conceptualised

as the antithesis of indifference, but as the enemy of reason because passion was seen

to operate on the basis of impulse in that “passions overwhelm reason time and again.

This aspect of human nature arises from the basic architecture of mental life”

(Goleman, 1996, p. 5). Literature and research such as that of Day (2004) and Fried

(1995) broadened the understanding of the concept “passion” to include the critical

dimensions of motivation and energy. Fried pointed out, “The example we set as

passionate adults allows us to connect to [pupils’] minds and spirits in a way that we

can have a lasting, positive impact on their lives” (p. 27). This broader and richer

interpretation of passion was supported by Day (2004) who argued, “To be passionate

about teaching is not only to express enthusiasm but also to enact it in a principled,

values-led, intelligent way” (p. 12). This notion of passion resonated strongly with

Freeman’s (2007b) conception of dispositions, particularly the focus on the idea that

passion was “values-led”.

Passion, therefore, was found to be associated with different kinds of energy (Day,

2004; Metcalf & Fame, 2006), with value strength (Gleeson & Gunter, 2001) and

with the beliefs held by an individual (Zohar & Marshall, 2000). In their study of 10

successful head teachers who were working in schools that catered for disadvantaged

74

communities, Day, Harris, Hadfield, Tolley and Beresford (2000) found that the

passion of these teachers “was expressed both through their enthusiasm and also

through principled, values-led leadership” (In Day, 2004, p. 427). This association

between passion and the teachers’ values was important because it helped to explain

how passion functioned in the context of highly effective teaching. From the data

that were gathered, Day et al. identified six areas of passion, these being: a passion

for achievement, a passion for care, a passion for collaboration, a passion for

commitment, a passion for trust, and a passion for inclusivity. They found that,

“Passion was also associated with fairness and understanding” (ibid) of the students

and their circumstances.

Passion, in that sense, could be conceptualised as the agent of fluid movement

between emotional and spiritual intelligences and the teacher’s values, on the one

hand, and the energy that motivated action and effective teaching practice, on the

other. Inherent in this conceptualisation of passion was the possibility that it could be

used positively or negatively. Therefore, the values and beliefs of the teacher were

important influences on how passion was manifest.

2.13.4 Passion a unifying force

Rosengren (2004) described passion as “the energy that comes from bringing more of

YOU into what you do” (p. 1). Although apparently simplistic, this description

indicated that passion involved the “real you” or the authenticity of the individual. In

other words, it was the individual’s drive and energy that connected the individual

with the object of that passion. With the use of a simple analogy, Rosengren

explained that passion means “Being who you are and doing what comes naturally.

It’s like allowing water to gain energy from flowing along its natural riverbed, rather

than trying to force it up and over a mountain” (ibid).

Arguably, it would be very difficult to demonstrate enthusiasm for teaching or to

generate excitement about learning without some form of emotion and passion. Day

(2004) cited the thinking of Sylwester (1995) who emphasised the link between

emotion, passion and effective learning. He explained, “We know emotion is very

75

important to the educative process because it drives attention, which drives learning

and memory” (p. 72). The emotional dimension and, in particular, passion can be

seen as enriching teaching and the lives of students. This was a theme that Soltis

(1973) supported when he proposed, “Without this passion, teaching is at best a dull,

tedious and frustrating occupation” (p. 5). In the context of teacher education, the

main thrust of his thinking was that teacher education “should have as one of its most

general functions the nurturing, enhancing, and informing of the passion to teach” (p.

5). From this perspective, the concept “passion” warranted careful consideration

when taking into account the dispositional variables associated with exceptional

teachers.

2.13.5 Passion and entelechy

In order to clarify further what was meant by “passion” in the context of teaching and

learning, it was worth revisiting the literature and research from the field of

giftedness and talent where the concept “passion” was associated with the concepts

“intensity”, “excitability” and “entelechy” that Lovecky (1986) defined in terms of “a

particular type of motivation, inner strength, and vital force” (p. 574). The word

“entelechy” harked back to Aristotelian philosophy and was associated with the idea

of being fully realised or “actualised”. Lovecky, for instance, found that “Adults

gifted in entelechy are highly attractive to others who feel drawn to openness,

warmth, and closeness… Teachers, therapists, physicians, and social reformers may

be among those so gifted” (ibid). The qualities of “openness, warmth and closeness”

described by Lovecky resonated with literature and research that identified the

defining features of teacher authenticity and the teacher as self (see, for example,

Cranton, 2001; Glatthorn, 1975; Hamacheck, 1999; Kottler, Zehm & Kottler, 2005;

Palmer, 1998; Wyman, 1974).

2.13.6 Passion and (over)excitability

In the context of “passion”, the notion of “vital force” or energy has been associated

with the concept “excitability”. In her study of gifted adults, Lovecky (1986) found,

“High energy level, emotional reactivity, and high nervous system arousal

76

characterize the trait of overexcitability” (p. 573). She noted that, when tempered

with reason and regulated by a healthy value system “The trait of excitability has

positive social and emotional value. Productivity and risk taking create new ideas

and innovations” (ibid). On the other hand, excitability that was not regulated or that

was non-productive was likely to result in boredom, the inability to follow through

with projects and even depression. Therefore, it could be argued that the traits that

comprise these “energy forces” require regulation through a combination of strongly

developed intelligences and values, a proposition that was supported by literature

from the field of intelligence. This perspective added dimension to the understanding

of an exceptional teacher as one who has achieved balance between reason and

passion, which, arguably, are not mutually exclusive.

Also evident in the make-up of gifted people, according to research conducted in the

area, was what Dabroswki (1964, 1972), Dabrowski and Piechowski (1977), and

Piechowski (1998) referred to as “overexcitabilities” or “modes of experiencing that

nourish, enrich, empower, and amplify talent” (Piechowski, 1998, p. 196). What

appeared to be lacking in the literature, however, was an explanation of how these

qualities worked together to facilitate exceptionality, particularly in the area of adult

talent. A possibility worth exploring more closely was the nature and function of

passion. If considered in the broader context of the manifestation of “drive”,

“intensity”, “entelechy” and “excitability”, then it was possible that these and other

energy-related ideas could be conceptualised as belonging to the umbrella concept

“passion”. This was a new and potentially fruitful way of conceptualising the nature

and function of passion, particularly in the context of a study of exceptional teachers.

In summary, more recent research and literature have extended the understanding of

what the concept “passion” means. It was evident that while passion was associated

with emotional and attitudinal variables, such as enthusiasm, it also was related

closely to emotional and spiritual intelligences. This point of view argued against

the notion that limited passion to more traditional interpretations of “emotion”.

Rather, passion was equated with energy, drive and motivation. It was seen to have a

strong reciprocal relationship with the individual’s sense of commitment, ideology,

values and beliefs. Crosswell and Elliott (2004) cited the work of Day (2004), Elliott

and Crosswell (2001), Fried (1995) and Nias (1996) in support of this thesis and

77

argued,

This literature challenges the view that teacher commitment is

focused exclusively on external dimensions and explores the

relationship between teacher passions, values and beliefs…

This literature takes the position that while teachers do articulate

a commitment to external factors (such as students) they also make

significant links to personal passions which have clear articulations

with ideology, values and beliefs (p. 3).

2.13.7 Passion and teacher dispositions

Literature in the area provides evidence to support the idea that frequently there are

tensions between passion and reason. Recent research in the area of intelligence

indicates, however, that there may be a stronger interplay between passion and reason

than has been acknowledged. Day (2004) noted that passion was linked with

intellectual energy in that “Teachers with a passion for teaching are those who are

committed, enthusiastic, and intellectually and emotionally energetic in their work

with children, young people and adults alike” (p. 2).

Research in the area of teachers who had a passion for teaching led Day (2004) to

argue that passion was associated directly with caring about and liking their students,

caring about how and what they teach, being curious to learn, being more than merely

competent, being aware of the role played by emotion in the classroom, being

committed, working co-operatively and collaboratively, and seeing opportunities to

be reflective. Day asserted, “For these teachers, teaching is a creative and

adventurous profession and passion is not an option. It is essential to high-quality

teaching” (p. 3). This notion of passion resonates with the interpretation of “passion”

adopted in this study of exceptional teachers.

2.13.8 Passion, commitment and vision

Day’s (2004) more comprehensive interpretation of passion supported the earlier

research of Kottler, Zehm and Kottler (1993) who also linked passion to the ideas of

78

commitment and a sense of personal mission. This sense of mission required high,

sustained levels of energy and commitment. In that context passion was

conceptualised as the driving force behind the teacher’s sense of mission and

commitment to teaching and their students, as well as other elements such as the

subject being taught.

This pointed to an intrinsic link between the teacher’s passion and level of

commitment to good teaching, and was a theme in the research of Hammerness

(2004) who argued, “It is important to understand a teacher’s vision of good

teaching” (p. 34) as well as their passion. According to Hammerness, this was

particularly true when teachers were confronted by the tension between the ideals and

vision of good teaching, including their underlying personal values, and the

expectations placed on them for high performance on student tests. Hammerness

maintained,

With a deeper appreciation of how teachers…hold to their passions

and commitments in the face of significant pressure, we can perhaps

better assure ourselves that other new teachers will be able to maintain

their visions even in the most trying conditions (p. 42).

This argument highlighted two dimensions of the study of exceptional teaching that

were worth investigating: namely, the nature of the exceptional teacher’s “vision” of

“good” teaching, and the levels of commitment and passion demonstrated in order to

achieve that vision, including their ability to “navigate the rocky terrain between

vision and reality” (Hammerness, 2004, p. 41). It was argued that such information

provided insight into the dynamic between commitment and passion that assisted

other teachers to achieve a higher quality of teaching and learning.

The conceptions of vision and the function of commitment and passion in effective

teaching posited by Hammerness (2004) were complemented by those of Korthagen

(2004) in the “onion” model of levels of change that focused on the concepts

“mission”, “identity” and “beliefs” as defining variables in the life of the effective

teacher. The area of values, however, while inferred, was not the focus of either

Korthagen’s or Hammerness’ studies. Campbell, Kyriakides, Muijs and Robinson

(2004) noted that, until fairly recently, research in the field of effective teaching

79

tended to avoid the important area of the teacher’s values. While their study focused

specifically on the role of the teacher’s values in the areas of “effectiveness in

developing independent learning and effectiveness in achieving a classroom climate

characterised by inclusiveness” (p. 451), their conclusion that “one new challenge [in

research on teacher effectiveness] is to incorporate the difficult area of values in the

research agenda” (ibid) was worth noting.

2.13.9 Summary of “Passion”

Literature reviewed in the context of effective teaching, giftedness and talent, and

intelligence is infused with references to the concept “passion”. This concept,

however, has been variously defined and interpreted. It has been associated with

“energy”, “drive” and “motivation”. It has also been associated with the complex

area of teacher values and beliefs. From the point of view of intelligences, while the

notion of passion appears to be governed by the individual’s spiritual and emotional

intelligence, it is tempered by conscious decision-making. Placed in the context of

effective teachers, it may be possible to assume that passion involves innate feelings

about the nature and worth of teaching that are underpinned by the teacher’s beliefs

and values. These, in turn, may be shaped by the individual’s emotional and spiritual

intelligences, in particular. Hence, there appears to be interplay between emotional

and spiritual intelligence in the way passion is manifest in the behaviour of the

effective teacher. In this context, passion, including related concepts such as

“enthusiasm”, may result in a strong sense of commitment to teaching and to children

when it is tempered by the teacher’s “authenticity”.

A survey of literature in the fields of giftedness and talent, and effective teaching and

teacher excellence indicates that while there is a need to explore the role of passion

and its relationship with other variables such as creativity, authenticity and

commitment, a new research focus that synthesises these variables may be justified.

80

PART 4: Intelligence, engagement and the effective teacher

2.14 Introduction and rationale

The growing body of literature in the field of intelligence indicates that not only are

there different kinds of intelligence, but that these intelligences have different

functions in different contexts. Further, literature indicates that the effective teacher

is able to draw upon these intelligences at appropriate stages in his/her engagement

with students in order to maximise the quality of teaching and the achievement of

high quality learning outcomes. This, in turn, suggests that the effective teacher

needs to have a repertoire of well-developed intelligences from which to draw,

depending on the context variables of any given teaching-learning situation.

Considerable attention in literature on effective teaching and intelligence has focused

on the importance of the teacher’s emotional intelligence (EQ) (Goleman, 1995,

1998). There is an increasing body of literature and research in the area of spiritual

intelligence (SQ) (Zohar & Marshall, 2000) and the role this may play in teacher

effectiveness. The concept “multiple intelligences” (Gardner, 1983, 1993) also

comes into play when considering the characteristics of highly effective teachers. Of

note are intrapersonal and personal intelligence and the effect of these intelligences

on the quality of relationships that are established in the classroom and the school.

Intrapersonal intelligence has been found to relate closely to teacher authenticity.

During the process of writing the literature review, it was found that different types of

intelligences did not necessarily function discreetly. Rather, it was likely that

different intelligences work together and have complementary functions in the way

effective teachers make decisions about teaching and learning, and in the way they

relate to their students and peers. This interrelatedness and the way an examination

of different types of intelligence helps us understand what makes a teacher

exceptional is reflected in this part of the literature review, where the focus is on a

synthesis of the nature and influence of a range of intelligences.

81

Most recent models of pedagogy, such as the QTM, have placed considerable

emphasis on the intellectual quality of student engagement in learning. There appears

to be relatively little focus, however, on the teacher’s own intellectual quality.

Although Gardner’s (1983, 1993) conception of multiple intelligences broadened the

field of research on intelligence, it was evident that different perspectives such as

those of Goleman (1995) and Zohar and Marshall (2000) were worth including in a

study of what it means to be an exceptional teacher.

In spite of the diverse conceptions of the nature of intelligence and how it functions in

relationship to effective teachers and effective teaching, there is sufficient evidence to

support the contention that not only do the most effective teachers successfully

facilitate the development of multiple intelligences and ways of thinking for their

students, but that the teachers, themselves, demonstrate well developed intelligences

and ways of thinking. Taking the QTM as one theoretical framework for the study of

exceptional teachers, it could be argued that were teachers to successfully facilitate

the intellectual quality of their students and engage in the six elements that

characterise the dimension Intellectual quality, then they would need to demonstrate

mastery of those abilities and qualities that they seek to facilitate in their students.

From the perspective of the broad field of intelligence, it can be assumed that the

most effective teachers are those who are able to model successful thinking and deep

knowledge, as well as demonstrating the ability to think reflectively and to draw upon

different domains and kinds of intelligence. These qualities and abilities, it could be

argued, are closely related to the concept, “authenticity” that appears to draw upon

emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) and spiritual intelligence (Zohar & Marshall,

2000), in particular.

2.14.1 Intelligence: the issue of definition

Regarding the issue of definition, Shepard, Fasko and Obsorne (1999) went so far as

to say, “There are few issues today that spark as much controversy and heated debate

as the issue of intelligence” (p. 639). For the purposes of this study of exceptional

teachers, the field of intelligence has been limited to the study of those intelligences

82

that have been referred to most commonly in association with teacher effectiveness.

Additional references to other kinds of intelligence will be made, where appropriate.

The issue of defining intelligence, although problematic, introduces an interesting set

of variables into the study of highly effective or exceptional teachers, not the least of

which is the problem of definition. The concept “intelligence” was used fairly freely

in Vialle and Quigley’s (2002) study and required clarification. The central issue was

not that the highly effective teachers in their study demonstrated above average

intelligence. Rather, the issue was the kind(s) or domain(s) of intelligence(s) they

demonstrated. Arguably, strong performance in the areas of emotional intelligence

(EQ) (Goleman, 1995, 1998) and spiritual intelligence (SQ) (Zohar & Marshall,

2000) were as important, if not more important, than above average academic

intelligence or IQ. In terms of the daily management of effective teaching and

learning, Sternberg’s (1997a, 1997b, 1999) notion of successful intelligence was also

worth considering in a study of what it means to be an exceptional teacher. While

the quality of the relationships between the teacher and his or her students suggested

the need for strong interpersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1983), it seemed evident that

the demonstration of self-knowledge drew upon the teacher’s intrapersonal

intelligence (Gardner, 1993) or what Moon (2003) referred to as “personal

intelligence”.

2.14.2 Intelligence, beliefs and values, and teacher authenticity

A defensible proposition was that an understanding of the nature of teacher beliefs

and values, and the interplay between these and other variables that distinguish highly

effective teachers, such as dispositions and intelligence(s), is required in order to

come to an understanding of the concept “exceptional teachers”. The importance of

the teacher’s personal and professional values was noted by Campbell, Kyriakides,

Muijs and Robinson (2004) who argued, “Teacher effectiveness research has tended

to neglect the analysis of values in two senses: the general values associated with the

process of education, and the more specific values underlying effective teaching” (p.

451). To this could be added the personal and professional values (Dabrowski, 1972;

Yero, 2001-2002a &b) that underpin the teacher’s attitudes and motivation to teach.

83

Theorists such as Dabrowski (1972) proposed a multilevel view of values that was

conceptualised as being hierarchical. He argued that this hierarchy of personal values

guided decisions and behaviour. Literature in the area indicates that these values are

an integral part of the teacher’s authenticity and that they are played out in the

teacher’s ability to establish and maintain authentic relationships with his or her

students. For example, Duignan and Bhindi observed, “The ethic of caring and the

concept of the ‘caring community’ are also often mentioned as crucial to the

development of authentic relationships” (p. 201).

Different intelligences appear to come into play when the nexus between teacher

beliefs and values, and teacher authenticity is examined further in the literature. The

interplay between the teacher’s different intelligences, values and beliefs, the

teacher’s authenticity, and the teacher’s ability to nurture authentic relationships with

his or her students emerges as an aspect of this study of exceptional teachers that

justifies considerable attention and further investigation. In a fairly ironic reflection,

Cranton (2006) noted, “Authenticity is one of those concepts – like soul, spirit, or

imagination – that are easier to define in terms of what they are not than what they

are” (p. 1). In spite of the difficulty in defining the concept “authenticity”, as with

many concepts associated with exceptional teachers, it is important to consider what

the literature tells us so that we can move towards a deeper understanding of what it

means to be an “exceptional teacher”. This suggests that there is a fairly complex

dynamic operating between different intelligences and teacher dispositions such as

authenticity.

2.14.3 The question of engagement

Before proceeding with a survey of literature in the field of intelligence, it is

necessary to clarify the concept “engagement” which is a critical aspect of high

quality teaching and learning. Two broad dimensions that need to be considered are

student engagement in learning experiences and teacher engagement. The dictum,

“When students are active in their learning, they are more likely to be engaged”

(Brady, 2004, p. 3) is not new and resonates with the Deweyian principle of student-

84

centred learning. Recent pedagogic models reflect this principle and focus on ways

of engaging students so that learning is meaningful for them. In Part 2 of the

literature review, it was shown that in the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model

(QTM) “engagement” was one of the six focus elements of the dimension Quality

learning environment. Further, the nature of that engagement demanded academic

rigour and appropriate levels of challenge.

A logical assumption to make regarding the quality of student engagement was that a

high quality of teacher engagement was also required. Rutter and Jacobson (1986)

noted that teacher behaviour was not the sole indicator of what they referred to as

“engaged teaching”. They acknowledged the importance of other indicators such as

teacher attitudes and motivation and argued, “Engaged teaching therefore must be

said to reflect more deeply held predispositions towards one’s work” (p. 6). They

noted that the literature suggested, “There are attitudinal characteristics that separate

the truly engaged teacher from those who are simply going through the motions” (p.

7). It is these “deeply held predispositions”, including the teacher’s attitudes, beliefs

and values that are of particular relevance to this study of exceptional teachers.

2.15 Emotional intelligence: its nature and function

2.15.1 Understanding the concept

Of primary interest arising out of the working hypotheses enunciated in Chapter 1 are

the questions of teacher engagement and the quality of the relationship between the

teacher and students. Research and literature focussing on the concept “emotional

intelligence” appear to be very relevant to the above questions. The literature

indicates, however, that there are conflicting views about the nature and function of

emotional intelligence. This is due, in part, to the diverse perspectives from which

the concept has been examined. By the late 1980s, for example, psychologists,

evolutionary biologists, psychiatrists, computer scientists and others had identified a

number of human capacities involved in understanding emotions that are now

grouped within the concept “emotional intelligence” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

85

Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) provided a useful definition of emotional

intelligences stating,

[EI] is the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions

to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately

perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist

thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to

reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and

intellectual growth (p. 197).

From a slightly different perspective Goleman (1995) argued, “Intellect

cannot work at its best without emotional intelligence…the old paradigm

held an idea of reason freed from the pull of emotion. The new paradigm

urges us to harmonise head and heart” (p. 197).

In their earlier work, Mayer and Salovey (1997) described a four-branch model of

emotional intelligence as involving the abilities to: accurately perceive emotions in

oneself and others, use emotions to facilitate thinking, understand emotional

meanings, and manage emotions. Later, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) stated

that the emotionally intelligent person “can better perceive emotions, use them in

thought, understand their meanings, and manage emotions, than others” (p. 210).

2.15.2 Different conceptions of emotional intelligence: the

relationship to effective teaching

The study of emotional intelligence led Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) to

examine the relationship between EI and other intellectual functions. They

concluded, “As EI rises, so does academic performance, measures of relatedness, the

ability to communicate motivating messages such as vision statements, and other

similar criteria” (p. 209). This statement may help to explain why some teachers are

able to establish productive relationships with students while others are not. It may

also support an inference that exceptional teachers are those who demonstrate high

levels of emotional intelligence and who are able to “connect” with their students at

the emotional level as well as the academic and intellectual.

86

Goleman’s (1998) study of emotional intelligence contributed further to the

understanding of what appears to be an important teacher characteristic. He stated

that emotional intelligence is “the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those

of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and

in our relationships” (p. 79). In the context of a study of exceptional teachers, these

abilities, it could be argued, are related to and influence the quality of the teacher’s

authenticity (Duignan & Bhindi, 1997), the teacher’s personal and professional values

(Hodgkinson, 1991) and, more specifically, the nature of the relationships he or she

establishes with the students.

A study of the different aspects of emotion involved in teaching and educational

change undertaken by Hargreaves (2000), however, sounded a warning regarding the

way emotional intelligence and the emotional arena were conceptualised and used in

research. He argued, “Given that teaching, learning and leading are emotional

practices, it is important to engage with the emotional arena in education; it is also

important to do so critically and not sentimentally or self indulgently” (p. 813).

Using a social-constructionist view to contextualise the study of emotions and the

role they played in teachers’ perceptions of their interactions with students “in the

politically contested interactions of organizational life” (p. 814), Hargreaves took into

account different socio-cultural expectations of teachers and teaching. He used a

research framework comprising emotional intelligence, emotional labour, emotional

understanding and what he referred to as “emotional geographies”, a concept he

explained as consisting of “The spatial and experiential patterns of closeness and/or

distance in human interactions and relationships that help create, configure and colour

the feelings and emotions we experience about ourselves, our world and each other”

(p. 815). The synthesis of components in this framework drew attention to the

complex nature of emotional intelligence.

2.15.3 Interpersonal intelligence and emotional intelligence

Notions of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence have been closely

identified with emotional intelligence. In an article Redefining teacher excellence

Collinson (1999) argued that the use of “traditional knowledge and theories to explain

87

the complex nature of teacher excellence remain limited” (p. 4). She highlighted the

fact that while the technical, observable aspects of teaching were important, there was

a need to broaden the vision of teacher excellence and noted,

Various theories of cognitive development (see Reiman &

Thies-sprinthall, 1998), as well as Goleman’s (1995) model

of “emotional intelligence” and Perkins’s (1995) vision of

“reflective intelligence,” have provided insights into the

dispositions, values, and thinking associated with human

excellence (p. 4).

As a result of research based on exemplary teachers’ perceptions of teacher

excellence, Collinson (1999) found that there were similarities between the

redefinition of teacher excellence that took into account this broader vision, and

recent research and theory in the field of intelligence. Of particular interest were the

areas of interpersonal knowledge and intrapersonal knowledge. She proposed that

interpersonal knowledge “requires empathy to understand others, honesty and trust,

respect, tolerance of different perspectives, the setting aside of self, good

communication skills, and political awareness. Interpersonal knowledge involves

maturity and wisdom” (p. 6). This description included teacher dispositions that

traditionally have been associated with teacher authenticity, such as honesty, trust and

respect. It also included reference to communication skills and tolerance of different

perspectives. As an example of political awareness, for instance, Collinson referred

to the tendency for excellent teachers to become involved in activities that included

an “ever-expanding scope of perspectives and professional community” (p. 7). The

association between emotional and interpersonal intelligences and teacher

authenticity, including dispositions such as empathy, honesty, trust and respect, is

worth pursing. It may be that teacher authenticity and the associated dispositions

play a critical role in understanding what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”.

2.15.4 Intrapersonal knowledge and intrapersonal intelligence

Teacher knowledge appears to be a foundation component of teacher effectiveness.

The question is what kind of knowledge an effective teacher needs to have. While it

88

is essential for teachers to master content or subject knowledge, it is evident that other

kinds of knowledge are also important, particularly in the context of a study of

exceptional teachers.

There is a convincing body of research that indicates that intrapersonal knowledge

and intrapersonal intelligence are of key importance in the identification of

exceptional teachers. Shepard, Fasko and Osborne (1999) argued that intrapersonal

intelligence was often overlooked by traditional studies of teacher effectiveness.

They described intrapersonal intelligence in terms of self-awareness and expressed

this as “an awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses, feelings and thought

processes that constitute one’s knowledge of self (Gardner & Hatch, 1989; Lazear,

1992)” (p. 636). Shepard et al. identified specific dispositions that were associated

with intrapersonal intelligence and noted that teachers who were strong in this

intelligence “are likely to be more self-confident, independent and intrinsically

motivated (Teele, 1994); they are able to express a greater variety of different

feelings and gain a more transpersonal sense of self (Lazea, 1991)” (p. 638).

At the same time, Collinson’s (1999) research in redefining teacher excellence took

into account the important area of intrapersonal knowledge or that knowledge which

“represents who we are” (p. 7). She argued, however, that in the context of teacher

excellence, intrapersonal knowledge extended beyond Gardner’s (1993) description

of intrapersonal intelligence as “a capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of

oneself” (p. 9). Rather, Collinson argued that intrapersonal knowledge included the

teacher’s “understanding of how our ethics and dispositions shape our lives” (ibid).

She cited Sherman’s (1989) description of ethics and dispositions as “the attitudes,

sensibilities, and beliefs that affect how a person sees, acts, and indeed lives” (p. 1).

Collinson held the view that, “Teachers’ ethics and dispositions influence their

decisions and the lives of all their students. Awareness and articulation of how ethics

and dispositions shape judgments, behavior, and decisions require accurate self-

understanding and the capacity for introspection and reflection” (p. 7). The notion of

the relationship between teacher excellence, introspection and reflection was manifest

in excellent teachers’ disposition towards lifelong or continuous learning. In that

context, the dispositions that typified excellent teachers included curiosity, creativity,

risk taking, problem finding and solving, searching for evidence, and intellectual

89

flexibility. It can be seen that these dispositions relate closely to the dispositions

associated with creativity and this is discussed in Part 5 of this chapter.

In addition to Goleman’s (1995) model of emotional intelligence, Collinson (1999)

cited Perkins’ (1995) notion of intelligence that was a synthesis of neurological

intelligence, experiential intelligence, and reflective intelligence. At the heart of

Perkins’ notion of intelligence was the concept “reflective intelligence” which

Collinson described as “knowing your way around thinking” (p. 9). Both frameworks

included the important “role of dispositions, beliefs, and values on people’s thinking

and judgments” (Collinson, p. 7). A notable aspect of these approaches to intelligence

was that, according to Collinson and Perkins, they were learnable.

Collinson’s (1999) summation of the importance of the contribution of intrapersonal

and interpersonal knowledge to teacher excellence was that,

Teaching is so personal, so dependent on human interactions,

and so full of uncertainties that it requires intelligent thinking

and behavior at every turn. Excellent teachers purposefully

develop interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge as well

as professional knowledge. They seem to grasp the balance

between intellectual and emotional intelligence and the

importance of both in the many roles required of teachers (p. 9).

2.15.5 Summary

In spite of differences in the conceptions of emotional intelligence, there appear to be

compelling arguments for pursuing its relevance to what it means to be an exceptional

teacher, particularly with reference to the relationship with the concept of authenticity

and with reference to the important area of relationships. When considered as part of

the ensemble of intelligences from which the teacher draws in order to engage

authentically and meaningfully with students, the inclusion of literature from the area

of emotional intelligence, together with the closely allied interpersonal and

intrapersonal intelligences, adds an important dimension to the study of what it means

to be an exceptional teacher. Recurring references to teacher dispositions such a

90

being motivated, reflective, wise and passionate, together with dispositions such as

honesty and trust resonate with qualities identified in Parts 2 and 3 of the literature

review. This may indicate emerging clusters of dispositions that are worth

considering for the purposes of coming to an understanding of what it means to be an

exceptional teacher.

2.16 Spiritual intelligence and associated characteristics

There is a small but important body of literature associated with the teacher’s

“spiritual intelligence” and the effect it has on the quality of teaching and learning.

The area of knowledge, particularly self-knowledge and knowledge of others, has

been a key element in the study of spiritual intelligence. This resulted in direct

associations being made between spiritual intelligence and conceptions of intra- and

interpersonal intelligence, such as that proposed by Gardner (1993). While spiritual

intelligence was seen to share common characteristics with emotional intelligence,

Day (2004) pointed out that there were key differences that helped to define the

function of each.

Spiritual intelligence is closely related to the moral purposes of a

teacher…and is different from emotional intelligence. Whereas

the latter enables us to judge the situation – for instance, the

emotional climate of the classroom – and then behave appropriately

within it, the former enables each of us to ask if we want to be in

this situation in the first place, or would we rather change it to

create a better one (p. 100).

This suggested that spiritual intelligence was linked to the individual’s moral

reasoning and valuing, as well as to the important question of purpose. Day pointed

out that the teacher’s spiritual intelligence, together with emotional intelligence,

facilitated the teacher working “with but not necessarily within the boundaries” (p.

100) set by the given context and situation.

Literature (see for example, Tischler, Biberman & McKeage, 2002; Sisk, 2006; Zohar

& Marshall, 2000) indicated that there were commonalities between spiritual and

emotional intelligence. Just as emotional intelligence appeared to be connected to the

91

teacher’s intra- and interpersonal intelligences, there appeared to be connections

between these two intelligences and spiritual intelligence. This notion was supported

by Day (2004) who explained that,

To be spiritually intelligent is to integrate two of Gardner’s multiple

intelligences – the intra- and interpersonal – in order to understand

more fully who we are, what we value, and how to develop care and

concern for others in order to use this in teaching (p. 100).

Of note in Day’s interpretation of spiritual intelligence was the association with the

teacher’s values and sense of self, as well as the qualities of care and concern for

others. These teacher attributes and dispositions were a recurring theme in the

literature associated with effective teachers.

Some of the defining research in the area was that of Zohar and Marshall (2000). In

their exposé on spiritual intelligence (SQ), metaphor was used to describe the nature

of knowledge and the process of coming to an understanding of knowledge. They

explained,

The path of knowledge is walked by those who are motivated by

a love of learning and/or a deep need to understand…Knowledge

and understanding are passionate things which cause us to engage

deeply with the world around or within us (p. 242).

Taken from the perspective of spiritual intelligence, the concepts “knowledge” and

“understanding” were linked closely to the qualities “passion” and “wisdom” that

were at the heart of Zohar and Marshall’s conception of spiritual intelligence.

Further, Zohar and Marshall conceptualised knowledge and understanding as

dynamic rather than passive phenomena. They proposed, “The natural progression

towards higher SQ leads from reflection, through understanding, to wisdom” (p. 244).

The association with the concept “reflection” was compatible with the notion of the

teacher as a reflective practitioner.

In the context of effective teaching, Day (2004) made direct associations between

spiritual intelligence, values and passion. He argued,

Spiritual intelligence is characterized “by a fundamental valuing

of the lives and development of all members of a school community”

92

(MacGilchrist et al., 1997, p. 109) and is a key part of the passion

in teaching that is fundamental to good teaching and learning (p. 99).

This view of spiritual intelligence epitomised the integral link between intelligence,

teacher values, and dispositional attributes.

The work of Zohar and Marshall (2000) and others who have contributed to the area

of spiritual intelligence (Chickering, Dalton & Stamm, 2006; Tisdell, 2003) has

enriched the range of perspectives for exploring the nature of knowledge and

understanding. In addition, literature in the area of spiritual intelligence has provided

possible avenues for contextualising and synthesising teacher behaviours and

dispositions such as passion, reflection, commitment, and wisdom. This has

broadened our understanding of and thinking about the nature of intelligence,

including the nature and function of knowledge, that was introduced by earlier

researchers and theorists such as Arlin (1999), Baltes and Smith (1990), Clayton

(1976), and Sternberg (1997a, 1997b). This, in turn, has contributed to the body of

literature and thinking in the field of effective teachers and effective teaching by

providing fresh perspectives that consider not only overt teacher competencies and

behaviours, but that also take into account the associated dispositions or the human

dimension of the teacher.

2.17 Authenticity, associated characteristics and intelligence

2.17.1 Rationale for the inclusion of authenticity in the literature

review

The concept “authenticity” and the act of being authentic have been referred to

frequently in literature on teacher effectiveness (see, for example, Chickering, Dalton

& Stamm, 2006; Cranton, 2001; Duignan & Bhindi, 1997; Frego, 2006; Glatthorn,

1975; Trilling, 1972) and deserves attention in its own right. There is evidence to

suggest that if a teacher is to be highly effective and engaged in teaching and

learning, then the teacher needs to demonstrate dispositions associated with the

concept “authentic”. It is necessary at the outset, however, to note that the term

93

“authentic” is used in many different contexts and is therefore difficult to summarise

in any succinct form. Conceptually, teacher authenticity appears to subsume at least

four different intelligences, namely: emotional intelligence, intrapersonal

intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and spiritual intelligence. In addition, there

appear to be specific dispositions that are associated in the literature with teacher

authenticity.

The term “authentic” has been associated with at least two different meanings in the

contexts of this literature review. On the one hand, the term “authentic learning” is

widely used to refer to a particular kind of learning experience that is closely

associated with problem-based learning that connects to real world situations. This

coincides with the research of Newmann, Marks and Gamoran (1996) and there is a

growing body of literature on the development of authentic learning environments.

On the other hand, while the concepts “authentic learning” and “authentic learning

environment” are important in a consideration of effective teaching and learning, the

central focus of this study is the cluster of human attributes that explain authenticity

in terms of teacher effectiveness and the teacher’s personal dispositions.

2.17.2 Definitions of authenticity

The literature survey conducted for this study of exceptional teachers indicates that

in the context of the dispositions of effective teachers, the term “authentic” is used to

describe a variety of personal attributes including concepts such as honesty,

openness, trustworthy, receptive, genuine, and empathic - all of which, when taken

together, indicate a person with high self awareness and high self esteem. At a

broader level Cranton and Carusetta (2004b) defined authenticity in teaching as

being “based on effective communication and an informed understanding of the

‘Self’ – our basic nature, preferences, values and the power of our past experiences”

(pp. 6-7). Cranton and Carusetta described authenticity as “a quest for a personal

state of teaching to identify and critically examine their individual sense as it relates

to personality, teaching style and interactions with others” (ibid).

94

Earlier, Glatthorn (1975) defined authenticity in much the same terms stating,

“Authentic awareness can only come as we move to these deeper levels of the self

through self acceptance, self confrontation and self prizing” (p. 37). In a more

recent article, Brookfield (2006) defined authenticity as, “The perception that the

teacher is being open and honest in her attempts to help students learn” (p. 68). As

a practical illustration of this definition Brookfield explained, “Authentic teachers do

not go behind students’ backs, keep agendas private, or double-cross learners by

dropping a new evaluative criterion or assignment into a course halfway through the

semester” (ibid).

2.17.3 Dispositions and attributes associated with teacher

authenticity

In their comparative review of literature on conceptions of authenticity in teaching

Kreber, Klampfleitner, McCune, Bayne and Knottenbelt (2007) examined existing

definitions of authenticity and found that different philosophical orientations resulted

in different interpretations of the concept. They cited the work of Tisdell (2003), for

example, who interpreted authenticity in terms of the self being defined by oneself

rather than being defined in terms of other people’s expectations (In Kreber et al., p.

27). Cranton and Carusetta (2004a,b) interpreted teacher authenticity in terms of

consistency between teacher values and actions. This coincided with the underlying

principle of Freeman’s (2007b) conception of “syntax of dispositions” and the

importance of values in activating dispositions. Kreber et al. also cited Cranton’s

(2001) definition of authenticity as the “expression of one’s genuine Self in the

community and society” (p. iiix) and noted the characteristics identified by Rogers

(1983) that were associated with the teacher being his or her true (authentic) self with

students. These characteristics included “trustworthiness”, “genuineness”, “realness”

and “congruence” (In Kreber et al., p. 27). Williams (2002) argued the logical

proposition that just as the self can be virtuous and honourable, the converse is also

true. He posed the question, “If there is such a thing as a real self of an individual,

what reason is there to think that it must coincide with an underlying character of

honour, considerateness and compassion?” (p. 182).

95

Attributes such as sincerity (Trilling, 1972), kindness, caring and a sense of

responsibility towards students (Chickering et al. 2006) as well as responsibility for

one’s own possibilities (Kreber et al., 2007), living life truthfully, and living a moral

life (Baggini, 2005) were cited by Kreber et al. as being closely associated with

teacher authenticity. Having synthesised and compared the literature on authenticity,

they concluded,

Authenticity in teaching involves features such as being genuine,

becoming more self-aware, being defined by one’s self rather

than by others’ expectations, bringing parts of oneself into

interactions with students, and critically reflecting on self,

others, relationships and context, and so forth (pp. 40-41).

None of these concepts was new to the area of authenticity and most were iterated in

the literature across the field of teacher effectiveness. Reference to concepts such as

“being genuine” and “becoming more self-aware” suggested the interplay between

intrapersonal intelligence and authenticity while the reference to “interaction with

students” and “critically reflecting” on self and on others, suggested close ties with

interpersonal intelligence.

What Kreber et al. (2007) saw as being of considerable importance, however, was

the moral domain of authenticity. This was reflected in their proposition that,

“Authenticity is not just something that exclusively rests within myself (as in self-

determining freedom); for authenticity to be meaningful it needs to be sought in

relation to issues that matter crucially” (p. 41). A focus on the moral domain further

strengthened the conceptual link between spiritual intelligence, emotional

intelligence and authenticity.

2.17.4 Teacher authenticity, trust and relationships with students

Student perceptions of teacher authenticity, particularly regarding the notion of trust,

can be insightful and useful when considering how the concept “authenticity”

impacts on our understanding of teacher effectiveness. Brookfield (2006) identified

four specific indicators typically mentioned by students as being important in trusting

teachers. These were: congruence, full disclosure, responsiveness, and personhood.

96

Brookfield explained these indicators as follow: congruence refers to the congruent

relationship between words and actions, between what the teacher says and what the

teacher actually does; full disclosure refers to the teacher regularly sharing explicit

criteria, expectations, agendas and assumptions that guide her practice;

responsiveness focuses on the teacher demonstrating clearly to students that he or she

is there to help them learn in a way that is likely to be most helpful to them and;

personhood is the perception students have that their teachers are flesh and blood

human beings with lives and identities outside the classroom (pp. 74-78). In other

words, authentic teachers are perceived as being “real”. The findings from

Brookfield’s study of student perceptions regarding these indicators are compatible

with those characteristics that have been associated directly with teacher authenticity.

Frego (2006) provided further insight by examining the function of authenticity and

the important role of relationships in teaching. She identified a number of strategies

that were associated with teacher authenticity. These included: attending to student

needs, clear expectations, valuing individuals, caring, reducing stress, empowerment,

and choice. Frego concluded that being authentic as a teacher is a matter of choice

that is based on what the teacher values. She added, “In an interesting circularity, the

concept of authenticity validates the fact that I base my teaching on what I value” (p.

50). Authenticity, according to Frego, involves vulnerability and risk taking. Three

important inferences that can be made from Frego’s study were: the close association

between teacher authenticity and the teacher’s values; the underlying relationship

between authenticity and the teacher’s interpersonal knowledge and interpersonal

intelligence; and, finally, the association between teacher authenticity and emotional

intelligence.

In summary, based on the literature review, there appear to be sufficient grounds to

consider the concept “authenticity” and its associated human attributes as a key

determinant in assessing teacher effectiveness.

97

2.18 Intelligence, commitment and passion

2.18.1 Commitment and passion

A recurring theme in literature in the field of teacher effectiveness has been that of

commitment, which has been identified as a critical variable. In the context of

teaching in Australia, Crosswell and Elliott (2004) found a substantial relationship

between teacher commitment and passion. They pointed out that,

The traditional view of teacher commitment considers it to

refer to external referents. However, there is a growing body

of literature that draws a strong connection between teacher

commitment and the very intimate element of passion for the

work of teaching (p. 1).

This notion of the intrinsic link between commitment and passion was supported by

the earlier work of Day (2004), Elliott and Crosswell (2001) and Fried (1995).

In their study of the way teachers characterised commitment, Crosswell and Elliott

(2004) found that there were six interrelated categories that represented different

ways that teachers perceive, understand and conceptualise the phenomenon of teacher

commitment. These categories include the conceptualisation of commitment as

passion that they described as,

Positive emotional attachment to the work involved in teaching

generally, or a specific aspect of teaching;… time invested

outside school hours; the teacher’s ability and preparedness to

focus on the individual needs of their students; imparting values,

beliefs and attitudes as well as knowledge; the motivation to

engage in ongoing learning and to maintain profession knowledge;

willingness to engage with the school and the school’s community

(pp. 6-7).

This provided further insight into the quality of teacher engagement and the important

function of teacher commitment, including associated dispositions and a recognition

of the vital role of teacher beliefs and values.

98

Of note in that study was the finding that while literature from the area of teacher

commitment indicated a strong focus on external variables, the teachers themselves

included “significant links to personal passions which include ideology, values and

beliefs” (p. 7). Crosswell and Elliott (2004) concluded that there was “a very

intimate connection between a ‘passion’ for the work of teaching and teacher

commitment” (p. 7) which they found was associated with concepts such as

enjoyment, enthusiasm, love for the subject and love for children, pleasure and a

sense of fulfilment (pp. 8-9). The thirty teachers involved in their study indicated that

passion was at the core of commitment. As Crosswell and Elliott explained,

“Passion, rather than merely external rewards or recognition, is seen to be the

essential element that sustains and maintains teachers’ interest in the job and their

willingness to remain in the profession” (p. 9).

Finally, in their study of teacher commitment and the link with passion, Crosswell

and Elliott (2004) found that “It appears that instead of just discussing the way they

show their commitment that is their practice, teachers are investigating their beliefs

about education and their value systems” (p. 10). This notion of the importance of

values was taken a step further in the later research of Freeman (2007b) who argued

that, in the context of teacher dispositions, “Without the component of ‘values’

whether implicit or explicit, there is no disposition” (p. 127). The importance of

teacher values and the effect of these values on dispositions and attributes such as

commitment and passion cannot be underestimated.

2.18.2 Commitment, passion and teacher values

Several salient points emerged from Crosswell and Elliott’s (2004) study of teacher

commitment. Of note was the intrinsic link between the teacher’s beliefs and values,

the teacher’s passion, whether it is for teaching itself, for the subject, or for the

student and the way these intrinsic variables relate to the teacher’s level of

commitment. The move towards examining the internal variables of teachers in order

to understand external teacher behaviour was not new. What was innovative,

however, was the way the relationship between these variables was conceptualised in

99

terms of their interdependence and interrelatedness. It is worth observing that

researchers were examining not only what effective teachers were doing in the

classroom or what they knew, but also how variables such as teacher beliefs and

values, as well as dispositions such as passion and a sense of commitment, impacted

on these external variables, such as teacher behaviours and classroom practices.

2.19 Wisdom and intelligence

Studies and literature in the area of the nature of wisdom also have contributed to the

depth of understanding of what it means to be an exceptional teacher. The research

of Clayton (1976), for example, provided insight into the psychological aspects of

wisdom that was conceptualised as a construct comprising three dimensions. The

first included affective characteristics such as the ability to empathise and to

demonstrate compassion. These dispositions resonated with the concept “teacher

authenticity”.

The second dimension of Clayton’s (1976) conception of teacher wisdom was the

ability to establish relationships with students. In order to be able to do this and to

facilitate meaningful learning, it was logical to assume that the ability to be empathic

and compassionate would need to be demonstrated by teachers, not only in the

process of building quality, supportive learning environments but also in the process

of acquiring depth of knowledge and understanding regarding student backgrounds,

abilities and needs. These variables were consistent with the QTM dimension Quality

learning environment.

Third in the dimensions of Clayton’s (1976) psychological perspective of wisdom

were the cognitive capacities that related directly to the individual’s experience and

intelligence. It was noted in Part 2 of this chapter that the relationship between

intelligence, effective teaching and the effective teacher appears to be a relatively

neglected area of research, particularly as this pertains to a study of exceptional

teachers.

100

2.19.1 Wisdom, knowledge and intelligence

From the literature, it was evident that although wisdom was seen to be a desirable

characteristic for all teachers, the general consensus amongst researchers and theorists

appeared to be that wisdom was not equated with traditional conceptions of academic

intelligence or “cleverness”. Evidence to support this view was found in the work of

Claxton (1999), Cunningham (1994) and de Bono (1996). With a broadened

understanding of the nature of intelligence, however, the concept “wisdom” appears

to be associated with other kinds of intelligence, particularly in the context of

theoretical perspectives such as Zohar and Marshall’s (2000) conception of spiritual

intelligence and Sternberg’s (1997a, 1999) theory of successful intelligence.

The theory of interpersonal intelligence proposed by Gardner (1983) appeared to

closely parallel Arlin’s (1993, 1999) conception of a wise teacher whom he described

as an individual who demonstrated “an orientation toward self, students, and teaching

that highlights the teacher as learner in the act of constructing knowledge with her [or

his] student’s point of view” (Arlin, 1999, p. 12). This conception of wisdom as

knowledge and the orientation of the teacher as learner was based on Arlin’s studies

of wise teachers and was similar in nature to Collinson’s (1996a, 1999b) conception

of excellent teachers. A common theme was the knowledge the teachers had, and

how they used and synthesised that knowledge. Arlin (1999) found, for example, that

wise teachers possessed “rich factual knowledge about teaching and about their

subject matter” (p.13).

In the context of their exposé on spiritual intelligence (SQ), Zohar and Marshall

(2000) conceptualised wisdom as part of the process of developing SQ. They argued,

“The natural progression towards higher SQ leads from reflection, through

understanding, to wisdom” (p. 244). This connected with the notion of the reflective

teacher. It also inferred that reflection was a necessary precursor to deep

understanding of others and of self. Only through a process of reflection and

understanding, according to Zohar and Marshall, could wisdom be achieved. The

place of knowledge in this process was interesting. A logical assumption to be made,

in the context of this notion of SQ, was that it is not enough “to know”. The wise

101

teacher also understands. This proposition was highly compatible with the

underlying principles of the QTM dimension Intellectual quality.

Arlin’s (1999) and Collinson’s (1996a, 1999) focus on the wise teacher’s command

of knowledge was, in turn, similar to Cruikshank’s (1990, 1992) finding that there

was an extensive body of research that supported the argument that what the teacher

knew was a critical factor in distinguishing highly effective teaching, as opposed to

competent teaching. The earlier work of researchers such as Dunkin and Biddle

(1974), Gage (1972, 1978), and Cruickshank (1986, 1990) supported this view. What

was equally important in examining teacher effectiveness, however, was to

understand the function of different kinds of knowledge and how teachers valued and

used that knowledge, as well as how effectively they communicated that knowledge

and how they related to their students.

A second characteristic of Arlin’s (1999) conception of wise teachers was that they

possessed “rich procedural knowledge about teaching strategies and the practical

knowledge of how and when to use them” (p. 13). This alluded to pedagogic

variables. In keeping with much of the literature in the field of effective teaching and

effective teachers, Arlin found that wise teachers also demonstrated “a sense of the

context of instruction and the context in which the students are being instructed” as

well as “an awareness of the relativism associated with variations in values and

priorities of their teaching peers and their students” (ibid). A potentially important

consideration that arose from this aspect of Arlin’s study of wise teachers was the

role of intuition and insight in the teacher’s acquisition and use of procedural and

practical knowledge. This coincided with the role of intuition in creativity and is

discussed in Part 5 of the literature review.

2.19.2 Wisdom and associated teacher dispositions

Wise teachers, according to Arlin (1999), were risk takers who were not afraid to try

new ideas or to take risks with decision-making. This was demonstrated during the

processes of teaching and learning by their ability to acknowledge an uncertainty

about the effects of specific teaching decisions coupled with a willingness to take

102

risks and to try a variety of ways to actively participate with their students in the

learning process. This aspect of the wise teacher shared characteristics that

traditionally were associated with creativity, another area of research and literature

covered in this thesis.

A critical aspect of Arlin’s (1999) theoretical framework for the examination of what

it means to be a wise teacher was that such a teacher is able to take into account

students’ perspectives when conceptualising and participating in the teaching-

learning process. This characteristic, in turn, appears to lie at the heart of the

dimensions Quality learning environment and Significance in the New South Wales

Quality Teaching Model (QTM) (NSW, DET, 2003). It could be argued that

effective teachers, including highly effective or exceptional teachers, of necessity,

demonstrate wisdom. Arlin expressed this in terms of “The humility and courage to

live with uncertainty and take the risk of questioning whether they can do better and

become active participants with their students in the learning process” (p. 16).

This cluster of attributes that, according to Arlin (1999), typified the wise teacher is

of considerable importance in the context of the study of the dispositions and

attributes of the exceptional teacher because, in keeping with the principles of

teaching and learning enunciated in the QTM, it places the teacher in the position of

being a learner and risk taker who is able to engage actively and empathically with

his or her students.

2.19.3 Summary

The inclusion of a discussion of wisdom in the literature review has provided some

important insights into the nature of effective teachers. Not only are the associated

dispositions of interest, but they also indicate a close relationship between wisdom

and a number of intelligences, namely: intrapersonal intelligence and the importance

of caring and compassion; interpersonal intelligence and the importance of reflection

and self-knowledge; emotional intelligence and the importance of empathy; spiritual

intelligence and the importance of reflection and depth of understanding of self,

others and the context of engagement.

103

2.20 Gifted teaching and intelligence: The perspective of Towers

and Porath

It can be seen from the literature, thus far, that there appears to be considerable

congruence between the qualities that are emerging from the five selected fields

underpinning the review. Concepts such as “intelligence” and “giftedness”, for

example, are associated with qualities that seem to be dynamically interrelated and

this aspect of the literature is worth further investigation. The work of Towers and

Porath (2001) provides an example of this inter-connectedness.

The question, “What moves teaching beyond effectiveness to deserving of the

descriptor gifted?” was the focus of a study by Towers and Porath (2001). They

placed dual emphasis on thought and action in the context of gifted or exceptional

teachers who taught gifted students. Their description of gifted teaching as being

“the kind of teaching where teachers’ and students’ minds connect” (p. 202)

resonated with much of the literature and theory on effective teaching and effective

teachers. This was irrespective of the innate ability of the students. The leading

contention of their article was that, “It is gifted teaching that is essential in inspiring

all learners and ensuring excellence in their education” (ibid). Their conception of

“gifted” teachers is synonymous with the notion of “exceptional” teachers, as used in

the current study. The three central premises of their theory of gifted or exceptional

teachers were that gifted or exceptional teaching: was active and engaged all

participants in the teaching-learning experience; was pupil-centred and was linked

inextricably to student learning; took into account the educational context, including

the learners’ perspectives or points of view.

While Towers and Porath (2001) argued a convincing interpretation of what they

referred to as “gifted teaching”, their evidence was largely anecdotal. They explained

the actions and thoughts of the exceptional or gifted teacher in terms of his or her

wisdom and explored the concept “gifted teaching” in terms of Gardner’s (1983)

interpersonal intelligence. Van der Zee, Thijs and Schakel (2002) enunciated

complementary findings when they identified three dimensions of emotional

104

intelligence that they referred to as “Empathy”, “Autonomy” and “Emotional

control” (p. 103). These three dimensions appeared to resonate with the concept

“teacher authenticity”. In the context of the Van der Zee et al. study, the descriptor

“gifted” referred to an advanced form or high level of an intelligence or demonstrated

ability. This supported the thinking of Towers and Porath, and it was argued that one

of the indicators of gifted or exceptional teachers was an advanced form of

interpersonal intelligence.

The description of interpersonal intelligence as the ability “to read the intentions and

desires – even when these have been hidden – in many other individuals and,

potentially, to act upon this knowledge” (Gardner, 1983, p. 239), provided a

framework for Towers and Porath’s (2001) conception of gifted teaching and, by

association, the teacher who was gifted at teaching. They argued that while

Gardner’s conception of interpersonal intelligence did not “specify in any detail what

gifted teaching looks like in action”, it did “provide a framework for understanding

what makes a gifted teacher” (p. 202). At the heart of their conception of gifted or

highly able teaching was the ability of the teacher to give priority to the students’

intentions, desires, and understandings. In other words, the needs of the learner

informed gifted practice. A key aspect of Towers and Porath’s conception of gifted

teaching and the teacher who was gifted at teaching, therefore, was that the

exceptional teacher demonstrated the ability to connect with and meet the needs of his

or her students.

Towers and Porath were among relatively few theorists who took the risk of making a

qualitative distinction between “gifted” or exceptional teachers and other teachers.

One logical development of their conception of gifted teaching and the gifted teacher

was to study indicators of gifted teaching and the gifted teacher that could be used to

inform and assist teachers, in general, to improve the quality and effectiveness of

their teaching. They discussed “gifted teaching” within a framework of interpersonal

intelligence and wisdom. This included teacher qualities such as understanding the

learner’s perspective (p. 203), exploring cross-cultural expressions (ibid), and

listening to what children had to say (p. 204). There appeared to be a strong link

between student and teacher engagement, on the one hand, and the teacher’s

interpersonal intelligence and “wisdom”, on the other.

105

The changing emphases in the study of the nature of teaching and learning called for

new ways of conceptualising what it meant to be an exceptional teacher. One

approach was to study exceptional teachers with a view to reconceptualising existing

theory or designing new theories of effective teachers and effective teaching by

examining more closely the human dimension(s) of these teachers and the

interconnectedness between dispositional and pedagogic variables of the teacher and

teaching.

2.21 Teacher excellence, intelligence and the human domain

Although literature in the area of intelligence provides a rich field of divergent

research perspectives from which to study exceptional teachers, Collinson (1999)

argued that, because of these divergent perspectives, defining the concepts “teacher

excellence” and, by inference, defining the concept “exceptional teacher” was often a

challenging and elusive task. While earlier theories of teaching and the “expert”

teacher, such as those of Berliner (1986) and Brophy (2004), focused on the

observable, technical competencies of teaching, an alternative body of research

indicated the need to examine aspects of teacher expertise that were associated with

the “human” domain, such as that proposed by Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall (1998).

These aspects included the need for mentoring teachers and the development of moral

reasoning within the context of the ethics of teaching. Collinson emphasised that

Goleman’s (1995) model of emotional intelligence and Perkins’ (1995) vision of

“reflective intelligence” (p. 4) have provided insights into the dispositions, values,

and thinking associated with human excellence. Arguably, each of these

considerations has a contribution to make in terms of understanding and facilitating

teacher excellence.

Collinson (1999) noted that while research on theories of cognitive development,

such as that conducted by Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall (1998), together with models

of intelligence, such as Goleman’s (1995) emotional intelligence and Perkins’ (1995)

conception of reflective intelligence provided some insight into the dispositions,

values, and thinking associated with human excellence, it appeared that “knowledge

106

and theories to explain the complex nature of teacher excellence remained limited”

(p. 4). Collinson examined input from teachers who were identified as excellent

teachers and concluded, “What teachers’ descriptions of excellence illustrate and

what Goleman’s (1995) conceptions of intelligence indicate is that excellence and

intelligent behavior go far beyond traditional ideas of expert or professional

knowledge and technical expertise” (p. 10).

The study conducted by Collinson (1999) supported two major dimensions of

variables that appeared to be common to excellent teachers. The first was that they

deliberately cultivated interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge as well as

professional knowledge. It was found that excellent teachers were able to “grasp the

balance between intellectual and emotional intelligence and the importance of both in

the many roles required of teachers” (p. 10). This, in turn, related to the conception

of spiritual intelligence (SQ) enunciated by Zohar and Marshall (2000).

2.21.1 The concept “character” and intelligence

The second dimension of variables that appeared to be common to excellent teachers,

according to Collinson (1999), had to do with “character” and the role it played in

cognition and behaviour. This examination of the human dimension of teaching and

the variables that were typical of exceptional teachers inferred a relatively new

synthesis of skill acquisition in the areas of inter- and intrapersonal skills. Goleman

(1995), for example, described character as “the body of skills that emotional

intelligence represents” (p. 285) while Perkins (1995) described character as “the soul

of intelligence” (p. 278).

These two examples of different conceptions of character highlighted the

dichotomous nature of the domains in which character operated. On the one hand,

the conceptualisation of character as “a body of skills” suggested that what was

required for character development was expertise in the prerequisite skill areas. The

conceptualisation of character as “the soul of intelligence”, however, suggested the

kind of intelligence that Zohar and Marshall (2004) referred to as spiritual

intelligence (SQ). Collinson (1999), on the other hand, identified three domains of

107

qualities that characterised excellent teachers. Each of these three domains

(competence, skilful relationships, and character) was associated with different kinds

of knowledge. She argued, “What makes the excellent teacher recognizable may be a

combination of competence (professional knowledge), skilful relationships (inter-

personal knowledge), and character (intrapersonal knowledge)” (p.10). Intrapersonal

or self-knowledge, it was later shown, was an important element of teacher

authenticity. This was compatible with Perkins’ (1995) conception of character as the

“soul” or “heart” of intelligence.

This conception of excellent teachers was indicative of an alternative way of

approaching the field of research on effective teachers and effective teaching. In the

pursuit of identifying and studying what he referred to as “the expert pedagogue”,

Berliner (1986) noted that there were three methodological problems associated with

such a study. “The first has to do with finding criteria for defining expertise in

pedagogy. The second deals with the confounding of experience and expertise. The

third problem has to do with stipulating which knowledge systems should be studied

in exploration of pedagogical expertise” (p. 8).

Although teacher expertise, excellence and exceptionality are not necessarily

synonymous, the methodological problems identified by Berliner (1986) are relevant

to the current study of exceptional teachers. One approach to a possible resolution of

these problems was the development of a conceptual model that adopted a holistic

approach to rethinking and reconceptualising what it means to be an exceptional

teacher. An example of such a conceptual model was Korthagen’s (2004) “onion”

model that is reviewed in the following section of this chapter.

In summary, new perspectives and new ways of thinking about what characterises

teacher excellence have emerged during the past decade. These new perspectives,

however, have not been without problems. One approach to resolving these issues

has been to revise and redesign theories of effective teachers and effective teaching

that consider elements relating to the human dimensions, including teacher

dispositions.

108

2.22 Intelligence and the effective teacher: Towards a holistic

approach

In an attempt to move towards a more holistic approach to the study of teaching and

teacher education, Korthagen (2004) proposed “the onion” model that was structured

on the conception of levels of change as a theoretical framework for examining what

it meant to be a “good” teacher. The two main thrusts of Korthagen’s study were to

investigate “the essential qualities of a good teacher” and to “discuss an umbrella

model of levels of change that could serve as a framework for reflection and

development” (p. 77).

In order to resolve the tension between a competency based view of teachers and a

view that focused on the teacher as self, Korthagen (2004) proposed a framework of

six levels of variables for considering what the essential qualities of a good teacher

may be and for assisting people to become effective teachers. These were referred to

as “levels of change” because, it was proposed, they indicated “different levels in

people that can be influenced” (pp. 79-80) or changed. The outermost levels,

environment and behaviour, comprised those observable elements such as the class,

the students and the school, and what occurred in and between them. Moving

inwards, the next level was designated as “the level of competencies” that included

different domains of knowledge such as content knowledge. This level was

conceptualised as “an integrated body of knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p. 80).

The inner three levels were designated beliefs, identity and mission. Korthagen

argued, “A teacher’s competencies are determined by his or her beliefs” (ibid). To

this could be added the teacher’s values. Identity, the fifth level of the “onion model”

referred to how a person sees his or her professional and personal identity. Finally, at

the heart of the model was the level of mission and Korthagen explained that,

This level has been called a transpersonal level in so-called trans-personal

psychology…because it is about becoming aware of the meaning of one’s

own existence within a larger whole, and the role we see for ourselves in

relation to our fellow man…In short, it is about giving meaning to one’s

own existence (p. 85).

109

This sense of mission resonated with Zohar and Marshall’s (2000) conception of SQ

as being,

The intelligence with which we address and solve problems of

meaning and value, the intelligence with which we can place our

actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-giving context,

the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of action

or one life-path is more meaningful than another (pp. 3-4).

The level of mission conceptualised by Korthagen (2004) shared features with

Goleman’s (1996) conception of emotional intelligence and provided a platform for

the consideration of other teacher variables such as values and creativity. The

conceptualisation of effective teachers based on the six levels of change proposed by

Korthagen (2004) rested on the argument that, “From each perspective, there will be a

different answer to the question of the essential qualities of a good teacher, while it is

also possible to employ various perspectives parallel to one another” (p. 80). The

merit of Korthagen’s work was that it moved towards a more holistic approach for

conceptualising what it meant to be a “good” or effective teacher by presenting a

framework for reflecting on that meaning at different levels. In addition, Korthagen’s

model of effective teaching accommodated research findings in the area of

intelligence(s), all of which are important in the context of this study.

2.22.1 Summary

Korthagen’s (2004) “onion” model identified teacher variables that included both

pedagogic and dispositional considerations. Generally speaking, the outer layers of

the model had a propensity towards pedagogic variables such as teacher knowledge,

skills, and competencies. The two inner levels of the model, “identity” and

“mission”, on the other hand, included key dispositional variables such as teacher

beliefs and values. A feature of this model that is worth noting is the dynamic

relationship between the pedagogic and dispositional variables, and their inter-

relatedness. Korthagen’s model supports the proposition that pedagogic and

dispositional variables are equal partners when considering what it means to be an

exceptional teacher.

110

Part 4 of the literature review suggests that highly effective teachers are able to draw

upon different kinds of intelligence for different purposes and in different teaching

contexts. There appear to be recurring themes related to teacher dispositions that

emanate from literature in the field of intelligence. These include variables such as

teacher authenticity, passion, self-knowledge and knowledge of others, empathy,

caring, and the disposition to be reflective. In addition, literature in this field

indicates a dynamic relationship between dispositional variables and interpersonal

and intrapersonal skills and competencies demonstrated by effective teachers.

PART 5: Creativity and effective teachers

2.23 Rationale, themes, context and concept interpretation

2.23.1 Rationale and themes

Creativity is a recurring theme in literature that describes the attributes and abilities of

effective teachers. The field of creativity has yielded a large body of literature that

provides another dimension to the study of exceptional teachers. There is evidence

from this literature to support the proposition that most current models of pedagogy

call for teacher creativity in order to meet the needs of students as well as meeting the

requirements implicit in the theoretical frameworks. An important issue, however, is

how the concept “creativity” is interpreted.

Studies of teacher creativity have ranged in focus from the teacher as creative leader

(Simonton, 1984) to the teacher as a model of creative thinking and behaviour

(Cropley, 1994, 2001). Different research emphases, such as the processes of

creative thinking and the products of creativity, as well as the environmental variables

that stimulate creativity have provided alternative perspectives form which to

examine teacher creativity.

111

Many studies have focused on the personal attributes that are associated with

creativity (see, for example, Albert & Runco, 1999; Barron & Harrington, 1981a,

1981b; Eysenck, 1993; Feist, 1999; Helson, 1996, 1999; James & Asmus, 2000-2001;

Runco, 1995). Added to this is the important area of the relationship between teacher

beliefs and values and teacher creativity (Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976;

MacKinnon, 1978; Perkins, 1981; Sternberg, 2000b), and the related area of creativity

and motivation (Collins & Amabile, 1999). Other thematic strands included in the

study of creativity that pertain to teacher effectiveness have been the relationship

between creativity and knowledge (Weisberg, 1999), and the relationship between

creativity and cognition (Ward, Smith & Finke, 1999). The interplay between

different fields of literature, such as giftedness and talent and intelligence (Sternberg

& O’Hara, 1999), provide further perspectives from which to examine what has

emerged as a potentially critical consideration in teacher effectiveness.

A survey of literature in the field of creativity indicates that definitions and

conceptions of creativity vary widely. Sternberg (1997a), for example, defined

creativity “not only as the ability to come up with new ideas”, but also as “a process

that requires the balance and application of the three essential aspects of intelligence

– creative, analytical, and practical, the same aspects that when used in combination

and balance make for successful intelligence” (p. 191). Piirto (1999), on the other

hand, argued, “Creativity is the underpinning, the basement, the foundation that

permits talent to be realized. Creativity is in the personality.” (p. 164). Creativity has

been associated with models of giftedness and talent. In his “three ringed” theory of

giftedness, for instance, Renzulli (1978, 1986, 1998) conceptualised creativity as an

integral component of the giftedness construct, together with above-average

intelligence and task commitment. Rothenberg and Sobel (1980) made the

proposition that “Creativity is the highest form of human adaptation” (p. 370). From

these and other conceptions, it was clear that “creativity” is a multi-faceted and,

therefore, complex concept. Nonetheless, if we are to understand what it means to be

an exceptional teacher, then it is proposed that creativity must be included in the field

of literature to be surveyed.

112

2.23.2 Context

The context in which it is manifest is one of the key factors influencing how

researchers have conceptualised and examined creativity. Simonton (1984), for

example, examined the connection between creativity and leadership in the school

context. He found, “When the most famous creators and leaders are under scrutiny,

the distinction between creativity and leadership vanishes because creativity becomes

a variety of leadership” (p. 181). From that perspective, Simonton argued that

creativity was an integral component of many leadership styles. In the context of the

school, however, leadership was not restricted to the administrative domain.

Teachers, themselves, were conceptualised as being leaders because of the

responsibility they took not only for the quality of their students’ learning experiences

but also for the quality of their own engagement in teaching and learning.

The area of cognitive processes provided a different context for a study of creativity.

In their revision of Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Anderson

and Krathwohl (2001) proposed that the highest level in the taxonomy of cognitive

processes was the demonstrated ability to create. The noun form “creativity” and the

verb form “create” were seen to focus on different aspects of the concept, as

demonstrated in the distinction made by Anderson and Krathwohl. The emphasis

they placed on the ability to create was noteworthy.

To some persons, creativity is the production of unusual products,

often a result of some special skill. Create, as used here, however,

although it includes objectives that call for unique production, also

refers to objectives calling for production that all students can and

will do (p. 85).

The belief that creativity was achievable by all students and, by inference, all teachers

was compatible with Sternberg’s (1997a) view that, “Creativity within a domain can

be developed” (p. 197). This was supported by later research, such as that reported

by McWilliam and Dawson (2006) for the Carrick Institute in Australia. The focus of

their report was on understanding creativity in the context of awardees for teacher

113

excellence at the tertiary level. From a study of 37 Australian Carrick award winners,

they found,

The majority of Australian participants, like those in the UK,

perceived themselves to be creative. When asked for justification,

respondents related their understanding of creativity to thinking

and problem solving skills as well as self discipline and work ethic.

In this context the responses suggest that they perceive creativity as

a skill or attribute that can be fostered and developed. More than

two-thirds of the Australian participants disagreed with the notion that

creativity is a rare gift which only a few people have (p. 3).

Two notable findings from this study were firstly, that the award-winning

participants perceived themselves to be creative. Secondly, the majority of

participants perceived creativity to be a skill or attribute that could be fostered and

developed, rather than as a rare gift possessed by only a few.

2.23.3 Adopting a conception of creativity in the context of a study

of exceptional teachers

An important distinction in the definition and nature of creativity, as it pertains to

exceptional teachers, is that they are able to synthesise knowledge of their students,

the subject content, themselves and their world with the appropriate skills and

strategies needed to facilitate quality learning. Literature in the field indicates that

theory and research during the early part of the 21st century have placed emphasis

upon a synthesis of variables that contribute creativity. Together with personality

and environmental variables, the dimension of cognitive skills has added to the

understanding of the nature and function of creativity. This was evident, for

example, in the work of James and Asmus (2001) who observed, “Real-life creativity

requires the proper conjunction of personality, cognitive skills, and situational

conditions” (p. 150). When applied to a study of exceptional teachers, this multi-

faceted conception of creativity emphasises the reciprocal influences of dispositional,

cognitive and contextual variables as they are manifest in creative classroom

behaviour. The work of researchers such as Sternberg and Lubart (1991) and

Cropanzano, James and Citera (1993) support this notion. James and Asmus’

114

proposition that, “Real-world creativity is multi-faceted” and “different domains

make different demands on individuals” (p. 150) suggests an important perspective

from which to explore creativity as it applies to classroom practice. Accepting that

teaching and learning are legitimate domains of “real-life” creativity, it can be argued

that the ramifications of research in the field of creativity are well worth considering

when examining what it means to be an exceptional teacher.

The work of Sternberg (2006, 2007) has been influential in shaping contemporary

conceptions of creativity. In an explanation of the nature of creativity, Sternberg

(2006) proposed three general types that he described in terms of their relationship to

current paradigms. The first included those types of creativity that “accept current

paradigms and attempt to extend them” (p. 96). The second included “types of

creativity that reject current paradigms and attempt to replace them” (ibid). Finally,

he proposed that there was a type of creativity that synthesises current paradigms.

These three paradigms of creativity were expressed in terms of “eight types of

contributions that can be made to a field of endeavor at a given time” (ibid) and are

summarised as Table 2.3.

Table 2.3

A Summary of Sternberg’s (2006) Three Paradigms of Creativity and their Eight

Contributions Creativity that accepts and extends current paradigms

Creativity that rejects and replaces current paradigms

Creativity that synthesizes current paradigms

Contribution: Replication Contribution: Redirection Contribution: Integration Contribution: Redefinition Contribution: Reconstructed

redirection

Contribution: Forward incrementation

Contribution: Reinitiation

Contribution: Advance forward incrementation

Arguably, each of these three paradigms of creativity relates to teacher effectiveness.

In the context of classroom teaching, it is reasonable to suggest that highly effective

teachers are able to draw upon different paradigms and types of creativity, depending

upon the demands of a given situation and the needs of the students. This type of

versatility, it is proposed, is associated with teacher attributes such as flexible

115

thinking, resourcefulness, and problem solving. It also suggests that intelligent risks

will be taken in order to experiment with multiple ways of “reaching” students. In

addition, it suggests that the teacher is able to generate ideas and use the imagination

to create ways to challenge and engage students so that a high quality of learning is

achieved.

One additional perspective that needs to be taken into account is that of the

dispositions associated with creativity. While Part 6 of the literature review focuses

on the field of dispositions, it is timely to acknowledge the importance of this

emerging field of literature. An example of this was a keynote article on cultivating

creative mentalities by Claxton, Edwards and Scale-Constantinou (2006). They

identified six “creative habits and dispositions” (p. 58) that they considered “the more

plausible dispositions and habits of mind of creative people” (p. 59). These habits

and dispositions were: curiosity, resilience, experimenting, attentiveness,

thoughtfulness, and environment-setting. This example of the focus on dispositions

serves as an antecedent to Part 6 of the literature review.

2.23.4 Summary

Two important defining features of creativity that need to be taken into account when

including creativity in a study of exceptional teachers are that it is multi-dimensional

and that, conceptually, it is open to different interpretations. How we interpret and

define creativity is influenced by the context in which creativity functions. In spite

of the variations in the conceptualisation and definition of creativity, literature

supports the idea that creativity is a significant consideration when coming to an

understanding of what it means to be an exceptional teacher. Further, there appears

to be relatively strong evidence to support the notion that creativity contributes to the

quality of teacher and student engagement in learning.

2.24. The relationship between creativity and personality

A considerable proportion of literature and research in the field of creativity has

focused on personality characteristics associated with creative individuals. These

116

have included personality traits such as independence, a predisposition to

introversion, perseverance, tolerance for ambiguity, willingness to take risks, and

behavioural ambiguity, as enunciated by researchers such as Barron and Harrington

(1981a, 1981b). Later research, such as that conducted by Amabile (1996), Goertz

(2000), and Simonton (1984, 1986, 1994, 1995) further explored the link between

personality variables and creativity. In the context of creative achievement in art and

science, for instance, Feist (1999) found that personality had a direct influence on

achievement in these fields of endeavour. It is logical to assume that personality

traits probably have a direct influence on achievement in other fields of endeavour,

including teaching.

While such research indicated that creativity was conceptualised as a complex cluster

of characteristics, Albert and Runco (1986) found that these characteristics were

likely to be indicative, rather than categorical prescriptions for creativity. Over an

extended period of research in the area they found that, “The creative individual is

usually highly intelligent, significantly self-sufficient, independent, introverted,

dominant, and involved and sober when engaging in his or her interests” (p. 339).

They proposed that creative individuals “see themselves as inventive, independent,

determined, industrious, enthusiastic, and responsible to their own high standards,

and often try to solve problems in somewhat individualistic manners” (ibid).

Of these indicative personal characteristics Albert and Runco (1986) proposed,

“Independence…appears to be a prime personality disposition for creative

performance” (p. 339). Independence, it could be argued, is subsumed in the

disposition “original” that infers the ability to think independently. In addition, they

maintained that the identification of psychological characteristics and predispositions

of creative individuals was relatively straightforward. In the context of their study of

gifted and talented individuals they found that, “Only a small proportion working in

any particular field can be and are noticeably creative” (p. 341). This implied that

just as there were different levels of giftedness, expertise and talent, so there might be

different levels of creativity.

117

2.25 Creativity, beliefs, values and attitudes

Studies of the relationship between creativity and values (see, for example, Dollinger,

Burke & Gump, 2007; Kasof, Chen, Himsel & Greenberger, 2007) clearly indicate

that “creativity is grounded in values” (Dollinger et al., p. 91). Kasof et al. found that

“at least some value priorities can be deliberately altered” (p. 120). They cited the

work of Ball-Rokeach, Rokeach and Gruber (1984) as support for this. For the

purposes of their study of the relationship between extrinsic motivation and

creativity, Kasof et al. defined values as “stable beliefs about the relative importance

of desirable transsituational goals/ideas, functioning as general principles guiding

evaluations, decisions, and behavior and operationalized with participants’

assessments of the importance of various qualities/ideas” (p. 106). The close

association between values and “stable beliefs” was an important consideration.

2.25.1 Sternberg’s “investment theory” of creativity

In contrast to the focus given to personality, Sternberg (2000a, 2000b, 2006)

proposed that creativity was not dependent on a fixed set of traits of characters.

Rather, he proposed an “investment theory” of creativity based on the premise that

the individual made a conscious decision to be creative and that, “Creative people

generate ideas that are unusual and that defy the crowd and often are viewed as

bizarre by their colleagues” (Sternberg, 2000b, p. 60). A defining aspect of this

conception of creativity was the attitudes and beliefs held by the individual. These

attitudes and beliefs, Sternberg maintained, were based on conscious decisions made

by the individual in creative thinking and behaviour. In the context of teaching and

learning, for example, those attitudes and beliefs were developed as a result of the

conscious decisions that were made by the teacher during the process of teacher and

student engagement in the classroom, together with the personal investments that

were made by the teacher in teaching and learning activities

Such attitudes, according to Sternberg (2000b), were expressed in terms of ten

decisions that research has shown to be indicative of people who decided to be

creative. These decisions were associated with behaviours such as seeking to define

118

problems in new ways, reflecting on and analysing ideas, and developing skills to

demonstrate and persuade others of the value of these ideas. Listening to and being

tolerant of other people’s ideas was found to be a key attribute of creative thinkers

who consciously decided to see things in new ways, rather than allowing previous

knowledge and expertise to interfere with or limit creativity. It was found that

creative thinkers used criticism or opposition as motivation for refining their ideas,

rather than interpreting criticism as a personal threat. This suggested the dispositions

“resilience” and “persistence”. Sternberg’s research supported the idea that creative

thinkers were willing to take sensible risks and that they were eager to search for new

problems and new challenges to solve. The creative individual’s belief in self and

belief in the value of being involved in creative endeavour as well as tolerance of

ambiguity underpinned the decision to be creative. Finally, Sternberg found that

creative individuals loved what they did. This suggested a link between creativity

and passion for one’s chosen work.

A review of Sternberg and Lubart’s (1991) investment theory of creativity and

Sternberg’s (1999) theory of successful intelligence indicates that the decision to be

creative is manifest in ways of thinking and behaviours that, arguably, are the

manifestation of dispositions. The attitudes associated with creativity, as identified by

Sternberg (2000a, 2000b) appeared to be noticeably similar to personality variables

that had been referred to in research that focused on personality and creativity, such

as that of Albert and Runco (1999), Barron and Harrington (1981a, 1981b), Eysenck

(1993), Helson (1996, 1999), James and Asmus (2000-2001), and Runco (1995). In

his earlier work on successful intelligence, Sternberg (1997a) argued strongly that

creative intelligence can be developed and, in support of this, he examined twelve

characteristics of successfully intelligence people. In summary, he argued that

successfully intelligent people: “actively seek out, and later become, role models” (p.

200); “question assumptions and encourage others to do so” (p. 201); “allow

themselves and others to make mistakes” (p. 202); “take sensible risks and encourage

others to do the same (p. 203); “seek out for themselves and others tasks that allow

for creativity “ (p. 207); “actively define and redefine problems, and help others to do

so” (p. 208); “seek rewards for, and themselves reward, creativity” (p. 211); “allow

themselves and others the time to think creatively” (p. 212); “tolerate ambiguity and

encourage tolerance of ambiguity in others” (p. 212); “understand the obstacles

119

creative people must face and overcome” (p. 214); “recognize the importance of

person-environment fit” (p. 218).

These characteristics were compatible with the theme of personal dispositions

identified in other literature and research in the field of creativity (see, for example,

Eysenck, 1993, 1997; Helson, 1996; Kasof, 1995; Kasof, Chen, Himsel &

Greenberger, 2007), and were expressed in terms of manifest behaviours that were

highly compatible with those dispositions that are associated with best practice in

teaching. In his description of successfully intelligent people, Sternberg (1997a)

identified personal dispositions that resonated strongly with those identified as being

of particular relevance to highly effective teachers.

2.25.2 Creativity: teacher values and beliefs

The inclusion of the individual’s attitudes and beliefs as a component of the

explanation of the nature of creativity added an important dimension to research in

the field, especially with regard to effective teaching and effective teachers. This was

supported by the research of Sak (2004) who found that, “Teacher attitudes, beliefs,

and classroom practices are deemed to be of crucial influence in the development of

students’ creativity” (p. 216), where student creativity was conceptualised as an

important adjunct to teacher creativity. These attitudes, beliefs and classroom

practices were considered to be a crucial influence in the decisions that teachers made

about the nature of their engagement with students and in their roles as facilitators of

student creativity and learning.

The theme of teacher values was included in Cropley’s (1994, 2001) research on

creativity and effective teaching. From this research it was apparent that teacher

behaviours associated with creativity were motivated by the teacher’s beliefs and

values. Cropley postulated that the creative teacher valued divergent thinking and,

therefore, was able to build a classroom climate that was “constructively responsive

to unusual ideas” (Cropley, 1994, p. 216). This necessitated teacher dispositions and

attributes such as openness to new ideas and challenging experiences, as well as a

degree of risk taking and experimentation in the classroom.

120

Perkins (1981) presented a critical perspective that was pertinent to the relationship

between creativity, effective teaching, and teacher values and beliefs. His research

demonstrated that, “Although creative persons do have talent, their creativity is not

solely a result of this talent but is a function of their values and beliefs” (In Sternberg

& Davidson, 1986, p. 338). Perkins’ emphasis on the importance of the creative

individual’s belief in proactive behaviour, rather than passive acceptance of the status

quo shared common elements with the groundbreaking research of Getzels and

Csikszentmihalyi (1976). In the context of a study of exceptional teachers, the

implications of Perkins’ observation were significant because they highlighted the

importance of the teacher’s values and beliefs being active rather than inert. It was

not enough for the teacher simply to have the kinds of values and beliefs associated

with creativity. In keeping with Freeman’s (2007b) conception of the “syntax of

dispositions”, those values and beliefs had to be activated or lived out in the

classroom. MacKinnon (1978) shared this view and maintained that an individual’s

beliefs and values played a dominant role in creativity.

The association between creativity and the individual’s beliefs and values, as

observed by Albert and Runco (1986), harked back to the Freudian theory that “The

core of creative behavior is less on how you do something and more concerned with

why you do it” (p. 338). Thus, there appeared to be a relationship between beliefs and

values, motivation and creativity. The theme that emerged from Albert and Runco’s

research on creativity, therefore, was that there was a strong relationship between

creativity and the beliefs and values of the individual. This was compatible with the

proposition that motivation (see Amabile, 1983a, 1983b, 1988; Conti, Coon &

Amabile, 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, 1988a) played a critical role in the way creativity

was manifest. Amabile (1983b) proposed a componential model of creativity

comprising three components, including task motivation. The other two components

related to the skills that were relevant to creativity, namely: skills specific to the given

domain of the task, and general creativity skills. Conti, Coon and Amabile found that

the individual’s attitude towards the task, as well as their perceptions about their own

motivation for undertaking the task were important aspects of creativity.

121

2.26 The relationship between creativity and intelligence

James and Asmus (2000-2001) argued a different perspective and postulated that the

relationship between personality factors, cognitive skills and the processes involved

in creativity differed according to the sort of creativity that was being examined. In

other words, they argued that, “Both personality and cognitive skills may relate

differently to creativity of different sorts” (p. 149). The notion that creativity is

multi-domained and that there are different kinds of creativity provided an important

dimension to the study of creativity, particularly as it pertained to exceptional

teachers and the field of effective teaching.

Cropley (1994) found that there was a strong link between the teacher’s intellectual

ability, the ability to think creatively, and the ability to solve problems. Successful

teacher creativity, it was argued, necessitated the mastery of prerequisite knowledge,

such as instructional knowledge, that enabled the teacher to model creativity to his or

her students. Emphasis was placed on the relationship between creativity and

authentic tasks that required the solution of real-life problems that were seen to have

social and cultural value, as demonstrated in Cropley’s observation that, “Creative

accomplishments help to build a more interactive world that fortifies human

civilization” (p. 216). In the context of classroom teaching, Cropley pointed out the

irony that, “Educators sometimes teach students about creative and eminent people,

but ignore teaching that fosters students’ creative thinking in the classroom” (ibid).

The relationship between creativity and the beliefs and values of the individual was

the focus of research conducted by Goertz (2000) who found that creativity was

associated directly with passion for work. This coincided with Sternberg’s (2000b)

finding that creative individuals love what they do. In a study of effective school

principals, Goertz identified specific personal attributes, including those in the

affective domain that were linked to creativity. This research demonstrated further

the important relationship between creativity, dispositions, and the individual’s

beliefs and values. The personal attributes identified by Goertz included

independence, goal-setting, originality, flexibility, motivation, self-confidence, a wide

range of interests and the ability to speculate on ways to solve problems. Goertz also

122

found that there was a relationship between creativity and intelligence. These

findings resonated with those of Cropley (1994).

2.26.1 The relationship between emotional intelligence and

emotional creativity

An interesting strand of literature that has emerged over recent times is an exploration

of the relationship between intelligence and creativity and, more recently, between

emotional intelligence and emotional creativity. This was referred to in Part 4 of the

literature review. Ivcevic, Brackett and Mayer (2007) made a direct association

between intelligence, academic achievement and “the prestige of one’s occupation”

(p. 199). They associated creativity, however, with the degree of the individual’s

engagement in what they referred to as “novel endeavours” (ibid). They continued by

observing that,

A number of theories have been proposed about the relations between

intelligence and creativity. These theories postulate (a) that creativity

is a subset of intelligence (Guilford, 1975); (b) that creativity and

intelligence are related or partially overlapping constructs (Barron

& Harrington, 1981a); or (c) that creativity and intelligence are independent

abilities (Wallach & Kogan, 1965) (p. 200).

There appears to be evidence in the literature to support the proposition that the

concept “creativity” is not necessarily limited to the cognitive domain. An example

is found in the concepts “emotional creativity” (EC) and “emotional intelligence”

(EI). The concept “emotional intelligence” was discussed earlier in the literature

review, with particular reference to the work of Goleman (1995, 1998). In their

theory, Averill and Thomas-Knowles (1991) explained emotional creativity (EC) as

“the ability to experience and express original, appropriate and authentic

combinations of emotions” (p. 269). This highlighted the function of the affective

domain and extended the range of domains of creativity, thus providing further

evidence to support the notion that creativity is a multi-domained construct. In the

context of the relationship between creativity and intelligence, a pertinent question

raised by Ivcevic, Brackett and Mayer (2007) was whether the relationship between

123

EI and EC is parallel to that between cognitive intelligence and creativity. Much of

the debate in this area was dependent on the definitions of EC and EI. Ivcevic et al.,

for instance, made the proposition that “The two abilities differ in terms of the

emotions and intellect they evoke and in the criteria used in their measurement” (p.

204). While this was a potentially important area of creativity, it was clear that the

investigation of emotional creativity required further research and debate.

2.26.2 Summary

A survey of some of the dominant themes in literature from the field of creativity, as

they related to teacher effectiveness, indicated that “creativity” is a complex concept

that has been cause for debate. Further, literature in the field supported the idea that

creativity is multi-domained. This led to the question of identifying those aspects of

creativity that are most pertinent to a study of exceptional teachers. Included in this

was a consideration of the dispositions associated directly with the concept

“creativity” and how the identification of these dispositions might provide further

insight into what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”.

2.27 The relationship between creativity and intuition

The role of intuition in the manifestation of creative thinking and behaviour provided

an interesting research perspective. Fleith (2000) reflected on the possibility that,

“Although teachers were aware of the characteristics that enhance creativity in the

classroom, it seemed that the transference to practice was intuitive” (p. 151). This

corresponded with Piirto’s (1999) thesis that creativity was “in the personality” (p.

164). This conception not only contextualised creativity as a facilitator of talent, but

it pointed to the possibility that the concept “creativity” may involve a cluster of

dispositions that are an intrinsic part of the personality.

The relationship between intuition and creativity, including its application to

classroom teaching, was explored by Csikszentmihalyi (1996) who argued that

knowing about or being aware of those factors that enhance creativity in the

classroom is not sufficient for ensuring that creativity is facilitated and practised in

124

the classroom. He proposed that transference was required. The teacher’s ability to

take the knowledge and to apply it appropriately was of critical importance. A

second argument proposed by Csikszentmihalyi was that, to a large extent, the

transference of awareness and knowledge to practice was intuitive. This view was

supported by the work of Fleith (2000). This suggested a link between intelligence,

personality, and creativity, and was compatible with the notion that, to a certain

extent, creativity is innate. Literature from the field of giftedness and talent, such as

Gagné’s (1995a, 1995b) conception of creativity as an aptitude domain of giftedness,

also paralleled the thinking of Fleith.

2.28 The relationship between creativity, giftedness and talent

The question of creativity and its place in conceptualisations of intelligence and

giftedness and talent has been a central issue in the study of exceptional individuals.

The development of research in the field of creativity included the work of Guilford

(1950, 1956, 1967, 1968, 1975, 1986) and Torrance (1962, 1974a, 1974b, 1979,

1981, 1995a) as strong influences in the shaping of current notions of creativity.

While Guilford (1975) proposed a theoretical model of creativity, Torrance (1995a)

clarified the meaning of creativity and proposed a philosophy of creativity that led to

the development of strategies for testing creativity.

Literature in the field of giftedness and talent provides further insight into the nature

and function of creativity, particularly as it applies to exceptional teachers. Earlier

research such as that of Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi (1976), like that of Renzulli

(1978, 1998) and Tannenbaum (1983, 1986), identified creativity as a significant

variable that contributed to exceptionality. Creativity, it was argued, worked in

conjunction with other variables such as intelligence and the individual’s values and

beliefs. The recurring motif of the importance of the individual’s values and beliefs

resonated across all five fields of literature.

In their study of adult fine artists, Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi (1976) found that

problem finding, as distinct from problem solving, was an important consideration in

125

the study of creativity. As a result, they proposed altering the traditional paradigm of

the exceptional individual as “Not only a stimulus-reducing or problem-solving

organism, but also a stimulus-seeking or problem finding organism” (p. 93). This

proactive quality appeared to have much in common with the kinds of thinking and

behaviour needed by teachers in order to facilitate the high quality of learning

advocated in pedagogic models such as the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model (QTM) (NSW, DET, 2003). In response to the question, “What sort of people

do teachers need to be in order to implement the QTM at consistently high qualities

of teaching and learning?” there is evidence from the literature to support the

argument that they need to be both problem solving and problem finding if they are

to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in the context of the diverse needs of

their students. In other words, they need to be creative.

A decade ago, Hargreaves, Lieberman, Fullan and Hopkins (1998) described good

teachers as “emotional, passionate beings who fill their work and their classes

with pleasure, creativity, challenge and joy” (p. 559). They extended the description

by adding, “Good teachers are passionate about ideas, learning and their relationships

with students” (ibid). There is abundant evidence in the literature to suggest that

these dispositions and attributes continue to apply to what it means to be an effective

teacher who is able to successfully and creatively implement pedagogic models.

Earlier in the literature survey, it was shown that Renzulli (1978, 1998)

conceptualised creativity as one of three components of talent, including task

commitment and above average intelligence. The differentiated model of giftedness

and talent proposed by Gagné (1995a, 1995b), on the other hand, conceptualised

creativity as one of several aptitude domains, rather than as an integral component of

talent. Both theorists, however, subscribed to the idea that creativity was innate.

Nonetheless, this view did not preclude the development of creativity through

deliberate practice and training, as evidenced in Gagné’s focus on the process

involved in the development of giftedness into talent. This included the impact of

personal and environmental catalysts. Irrespective of whether creativity was

conceptualised as being domain specific or an integral component of talent, per se,

literature in the area indicated that creativity is worth considering when examining

those variables that contributed to exceptional teachers and exceptional teaching.

126

The complex nature of creativity and the way it functions in relationship to

exceptionality was cause for debate and further research. The work of Michalko

(1998) focused on what he described as “the super creative”. He found that creativity

was associated with different ways of thinking and that, “Creative geniuses know

how to use these thinking strategies – and teach others to use them” (p. 8). Michalko

used the descriptor “genius” to refer to the highest level of exceptionality and, in

support of his findings, cited the work of Zuckermann (1977) who observed that of

the novel laureates she researched, “Their most influential masters taught them

different thinking styles and strategies rather than what to think” (p. 8).

The emphasis on the facilitation of independent and divergent thinking styles became

a dominant theme in research on creativity and, in the context of a study of

exceptional teachers, proved to be important. Teachers and schools, it was argued,

should be in the business of teaching children how to think, rather than what to think.

This principle is reflected in the elements of the QTM dimension Intellectual quality.

Changes in the focus and nature of teaching and learning in New South Wales,

Australia at the turn of the 20th century, for example, highlighted the need for

students to be able to think critically as well as creatively. Students were also called

upon to construct their own meaning and to substantiate that meaning through

increasingly deep knowledge and understanding of their world as well as subject

content learnt at school. In order to facilitate those kinds of thinking, teachers were

called upon to model what they were teaching. The literature yielded strong support

for arguing that the teacher requirements implicit in recent models of pedagogy, such

as the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (NSW, DET, 2003), indicate that

creativity is likely to be an important component of effective teaching.

2.29 Summary of Part 5

The emergence of creativity as a significant consideration for the study of exceptional

teachers was an important outcome of the review of literature in the fields of effective

teachers and talented adults. The function of creativity as an integral component of

effective teaching and effective leadership in the school was a recurring theme that

127

necessitated further exploration and consideration, particularly in the context of

identifying and researching the variables that contributed to the effectiveness of

exceptional teachers and the consistently high levels of quality teaching and learning

in which they engage with their students. Research and literature in the area of

creativity, however, indicated that there is considerable variety in the interpretations

of this concept and in the way creativity functions in terms of teaching and learning.

These interpretations range in focus from the conceptualisation of the teacher as a

leader to the teacher as a co-learner. Literature and research in the fields of

giftedness and talent, and creativity provide strong support for the inclusion of

creativity as an important distinguishing attribute of exceptional teachers.

The inclusion of the field of creativity in the literature review and its application to a

study of exceptional teachers had the potential to extend the traditional body of

thinking about what it means to be an effective teacher, per se. While many

contemporary theoretical models of pedagogy focus on teacher knowledge, skills and

competencies, an exploration of the relationship between these competencies and the

dispositions and attributes of the teacher, including creativity, beliefs and values is

likely to enrich the field of research and thus enhance our understanding of the

teacher qualities that enhance best practice in teaching. It could be argued, for

instance, that within the theoretical framework of the QTM, engagement in quality

pedagogy requires teacher creativity. In the facilitation of the different elements of

the domain Significance, for example, the model indicated that teachers are required

to engage in pedagogy that “Helps make learning meaningful and important to

students. Such pedagogy draws clear connections with students’ prior knowledge and

identities, with contexts outside the classroom, and with multiple ways of knowing or

cultural perspectives” (NSW, DET, p. 9).

Evidence drawn from the literature review supports the notion that if teachers are to

engage successfully in the domain Significance, they are called upon to demonstrate

creativity. Further, the ability to synthesise the domains Intellectual quality and

Quality learning environment with the domain Significance points to the need for the

teacher to be able to engage in high levels of creativity in order to integrate the

elements of each domain so that meaningful, relevant learning is experienced by all

the students. Earlier research, such as that of Sill (1996), foreshadowed this idea by

128

focusing on the importance of the teacher’s ability to think creatively and to integrate

and synthesise their own knowledge and understanding of the different contents,

contexts and principles underpinning their students’ learning experiences.

A consideration of the nature and function of creativity in the context of effective

teaching is not without problems. The survey of literature in the field of creativity

indicated that issues inherent in a discussion of creativity include not only those

associated with defining the concept, but also include questions that relate to the

nature of creativity. Research such as that of Simplicio (2000) focused on the issue

of whether creativity was innate or teachable. He argued that creativity “Can be seen

not as just a natural ability possessed by a chosen few, but a methodological approach

that can be mastered by all” (p. 676). This conception of the nature of creativity

supported the thinking of Sternberg (1997a) who proposed, “We all should be

encouraged to develop our creativity in the areas where we have a contribution to

make” (p. 219). Of critical importance in the development of creativity, however,

was the need for an appropriate environment and the desirable beliefs, values and

attitudes that promote creativity. The research of Sternberg and others pointed to the

likelihood that, “People do their most creative work when they love what they do”

(ibid). This suggested a direct link between creativity and passion, thus providing a

platform for exploring other dispositions and behaviours that are associated with

exceptional teachers.

PART 6: Dispositions and the effective teacher

2.30 Rationale and context

Since the landmark report published in the USA by the National Commission for

Teaching and America’s Future (1996) entitled What Matters Most: Teaching for

America’s Future, there has been a growing interest in what is now described as the

fifth dimension in the study of teaching quality, namely the dispositions of effective

teachers. As Erickson, Hyndman, and Wirtz (2005) noted, “State and national

accrediting agencies have included dispositions as an essential element of

129

professional educator preparation. These standards describe the requirement for

dispositions within the educator preparation program and the requirement for

assessment” (n.p.).

The accrediting agency, The National Council for Accreditation in Teacher Education

(NCATE), have been most influential in stimulating debate on dispositions and much

effort and research have been devoted to finding ways of fulfilling its requirements to

measure and assess dispositions of teacher effectiveness. NCATE (2002) defined

dispositions as follows,

The values, commitments, and professional ethics that influence

behaviours towards students, families, colleagues and communities and

affective student learning, motivation and development as well as the

educator’s own professional growth. Dispositions are guided by

beliefs and attitudes related to values such as caring, fairness, honesty,

responsibility and social justice. For example, they might include a

belief that all students can learn, a vision of high and challenging

standards, or a commitment to a safe and supportive environment ( p.

59).

More recently, NCATE (2006b) updated its definition of professional dispositions to

include the professional behaviours that educators are expected to demonstrate in the

context of professional interactions with those involved in the teaching-learning

process, including students, families, colleagues and associated communities. Such

behaviors, according to NCATE, are characterised by the way they “support student

learning and development and are consistent with ideas of fairness and the belief that

all students can learn” (p. 5). Regarding the identification of specific teacher

dispositions that contribute to effective teaching, NCATE placed the onus on the

educational institution and stated, “Based on their mission, professional education

units may determine additional professional dispositions they want candidates to

develop” (ibd.). With regard to the assessment of professional dispositions, emphasis

was placed upon “ observable behaviour in educational settings” (ibid.).

Since the issue of this definition, there has been a rapid growth of literature aimed at

interpreting the NCATE requirements with regard to linking dispositions to the

130

quality of teaching. This renewed interest in dispositions for educator preparation

was seen in the literature as being critical for two main reasons. First, the disposition

to teach is commonly identified as the primary quality of successful educators

(Taylor & Wasicsko, 2000). Second, addressing dispositions in educator preparation

programs is required at state and national levels as an element of the accreditation

process in the USA. Weiner and Cohen (2003) justified the new quest for studying

dispositions in slightly different terms and stated, “We may never solve the

enormous problems of poor quality teaching and teacher turnover unless more

attention is paid to the dispositions that impact on classroom practice” (p. 2).

From a slightly different perspective, Taylor and Wasicsko (2000) said that, “The

issues for teacher educators will be to define what is meant by “dispositions”, review

the research base, find appropriate measurement tools, decide on the implications for

selecting and preparing future teachers and conduct additional research” (p. 2).

In addressing these challenges, the imposing nature of the quest has been noted in a

variety of ways. The lack of convincing evidence of the relationship between

dispositions and teacher effectiveness was noted by Taylor and Wasicsko who said

that, “Researchers have been examining the dispositions (albeit by names such as

attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, etc) of effective teachers for decades and have found

relationships between effectiveness and the dispositions that teachers hold” (p. 2).

Before discussing literature from the field of dispositions, however, it is necessary to

consider a definition of the concept as it applies to the context of teacher

effectiveness.

2.31 Definitions of dispositions

There is a considerable literature relating to the study of dispositions that have been

variously described. Schussler (2006) used the metaphor of a filter and proposed that,

“This dispositional filter encompasses the teacher’s awareness, inclination and ability

to reflect” (p. 251). Burant, Chubbuck and Whipp (2005) described dispositions as

“attitudes (Getzels & Jackson, 1963), manner (Fenstermacher, 1992), beliefs

(Richardson, 1996), prevailing inclinations and desires (Schussler, Stooksberry &

Bercaw, 2005) and moral dimension (Breyer, 1997; Goodlad, Soder & Sirotnik, 1990;

131

Hansen, 2001; Sockett, 2005)” (p. 7). The literature reviewed in this survey reflects

this variety of descriptions.

One of the more influential definitions of dispositions was provided by Katz (1993)

who concluded, “A disposition is a tendency to exhibit frequently, consciously and

voluntarily a pattern of behavior that is directed towards a broad goal” (p. 1). Raths

(2006) interpreted the NCATE view of dispositions as “something inside the brain,

[that] guides teachers’ behaviour – including beliefs and attitudes and so on. The

collection of “things” constitutes a disposition” (p. 10).

The challenge of identifying the inextricable links betweens dispositions and the

effective teacher are evident in much of the recent literature. In addition, the

challenge of identifying the key determinants attached to particular dispositions is

often influenced by particular notions of what constitutes an effective teacher. It has

been noted already that a conceptual dichotomy often exists between the dispositions

of effective teachers, on the one hand, and pedagogic skills and knowledge, on the

other. This dichotomy is exemplified by Zhixin’s (1990) observation that a good

educator is “either 1) a good person with a desirable [personality] characterised by a

love of children, dedication to teaching and intuition in exciting children to learn, or

2) a learned person, who knows the subject matter and how to convey it to children”

(p. 367). Taylor and Wasicsko (2000) suggested a perspective that synthesised

teacher dispositions with pedagogic concerns. Their perspective was that,

Effective teachers are effective people. They are warm and caring,

they enjoy life, and they are enthusiastic about helping other people

to grow and develop. The teacher who is effective is one who combines

these personal qualities (dispositions) with content and method in order

to impact on students in a positive way (p. 9).

The behaviours that are encompassed by the term dispositions in the literature are

wide and varied. The work of Stronge (2002) is often quoted to illustrate the link

between teacher behaviours and dispositions. Weiner and Cohen (2003) summarised

Stronge’s identification of six primary dispositions associated with effective teachers

as being “caring, fairness and respect; enthusiasm and motivation; reflective practice;

132

positive attitude towards teaching; and friendly and personal interactions with

students” (p. 4).

When they defined the scope of dispositions Weiner and Cohen (2003) stated that

“Dispositions can be defined as one’s personal qualities or characteristics including

attitudes, beliefs, interests, values and coping styles; determiners of behavior,

constellations of personal meanings from which behaviors spring” (p. 1). More

recently, Sockett (2006) saw dispositions as being the “The professional virtues,

qualities and habits of mind and behavior held and developed by teachers on the basis

of their knowledge, understanding and commitments to students, families, their

colleagues and communities” (p. 23).

In an incisive analysis, Burant, Chubbuck and Whipp (2005) distinguished three basic

approaches to defining dispositions in the literature, the first being the

psychodynamic approach that defined them as personality traits that produce

consistent patterns of behaviour in individuals (Mullin, 2003). The second was an

approach that viewed dispositions as humanistic, existential belief statements that are

equated with propositional belief statements. A third approach to understanding

dispositions identified them as meaningfully understandable and measurable only

when linked to behaviour (Diez, 2005; Mullin, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 2005). Burant,

Chubbuck and Whipp made the important observation that “Conflating dispositions

with static personality traits, with content-laden belief statements or with observable

behaviors is incomplete, inaccurate and reductionist” (p. 9). They suggested another

approach based on the premise that a disposition is more deep-seated than a

measurable belief. In support of this approach they quoted from Schussler,

Stooksberry and Bercaw (2005) who explained, “A disposition is an underlying

value, a point of origin…a guiding source for a teacher to process knowledge and

perform in particular ways” (p. 10).

In pursuing this line of thought, Burant, Chubbuck and Whipp (2005) suggested that

the Schussler (2005) viewpoint was close to the moral dimension that was referred to

by Breyer (1997), Goodlad, Soder and Sirotinik (1990), Hansen (2001), and Sockett

(2005). This analysis led them to the interesting conclusion that, in conjunction with

a consideration of the moral dimension, it “may in fact [be possible to] support a

133

synthesised understanding that includes aspects of all three of the aforementioned

definitions, character trait, belief statement and behaviour” (p. 10). In support of this

approach Burant et al. observed that Hansen maintained that the moral aspect of

teaching is best illustrated by conceptualising the means and the ends of teaching and

learning as inseparable and of one fabric.

Having explored a variety of definitions of dispositions, it is evident that there is no

general consensus as to the essential nature of dispositions and the matter remains

open to further debate. As Raths (2006) observed, “The field of teacher education,

perhaps more than most, is known for widely differing definitions of key concepts”

(p. 8). Burant, Chubbuck and Whipp (2005) concurred with this view in the

statement that,” The unsettled nature of the question of how to define “disposition” is

apparent in the historically changing terminology as well as in the current and

confusing NCATE documents” (p. 7). In an attempt to summarise the current state of

debate on dispositions, Bunch (2006) stated that it is best to “Consider the general

nature of dispositions as qualities more deeply held than observable behaviors but

revealed in patterns of behaviour” (n.p.). In his study of recent definitions, Raths

(2006) concluded that “What we see in this authoritative array of definitions is the

concept disposition portrayed as a “cause” of behaviour akin to traits of character or

will that evidently must be shaped and changed if teachers are to “behave correctly”

in the classroom” (p. 11). Raths succinctly summarised the current situation by

characterising the debate on dispositions “as a conceptual mess” and the implications

of this summary of the literature provided a significant challenge for a study of

exceptional teachers. One of the challenges in this study of exceptional teachers,

therefore, was to find a way to “untangle” the plethora of dispositions that are

associated with such teachers. Another challenge was to find a way to synthesise and

organise these dispositions so that they could be examined in meaningful way.

2.32 Assessment of dispositions

Accompanying the literature on dispositions there has been a protracted debate about

how to measure dispositions, however they are defined. Combs (1974) equated

dispositions with perceptions and pioneered the use of high inference research tools

134

for making accurate assessments of dispositions. He saw behaviour as the symptom

of perception and he represented the first of a long line of researchers who looked at

behavioural characteristics as a means of assessing and measuring dispositions, but

progress has been slow. Bunch (2006) observed that the “70’s and 80’s research

made demonstrated correlations between some qualities we call dispositions and

effective teaching. But effective teaching was not defined strictly by student learning

gains” (n.p.). The challenge is put slightly differently by Schussler, Stooksbury and

Bercaw (2005) who asserted that there is no clear guidance in the research or practice

as to what is expected of teachers in terms of the identification, analysis and

development of dispositions.

Raths (2006) advocated a two-step approach in addressing the problem of assessment,

namely, “The first is to select the dispositions that a program wishes to strengthen and

the second is to find ways to assess the strength of dispositions” (p. 11). However, as

Erickson, Hyndman and Wirtz (2005) observed, “Of the three competencies, content

knowledge, pedagogical skill and disposition, disposition is the most difficult to

assess” (n.p.). They then nominated four areas of their own on which to base

assessment. These were: “perception of self; perception of others as able (Kagan,

1982); perception of purpose (Collinson, 1996); and, people frame of reference

(Collinson, 1996)” (n.p.). In a more succinct way Raths cited Murray’s (1999)

assertion that “It is the behavior that flows from the disposition that is assessed, not

the disposition itself” (In Raths, 2006, p. 11). Raths concludes, “None of our

approaches have been satisfactory – essentially because of low coefficients of

agreement between raters. It seems that we haven’t been able to teach raters what is

meant by a specific disposition” (p. 16).

The literature revealed that most institutions in the USA are choosing to identify

dispositions in their own particular way as broad categories with associated

behaviours or manifestations. Examples of this approach are the subject of the next

section.

135

2.33 Dispositions in practice

Given the imperative to include dispositions in conceptual frameworks for teacher

accreditation in the USA through agencies such as NCATE, many researchers and

institutions have made choices as to the type of dispositions and associated

characteristics that will be used to fulfil accreditation requirements. This final section

of the literature review provides a sample of the type and nature of the choices being

made over the past five years.

The literature indicates that dispositions are being interpreted in practice in a variety

of ways, including: characteristic manners of thinking and acting; habitual frames of

mind; trends in action that are intentional on the part of the teacher; values, beliefs

and intentions that are evident in consistent patterns of behaviour; and, a consistent

tendency, mood or inclination.

Taylor and Wasicsko (2000) contended, “ Effective teachers are effective people” (p.

9). They proposed that, “Being effective as a teacher means not only being proficient

with teaching processes (methods, strategies, and behaviors) that lead to student

products (knowledge, achievement, etc.), but also being a person who can facilitate

positive change in people’s lives” (ibid). They identified dispositions such as warmth

and caring, enjoyment of life, enthusiasm, and a love of “helping other people grow

and develop” (ibid) as being associated with effective teachers. Edwards (2007)

supported this interpretation of the dispositions that are associated with effective

teachers. He noted,

Research indicates that the success of a professional educator ultimately

may depend on the development of the necessary dispositions such as

caring for others, sensitivity to student differences, fairness and strength

in making decisions and getting things done (Burden & Byrd, 2003;

Sockett, 2006; Stronge, 2002) (n.p.).

Burant et al. (2005) acknowledged that Freire (1998) identified the following

characteristics as being important in the effective teacher: “humility, lovingness,

courage, decisiveness, security in one’s authority, patience in impatience, a joy of

136

living, a tolerance while maintaining intolerance towards aggression” (Burant et al.,

2005, pp. 12-13). Bunch (2006) listed the dispositions adopted by his own college

(Corban College) as being: “respect and compassion for others; commitment to

professional and personal growth; moral and ethical integrity; and capacity for

leadership” (n. p.). He also indicated his personal preference for dispositions that

were: “empathy; positive view of others; positive view of self; authenticity;

meaningful purpose and vision” (n. p). As an example of institutional practice,

Asbury College (Wesleyan Methodist Heritage) has adopted a triadic approach to

dispositional development that includes: developing knowledge of the dispositions,

developing the identity with the dispositions, and enacting the dispositions (action).

It was concluded from the literature that there was no right way of choosing

dispositions and their associated characteristics. This was indicated by the multitude

of emerging patterns in the design of dispositions frameworks and protocols. As

Bunch (2006) concluded, “Dispositions are deeply held orientations revealed in

behavior patterns” and the development of the actual disposition “depends on many

variables, including the depth of the orientation and how we approach the endeavour

with students” (n.p.).

It should be noted that there is a body of opinion that offers significant criticism of

the NCATE approach to dispositions. For example, Damon (2005) asserted

“NCATE’s operational definition of “dispositions” spills far beyond the precise

semantic boundaries established in the behavioral sciences” (p. 3). He went on to say

that “This definitional contrast is far more than an academic distinction…The effect

of the NCATE approach is that it opens virtually all of a candidate’s thoughts and

acts to scrutiny as part of the assessment process” (p. 3). Freeman (2005) pointed out

that the debate on dispositions and their association with effective teachers has a

relatively long and respectable history going back to at least as early as the 1980s,

when Ennis (1987) introduced the notion of dispositions into writing and research

about critical thinking. The notion of disposition continues to be developed by others

in this growing field of literature and research.

137

2.34 Towards a conceptual framework for an analysis of

dispositions

Freeman (2007b) provided his own analysis of the current debate on dispositions.

His main premise was, “Dispositions do not appear in isolation from one another;

they frequently appear to be tangled together and at times appear to defy untwisting

and straightening out for the kind of analysis that is needed” (p. 133). He provided

his own conceptual analysis based on the term “dispositions-in-action”. In doing so,

he acknowledged his indebtedness to John Searle (1983) who developed the notion

of “intention-in-action” that Freeman used to arrive at his term “dispositions-in-

action”. Freeman also suggested that “a disposition might be conceptualised as a

system comprised of three interrelated elements: valuing, strategy, and intention” (p.

126). In defining the element of valuing he explained,

By valuing I refer to the desire for something to be realized, a want.

It encompasses more than a favourable attitude or a mere belief

that a certain state of affairs should be achieved. It has about [it]

the quality of envisaging, of seeing how the future can unfold (p. 126).

Freeman (2007b) reinforced this notion of valuing and argued, “Without the

component of “values”, whether implicit or explicit, there is no disposition. Values

are the driving force, the aspect of a disposition that responds to the question, Why

or why bother?” (p. 127). Freeman provided what he termed a “preliminary”

definition of the second component, “strategy” and explained that it was “the means

we use to relate some piece of thinking or action to a large piece of thinking, action,

or a vision” (p. 128). The third component, “intention”, was defined by Freeman in

terms of the notion of “intention-in-action” that was developed by Searle (1983) who

summarised it as an observable phenomenon.

“Intention-in-action” presents – it is observable in the event which it

produces. In the case of “intention-in-action” the correlate in teacher

education consists of exercises which permit “authentic assessment”

or of situations in which candidates carry out teaching, administrative

and other relevant tasks in “real” situation (Freeman, 2007b, p. 128).

138

Having defined the three principal components of dispositions as he saw them,

Freeman (2007b) postulated that dispositions had to be seen in a given context. In

explaining the relationship between context and dispositions he proposed that,

disposition is, or results in, a particular kind of intentional action

or behavior. It is behavior or action that occurs in a given context

at a given time; it is behavior or action that is related in an as yet

unclear and complicated way to the context in which it occurs (p. 130).

As a result of this analysis of the key components of dispositions and the importance

of the context in which they were operating, Freeman (2007b) formulated what he

termed “the syntax of dispositions” which he depicted as “Constraints and

possibilities of context + an intention-in-action + values to be realized + pursuing

selected strategies” (p. 133). He added that in the syntactical relationship “All of

these elements must be present in order for a disposition to be activated and result in

observable action” (ibid) and “If a pattern of teaching behaviour is not producing the

desired result, this syntax suggests that a systematic examination of context, levels of

intention, strategies, and values will assist in identifying where change or adjustment

is necessary” (ibid).

2.35 Summary of dispositions

In summary, this brief survey of current practice in the deployment of dispositions

relating to teaching effectiveness in the United States of America reveals a strong

sense of purpose but a very disparate range of dispositions and an even more varied

range of associated characteristics. This is illustrated in institutional profiles and the

preferences of researchers. It also reveals the challenges in trying to apply a

dispositions framework in practice. In spite of these challenges, however, literature

from the field of dispositions provides a valuable perspective that needs to be taken

into account when considering what it means to be an exceptional teacher. This is a

perspective that may be useful for the purpose of working towards a synthesis of the

personal attributes and classroom behaviours that characterise exceptional teachers.

139

2.36 Observations to be made from the literature review

From the review of literature it is evident that there are recurring themes that infuse

the five selected fields of research. Some of these themes have particular relevance to

the current study and will be investigated further in the context of the development of

a dispositional model that may be of assistance in conceptualising and understanding

what it means to be an exceptional teacher.

Several observations can be made from the literature review. The first is that if we

intend to identify and examine the dispositional variables that are associated with

exceptional teachers, then there is a need to “untangle”, organise and synthesise the

multitude dispositions that are referred to across the five fields of research. The

second is that there appears to be a dynamic relationship between dispositions,

themselves, and between dispositions and related teacher behaviours and this needs to

be taken into account when attempting to differentiate between teachers with the

intention of understanding what it means to be an exceptional teacher. A third

observation is that there appear to be “clusters” of dispositions that may be of key

importance when considering a study of exceptional teachers. Finally, literature from

the five selected fields indicates that a study of the dispositions associated with

exceptional teachers is likely to be both complex and, to an extent, subjective because

of the nature of the concepts “exceptional teacher” and “disposition”.

Chapter 5 presents the second stage of the research and is an attempt to respond to the

challenges implicit in these observations through the design of the Dispositional

Cluster Model, a conceptual model that is based on the findings from the literature

review. Chapters 3 and 4 present the conceptual framework and the methodological

framework underpinning this study.

140

CHAPTER 3

Conceptual Framework and Research Approach for the

Study of Exceptional Teachers

3.1 Introduction and rationale

In order to facilitate this study of exceptional teachers, particularly with reference to the

role of dispositions in coming to an understanding of what it means to be an exceptional

teacher, it is considered essential to design an appropriate conceptual framework as well

as adopt an appropriate research approach. A feature of the literature review was that it

extended the investigation of what it means to be an exceptional teacher to include not

only the field of effective teaching and effective teachers, but also the fields of

giftedness and talent, intelligence, creativity and dispositions. While pedagogical

variables are important considerations, teacher dispositions also need to be taken into

account in the investigation. The central challenge is to accommodate the diverse mix

of pedagogical and dispositional considerations in the design of a comprehensive

conceptual framework for testing the working hypotheses. A unique aspect of this

approach is the design of a Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) that, when used with

other instruments, can assist in understanding the role of dispositions in differentiating

between teachers and identifying “exceptional teachers” in the context of a case study.

The design of the conceptual framework is driven, to a large extent, by the research

questions that focus on three key issues: what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”,

the role of dispositions in defining this concept, and a study of how the characteristics

of exceptional teachers are manifest in practice. In this context, the research

contribution of the study is that it establishes a model for exploring the personal

dispositions and classroom behaviour of exceptional teachers and that, in doing so, it

can inform the debate on the improvement of the quality of teaching in schools and on

the implementation of pedagogic models such as the New South Wales Quality

Teaching Model (QTM) (NSW, DET, 2003). In addition, the study also contributes to

141

the debate on effective teachers through the design of an Interview Analysis Framework

(IAF) that was used in the case study.

3.2 Case study research approach

This study has at its core a case study research approach along the lines of constructivist

inquiry, involving “a process of developing systematized knowledge gained from

observations that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the

phenomena under study” (Lauer & Asher, 1988, p. 7). According to Yin (2003) case

study research “Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context

especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly

evident” (p. 13). He went on to say that the case study inquiry approach “copes with the

technically destructive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest

than data points” (p. 13). A case study approach is selected because it accommodates

both objective and subjective data input ranging from the observation and analysis of

classroom behaviours, using well researched observation criteria, to the self-reflections

of teachers.

3.3 Mixed method approach

In adopting a case study research approach it is important to stress that it permits what

is referred to in recent literature as a “mixed method” approach. Tashakkori and

Creswell (2007) defined mixed method research as “research in which the investigator

collects and analyses data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both

qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or a program of

enquiry” (p. 4). The thrust of this definition is supported by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie

(2004) who stated “Mixed method research is …the class of research where the

researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods

and approaches, concepts or languages into a single study” (p. 17). This is an

important consideration for the proposed study of exceptional teachers because it allows

for research input from a variety of different sources, some of which are more suited to

qualitative methods of investigation than quantitative methods. The aim is to come to

an understanding of exceptional teachers that synthesizes both pedagogic and

142

dispositional features so that a more holistic view of what it means to be an exceptional

teacher is achieved.

Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) identified two major types of mixed methods

research namely, “mixed model (mixing qualitative and quantitative approaches within

or across the stages of the research process)” and “mixed method (the inclusion of a

quantitative phase and a qualitative phase in an overall research study)” (p. 20). For the

purposes of this study a “mixed model” as defined by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie has

been adopted.

Greene, Caracelli and Graham (1989) identified several significant advantages in

adopting the mixed method approach. These can be summarised as: triangulation that

tests the consistency of findings obtained from different instruments; complementarity

that clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method;

development of results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the

research process; initiation that stimulates new research questions or challenges results

obtained through one method; and expansion that provides richness and detail in

exploring specific features of early methods. All of these factors are relevant to the

nature and conduct of this study.

3.4 Constructivist Inquiry Theory

In Chapter 2 it was argued that the phenomenon “exceptional teacher” is a reality and

that it is worth finding out as much as we can about this phenomenon. By so doing, it is

possible to contribute useful knowledge that can assist teachers to enhance the quality of

their teaching and their students’ learning. In order to learn more about this

phenomenon, it is important to engage with exceptional teachers in the context of their

classroom behaviour and in the context of their personal reflections. For this reason the

research approach adopted in this study will be informed to a significant extent by the

principles of constructivist inquiry theory. According to Charmaz (2006), “A

constructivist approach places priority on the phenomena of study and sees both data

and analysis as created from shared experiences and relationships with the participant”

(p. 130). Charmaz emphasised that a constructivist approach acknowledges that the

143

resulting theory is an interpretation. In other words, “The theory depends on the

researcher’s view; it does not and cannot stand outside of it. Granted, different

researchers may come up with similar ideas, although how they render them

theoretically may differ” (p. 130). The adoption of this research approach and

framework requires the use of guiding principles that will assist in maintaining

credibility and providing weight of evidence to test the four working hypotheses.

In formal terms, the following elements of constructivist inquiry theory as postulated by

Pickard and Dixon (2004, pp. 5-6) are used as principles to guide the development of

the methodological framework, namely: an ontology that is relativist and accommodates

multiple realities constructed by individuals; an epistemology that is subjective and

interactive where the researcher and the subject are interactive; a methodology based on

empathetic interaction between researcher and subject as the basis of interpretation;

outcomes of research that are context and time dependent working hypotheses leading

to understanding.

Of importance to the conduct of this study are the five axioms of the naturalistic inquiry

paradigm that Lincoln and Guba (1985) summarised as,

Realities which are multiple, constructed and holistic; knower and

known are interactive, inseparable; only time and context bound

working hypotheses are possible; all entities in a state of mutual

simultaneous so that it is impossible to distinguish causes from

effects; inquiry is value bound (p. 37).

Given these axioms, of particular importance to the validity of constructivist inquiry and

the research approach used in this study is the question of trustworthiness that

encompasses concepts of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). They explained, “The aim of trustworthiness in a qualitative

inquiry is to support the argument that the inquiry’s findings are worth paying attention

to” (p. 290). With reference to the current study, the construction of an audit trail for

establishing trustworthiness has emerged as an important guiding principle. To that end,

Lincoln and Guba who outlined a research audit trail comprising six categories of

information provided guidance, including:

144

1. Raw data, for example, written field notes, audio and video recordings or

survey results;

2. Data reduction and analysis products, for example, summaries, theme

identification, and working hypotheses;

3. Data reconstruction and synthesis products, for example, clustering of

themes into categories, interpretations and final report;

4. Process notes, for example, methodological notes and trustworthiness notes.

5. Information about intentions and disposition, for example, the research

proposal and personal notes; and,

6. Instrument development information, for example, questionnaire design,

semi structured interview questions and other instruments used for analysis

(pp. 319-321).

In summary, these principles and associated practices of constructivist inquiry theory

are applied in this study because they complement, enrich and provide methodological

rigor when combined with a mixed method research approach. The nature of a study of

exceptional teachers, as undertaken for the purposes of this thesis, calls for a mixed

method research approach because of the multi-dimensional character of the

phenomenon that is examined.

3.5 Activity domains

Taking into account the complex nature of the phenomenon “exceptional teachers”,

three major areas or domains of activity are of relevance to this study, namely: the

educational domain, the pedagogic domain, and the affective domain. Each domain is

conceptualised in terms of its reciprocal effect on the other two. The educational

domain gives context to the study by placing participant teachers and students within

the setting of the independent school sector, Kindergarten (K) to Year 12 (12), in New

South Wales, Australia. The pedagogic domain of activity is important because it

provides context for the theory, philosophy and principles that guide the educational

practice of the participant teachers and schools. Also, the pedagogic domain is

important because of the effect it has on student learning. The elements of the

pedagogic domain are manifest in observable classroom behaviours, including the

145

relationships that are established between teachers and pupils. The affective domain

includes the teacher’s personal values and educational beliefs. It also includes the

teacher’s personal dispositions. The theoretical framework of this study is characterised

by strong interplay between the elements of the pedagogic domain and those of the

affective domain. This, in turn, impacts on the educational domain.

3.6 Summary

In this chapter, the term ‘conceptual framework’ has been used to refer to the way the

dynamics between the three major components of the study (i.e. the activity domain,

research approach, and research contribution) have been conceptualised. The conceptual

framework for this study can be depicted in diagrammatic form as given in Figure 3.1

which is based on three considerations. The first is a consideration of what teachers do

(their pedagogic practices). The second consideration is the reasons why they do these

things. This includes aspects such as their values, beliefs and dispositions (the affective

domain). The third consideration is how the education context (Kindergarten to Year

12 classrooms in schools) and the work teachers do influence their beliefs and actions

and, in turn, how the education context and teachers’ work are affected by their beliefs

and actions. In addition, the conceptual framework takes into account how the

interaction between affective and pedagogic factors is influenced by the teaching

environment.

146

Figure 3.1. The conceptual framework.

In summary, the conceptual framework guiding the conduct of this study is based on the

use of a case study research approach using mixed method research techniques and an

epistemology based on constructivist inquiry theory. The conceptual framework and

research approach discussed in this chapter are important because they underpin the

methodological framework that forms the basis of this study of exceptional teachers.

The central challenge of the design of the conceptual framework was to accommodate

the multi-dimensional nature of the concept “exceptional teachers” as reflected in the

literature review. This now opens the way for a discussion of the methodological

framework.

147

CHAPTER 4

The Methodological Framework for the Study

4.1 Introduction and overview

The methodological framework relies heavily on the principles outlined in the

conceptual framework, namely: the case study approach, constructivist inquiry theory

and the deployment of mixed method research techniques. The methodological

framework is designed to answer the research questions and to address the five working

hypotheses.

The framework is represented in Figure 4.1 as a seven-stage process that begins in Stage

1 with a review of literature from five related fields, namely: effective teachers and

effective teaching, giftedness and talent, intelligence, creativity, and dispositions. Stage

2 involves the development of the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) that is based on

the literature review. This stage involved the use of constructivist inquiry theory.

Stage 3 sets up a case study involving a cohort of 12 teachers deemed by their school

principals as being “exceptional”. The principals made the selection after being briefed

on the Quality Teaching Model (QTM) and the newly created Dispositional Cluster

Model as well as participating in a workshop referenced to the QTM and the DCM. The

case study is designed to elicit two kinds of data with respect to the participant teachers.

One kind of data is what teachers are observed to be doing in the classroom. The other

kind of data is what the teachers say about themselves with respect to their personal

values and their educational beliefs. Teacher behaviour in the classroom will be rated

using the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) and the Teacher Behaviors

Checklist (TBC). Teacher self reports will make use of the My Values Questionnaire

(MVQ) and the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ).

148

Stages 4 and 5 involve a comprehensive analysis of the case study interviews. It

includes the development and application of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF)

for analysing the case study interviews, and the analysis of case study interviews using

NVivo. These are particularly important stages in the methodology because while the

IAF has its origins in the DCM, it is premised on Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of

dispositions. The IAF is used to “operationalise” the DCM. This is done by using the

IAF as an instrument for differentiating between the case study teachers in Stage 4 of

the methodological framework.

Analysis of the case study interviews continues in Stage 5 using NVivo software to

differentiate between the 12 case study teachers. The culmination of analysing the

teacher interviews in Stages 4 and 5 is an examination of the correlations between the

results of the IAF and other data. This includes data from the NVivo “Tree Node”

analysis that uses a coding system based on all items in the QTM, TBC, MVQ and

EBQ. At this point in the research process evidence is gathered to identify patterns of

pedagogic and dispositional variables that differentiate between the “exceptional

teachers” and other teachers in the case study cohort.

The sixth stage of the methodological framework involves the drawing together of data

from Stages 3, 4 and 5 with a view to identifying those variables from the case study

instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ), the IAF, and the NVivo analysis that most

strongly differentiate between the case study teachers.

Throughout these six stages in the methodological framework the guiding influences are

the research questions that are enunciated in Chapter 1 and the four working hypotheses

formulated in association with these questions. The major findings and implications of

the research are included in Stage 7. This includes a discussion of the implications for

implementing pedagogic models and professional standards in Australian schools.

Relevant aspects of these seven stages of the methodological framework are the focus of

the ensuing sections of this chapter.

149

4.2 The methodological framework in diagrammatic form

In order to assist with understanding what is included in each stage of the

methodological framework, it is considered useful first to present the methodology of

the research process in diagrammatic form that depicts the major activities involved in

each of the seven stages. This diagrammatic depiction is shown in Figure 4.1.

150

Figure 4.1 The methodological framework.

151

4.3 Developing the DCM (Stage 2)

Stage 2 follows an extensive literature review in Stage 1. This stage involves the use of

a constructivist approach in interpreting the literature review in order to identify and

cluster dispositions associated with exceptional teachers into a conceptual model that is

termed the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM). This activity was undertaken in

response to the testing of working hypothesis (i), A range of personal dispositions

associated with exceptional teachers can be identified and organised in a conceptual

model.

4.4 Teacher case studies (Stage 3)

The third stage of the investigation involves a detailed case study approach using

12 teachers nominated by their principals as being “exceptional”. Qualitative and

quantitative techniques are used in the “mixed method” approach as a means of dealing

with the complex array of variables involved in addressing the requirements of working

hypotheses (ii) It is possible to differentiate between teachers considered to be

exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their classroom behaviour and

their personal reflections and (iii) Differentiation between exceptional teachers and

other teachers can be achieved through the modeling of personal dispositions. Four

instruments were selected in order to assess the case study teacher performance in the

classroom and to elicit further information from them regarding their personal values

and educational beliefs.

Two instruments were used to study classroom behaviour, these being the New South

Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) and the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC).

These instruments are discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Ratings according to the items

in these two instruments were based on observations and a video recording of three

lessons from each teacher. In order to elicit information about their values and beliefs,

the case study teachers they were required to respond to items in two instruments, the

My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) and the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ).

152

The target populations were selected on the basis of opportunity sampling (Jupp, 2006;

Mason, 2002) taking into account availability and ease of access Data were gathered on

the basis of mixed method sampling (Teddlie & Yu, 2007).

4.4.1 Case study participants and rationale for selection

Principals from a representative sample of Hunter Region Independent Schools (HRIS)

and principals from a representative sample of the Association of Independent Schools

(AIS) in New South Wales were invited to be involved in the study. The HRIS schools

represented a cross-section of socio-economic and socio-cultural demographics. Five of

the participant schools are rural. The other schools are situated in urban areas. The

schools selected from the AIS represented a cross-section of socio-economic and socio-

cultural demographics that complemented the HRIS schools. Four of the AIS schools

were inner-city schools that had multi-cultural student populations. A total of 17

schools were represented at the initial workshop and discussion. Ease of access was one

of the main reasons for selecting principals from these schools. The researcher is

known to most of the school principals.

The workshop focused on the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) and

examined the implications of the three dimensions (Intellectual quality, Quality

learning environment, and Significance) and their defining elements for classroom

practice. This included discussion about the nature of high quality teaching and how it

is manifest in teaching behaviour. In addition, the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM)

was presented and the nature and role of teacher dispositions was discussed. The

concept ‘exceptional’ teacher was discussed with reference to both pedagogic and

dispositional variables. It was on the basis of their understanding of the QTM and the

DCM that principals were invited to nominate ‘exceptional’ teachers from their schools.

After being briefed and “workshopped”, school principals nominated teachers who

would participate in the case study. These teachers represented both primary and

secondary schools. The inclusion of the case study was to research, by direct

153

observation, the classroom practice of teachers who were identified as being the best

practice or “exceptional” teachers. Principals from nine schools nominated 12 teachers.

The participation of these teachers provided the case study data.

4.4.2 The case study procedure

In adopting this case study approach the given procedures are followed:

i. Principals are asked if they would identify one or more exceptional teachers in

their school. The identification is on the basis of demonstrated performance in

the context of the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model and the DCM.

ii. Principals/heads of school are then requested to discuss with these teachers the

possibility of being a participant case study teacher and to gain their consent

prior to being nominated for the research project.

iii. Once a teacher’s consent had been gained an information sheet is sent to that

teacher.

iv. After reading the information sheet the teacher is given the opportunity to

participate in the research as a case study teacher.

v. Where the teacher consents to participate in the case study an appointment is

made to discuss the conditions of the case study with the teacher, including the

video recording of classes as selected by the case study teacher.

vi. At the first interview/discussion the teacher is provided with information sheets

that will be disseminated to the parents of students who will be in that teacher’s

class when it is observed and video-recorded.

vii. Three classes of each of the identified teachers will be observed and video

recorded. At the end of the three sessions each teacher is given opportunity to

view the video recorded lessons. His or her request to edit out material will be

respected and, where appropriate, incidental footage of student faces will be

edited out in order to protect the identity of the students.

viii. At the end of the three teaching sessions, the teacher will be invited to respond

to two questionnaires: the My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) (see Chapter 6) and

the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) (see Chapter 6)

ix. Case teachers also will be requested to respond to questions in a semi-structured

interview, after all three lessons have been taught. This will be approximately 45

154

to 60 minutes’ duration. Opportunity will be provided for unsolicited comments

or narrative throughout the interview (see Chapter 8).

x. In addition, the case study teachers will be requested to respond to a short

questionnaire regarding the extent of their knowledge and understanding of the

QTM.

xi. All video recorded lessons will then be analysed conjointly by two experienced

professional teacher educators using an adapted version of the Teacher Behaviors

Checklist (TBC), with one lesson in every three being audited by a third equally

qualified teacher (see Chapter 6).

xii. In addition to the analysis using the TBC, the lessons also will be analysed by two

Newcastle University academics using the New South Wales Quality Teaching

coding instrument (QTM). Later, the case study teacher interviews will be

analysed using the IAF. This will allow for triangulation between performances

on the TBC, QTM, and IAF.

xiii. Debriefing procedures will be conducted with case study teachers and their

principals.

xiv All procedures are subject to compliance with the Ethics Committee of the

University of Newcastle (see Appendix A).

4.5 Development and application of the Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) (Stage 4) for case study interviews

In Stage 4 of the study, semi structured interviews are conducted with the 12 participant

teachers after the completion of the three video recorded lessons. The results of these

interviews are then analysed through the use of an instrument constructed by the

researcher called the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF). This instrument is based on

the five clusters of the DCM and an adaptation of Freeman’s (2007b) “syntax of

dispositions” (p.130). The scores from the application of the IAF for each of the 12

teachers are correlated with their scores from the four case study instruments (i.e. QTM,

TBC, MVQ and EBQ). This is discussed in Chapter 8.

155

4.6 Use of NVivo software for case study interview analysis (Stage 5)

Stage 5 involves the analysis of case study interviews using NVivo software. This is

done at two levels. The first involves the frequency of teacher references to items that

are associated directly with the four instruments (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ).

These references are referred to as “Tree Nodes”. The second level of NVivo analysis

involves the frequency of teacher references to items that are not associated with these

instruments. These items are referred to as “Free Nodes” and reflect teacher thinking

about pedagogic and dispositional elements that are teacher-generated, rather than

instrument-generated. Each teacher will be given a frequency rating for these two levels

of NVivo analysis. These ratings will be converted to scores that can be used for the

purposes of comparison with other data yielded in the study. These comparisons will be

in the form of correlations. The data from the IAF interview analysis and the NVivo

analysis will be used for the purposes of differentiating between the case study teachers.

4.7 Drawing together the case study data (Stage 6)

The penultimate stage of the study extrapolates information from the case study and the

data analysis that differentiates most strongly between the case study teachers. In

particular, the performance and reflections of the case study teachers who consistently

score the highest ratings across the various instruments, including the IAF and NVivo

analysis will be examined. Stage 7 is used as a means of responding to working

hypothesis (ii) It is possible to differentiate between teachers considered to be

exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their classroom behaviour and

their personal reflections, and (iii) It is possible to differentiate between teachers

considered to be exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their classroom

behaviour and their personal reflections. The underlying rationale for this is that there

appears to be a strong association between dispositions and teacher effectiveness.

156

4.8 Major findings including implications for implementing pedagogic

models (Stage 7)

In order to respond to working hypothesis (iv) The study of the role of dispositions in

differentiating between teachers may prove useful for enhancing quality teaching and

the implementation of pedagogic models such as the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model, due consideration will be given to weight of evidence from the case study. It is

anticipated that this weight of evidence, as well as the nature of the evidence itself, may

assist with the implementation of pedagogic models in Australia, in particular the New

South Wales Quality Teaching Model. In addition, it is anticipated that this also may

assist with the development of professional teaching standards.

4.9 Summary

A seven-stage process has been described for the methodology required to explore and

test the implications of the four working hypotheses. In this case study of “exceptional

teachers” qualitative and quantitative techniques are applied, as appropriate, at various

stages of the investigation in what has been defined as a “mixed model” approach

(Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The qualitative component has been enhanced by the

application of constructivist inquiry theory. The next chapter deals with the second

stage of the study that explains the development of the DCM.

157

CHAPTER 5

Developing a Dispositional Cluster Model

5.1 Introduction and rationale

The primary aim of this chapter is to address Stage 2 of the methodological

framework by explaining the development of the Dispositional Cluster Model

(DCM) as a response to working hypothesis (i) A range of personal dispositions

associated with exceptional teachers can be identified and organised in a conceptual

model. The development of the DCM is also integral to working hypotheses (ii) and

(iii) (see Chapter 1) in that it becomes an application instrument when used in

association with the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) for the purpose of

differentiating between case study teachers.

The literature review suggested that a wide variety of dispositions are worth

considering when studying what it means to be an exceptional teacher. What was

needed, however, was the development of a conceptual framework that could be used

not only to organise these dispositions, but that would allow for some form of

measurement. It made sense, therefore, to see if some of those dispositions had

common features that allowed them to be grouped or clustered.

The idea of developing a cluster model of dispositions to assist with differentiating

between exceptional teachers and other teachers emerged very early in preliminary

reading on human dimensions that affected teaching and the idea was then

formalised as working hypothesis (i). The development of the DCM as described in

this chapter represents a conceptual model that consists of five primary dispositions,

each of which contains secondary dispositions. The DCM will become

operationalised as an application instrument for differentiating between case study

teachers in later stages of the methodological framework underpinning this thesis.

158

5.2 Defining dispositions

As is evidenced from the literature review, there is now a rich array of different

research perspectives relating to the nature of dispositions, to the challenge of

measuring them and to their impact on teaching practice (see, for example, Arnstine,

1967; Bunch, 2006; Burant, Chubbuck & Whipp, 2005; Collinson, 1996a, 1996b;

Diez; 2005, 2007; Freeman, 2007a, 2007b; Katz, 1993; Katz & Raths, 1985; Raths,

2006; Sockett, 2005; Taylor & Wasicsko, 2000; Weiner & Cohen, 2003).

5.2.1 Three examples of definitions

An example of these definitions will demonstrate this diversity. Katz and Raths

(1985) explored the notion of disposition as “an attributed characteristic of a teacher,

one that summarizes the trend of a teacher’s actions in particular contexts” (p. 301).

As Katz and Raths pointed out, this definition emphasised the idea that a disposition

is a characteristic of the teacher that is manifest in behaviour. The definition,

however, does not suggest that dispositions cause behaviour.

A similar notion of dispositions was evident in Ennis’ (1987) definition, “a

disposition is a tendency to do something, given certain conditions” (In Raths, 2006,

p. 19). Here, emphasis was placed upon the teacher’s tendency to do something,

rather that on the action itself. A third definition that serves as an example of the

diversity of perspectives on the nature of dispositions was that of Sockett (2005) who

defined dispositions as, “The professional virtues, qualities and habits of mind and

behavior held and developed by teachers on the basis of their knowledge,

understanding, and commitments to students, families, their colleagues and

communities” (p. 23). The undeniable link between dispositions and character in

Sockett’s definition thus provided a different perspective that called for a qualitative,

rather than a quantitative approach to the study of teacher dispositions.

While these definitions differed in emphases and in the terminology used, some

useful conclusions can be drawn from the literature review. First, there is as yet no

conceptual agreement on the nature of dispositions or their means of assessment.

159

Second, dispositions are generally acknowledged to be intangible qualities that can

only be revealed in patterns of behaviour and it is important therefore to associate

teacher and classroom behaviours with each disposition (see, for example, Diez,

2005; Katz, 1993; Taylor & Wasicsko, 2000; Thornton, 2006). Third, as Bunch

(2006) noted, dispositions have been interpreted in a number of different ways

including: characteristic manners of thinking and acting; habitual frames of mind;

trends in action that are intentional on the part of the actor; values, beliefs and

intentions that are discovered in consistent patterns of behaviour; prevailing tendency

mood or inclination. Finally, it is evident from the literature review that there are

many different ways of selecting and grouping dispositions.

5.2.2 The working definition of “dispositions” for this study

For the purposes of this thesis, a working definition of dispositions has been

formulated by the researcher based on a synthesis of various definitions in the

literature review (Bunch, 2006; Burant, Chubbuck & Whipp; 2005; Katz, 1993;

Raths, 2006; Sockett, 2005; Schussler, Stooksberry & Bercaw 2005; Taylor &

Wasicsko, 2000; Weiner & Cohen, 2003; Zhixin, 1990). The definition was given in

Chapter 1. Dispositions are inherent qualities that incline a person to act in

consistent ways that can be observed through patterns of behaviour in particular

contexts.

5.3 Strategies for creating and populating the DCM

The process of designing and developing a dispositional cluster model relied on

findings and direction from the literature review. Several questions posed by

Freeman (2007b) were crucial to the development of the methodology. He framed

the questions as follows:

Are the number of dispositions related to educators infinite? Are there

criteria to separate the important dispositions from the non-important?

And once dispositions have been identified is it possible that we have

only identified supradispositions that in turn are made up of

sub-dispositions? (p. 22)

160

In response to these questions, this study adopted a number of strategic assumptions,

namely: (i) there appeared to be no consensus in the literature on how many

dispositions exist, (ii) a pragmatic choice was made, therefore, based on qualitative

judgments of the findings of the literature review, (iii) the relative importance of any

particular disposition was primarily ascertained according to the number of

references and the associated depth of analysis in the literature review, and (iv) the

distinction between supradispositions and subdispositions is considered valid, and for

the purposes of this thesis this has been interpreted in the form of a distinction

between primary and associated secondary dispositions.

5.4 Methodology for populating the DCM

5.4.1 The application of constructivist theory

From a very large catalogue of dispositions identified in the literature (see Appendix

B) five primary dispositions, all with associated secondary dispositions were

identified. The process of selecting the five primary dispositions and the associated

secondary dispositions into five clusters was conceptually based on constructivist

theory. The identification of the clusters was based on informed judgements of

research findings in the literature review. The actual selection process involved an

experienced senior teacher and a university academic in psychology and education

who first acted individually and then jointly to complete the process.

5.4.2 The process of populating the DCM

The process of populating the DCM first involved identifying and then collating

what were perceived to be “dispositions” from the literature survey. No attempt was

made in this preliminary stage of the process to separate these tentative

“dispositions”. The items were then entered into a grid that shows the dispositions(s)

and their reference(s) in the literature review (see Appendix C). Once this was done,

two experienced educators independently went about the task of compacting the

161

large number of referenced “dispositions” by grouping or clustering the items on the

basis of similarity in meaning. The clusters of dispositions were then compared and

discussed. During this stage, as similarities between the tentative “dispositions”

became clearer, possible concept names for the emerging clusters of subsidiary

“dispositions” were identified.

It was evident, for example, that there was a relatively large cluster of items

associated with the teacher’s sense of self and others. The “umbrella” term selected

for this cluster was teacher Authenticity. A second cluster of items tended to focus

on the teacher’s sense of purpose and engagement. This cluster was given the

tentative descriptor Commitment. A third group of “dispositions” was predominantly

associated with teacher Creativity. A fourth cluster was found to be associated with

the teacher’s knowledge and the way this was communicated. This cluster was given

the descriptor Communicative. There appeared to be a fifth group of “dispositions”

that had to do with teacher enthusiasm and energy. It was more challenging to make

a decision about the fifth cluster. Although this group shared similarities with the

cluster Commitment, there appeared to be sufficient grounds from the literature to

include these “dispositions” in a separate cluster and after deliberation, the fifth

cluster was given the descriptor Passion. It was necessary to clarify further the

cluster descriptors, particularly Passion, in the context of their use in the DCM. This

has been done in Chapter 8 where the DCM forms the basis of the Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) in conjunction with Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions.

A final step in the process of populating the DCM involved the further collapsing of

dispositional items. The two educators independently examined the items and then

compared and discussed again whether there should be four or five dispositional

clusters. After re-examining the grouping of the items, it was decided to retain the

five dispositional clusters because there appeared to be sufficient grounds from the

literature to do this. The selection of five dispositional clusters, therefore, was not

arbitrary. It resulted during the process of organising and attempting to group the

dispositions that were referred to in the literature review.

During this process, it was evident that some of the dispositional items such as

“motivated” could have been placed in more than once cluster. Where this was the

162

case, the literature survey was revisited and a decision was then made as to the most

appropriate placement of that disposition. This process was by nature subjective and

the involvement of two independent evaluators was an attempt to keep a check on

this subjectivity.

Two important points that were evident during this process were first, that there was

a strong inter-relatedness between the clusters and their dispositional elements. A

second point was that, conceptually, the nature of the relationship was dynamic. The

five clusters appeared to be inter-dependent as well as inter-related. If performance

in one dispositional cluster was poor, then that was likely to impact on the other four

clusters.

5.5 Description of dispositions

The purpose of this section is to describe the five clusters of dispositions drawing on

findings from the literature review. This approach is consistent with the proposition

outlined earlier in this chapter that dispositions can only be made meaningful by

illustrative examples of behaviour emanating from the teachers themselves, or from

observations of their impact on learning and teaching activities relating to the student

experience. It is contended that the choice of secondary dispositions in each cluster

represents cohesive sets that reflect broadly consistent patterns of behaviour as

manifested in the classroom.

5.5.1 Authentic (primary disposition)

There has been considerable attention given to the terms “authentic” and

“authenticity” in research on dispositions over the past decade (see, for example,

Averill & Thomas-Knowles, 1991; Brookfield, 2006; Bunch, 2006; Chickering,

Dalton & Stamm, 2006; Cranton & Carusetta, 2004a, 2004b; Duignan & Bhindi,

1997; Glatthorn, 1975; Schussler, Stooksbury & Bercaw, 2005). The selection of

“authentic” as a primary disposition descriptor was influenced, in particular, by the

research of Cranton (2001), and Cranton and Carusetta (2004b) who described

authenticity as “a multifaceted concept that includes at least four parts: being

163

genuine, showing consistency between values and actions, relating to others in such a

way as to encourage their authenticity, and living a critical life (p. 7). In more

particular terms, Brookfield (2006) provided a succinct definition that strongly

influences the spirit of interpretation in this cluster. He maintained that for a teacher

to be seen as authentic there needs to be “congruence between words and action,

between what you say and what you actually do” (p. 74). From a broader

perspective, the other influential definition underpinning this cluster was provided by

Cranton and Carusetta (2004b) who stated that authenticity is “a quest for a personal

state of teaching to identify and critically examine their individual sense as it relates

to personality, teaching style and interactions with others” (p. 6).

5.5.1.1 Caring (secondary disposition)

The concept of caring as an integral characteristic of effective teachers was a

constant theme in the literature review (see, for example, Buskist, 2004; Day, 2004;

Duignan & Bhindi, 1997; Edwards, 2007; Kottler, Zehm & Kottler, 2005; McEwan,

2002; NCATE, 2002; Taylor & Wasicsko, 2000). For the purposes of this study a

number of key behavioural characteristics have been identified as being illustrative

of the concept of caring. At the most basic level authentic teachers should

demonstrate a consistent pattern of practising the “ethic of caring” (Duignan &

Bhindi, 1997). Authentic teachers should also show a genuine concern for their

students’ academic welfare (Feldhusen & Goh, 1995). In demonstrating a concern

for student welfare, “high able teaching is the consideration of learners’ intentions,

desires and understandings” (Towers & Porath, 2001, p. 202). At a more specific

level, authentic teachers should: show “respect and compassion for others” (Bunch,

2006, n. p.); “be approachable, sensitive and persistent” (Keeley, Smith & Buskist,

2006, p. 85); and they should provide “constant encouragement to students” (ibid).

5.5.1.2 Empathic (secondary disposition)

There was strong support in the literature review for authentic characteristics that

could be interpreted as being empathic (see, for example, Bunch, 2006; Clayton,

1976; Combs, 1999; McEwan, 2002; Usher, 2002). In demonstrating the disposition

164

of being empathic, Usher (2002) maintained that effective teachers “see sensitivity

and understanding of the learner’s private world of meaning as a priority of helping

others learn” (n. p.). From a slightly broader perspective, Vialle & Quigley (2002)

maintained that effective teachers show “insight into cognitive, emotional and social

needs” (p. 2) that can be addressed by providing a “non-threatening student centred

learning environment” (ibid). In more specific terms, Edwards (2007) and Killen

(2002) both maintained that empathic teachers are sensitive to student differences

and that they are inclusive of cultures.

5.5.1.3 Open(ness) (secondary disposition)

A disposition to be “open” was invariably associated with effective teachers in the

literature review (Brookfield, 2006; Combs, 1999; Lovecky, 1986; Piirto, 1999;

Usher, 2002). The most pertinent observation was made by Brookfield (2006) who

asserted that for a teacher to be regarded as authentic there needs to be “The

perception that the teacher is open and honest in attempts to help students learn” (p.

68). In support of this view of openness, Usher (2002) maintained that authentic

teachers “should not be afraid to reveal their own idiomatic approaches to teaching”

(n. p.). Further support for openness as a desirable disposition comes from Keeley,

Smith & Buskist (2006) who stated, “Teachers should be open and humble and admit

mistakes” (p. 85).

5.5.1.4 Reflective (secondary disposition)

The association between the capacity to be reflective and effective teaching is widely

discussed in the literature review (see, for example, Brookfield, 1995; Collinson,

1999; Combs, 1999; Cranton, 2001; Cropley, 1994; Day, 1999; Killen, 1990, 2007;

Leithwood, 1990; MacGilchrist, Myers & Reed, 2004; Reiman, Sprinthall & Thies-

Sprinthall, 1999; Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998; Sternberg, 2000a, 2000b;

Stronge, 2002; Usher, 2002). In terms of being an authentic teacher, the ability to be

reflective is seen as an essential characteristic. For example, Cranton & Carusetta

(2004b) proposed, “Perspectives on teaching are an expression of personal beliefs

and values related to teaching that are often formed through careful reflection” (p. 6).

165

Glatthorn (1975) associated reflection with authentic awareness and explained,

“Authentic awareness can only come as we move to these deeper levels of the self

through self acceptance, self confrontation and self prizing” (p. 38).

Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall (1998) noted that the reflective capacity of teachers can

be assessed through observing the capability to understand the assumptions, beliefs

and values behind choices. The disposition to be reflective can also be observed

through the degree to which teachers are “self monitoring and sensitive to how

teaching affects student learning experiences” (Keeley, Smith & Buskist, 2006, p.

85).

5.5.1.5 Summary

The primary disposition to be authentic can be interpreted through a series of

illustrative behaviours associated with the four secondary dispositions: caring,

empathic, openness and reflective. The behavioural characteristics that have been

associated with both the primary and secondary dispositions are all directed towards

achieving a high quality of interaction between teachers and students that nurtures

the totality of their learning experiences.

5.5.2 Committed (primary disposition)

The notion of commitment permeates much of the discussion of teacher effectiveness

in the literature review and this led to its selection as a primary disposition (see, for

example, Bunch, 2006; Crosswell & Elliott, 2004; Day, 2004; Hammerness, 2004;

Kagan, 1992; Keeley et al., 2006; Kottler, Zehm & Kottler, 2005; 2004; NCATE,

2002; Renzulli, 1978, 1998; Sockett, 2005; Taylor & Wascisko, 2000; Towers &

Porath, 2001; Usher, 2002). This notion of commitment as a disposition is best

portrayed by citing examples from the literature review that illustrate the kinds of

things that effective teachers commit themselves to as part of their profession.

In the most general terms, Usher (2002) asserts that effective teachers are committed

to “goals, attitudes and values that are broad, deeply held and person centred” (n. p.).

166

From more specific viewpoints a number of different perspectives emerge. First,

Towers and Porath (2001) highlighted commitment to the students’ learning

experience. They stated that effective teachers are committed to giving priority to

the students’ “intentions, desires and understandings” (p. 202). Second, effective

teachers show commitment (Crosswell & Elliott, 2004) through “positive emotional

attachment to the work involved in teaching generally or to a specific act of

teaching” (p.6). Third, effective teachers demonstrate their commitment through an

enduring belief that children are able to achieve (Kagan, 1992) and that teaching and

learning are worthwhile. Finally, effective teachers are “committed to their own

professional and personal growth” (Bunch, 2006, n. p.).

5.5.2.1 Purposeful (secondary disposition)

The literature review revealed that the sense of enduring purpose was an inherent

part of being a committed teacher (Collinson, 1996a). Purposeful teachers were

identified as being likely to exhibit the following behaviours: first, a visible striving

to be a better teacher (Bunch, 2006); second, they had high expectations of

themselves and others (Bain, Lintz & Word, 1989); and finally, they demonstrated a

“willingness to engage with the school and the school community” (Crosswell &

Elliot, 2004, p. 6).

5.5.2.2 Organised (secondary disposition)

There is support in the literature for the concept of being well organised as being an

important underpinning for the disposition of being committed. Keeley, Smith and

Buskist (2006) best encapsulate this disposition by asserting that effective teachers

should be “highly prepared, well organised and hard working” (p. 85). Murray

(1999) identified being “organised” in terms of ways of organising or structuring

subject matter as one of his 12 traits of effective teachers.

167

5.5.2.3 Motivated (secondary disposition)

Being motivated has a close association with the areas of commitment outlined in

Section 4.7.2. Crosswell and Elliott (2004) stress the importance of motivation as a

driving force “to engage in ongoing learning and to maintain professional

knowledge” (p. 6). Effective teachers require strong motivation to meet their various

commitments and this is manifest through high expectations of self and others

(McFadden & Munns, 2002).

5.5.2.4 Resilient (secondary disposition)

There are implications to be drawn from the literature review that effective teachers

do not automatically maintain strong commitment. It is frequently tested in the

context of the classroom and resilience is required to “Navigate the rocky road

between vision and reality” (Hammerness, 2004, p. 41). In this journey of navigation,

patience and perseverance in teaching and learning activities are essential

characteristics of being resilient (Freire, 1998; Taylor & Wascisko, 2000).

5.5.2.5 Summary

The primary disposition of commitment encompasses acceptance and dedication by

effective teachers to a number of key areas including: teaching activities; the student

learning experience; their own personal goals, attitudes and values; and to their own

professional and personal growth. In order to maintain high levels of commitment

across these diverse areas of activity effective teachers are required to be purposeful,

well organised, highly motivated and resilient in the face of adversity.

5.5.3 Communicative (primary disposition)

There was consistent discussion in various parts of the literature review on the

importance and the implications of being communicative. The literature indicated the

importance of being able to communicate at a range of levels in effective teaching

(see, for example, Airenti, Bara & Colombetti, 1993; Aylor and Oppliger, 2003;

168

Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield, 1991; Bunch, 2006; Carusetta & Cranton,

2005; Collard, 1994; Crosswell & Elliott, 2004; Day, 2004; Hammerness, 2004;

James & Asmus, 2000; Kottler, Zehm & Kottler, 2005; McEwan, 2002; Munson,

1991; NCATE, 2002; Norton, 1977; Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998; Reisbeck,

1983; Rhodes & Schaible, 1993; Smiley, 2005; Thomas, Richmond & McCroskey,

1994; Tirassa, 1999; Vialle & Quigley, 2002; Usher, 2002). This led to

“communicative” being selected as a primary disposition.

There are two important aspects of the disposition to be communicative: first, not

only to communicate ideas, information and knowledge but also attitudes, values and

emotions; second, to adopt “Realistic forms of communication encouraging active

student engagement as well spontaneous authentic encounters” (Kottler, Zehm &

Kottler, 2005, p. 69).

5.5.3.1 Knowledgeable (secondary disposition)

The links between being knowledgeable and being a good communicator were

emphasised in a variety of ways in the literature review. Several important aspects of

being knowledgeable are worth noting: first, the display of a “Rich factual

knowledge about teaching” (Arlin, 1999, p. 13); second, the possession of “In-depth

knowledge of subject matter” (Vialle & Quigley, 2002, p. 3); third, “a rich

procedural knowledge about teaching strategies” (Arlin, p. 13); fourth, the

presentation of current information (Keeley et al., 2006, p.85); fifth, that effective

teachers become learners in the act of constructing knowledge (Arlin, 1999); and

finally, that effective teachers “encourage higher level thinking’ about knowledge

constructs” (Vialle & Quigley, p. 2).

5.5.3.2 Listener (secondary disposition)

Being a good listener was a constant theme in the discussion on communication

capabilities. Kottler, Zehm and Kottler (2005) best summarised the importance of

listening in the communication process as “Listening to and responding to authentic

feelings and ideas” (p.75). In order to be a good listener, Norton (1977) asserted that

169

effective teachers are attentive and not dominant. Collard (1994), and Rhodes and

Schaible (1992) reinforce the critical importance of the teacher as listener.

5.5.3.3 Engagement (secondary disposition)

A strong consensus was evident in the literature review that communication is not a

one-way process; rather, it is essentially a process of engagement. The engaged

teacher will focus on demonstrating to students that you teach them to learn in a way

that is likely to be most helpful to them (Brookfield, 2006). In order to achieve this

goal the effective teacher will demonstrate a series of behaviours. First, there will be

evidence of planning for effective classroom communication (Kottler, Zehm &

Kottler, 2005). Second, the teacher will “demonstrate confidence through clear

speech, eye contact and precise answers to questions” (Keeley, Smith & Buskist,

2006, p.85). Third, is the ability to maintain consistent rapport (ibid). Fourth, the

effective teacher will use a collaborative approach with students to control the

classroom and encourage creativity and flexibility to create interactive classrooms

(Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998), and to “promote student-teacher conversations

that extend to issues beyond the specifics of course assignments and information”

(Aylor & Oppliger, 2003, p.132). Finally, engagement implies that the effective

teacher acts “as a good facilitator” (Vialle & Quigley, 2002, p. 3).

5.5.3.4 Humour (secondary disposition)

A number of experts have seen humour as an essential ingredient of being

communicative. These include Bruner (2002), Ebro (1977), Gorham and Chrisophel

(1990), Kher, Molstad and Donahue (1999), and Malikow (2005-2006). Booth-

Butterfield and Booth-Butterfield (1991) stated that the effective teacher should

“skilfully produce humorous messages on a regular basis in the classroom” (In Aylor

& Oppliger, 2003, p. 124). Aylor and Oppliger then extended the context in which

humour plays a role by observing that the effective teacher applies humour in

interactions with student beyond the classroom.

170

5.5.3.5 Summary

The literature review confirmed the importance of being communicative both in

terms of communicating substance and in terms of promoting engagement with

students. In achieving these joint goals, the effective teacher was seen as having to

be knowledgeable across a broad spectrum of content and contexts; they would be

habitually good and attentive listeners; and engagement would be evident in a variety

of ways through communication within and outside the classroom, with humour

being an integral part of these interactions.

5.5.4 Creativity (primary disposition)

An extensive body of literature was surveyed relating to the field of creativity and a

range of perspectives that were of relevance to describing the role of creativity in

effective teaching were explored (see, for example, Albert & Runco, 1986; Anderson

& Krathwohl, 2001; Barron & Harrington, 1981a, 1981b; Cropley, 1994;

Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Fleith, 2000; Goertz, 2000; Hennesey & Amabile, 1987;

James & Asmus, 2000-2001; MacKinnon, 1978; Piirto, 1999, 2004; Sak, 2004;

Scheidecker & Freeman, 1999; Simplicio, 2000; Simonton, 1984; Sternberg 2000a,

2000b; Sternberg & Davidson, 1986; Sternberg & O’Hara, 1999; Sternberg &

Williams, 1998; Torrance, 1983a).

In assessing evidence of creativity as a disposition in effective teachers it is

important to acknowledge “Real life creativity requires the proper conjunction of

personality, cognitive skills and situational conditions” (James & Asmus, 2000-2001,

p.150). From a different perspective, Cropley (1994) asserted that effective teachers

demonstrate successful creative thinking in the way they facilitate creativity in their

students. In more practical terms, Simplicio (2000) stated that effective teachers

deploy “new and creative approaches to everyday instruction” (p. 675).

171

5.5.4.1 Risk taking (secondary disposition)

There was direct or implied reference to the association of creativity with risk taking

in various parts of the literature review (see, for example, Arlin, 1999; Barron &

Harrington, 1981a, 1981b; Cropley, 1994; Keeley, Smith & Buskist, 2006; Piirto,

1999; Sternberg, 2000a, 2000b). In looking for evidence of risk taking in effective

teachers an important factor is the capacity for experimental endeavour and as

Feldhusen & Goh (1995) observed, teaching is regarded as an experimental

endeavour that entails risk. From much the same perspective, Arlin (1999) said risk

takers are not afraid to try new ideas or to take risks with decision-making. In

furthering this line of thought Arlin (1999) made the observation that effective

teachers need to have “the humility and courage to live with uncertainty and to take

the risk of questioning whether they can do better and become active participants

with the student in the learning process” (p .16).

5.5.4.2 Original(ity) (secondary disposition)

Creativity was seen by Scheidecker and Freeman (1999) as implying originality

through effective teachers seeking “new ways to view things, new ways to learn, new

group activities, new projects in the classroom, new procedures” (p. 72). The

necessity for originality was implied also in Vialle and Quigley’s (2002) statement

that effective teachers “Encourage students to be independent learners” (p. 2).

5.5.4.3 Curious(ity) (secondary disposition)

The disposition to be curious appeared to have a strong link with the primary

disposition of creativity in that effective teachers “Constantly seek new ways to

improve their abilities and they eagerly explore alternative avenues that can lead to

greater insights” (Simplicio, 2000, p. 676). This aligns with Cropley’s (1994)

analysis that effective teachers “constructively respond to new ideas” (p. 16). Being

curious therefore requires a habitual disposition to find new and better ways of doing

things.

172

5.5.4.4 Problem solving (secondary disposition)

The ability to engage in problem solving activities was often referred to in the

literature (see, for example, Barron & Harrington, 1981a, 1981b; Cropley, 1994;

Feldhusen & Goh, 1995; James & Asmus, 2000; Mumford et al., 1994; Runco &

Chand, 1994; and Treffinger, 1995). In most cases problem solving was seen as a

creative exercise used to address curriculum design and practice. In behavioural

terms Keeley, Smith and Buskist (2006) state that effective teachers will demonstrate

“problem solving skills in the development of the curriculum and associated thinking

processes” (p. 85). More specifically, Keeley et al. claimed that effective teachers

show the ability for “Critical thinking in the use of problem-solving techniques”

(ibid).

5.5.4.5 Summary

Creativity, as a disposition, is deeply embedded in the personality of effective

teachers and it expresses itself through the teacher being enquiring and innovative in

designing and implementing the curriculum, using bold ways of incorporating

independent learning and problem solving as part of an active engagement of

students that contains experimental and risk taking elements.

5.5.5 Passionate (primary disposition)

The literature review contains a sizeable section that explores passion as a

disposition in its own right and there are many additional references to the

importance of passion as an element of effective teaching (see, for example, Albert &

Runco, 1986; Crosswell & Elliott, 2004; Day, 2004; Dabroswki, 1964, 1972;

Goleman, 1996; Kottler, Zehm & Kottler, 2005; Lovecky, 1986; Metcalfe & Game,

2006; Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher & James; 2000; Piirto, 1999; Rosengren, 2004;

Sternberg, 1997a; Stronge, 2002; Taylor & Wascisko, 2000; Vialle & Quigley, 2002;

Zohar & Marshall, 2000). The potential importance of passion as a driving force for

the emotional and psychic energy that underpins high quality teaching and that

173

appears to be linked closely to the primary dispositions “commitment” and

“creativity” led to its inclusion as a primary disposition.

Metcalfe and Game (2006) asserted in an emphatic way that “Teachers who change

lives are invariably characterised by their passion and their enthusiasm” (p. 59). In a

similar vein, Day (2004) stated, “For those teachers teaching in a creative and

adventurous profession passion is not an option. It is essential to high quality

teaching” (p. 3). Kottler, Zehm & Kottler (2005) made the observation that

“Passionately committed teachers are those who absolutely love what they do” (p.

149). Allied to this notion of love of what they do Day argued that to be passionate

about teaching is not only to express enthusiasm but also to enact it in a principled,

values-led, intelligent way. The disposition to be passionate is closely associated

with the creative cluster of dispositions in that passionate teacher are “deeply stirred

by issues and ideas that challenge our world” (Fried, 1995, p. 1). There is also a

strong link with the disposition of engagement in the committed cluster in that

effective teachers have a “Passion to be with students and to help them to be

successful” (McEwan, 2002, p. 28).

5.5.5.1 Enthusiastic (secondary disposition)

The association of enthusiasm with effective teachers resonated strongly in the

literature review (see, for example, Albert & Runco, 1986; Day, 2004; Minor,

Onwuegbuzie & Witcher, 2000; Stronge, 2002; Taylor & Wascisko, 2000; Vialle &

Quigley, 2002). There were three distinct areas where enthusiasm appeared to play

an influential role in determining effective teaching outcomes. First, effective

teachers were seen to be enthusiastic about subject matter (Feldhusen & Goh, 1995)

and about knowledge discovery at a more general level. Second, they are consistently

“enthusiastic about helping other people to grow and develop” (Taylor & Wascisko,

2000, p. 9). Finally, they exhibit pleasure and a sense of fulfilment in all teaching

activities and engagement with students (Crosswell & Elliott, 2004).

174

5.5.5.2 Excitable (secondary disposition)

The ability both to appear excited and to be able to create excitement was noted by

several experts in the field. The most apt summation of these twin notions was

captured by Metcalfe and Game (2006) who said that the passionate teacher creates

an environment where “The hum in the classroom involves everyone…something

happens without anyone making it happen” (p. 60). The trait of excitability is

expressed through “high levels of energy, long concentration spans on topics of

interest, powerful emotions and the desire to take risks” (Hunt & Seney, 2001, p. 9).

5.5.5.3 Positive (secondary disposition)

In assessing the importance of being positive as a disposition within the passionate

cluster, two key notions were expressed by Usher (2002) namely, that effective

teachers have a “Positive view about the worth, efficacy and potentiality of others”

and a “Positive view about their own worth, efficacy and potentiality” (n. p.).

5.5.5.4 Energetic (secondary disposition)

The disposition to be energetic and to be able to inspire this energy in others was

implicit in several parts of the literature review. For the purposes of this study

Rosengren (2004) provided a most useful insight when he proposed that the most

important thing was “the energy that comes from bringing more of you into what you

do” (p. 2). Day (2004) noted that passion was linked with intellectual energy and he

argued that passionate teachers are “intellectually and emotionally energetic in their

work with children, young people and adults alike” (p. 2).

5.5.5.5 Summary

The passionate cluster of dispositions is distinguished by a consistently positive

outlook, high involvement and high energy that passionate teachers bring to their

work. This is not simply unbridled or blind passion but considered, in that it leads to

well thought out teaching practices and active student engagement. Of key

175

significance are the sense of enjoyment, self-assurance and love of what they do that

drive passionate teachers.

5.6 A diagrammatic representation of the Dispositional Cluster

Model

Having explained the development of the DCM and justified the choice of the

primary and secondary dispositions based on the findings in the literature review, the

DCM is represented in diagrammatic form in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1. The proposed Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM).

176

5.7 Observations regarding the development of the DCM

Given the strategic assumptions enunciated in section 5.3, a number of observations

need to be made regarding the development of the DCM:

• The DCM has limited value as a conceptual model; its real value only

emerges when used as an applied model in association with other

instruments that look at behaviours, beliefs etc. in given contexts.

• Dispositions can only make sense when they are accompanied by a set of

behaviours that refer to both the actions of the teacher and/or to the

observable impact in learning and teaching activities.

• It is acknowledged that there are likely to be dynamic relationships within

and between the clusters that only become evident through the

methodology of cross-referencing behavioural characteristics.

• The usefulness of this particular clustering of dispositions and their

associated attributes can only be assessed in the concluding part of the

thesis after testing its application in association with other instruments.

• The concept and use of the DCM do not rule out the use of different

dispositions and attributes in the model for future studies.

5.8 The DCM as an application instrument

The DCM has been established as a conceptual model based on an interpretation of

the literature review. It will now be used as an application instrument in the next

stages of the study. This will be done in conjunction with findings from the various

instruments used to elicit information from the case study teachers. In particular, the

Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) will be used to “operationalise” the DCM (see

Chapter 8).

177

CHAPTER 6

Instrumentation for Data Collection

6.1 Introduction and rationale

This chapter provides a rationale and description of the instruments used to

investigate classroom behaviour of a cohort of 12 case study teachers and also to

gather data regarding personal values and educational beliefs. Data gathered by the

individual instruments will be used to differentiate between the case study teachers

according to the parameters of each instrument, both pedagogic and dispositional.

Later in the thesis, in Chapter 9, the data will be synthesised and discussed in terms

of those instrument items that most strongly differentiated between the teachers.

The synthesising includes data that are gathered as a result of the

“operationalisation” of the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) through the

implementation of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF).

6.2 Criteria for choosing the instruments

In choosing relevant instruments for this stage of the study eight criteria were

devised by the researcher to assist the selection process.

6.2.1 Validity

The first criterion was that the instrument was valid and that it measured what was

required in the case study.

6.2.2 Reliability

A second criterion was that the instrument demonstrated the capability of providing

reliable data from the case study.

178

6.2.3 Relevance

The third criterion was that an instrument should be relevant and do what needed to

be done. In particular, it needed to gather the information that was required to

contribute to answering the research questions and testing the working hypotheses.

6.2.4 Appropriateness of form

The fourth criterion was that the instrument should not only gather the sought after

data but that the data should be in a form that would allow them to be used in

conjunction with data from the other chosen instruments.

6.2.5 Compatibility

The fifth criterion was that the data from the instrument should be capable of being

analysed in ways compatible with the other instruments to permit meaningful

correlations.

6.2.6 Integrated system of coding

The sixth criterion was that the design of the instrument should be such that it

permitted an integrated system of coding to be used for analysis purposes. This

criterion is particularly important with reference to the method of analysing

interviews with the case study teachers.

6.2.7 User friendly

The eighth criterion was that the instrument should be user friendly with reference to

administering it.

179

6.3 Identification of suitable instruments

The three key questions that motivated this study were:

i) What does it mean to be an exceptional teacher?

ii) What is the role of dispositions in defining an exceptional teacher?

iii) How are the characteristics of an exceptional teacher manifest?

In order to investigate these questions, a case study of 12 “exceptional teachers” was

designed in an attempt to examine classroom behaviours as manifestations of teacher

dispositions. From this perspective, it was important to research both classroom

behaviours and the underlying teacher dispositions.

Included in the examination of dispositions in this study are the important areas of

teacher values and beliefs. Hare (2007) made the critical observation that, “In the

current education literature, some writers use the words attitudes or beliefs or values

synonymously with dispositions; others use the words in their definitions of

dispositions” (p. 142). The NCATE (2002) definition of dispositions serves as an

example of the latter. NCATE proposed, “Dispositions are guided by beliefs and

attitudes related to values such as caring, fairness, honesty, responsibility, and social

justice (p. 53). Wasicsko (2007) argued, “From the perceptual vantage point,

dispositions are best defined as those core values, beliefs or perceptions that cause

behavior and allow some educators to affect student learning, growth and

development more positively than others” (p. 79).

The identification of suitable instruments for use in the case study of 12 “exceptional

teachers” was in response to hypothesis ii) It is possible to differentiate between

teachers considered to be exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their

classroom behaviour and their personal reflections, and hypothesis iii)

Differentiation between exceptional teachers and other teachers can be achieved

through the modelling of personal dispositions. In order to respond to research

question ii) What is the role of dispositions in defining an exceptional teacher? and

iii) How are the characteristics of an exceptional teacher manifest in practice?, it

was evident that research instruments were needed to examine teachers’ classroom

behaviour as well as teacher dispositions. In other words, instruments were required

180

to measure both the pedagogic aspects of classroom behaviour and the dispositional

aspects, including the teachers’ values and beliefs.

In order to examine the 12 case study teachers’ classroom behaviours, it was decided

to select two instruments that took into account pedagogic aspects and two

instruments that took into account teacher self-reflections in the important areas of

values and beliefs. This was in addition to the use of the Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) and NVivo analysis for evaluating teacher self-reflections in the

case study interviews. These will be discussed in Chapter 8 of the study.

Two key aspects of the case study were first, to examine the classroom behaviours of

the teachers and to identify the values and beliefs associated with those behaviours

and second, to “operationalise” the DCM by means of the design and deployment of

the IAF. In order to meet the first aim, it was necessary to select appropriate

instruments that met the selection criteria described in Section 6.2. In order to meet

the second aim, it was necessary to design the IAF. This was done in conjunction

with the DCM and Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions and this is discussed in

detail in Chapter 8.

Values and beliefs are at the core of dispositions and values are an indispensable

component of Freeman’s (2007) syntax of dispositions, which is discussed in

Chapter 8 in the context of the development of the Interview Analysis Framework

(IAF). The research questions and all four working hypotheses require that data be

gathered regarding dispositions and, therefore, values and beliefs.

The thesis is primarily concerned with the processes of differentiating between

teachers both pedagogically and dispositionally. It is concerned with associations

between pedagogic and dispositional variables and does not attempt to try to explain

“drivers” of behaviour in terms of “cause and effect”. Our current knowledge of

behaviour is complex and incomplete. This thesis is limited to a case study of 12

teachers and identifies pedagogical and dispositional variables that differentiate

between them. Future research may attempt to discover how values and beliefs

influence classroom behaviour. This study, however, focuses on the identification of

181

and association between pedagogical and dispositional characteristics of exceptional

teachers.

Having established the criteria for choosing relevant instruments relating to the

assessments of teacher classroom behaviours and teacher dispositions, four candidate

instruments were identified as being suitable. The choice of instruments to be

included in the case study was informed by careful searching and investigation. Two

of the four instruments used for data collection are concerned with teacher behaviour

in the classroom. These are the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM)

and the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC). Two more instruments were chosen for

gathering “human attribute” data. These are the My Values Questionnaire (MVQ)

and the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ). The QTM was selected because

of its convincing research foundation. The other three instruments were chosen after

detailed discussions with the authors. These were William Buskist, designer of the

Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC); Tim Cotter, designer of the My Values

Questionnaire (MVQ); and David Silvernail, designer of the Educational Beliefs

Questionnaire (EBQ).

The first instrument under consideration for investigating the pedagogic elements of

teacher behaviour in the classroom was the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model (QTM). The QTM was recognised in the very early stages of the evolution of

this study as being of such importance to the thesis and to the current education scene

in New South Wales that its background, rationale and detailed description have been

included in the literature review (Chapter 2). There it was stated that the model

could be perceived as being a benchmark in the practice of teaching in that State.

This was confirmed as a result of discussions with two academic staff from the

University of Newcastle who are experts in the area of assessing classroom teaching

using an instrument based on the QTM.

An essential part of Stage 3 of the research was to measure the classroom behaviours

of the 12 case study teachers. The QTM provided a well-researched instrument that

was both reliable and valid, and that was user friendly. In addition, data from the

QTM could be gathered in a form that was compatible with that of other instruments

selected for use in the study. An examination of the QTM and its prior use indicated

182

that this was a very appropriate instrument to use when investigating the research

questions and hypotheses ii) and iii).

The second instrument to be considered for assessing teacher behaviour in the

classroom was the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC) that was designed in the USA

by Professor William Buskist et al. (2002). The merit of the TBC was that it

provided “behavioural anchors for the typical global personality descriptors”

(Keeley, Smith & Buskist, 2006, p. 84) that permeated literature and research on

“studies aimed at uncovering the determinants of master teaching” (ibid). In other

words, the TBC presented as an instrument that explored personal qualities of

teachers in terms of their classroom behaviours. This was seen as an important

addition to the focus on pedagogic elements that characterise the QTM.

Contact was established with William Buskist and, as a result of these

communications and the reading of supporting literature, a decision was taken to use

the TBC as an instrument for assessing classroom behaviours of the case study

teachers. After researching the origins and properties of the TBC, it appeared that

this instrument would be useful in testing hypotheses ii) and iii) when applied to the

classroom observation of the 12 case study teachers, particularly in view of its

association with “master teachers”. In addition, the TBC demonstrated the properties

needed to answer research question iii) How are the characteristics of an

Exceptional Teacher manifest in practice? The TBC met all the required criteria for

inclusion in the case study and is discussed in Section 6.6.

Research question ii) What is the role of dispositions in defining an Exceptional

Teacher, together with hypotheses ii) It is possible to differentiate between teachers

considered to be exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their

classroom behaviour and their personal reflections called for a selection of

instruments that not only focused on observable classroom behaviours, but that also

included the personal reflections of the teachers. Besides the inclusion of an

interview in the case study, which is discussed in Chapter 8, it was necessary to

incorporate instruments that allowed for teacher reflections. A dominant theme

across the literature was the importance of the individual’s values and beliefs, and

the interplay between these attributes and observable behaviours.

183

The My Values Questionnaire (MVQ), designed by Tim Cotter in Melbourne

Australia, was the third instrument to be given serious consideration for the purpose

of gathering data on the personal dispositions of the case study teachers. The MVQ

was found to complement the QTM and the TBC because of its focus on personal

values. In addition, the MVQ took into account the extent to which the case study

teachers were living out their values. This is discussed further in Section 6.6.

The MVQ was found to be in a user-friendly form that was compatible with the

QTM and the TBC. The design of the MVQ permitted an integrated system of

coding with the other case study instruments and met the criteria of appropriateness.

The psychometric qualities of the MVQ, which are discussed in Section 6.6,

indicated that it was a valid and reliable instrument that could be used to gather data

in the case study that pertained to the teachers’ priority values.

The MVQ was “designed as a practical, accessible measurement tool to support

individuals and groups to identify their priority values, and the degree to which they

are currently living those values” (Cotter, 2006, p. 2). The merit of the MVQ was

that not only was it able to identify the 12 case study teachers’ priority values, but

that it also was able to extract data regarding the extent to which the teachers were

living out those values. After detailed discussion with Tim Cotter a decision was

taken to use the MVQ as part of this study.

While the MVQ addressed the area of values, it was important to select a research

instrument that included the important area of teacher beliefs. After researching

instruments for potential use in the case study, the fourth instrument identified as a

candidate for use in the case study approach was the Educational Beliefs

Questionnaire (EBQ). Professor David Silvernail designed this instrument in the

USA.

The inclusion of educational beliefs in the data collection, together with teacher

values, was of critical importance because of their inextricable link with teacher

behaviours and teacher dispositions. The EBQ is a self-report instrument that met

the criteria of validity and reliability, as discussed in Section 6.7. It was judged to be

an appropriate instrument for use in the case study because it focused on the

184

important area of the educational beliefs of the teacher. As with the other three

instruments, the EBQ was seen as being appropriate for gathering data to test

hypotheses ii) and iii). Because of the nature of the EBQ and the similar method of

data gathering to the MVQ, it was envisaged that data drawn from the EBQ would be

capable of being analysed in ways compatible with the other instruments. In

addition, the design of the EBQ lent itself to an integrated system for coding and

analysing the data drawn from the case study. It was also seen to be a user-friendly

instrument that the case study teachers could interpret and respond to with ease.

After careful reading of the literature associated with this instrument and as a result

of email communication with the author, the EBQ was confirmed as a suitable

instrument.

6.4 The New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM)

The New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM) was recognised in the very

early stages of the evolution of this thesis as being important both because of the

theory on which it was based and because of its current influence on teaching and

teacher education in New South Wales. Because the QTM is of such importance to

working hypothesis ii) It is possible to differentiate between teachers considered to

be exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their classroom behaviour

and their personal reflections, and working hypothesis iii) Differentiation between

exceptional teachers and other teachers can be achieved through the modelling of

personal dispositions, its background, rationale and detailed description have been

included in the literature review (see Chapter 2). It was stated in that chapter that the

model could be perceived to be a benchmark for the practice of teaching in that State.

There is no equivocation in the official documentation associated with the QTM

regarding the theoretical and philosophical foundations of the model. It is based

firmly on the philosophy that it is the quality of pedagogy that most directly and most

powerfully affects the quality of learning. This was demonstrated most convincingly

in Quality teaching in NSW public schools: An annotated bibliography (NSW, DET,

June 2003), a document that comprehensively provided the research foundation of

the QTM. In particular, research into Authentic Pedagogy conducted by Newmann

185

(1991), Newmann, Marks and Gamoran (1996), and Newmann and Associates

(1996), together with research conducted for the Queensland School Reform

Longitudinal Study (2001), codirected by Ladwig (The University of Newcastle) and

Lingard (The University of Queensland), contributed to the development of the

QTM. It was stated in Chapter 2 that the QTM interprets the nature and function of

pedagogy in terms of learning outcomes that focus on intellectual quality, including

not only the learning process but also the assessment of learning outcomes.

The fundamental premise underlying the QTM view of pedagogy was that it,

focuses attention on the process through which knowledge is

constructed, produced and critiqued. Crucially, the term

pedagogy recognises that how one teaches is inseparable from

what one teachers, from what and how one assesses and from

how one learns (NSW, DET, Discussion Paper, 2003, p. 4).

The departmental documentation (NSW, DET, 2003) clearly enunciated the

classroom practices and teacher and student behaviours that were prerequisite for

quality teaching and learning to occur. It did not encompass, however, the qualities

that teachers needed to possess in order to engage effectively with students in

consistently high levels of quality teaching and quality learning. For this reason, it

was important also to include in the case study research instruments that did take into

account dispositional characteristics of the teachers. The QTM assessment

instrument provided a valid, reliable way of measuring the quality of teaching in

terms of pedagogic considerations while the TBC and particularly the MVQ and

EBQ instruments were selected because they provided insight into the dispositions

that contribute to that quality.

The QTM instrument applied in this thesis comprises a coding sheet that was devised

as part of the practical guidance designed to assist teachers in implementing the New

South Wales Quality Teaching Model (Quality Teaching in NSW Public Schools: An

Assessment Practice Guide, 2004, p. 49). The coding sheet is made up of three

dimensions with six elements in each dimension that are shown in Table 6.1.

Teachers were rated on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 indicating the highest level of

186

achievement of the elements and 1 the lowest level of achievement, as demonstrated

in the observed lessons.

Table 6.1

QTM Coding Sheet

187

6.4.1 Summary of the QTM

The QTM is probably the most important of the four instruments used in the thesis

and, as such, has been dealt with extensively in the literature review (Chapter 2). Its

widespread use in State education in New South Wales and its established usefulness

demonstrate it as a credible instrument for differentiating between teachers on

pedagogic variables.

As was stated in Section 6.3, the QTM was selected as a research instrument for the

case study because it represented pedagogic characteristics of classroom teaching.

Inferred in the domains and elements of the QTM are underlying dispositional

characteristics. It was anticipated, therefore, that when applied to the lessons taught

by the 12 case study teachers, this instrument would differentiate between those

teachers.

Yet, the MVQ and EBQ contained items that were intentionally oriented towards

values or beliefs aspects of the teacher and/or the teacher’s classroom behaviour.

Taking into account the nature of dispositions and the context in which they are

manifest, particularly in the context of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions that

is discussed in Chapter 8, it is anticipated that it will be possible to differentiate

between the case study teachers using these instruments.

6.5 The Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC)

The TBC is a 28-item inventory that defines personal attributes of teachers in terms

of the classroom behaviours through which they are manifest (Keeley, Smith &

Buskist, 2006). It is a behaviourally based instrument for assessing teaching.

Buskist, Sikorski, Buckley and Saville (2002) developed the Teacher Behaviours

Checklist with the aim of attempting to provide “behavioural anchors” (Keeley,

Smith & Buskist, 2006) to the personality descriptors of what they termed “master

teachers”. Under the leadership of Buskist, as a result of their studies of teachers

188

who were identified for their teaching excellence, Buskist et al. identified 10 basic

principles underlying their behaviour. These were discussed in the literature review.

Keeley, Smith and Buskist (2006) conducted a study involving factor analysis of the

TBC as an instrument for evaluating teaching. From that study it was concluded that

the TBC had a two-factor structure. The first factor is a measure of interpersonal

caring and supportive skills and the second is a measure of professional competency

and communication skills. The total score, it was concluded, will give a measure of

a teacher’s overall teaching (Keeley et al., p. 89).

Having conducted a factor analysis of the TBC and explored its utility for evaluating

teaching, Keeley et al. (2006) found that “Further psychometric analysis suggested

the instrument possessed excellent construct validity and reliability underscoring its

potential as a tool for assessing teaching” (p. 84). In order to do this, they conducted

two studies. The first study was of particular interest. In this study they,

evaluated the basic psychometric properties of the TBC

through an exploratory factor analysis, examination of

internal reliability of the scales, and a comparison with the

standard Auburn University teaching evaluation. This

approach allowed us to examine the basic factor structure

of the instrument as well as measures of its construct

validity and internal reliability (p. 84).

Using the Pearson correlation coefficient they found that the coefficient values

ranged from 0.24 to 0.64. Most of the items had a coefficient at the 0.4 or the 0.5

level. They used two subscales for testing the reliability. The first was the caring

and supportive subscale where the reliability coefficient was found to be 0.68. The

second subscale was professional competency and communication skills where the

reliability coefficient was found to be 0.72. Regarding the internal consistency of the

items, they reported that “the items on the caring and supportive subscale produced

an alpha of .93, and items on the professional competency and communication skills

subscale produced an alpha of .90…When combined, the alpha for the whole scale

189

equalled .95” (p. 88). The construct validity of both subscales was found to be

significant, thus providing further support for the validity of the instrument.

The full Teacher Behaviours Checklist (TBC) with the rating grid is presented in

Table 6.2.

Table 6.2

Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC) and Coding Grid

ITEM DEMONSTRATED QUALITIES AND CORRESPONDING BEHAVIORS

A B C D E

1 Accessible (Gave the impression that the teacher could be contacted at times other than in school hours e.g. gave out information about out-of-class availability &help; offered to meet at times other than class time)

2 Approachable/Personable (Smiled, greeted students; initiated conversations; invited questions; responded respectfully to student comments)

3 Authoritative (Established clear rules; maintained classroom order; spoke in a loud, strong voice)

4 Confident (spoke clearly; made eye contact; and answered questions correctly)

5 Creative and Interesting (Experimented with teaching methods; used technological devices to support and enhance lesson; used interesting, relevant and personal examples; not monotone)

6 Effective Communicator (Spoke clearly/loudly; used precise English; gave clear, compelling examples)

7 Encourages and Cares for Students (Provided praise for good student work; helped students who needed it; offered bonus points and rewards; knew student names)

8 Enthusiastic about Teaching and about Topic (Smiled during the class; prepared interesting class activities; used gestures and expressions of emotion to emphasize important points and arrived on time for class)

9 Establishes Daily and Academic Term Goals (Had lesson aims and objectives; these were shared with the students; the teacher’s teaching contributed to reaching the subject syllabus aims and objectives and overall curriculum goals)

10 Flexible/Open-Minded (Made changes to intended lesson plan when necessary; paid attention to students when they stated their opinions; accepted criticism from others; and allowed students to do make-up work when appropriate)

11 Good Listener (Didn’t interrupt students while they were talking; maintained eye contact; asked questions about points that students were making)

12 Happy/Positive Attitude/Humorous (Told jokes and funny stories; laughed with students)

13 Humble (Admitted mistakes; didn’t brag when had opportunity to do so; gave credit to others)

190

14 Knowledgeable About Subject Matter (Easily answered student’s questions; spoke without having to read from a book or notes; used clear and understandable examples)

15 Prepared (Brought necessary materials to class; ready to start lesson on time; anticipated possible needs; provided worksheets, notes or other resources; set up and tested equipment)

16 Presents Current Information (Related topic to current, real-life situations; used recent videos, magazines, and newspapers to demonstrate points; talked about current topics; used new or recent texts)

17 Professional (Appropriate dress, language and demeanour for the given socio-cultural context of the school)

18 Promotes Class Discussion (Asked controversial or challenging questions during class; gave points for class participation; involved students in group activities during the class)

19 Promotes Critical Thinking/Intellectually Stimulating (Asked thoughtful questions during class; used essay questions on tests and quizzes; assigned homework; held group discussions/ activities)

20 Provides Constructive Feedback (Wrote comments on returned work; answered students’ questions; gave advice on test-taking)

21 Punctuality/Manages Class Time (Arrived to class on time/early; dismissed class on time; presented relevant materials in class; left time for questions; returned work in a timely way)

22 Rapport (Made class laugh through jokes and funny stories; initiated and maintained class discussions; knew student names; interacted with students before and after class)

23 Realistic Expectations of Students/Fair Testing and Grading (Covered material tested during class; relevant test questions; students not overloaded with reading; teaching was at an appropriate level for the majority of students; provision made for “slow” learners)

24 Respectful (Did not humiliate or embarrass students in class; was polite to students [said thank you and please, etc]; did not interrupt students while they were talking; did not talk down to students)

25 Sensitive and Persistent (Made sure students understood material before moving to new material; offered to hold extra study sessions; repeated information when necessary; asked questions to check student understanding)

26 Strives to be a Better Teacher (Requested feedback on his/her teaching ability from students; continues learning [attends workshops, etc. on teaching]; used new teaching methods)

27 Technologically Competent (Knew how to use a computer; knew how to use email with students; knew how to use electronic and other equipment during class; had a Web page for classes)

28 Understanding (Accepted legitimate excuses for missing class or coursework; was available before/after class to answer questions; did not lose temper at students; took extra time to discuss difficult concepts)

Teacher Rater Date

191

Table 6.3 presents the rating scale used for rating teachers on the 28 items

of the TBC.

Table 6.3

Teacher Behaviors Checklist Rating Scale

RATER’S CODE __________________

INSTRUCTIONS

On the basis of all three of the lessons you observed, how would you rate this teacher’s

teaching style on each of the 28 items on the Teacher Behaviors Checklist?

Use the following scale for your ratings by writing X in the appropriate column (A, B, C,

D, or E)

A = This teacher seems to always exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality

B = This teacher seems to frequently exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality

C = This teacher seems to sometimes exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality

D = This teacher seems rarely to exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality

E = This teacher seems never to exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality

In addition, please use the space below on this side of the page to write any comments

regarding this teacher’s teaching. These comments may include both what you find

positive and negative about this teacher’s teaching.

Please be sure to read each item in this list carefully. Thank you.

________________________________________________________________________

COMMENTS

192

6.5.1 Summary of the TBC

As was stated in Section 6.3, the items in the TBC were of such a nature that both

pedagogic and dispositional characteristics were represented. While this instrument

was designed for use in the assessment of observed classroom behaviour, it was

underpinned by dispositional characteristics of the teacher. It was anticipated,

therefore, that when the items in the TBC were aligned with the DCM they would be

represented across most or all of the five clusters of the DCM. With the QTM, the

TBC was judged to be a useful instrument for testing hypothesis ii) It is possible to

differentiate between teachers considered to be exceptional using a series of

instruments that explore their classroom behaviours and their personal reflections,

and hypothesis iii) Differentiation between exceptional teachers and other teachers

can be achieved through the modelling of personal dispositions.

6.6 The My Values Questionnaire (MVQ)

The My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) is an instrument for identifying personal

priority values and for assessing the degree to which a person is living them in life

and work situations. In terms of the criteria enunciated in Section 6.2, the MVQ,

with some minor qualifications, appeared to be the best instrument available to gather

relevant data in the realm of personal values held by the 12 case study teachers.

Cotter (2006) stated in his MVQ Technical Manual,

The MVQ was developed with the intention of eliciting the

relative importance and priority which the individual places

on a pre-determined set of values. It was important that the

values set was representative of a comprehensive range of

human values, while still maintaining sufficient brevity to

meet the purpose of practicality and accessibility (p. 6).

Referring to the final set of 22 values chosen, Cotter (2006) made the point that

the MVQ is not a values model that covers every possible definition and nuance of

human values. He claimed also that the questionnaire captures the major categories

into which existing research falls (p. 6). The sources cited as being particularly

193

important in the final selection and development of the instrument were Crace and

Brown (1996), Kahle (1983), Macoby (1976), Nevill and Super (1989), Rokeach

(1973), and Schwartz (1992).

Using a sample of 104 participants, Cotter (2006) analysed the psychometric

properties of the 22 values that are measured by the MVQ and found that “the

reliability scores for 13 of the 22 scales exceed the threshold of 0.7 recommended by

Nunnally (1978)” and that “a further 7 of the scales fell between 0.6 and 0.7, a level

considered acceptable in much of the literature” (p. 13). Based on the alpha

coefficients for the MVQ items, the overall internal consistency of the instrument

was found to be good. For these reasons, the MVQ was selected as one of the four

research instruments for the case study.

When the items and related concepts in the MVQ were compared with the clusters of

dispositions in the DCM, the MVQ was judged to be the best instrument available at

the time to be used for gathering personal values data from the case study teachers.

The only modification to the instrument was the omission of any reference to the

value relating to “security” because of ambiguity. The values, definitions and related

concepts are shown in Table 6.4.

194

Table 6.4

Table of MVQ Values, Definitions and Related Concepts MVQ Values Definitions Related Concepts

1 Achievement The satisfaction gained from attaining a goal. meeting a challenge or realising one’s potential.

mastery, self-competence, excellence, challenge

2 Caring The experience of directly providing help, support and comfort to others. Differs from "Service To Society" in the emphasis on direct, immediate support to others.

helping others, service, compassion

3 Community The feeling of being connected to, or belonging to, a group, team or societv.

sense of belonging, support, team

4 Connection The experience of being close and intimate with others in a meaningful way. Differs from "Community" in the emphasis on intimacy of the relationship.

love, companionship, relationship, sharing, intimacy

5 Environment Caring for the physical environment. either in a spiritual or practical sense.

environmental sustainability, making a difference to the future of the planet

6.Exploration Seeking new experiences and pursuing interests and adventures,

variety, interest, curiosity, adventure

7 Fairness Valuing equality and justice for all people. Justice, equality, egalitarianism 8 Family Encompasses both family as a specific group. as well as

the sense of family as a feeling. home, ancestry history

9 Freedom The sense of being able to make choices free from obligation or coercion.

choice, individuality

10 Fun Valuing joy, playfulness and recreation. play, pleasure, stimulation, recreation 11 Independence The ability to operate autonomously and using one’s

resources. Distinct from "Freedom" due to the emphasis on self-reliance.

resourcefulness, autonomy, self- direction

12 Influence The ability to have an effect on others through use of power, authority or control.

control, authority, power

13 Insight The value placed upon learning and gaining wisdom. wisdom, knowledge, learning 14 Integrity Honesty, trust and the alignment between values and

actions. trust, loyalty, honesty, openness

14 Recognition The feeling of acting valued and acknowledged by others.

status, prestige, acknowledgement, validation

16 Security (not used)

The emphasis on preserving one's physical and material circumstances.

self-preservation, making ends meet, providing, safety

17 Self expression Having an outlet for ideas and creative expression. creativity, ideas, imagination 18 Service to society

The emphasis placed upon making a contribution to society. Differs from "Environment" in the focus on people and society.

contribution to society, peace, social sustainability, making a difference to people's lives

19 Simplicity The value placed on order and clarity. stability, order, making sense of the world, clarity

20 Spirituality An emphasis on meaning and self-reflection. This value includes, but is not limited to. formal and religious spirituality.

inner harmony, purpose, higher self, self-respect, tranquillity

21 Tradition The value of meeting and conforming to societal expectations and rituals.

honour, respect, conformity

22 Wellbeing An emphasis on being healthy, comfortable and relaxed. Differs from "Security" in the emphasis on attaining a desired stated, rather than avoiding an undesired state.

health, comfort, relaxation

In determining the scores for each case study teacher using the MVQ, two sets of

related questions were used to assess: 1) the values of case study teachers and 2) the

extent to which they were living out their values in the work place. There were 66

questions in the first section and a total of 22 in the second section making 88

questions in all.

195

The component of the MVQ that dealt with the extent to which teachers were living

out their values was considered to be a potentially important inclusion in the case

study. There are many possible reasons why teachers may underperform in the

classroom. These include variables such as feeling that they are not treated fairly,

not having the freedom to do what they would like to do or what they believe should

be done in the classroom, and family circumstances. Part 2 of the MVQ could

contribute to the process of differentiating between teachers. It seemed a distinct

possibility that the classroom performance of those teachers who are not deriving

satisfaction from living out their values in the classroom may be adversely affected

by a discrepancy between values held and the extent to which these values are given

expression in the school context. Therefore, data from Part 2 of the MVQ were seen

to be a possible means of further differentiating between the case study teachers on

dispositionally oriented variables.

For Section 1, the responses to the 66 questions were scored on a scale of 1 to 100,

with a rating of 100 indicating the strongest agreement and 1 indicating the least

agreement. Table 6.4 presents the set of generic MVQ values that the case study

teachers were asked to rate. Section 2 consists of 22 questions that relate to the

extent to which the case study teachers lived out their values in the workplace and

these were scored on a scale of 1 to 10 that were again translated by the owners of

MVQ into the generic values. The results are analysed and discussed in Chapter 7.

(For a full account of the operation of the MVQ see Appendix D.)

6.6.1 Summary of the MVQ

The inclusion of the MVQ as one of the four research instruments for the case study

was motivated by the need to include the important area of values because of their

intrinsic association with teacher dispositions. Nowhere was this more clearly

enunciated than in Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions where he argued,

“Without the component of “values”, whether implicit or explicit, there is no

disposition” (p. 127). In this context, values that were enacted were seen to be an

integral component of dispositions and, therefore, needed to be accommodated in the

choice of instruments for the case study.

196

The items in the MVQ focused on the personal values of the teacher and, therefore,

represented dispositional characteristics. It was anticipated that items from the MVQ

could differentiate between the case study teachers on the basis of teachers’ priority

values. The MVQ, then, together with the QTM and TBC, was potentially a useful

instrument for testing hypotheses ii) and iii).

6.7 The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ)

The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) used theoretical descriptions of five

distinct educational philosophies in educational foundations literature to arrive at a

three-factor version of the EBQ with 20 items. The original five different

educational philosophies used to develop the EBQ were Essentialism, Traditionalism,

Progressivism, Reconstructivism, and Existentialism. There are three sub-scales in

the final version of the instrument that assesses the educational orientations of

Perennialism, Romanticism, and Progressivism (Silvernail, 1992b).

The three sub-scales represent all five educational philosophies. The first sub-scale,

items 1 to 7 (Factor 1), combines the philosophies of Essentialism and

Traditionalism. These items assess beliefs such as “the importance of schools in

transmitting the cultural heritage, the value of drill and practice, strong authority

roles for teachers, and passive roles for students. This factor was labelled the

Perennialism Orientation” (Silvernail, 1992b, pp. 665-666). The second sub-scale,

items 8 to 16 (Factor 2), reflects the educational philosophies of Reconstructivism

and Existentialism. These items assess “the beliefs in the importance of schools as

sources of new social ideas and individual awareness, the need for schools to become

child-centred, and the role of teachers as facilitators in the natural development of

children” (Silvernail, 1992b, p. 666). Silvernail labelled this Factor 2 sub-scale of

nine items the Romanticism Orientation and commented that it is an orientation

associated with Rousseau in the nineteenth century. The third subscale (Factor 3)

comprises items 17 to 20. This carries the label of Progressivism. These items

assess “beliefs in the central role of schools in developing socially conscious adults,

197

the importance of acquiring problem-solving skills and knowledge, and the role of

students as active learners guided by teachers” (Silvernail, 1992b, p. 666).

These philosophical orientations of the EBQ were evidenced by beliefs about key

concepts of education, namely: the purposes of education, the nature of curriculum,

methods of instruction, role of the teacher, and role of the student. The researcher

added an additional open ended question that allowed an opportunity for the case

study teachers to record any educational beliefs that they thought were not included

in the original questionnaire.

Silvernail (1992b) reported details of a study of the development and investigation of

the construct validity of the EBQ in the journal Educational and Psychological

Measurement. The purpose of the study was to develop and establish the construct

validity of the EBQ as a psychometric instrument for assessing beliefs, as discussed

earlier in this section. A confirmatory factor analysis of the scale data found that the

total five-factor model accounted for 50.8% of the variance in teacher responses.

Two of the five factors combine explained only 4.7% of the variance in responses

and contained only two or three items. Four of the items that loaded on these two

factors had common loadings on more than one factor. When these five items were

eliminated and a new common factor analysis was performed with varimax rotations

for three, four and five factor models it was found that the three-factor model yielded

the most parsimonious set of items, accounting for 41.2% of the variance in teacher

responses. Silvernail concluded that the goals of the study had “in large measure” (p.

662) been achieved and he established the construct validity of the EBQ as a

psychometric instrument for assessing beliefs about five educational concepts from

multiple philosophical orientations.

A recent endorsement of the EBQ as a credible psychometric instrument came from

Rideout (2006). In addition, Rideout and Morton (2007) used the EBQ in a study of

pre-service teachers’ beliefs. They provided a useful summary of the validity and

reliability of the instrument stating,

The construct validity of the EBQ was considered using factor

analysis. All 20 items have loadings over 0.35, with a minimum

difference of 0.20 in loading between factors. Calculations for

198

internal consistency estimates yielded an alpha coefficient of

0.73 (Silvernail, 1992a) (p. 593).

The details of the revised EBQ are shown in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5

The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ)

6.7.1 Summary of the EBQ

The inclusion of the EBQ as one of the four research instruments for the case study

was motivated by the need to include teacher self-reflections in the critical area of

the teachers’ beliefs in order to draw evidence for testing hypotheses ii) and iii). The

199

EBQ was considered to be an appropriate instrument for completing the selection of

four research instruments to be implemented in the case study. It was anticipated

that, because of the nature of teacher beliefs, the items in the EBQ would contribute

to the process of differentiating between the 12 case study teachers in the context of

their preferred educational beliefs.

6.8 Summary of Chapter 6

This chapter provided an explanation of the four instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and

EBQ) selected to investigate the classroom behaviour of the case study teachers and

to elicit information from each of them regarding personal values and educational

beliefs. The values and beliefs components of the data from the MVQ and EBQ, and

later from the interviews (see Chapters 8 and 9) are expected to contribute

significantly to investigating dispositions associated with teach of the case study

teachers. Each instrument was selected to provide data for differentiating between the

teachers in the case study in ways that would distinguish between pedagogic and

dispositional variables.

The QTM was selected because of its rich pedagogic foundation and the important

contribution it is making to educational thinking and practice in New South Wales.

The TBC was selected because of its focus on observable teaching behaviour, as well

as the underlying teacher dispositions either stated or inferred in the 28 items. This

was found to be a well-researched instrument based on sound psychometric

principles. As well as gathering data based on observed teacher behaviour, it was

important to include data associated with teacher values and beliefs that represented

the “human dimension” of the 12 case study teachers. The MVQ was selected

because of its focus on the personal values of the individual and because of its

convincing psychometric qualities. Finally, the EBQ was selected to gather data on

the 12 case study teachers’ educational beliefs. Reported use of this instrument in

recent research (Rideout & Morton, 2007), together with Silvernail’s (2006)

explanation and testing of the EBQ indicated that it would be useful in providing data

from the perspective of teacher self-reports on their beliefs.

200

As was stated in Section 6.3, the items in the TBC were of such a nature that both

pedagogically and dispositionally oriented characteristics were represented. It was

anticipated that TBC items, together with the QTM items, would differentiate

between the case study teachers in terms of their observable classroom behaviours.

On the other hand, the MVQ and EBQ contained items that were intentionally

oriented towards dispositional or values or beliefs aspects of either or both the

teacher and classroom behaviour. Taking into account the nature of dispositions and

the context in which they are manifest, particularly in the context of Freeman’s

(2007b) syntax of dispositions (Chapter 8), it is anticipated it will be possible to

differentiate between the 12 case study teachers on the basis of these dispositional

aspects.

The important role of the four instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ) for

gathering data is seen as the thesis unfolds. The DCM (Chapter 5) was first

developed from the literature review (Chapter 2) in order to explore the question of

whether or not dispositional and pedagogic variables can be identified and associated

in a way or ways that contribute to enriching the meaning of “exceptionality” when

differentiating amongst teachers.

The thesis proceeds to describe and explain how a method was devised by which the

DCM itself could be “operationalised” and used as an “instrument” for differentiating

between teachers on associated pedagogic and dispositional variables. Initially, this

was within the conceptual framework of the five clusters of primary dispositions in

the DCM. The deployment of these instruments and the resultant data are the subject

of the next chapter.

  201 

CHAPTER 7

Differentiating Teachers Using Instrument Data

7.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present and analyse the data gathered from the four

instruments, namely the Quality Teaching Model (QTM), the Teacher Behaviors

Checklist (TBC), the My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) and the Educational Beliefs

Questionnaire (EBQ) in order to differentiate between the case study teachers in

terms of their classroom performance and in terms of their educational beliefs and

personal values. These data will be used to establish possible patterns of behaviours,

beliefs and values that differentiate between a cohort of 12 case study teachers

deemed by their school principals to be “exceptional”. A subsequent chapter (see

Chapter 8) will propose a method for using the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF)

to “operationalise” the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) and, in effect, the DCM

will be used as a fifth instrument for differentiating between the teachers.

Data from each of the instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ) taken separately

will be shown to differentiate between the teachers with varying degrees of

effectiveness. One of the aims of the thesis, however, is to identify dispositions

associated with pedagogic aspects of classroom performance and to use these

associations for differentiating between these case study teachers. Two methods

proposed for the purpose of identifying associations between instrument items

involve the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) and NVivo analysis of the case

study interviews. These will be explored in Chapters 8 and 9.

  202 

This thesis, therefore, proposes three ways of differentiating between the case study

teachers and providing data for profiling high performing/exceptional teachers. They

are by means of: 1) individual instrument data, 2) the Interview Analysis Framework

(IAF) that “operationalises” the DCM, and 3) NVivo analysis of the case study

interviews. The “validity” of these three methods of differentiating between teachers

will be explored by examining correlations between the results of each method.

The present chapter differentiates between the case study teachers on the basis of

data gathered from the application the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ in the case study.

7.1.1 Case study biographical data

A summary of relevant biographical information regarding the participant teachers is

presented in this chapter to provide a more meaningful context for interpreting the

data that follow. This information is provided in Table 7.1. It is presented in terms

of the gender, years of teaching experience, school level taught (i.e. primary or

secondary), subject(s) taught, and knowledge and understanding of the QTM that

was obtained from a questionnaire that will be discussed in more detail in Chapter

10.

  203 

Table 7.1

Case Study Biographical Data

The 1 to 10 ratings for the teachers’ knowledge of the QTM were based on the

teacher responses to a questionnaire (see Appendix E) that asked the teachers to

score their knowledge and understanding of the QTM from 1 to 10, with 1 being the

lowest level of knowledge and understanding and 10 being the highest.

7.2 The (New South Wales) Quality Teaching Model (QTM)

This section deals with a key instrument, the Quality Teaching Model (QTM), in

terms of the presentation and analyses of the results arising from observations of the

case study teachers’ classroom behaviours. Three lessons were video recorded for

each of the 12 case study teachers. After consultation with two educators from the

University of Newcastle, Australia who are trained in the use of the QTM assessment

  204 

instrument it was decided, as a matter of expediency due to the pressure of time on

the academics, to select at random one video recorded lesson taught by each teacher.

The two assessors then independently rated each of the selected lessons. Once this

was done, they compared and discussed their ratings and came to a decision about

the final scores for each teacher across the three dimensions and 18 items of the

QTM instrument.

7.2.1 Data analysis

In order to assist with the interpretation and analysis of the data in this section it will

be necessary to consult the coding sheet used for observing and evaluating the

lessons. This is contained in Section 6.2 of the previous chapter. The raw score

ratings for each of the 12 case study teachers on the QTM are shown in Table 7.2.

Ratings were on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being a minimum rating and 5 being a

maximum rating.

  205 

Table 7.2

QTM Scores for the 12 Case Study Teachers

 

 

In terms of macro analysis the most obvious observation from these data is that there

is a wide range of scores, from a high of 81 to a low of 41, out of a possible

maximum score of 90 across the three dimensions (i.e. a maximum score of 30 for

each dimension). Total teacher scores for each of the three dimensions are given at

the bottom of the table. A further observation is that the majority of the case study

teachers did not score particularly well on all three pedagogic dimensions of teaching

as portrayed in the QTM and the possible reasons for this will be discussed in the

final chapter.

The conversion of the data from the raw scores on the QTM into standardised scores

(z-scores) is presented in Table 7.3. This table shows the aggregated raw scores of

each case study teacher for the three dimensions of the QTM, the total raw scores for

each teacher, and the total raw scores converted to z-scores for each teacher.

  206 

Table 7.3

Standardised QTM Scores

When the scores of the 12 teachers on the QTM are standardised it can be seen in

Table 7.3 that seven teachers scored above the zero z-score. Case study teachers B

and C, with Z-scores of 1.38 and 1.04 respectively, represent the high end of the

spectrum of scores. Three teachers, A, D and I with z-scores of -1.28, -0.77 and

-2.05 respectively, represent the weaker end of the spectrum. The scores of the

remaining seven teachers seem fairly evenly distributed between the extremes of the

spectrum, with the only semblance of a pattern being that there are more teachers

with scores skewed towards the low end of the spectrum of scores than there are in

the opposite direction.

The data in Table 7.3 show that, of the three dimensions of the QTM, namely

Intellectual quality, Quality learning environment, and Significance, it was the

Quality learning environment that had the highest mean raw score (23.3) and the

smallest standard deviation (3.1).

  207 

7.2.2 Summary

The raw scores in Table 7.2 enabled the case study teachers to be differentiated in

terms of the individual items and also in terms of the three dimensions embedded in

the QTM. The aggregated raw scores for each case study teacher made

differentiation possible in terms of overall performance according to the criteria of

the QTM. Data from the QTM, particularly with reference to the standardised

scores, identified case study teachers B and C as the best performing teachers.

The standard deviation (SD) for each dimension of the QTM revealed that the

instrument appeared to be least effective in differentiating with reference to the

dimension Quality learning environment. An alternative interpretation is that these

teachers were reasonably consistent in their approaches to creating a quality learning

environment, as measured by the QTM. The dimension Intellectual quality had the

greatest SD (6.3) and, of the three dimensions, appeared to differentiate most

strongly between the 12 case study teachers.

7.3 Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC)

This section contains information and analyses of data relating to the application of

the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC) instrument together with some analysis of

the comparison between the standardised scores of the QTM and the TBC.

7.3.1 Data analysis

In Chapter 6, a description of the TBC rating system was provided in Table 6.4. The

initial rating process was based on the letter coding A, B, C, D and E. All three

lessons for each of the 12 case study teachers were coded on each of the 28 items.

The codes were interpreted as follows:

  208 

A = This teacher seems to always exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality.

B = This teacher seems to frequently exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality.

C = This teacher seems to sometimes exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality.

D = This teacher seems rarely to exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality.

E = This teacher seems never to exhibit these behaviors reflective of this quality.

The coding has been converted into numeric values for purposes of number rating in

this section. The letter ratings for all case study teachers using the original rating

scale are represented in Table 7.4 and the letter ratings converted to number ratings

are shown in Table 7.5.

Table 7.4

TBC Analysis Using Letter Coding

  209 

Table 7.5

Summary of TBC Rating Converted to Numerical Score

The scores for the TBC were obtained in three stages. First, two experienced

educators, one a university professor and one a teacher, viewed and independently

rated the three video recorded lessons taught by each of the 12 case teachers. Where

there was a difference of opinion on the coded rating given to any of the three

lessons taught by each of the 12 case study teachers, a third experienced teacher

moderated the ratings. In the second stage, the independent ratings for all the lessons

were then discussed and collated. An “average” of the three coded ratings was taken,

based on the pattern of performance across the three lessons. The results of this

stage are presented in Table 7.4. Finally, a numeric value was given to the coded

rating for each of the 12 teachers, according to their rated performance across the

three lessons. The results of this process are presented in Table 7.5.

The three observations that become immediately apparent from the raw scores are:

first, that five of the teachers (A, B, C, J and K) had high scores on the TBC analysis

of their three videorecorded classroom lessons; second, that four teachers (E, G, H

and I) did not score as high as the “best” teachers, but they did score above the mean

of the cohort; and third, that three teachers (D, F and L) had relatively low scores.

  210 

Thus, the teachers with the lowest raw scores on the TBC were case study teachers

D, F and L. The highest scoring teachers were A, B, C, J and K.

These comparisons become clearer when the total TBC scores for the teachers are

standardised and then plotted as graphs (Figure 7.1) with the point of origin of the X-

axis and Y-axis being set at the mean of the 12 z-scores.

Figure 7.1. Graphical representation of TBC standardised scores.

A table containing the standardised scores of the TBC rated lessons is included here,

as Table 7.6, because these data have an important place in the continued analysis.

Standardising the scores of the ratings of the 12 case study teachers on all four

instruments was an important step because this would allow for later comparison of

  211 

teacher performances on the basis of “scaled” scores. This is discussed further in

Chapters 9 and 10 of the thesis.

Table 7.6

TBC Standardised Scores

When comparing the TBC (see Table 7.6) and QTM (see Table 7.3) standardised

scores of all 12 case study teachers, a noticeable feature is that the scores of seven

teachers (A, B, C, E, H, J and K) were relatively close, with the scores of three

teachers (D, F and L) being relatively divergent. This feature of the pattern of scores

is displayed in Figure 7.1. It appears that there was relative agreement between the

two instruments regarding seven teachers, including the two who are emerging as the

best performing across all the instruments, namely teachers B and C. Teachers J and

K also performed noticeably better than most of the cohort.

The data from Table 7.7, showing the totals of the standardised scores on the QTM

and TBC taken conjointly, were converted to a bar chart shown in Figure 7.2.

  212 

Table 7.7

Combined Z-scores for QTM and TBC Ratings for All Case Study Teachers

Figure 7.2. Bar chart representation of aggregated standardised scores of the QTM

and TBC.

  213 

The chart highlights the emerging pattern of the 12 case study teachers being

differentiated along a spectrum of scores derived from instrument data. The

relatively low correlation of 0.2 between the array of case teacher scores on the QTM

and TBC, as shown in Table 7.7, is probably accounted for by the fact that the QTM

was oriented towards pedagogic components, whereas the TBC had both

dispositional and pedagogic components. The rationale for bringing together the

QTM and TBC scores is that the QTM results give one pattern of differentiation

while the TBC results give a second pattern of differentiation. The conjoint give a

third pattern of differentiation and this is shown in Figure 7.2.

7.3.2 Summary

It will be observed that according to the TBC data, seven out of the 12 case study

teachers achieved a standardised score rating of 0.95 or higher and one teacher

received a rating of 0.94 (see Table 7.5). Overall, the scores indicated a strong

performance on the TBC, with only case study teacher D scoring lower than 0.75.

On the basis of teacher performances on the TBC, the data appear to support the

principals’ nomination of these teachers for inclusion in the study of “exceptional

teachers”.

It seems that TBC scores for the 28 items were not conclusive in terms of providing

clear differentiation between all the case study teachers. However, using the non-

parametric statistical procedure of ranking, there were five teachers who ranked

relatively higher than the rest of the cohort, these being teachers A, B, C and K who

each had z-scores of 0.99 and teacher J who had the highest z-score of 1.00. It will

be shown with further analysis of data from all four instruments that whereas

teachers A and K do not maintain a consistently high ranking of data scores, teachers

B and C (and to a lesser degree, teacher J) do score consistently high rankings. In

view of the qualitative nature of the research methodology being used, with the

support of descriptive statistics, the non-parametric procedures of ranking scores is

considered useful for discovering consistent patterns of results in the data. An

  214 

important aim of the thesis is to find patterns of results from data analyses that

differentiate between teachers in ways that assist in identifying the best-performing

teachers.

The ratings for the TBC items provided an interesting perspective in terms of

highlighting dispositions and behaviours on which there was consistently high

performance by most of the case study teachers. Table 6.3 provided a

comprehensive list of the 28 item names and their descriptors. There were seven

items where all 12 case study teachers, with the exception of teacher D, were given a

rating of A, the highest rating. These items were: Item 2 (Approachable); Item 3

(Authoritative); Item 4 (Confident); Item 9 (Establishes Daily and Academic Term

Goals); Item 17 (Professional); Item 22 (Rapport); and, Item 23 (Realistic

Expectations of Students). All 12 case study teachers were given an “A” rating for

Item 24 (Respectful). These findings are of considerable importance when

considering the pedagogic and dispositional variables of an exceptional teacher and

are discussed in Chapter 9. One interpretation of the TBC data feedback is that

these eight items identify key behaviours and dispositions of effective teachers.

When interpreting instrument data it is important to exercise care with reference to

the meanings of concepts represented by the instrument items. This is illustrated in

the context of the TBC by the item descriptor “authoritative” that refers to the

teacher’s demonstrated ability to establish clear guidelines and to maintain classroom

order through strategies such as the effective use of voice. Used in the context of the

TBC, this descriptor had positive behavioural connotations that did not preclude

student engagement or student direction during the lesson.

  215 

7.4 The My Values Questionnaire (MVQ)

7.4.1 Rationale

The My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) was administered in order to identify the

personal priority values of the 12 case study teachers and to investigate the degree to

which the case study teachers held common values. In addition, the MVQ was

selected because it took into account the degree to which the teachers were living out

their priority values in their day-to-day teaching. The two parts of the MVQ and the

results, together with the analyses, are dealt with separately in this section.

7.4.2 Part 1 questionnaire

Part I of the MVQ was designed to elicit the values of the individual and, according

to Cotter (2006), can be administered on its own “as a values elicitation tool only” (p.

6). The 12 case study teachers were required to “rate the applicability of each item

on a scale of 1-100, with 100 being highest” (ibid). Tim Cotter, the designer of the

MVQ, explained that this part was structured in three sub-sections based on the

statements:

a. If you were considering a job, how important would the following factors be to you?

b. The most important things a parent can teach or encourage in a child are…

c. In the future, when I look back over my life, I will feel most proud to say that… (p. 7).

Once the teachers rated the applicability of each item, the scoring for each MVQ

value was calculated “as the mean score of the 3 items relating to that value” (Cotter,

2006, p. 7). The 12 case study teacher responses to Part 1 and Part 2 of the MVQ

were sent to Cotter who then processed the data. An analysis of MVQ item

  216 

responses to Part 1 across all cases was carried out, including raw and standardised

scores that are shown in Table 7.8.

Table 7.8

Case Study Teacher Responses to Part 1 of the MVQ

Table 7.8 contains data concerning how each case teacher ranked the 22 value items

in Part 1 of the MVQ. According to Cotter (2006), the scale of 1 to 100 provided

“adequate opportunity for respondents to differentiate between the relative

importance of items” (p. 7). The table also shows the mean rating of each value item

in the MVQ and the rank of the mean ratings when all case teacher ratings for each

item are processed.

Table 7.9 provides an analysis of how each of the 12 case study teachers ranked each

of the 22 MVQ items.

  217 

Table 7.9

Ranked MVQ Item Responses

From the ranking provided in Table 7.9 it can be seen that teacher A, for example.

gave the highest rating to the Insight value (Rank 1) and the lowest rating to the

Freedom value (Rank 22). Teacher D also gave the highest rating to the Insight

value (Rank 1), but gave the lowest rating to the Simplicity value (Rank 22). The

mean of the teacher rankings for each of the 22 values has also been included in

Table 7.9. The Family value, for example, had the highest rank mean (2.5) and the

most frequent ranking across all 12 teachers for Family as a value was Rank 2. This

value also had the lowest standard deviation (1.45) on ranking across the cohort of

teachers.

In addition to profiling each individual teacher’s rankings for the 22 value items,

Table 7.9 provides information regarding the mean of the rankings across all 12

teachers and the mode. The table also indicates those value items having the lowest

  218 

standard deviation across the rankings given by the teachers, and those value items

having the highest standard deviation. These aspects of the data analysis from the

MVQ will be discussed in later chapters of the thesis, particularly as they pertain to

patterns of performance of the 12 teachers across the four case study instruments.

The standard deviation has been used as an indication of the level of consensus

amongst the teachers as to the rankings given to the 22 value items of the MVQ and

this issue is discussed later in this chapter.

Two sets of MVQ data are of particular interest, at this point. The first is data

obtained from the raw scores of each teacher’s rating for each of the 22 MVQ values.

The second set of interesting data is obtained from ranking the combined scores of

each case teacher for each value item in the MVQ. Based on these data, it can be

argued that for these 12 teachers there is a hierarchy of values indicated by their

responses to the MVQ that are influencing the teachers. Clearly, however, this is not

saying that teachers are agreed on how the values on the questionnaire should be

ranked in order of importance. The means of ranks given to values by a set of

teachers may be a useful way of giving a global ranking to scores on a list of values,

but it does not take into account the level of agreement or disagreement associated

with the ranked scores.

Table 7.10 presents a matrix of the MVQ values as they have been ranked according

to the mean of the 12 case study teachers’ scores for each of the 22 items.

  219 

Table 7.10

Matrix of MVQ Values Ranked by Case Teacher Scores

As stated earlier in this chapter, the standard deviation has been used to provide an

indication of the level of consensus amongst the teachers as to the rankings given to

the 22 MVQ items. In order to deal with this issue the means of ranks and the

  220 

standard deviation of ranks given by each of the 12 case study teachers to the 22

value items were extracted from the data and used to provide cut off points for

distinguishing between values. In order to establish those value items where there

was a degree of consensus concerning the values perceived to be the most important,

a cut-off point of a mean ranking of 10 or less was first considered, remembering that

a ranking of 1 was the highest ranking. It was reasoned that nominating 10 as a cut-

off value for the collective means was a defensible decision to make. The

assumption underlying this cut-off figure was that an average ranking of 50% or

more would indicate the probability of half or more of the teachers agreeing as to the

relative importance of a particular value. The MVQ values meeting this criterion can

be seen in the ranked means column of Table 7.9. The highest ranked values are:

Family (item 8), Insight (item 13), Integrity (item 14), Caring (item 2), Fairness (item

7), Service to Society (item 18), Connection (item 4), Independence (item 11),

Spirituality (item 20), and Fun (item 10).

The next step in identifying those value items for which there was relative agreement

among the case study teachers regarding the level of importance involved the process

of nominating a cut-off value for standard deviations that would be tolerated as

indicating an acceptable level of agreement. A subjective but rational decision was

made, after examining the range of standard deviation scores for each of the 12

teachers on all items in the MVQ, to set a standard deviation of 5.0 as the threshold

for the level of consensus. A standard deviation of 5.0 was selected because it was

the approximate standard deviation of the 50th percentile of the mean scores of the 12

teachers (between 11.1 and 11.4).

When a standard deviation of 5.0 was applied it was found that eight of the above

values met the double criteria of means ≤ 10 and standard deviation ≤ 5.0. These

eight values were Family (item 8), Insight (item 13), Integrity (item 14), Caring (item

2), Fairness (item 7), Service to society (item 18), Connection (item 4), and Fun

(item 10). These data are presented in Table 7.11.

  221 

Table 7.11 also includes z-scores that were calculated to aggregated rankings that

each teacher gave to the values identified by the cohort as being the highest ranked

MVQ values. This was for the purposes of comparison with teacher scores on the

other three case study instruments (i.e. QTM, TBC and EBQ). Table 7.11 shows the

10 highest ranked MVQ values with each case study teacher’s z-score for each of

these values.

Table 7.11

Highest Ranked MVQ Values (with Mean Scores ≤ 10) and Case Teachers’ Z-scores

≤ 5.0 on These Values.

It will be seen from z-scores of the total scores for each case study teacher, sorted in

ascending order, that teacher B has the lowest z-score (-2.46). This low z-score

indicates that this teacher gave ranks of 1, 2 and other low numbers to the values that

  222 

were identified by the cohort of teachers as being the most important values in the

MVQ. Table 7.11 enables comparisons to be drawn regarding the relative agreement

of each teacher with reference to the values identified as being most important by the

cohort of teachers. The tantalising question is whether or not there is a relationship

between these MVQ values and teacher classroom performance.

7.4.3 Summary

It was anticipated that data from the MVQ items processed in isolation were not

likely to differentiate significantly between the case study teachers as to their

personal value systems because all the teachers had been identified by their

principals as exceptional. Interest in the data is threefold. One focus of attention is

on identifying personal values of the best performing teachers for differentiating

purposes (Chapter 9). Another focus is comparing the MVQ data and data from the

other instruments (i.e. the QTM, TBC and EBQ) with data from the case study

interview analyses (i.e. IAF and NVivo) for the purpose of differentiating between

the case study teachers (Chapter 9). The third focus of interest in section 7.4.1 is on

investigating whether or not it is possible to identify a set of values held in common

by teachers perceived to be exceptional.

While it was possible to extract an overall numeric ranking of the 22 values in the

MVQ (Table 7.10), it was not possible to conclude that there was agreement as to the

ranking of all 22 items. There was a range of standard deviations on the ranking of

all 22 items from 1.45 to 7.18. By using a mean of ≤ 10 and standard deviation of ≤

5 as the criteria for selection, however, it was possible to identify those personal

values where there was the highest level of agreement amongst all 12 case study

teachers as to which MVQ values were perceived to be the most important. These

values were: Family, Insight, Integrity, Caring, Fairness, Service to Society,

Connection, and Fun (Table 7.11).

  223 

7.4.4 Part 2 questionnaire

Part 2 of the MVQ was designed to explore the satisfaction level or the extent to

which the case study teachers were “living out” their values in the school context,

particularly those values perceived by the respondents as being their most important

personal values. Rating in this part was on a 10-point Likert-type scale, with 10

being the maximum degree of satisfaction and 1 being the least degree of

satisfaction. The case study teachers were asked to respond to the degree to which

they were living each value in their current work at school. The final results of the

teachers’ responses to Part 2 of the MVQ were reported in terms of a score that

represented the degree to which each teacher was living each of the values in their

work at school.

When an instrument measuring relevant personal values was being sought at the

commencement of research for the thesis, this feature of the MVQ was seen as

having the potential of making a meaningful contribution to the process of

differentiating between the case study teachers. Table 7.12 and Figure 7.3

summarise the findings of Part 2 for the satisfaction level of all 12 case study

teachers for all 22 values in the MVQ, in the context of his or her work at school.

  224 

Table 7.12

Satisfaction Scores for All MVQ Values

Figure 7.3. Graphical representation of satisfaction for all MVQ values, as

standardised scores.

  225 

Overall, it appears that four case study teachers (A, C, H and I) were enjoying a

higher level of living out their values than the other eight teachers, and four teachers

in particular (D, G, K and L) were experiencing a lower level of living out their

values in their school contexts. The impact of job satisfaction on teaching

performance, with reference to living out personal values, is an area of research

worth following up in future research, but is beyond the limits of this thesis.

One feature of the data that should be noted at this point is that one teacher, namely

C, and one teacher, D, who have been identified respectively by the QTM and TBC

as being the second best and the weakest of the 12 case study teachers, are identified

in Part 2 of the MVQ as experiencing the highest and lowest levels of living out their

personal values. On the other hand, case teacher B, who was ranked highest on the

combined QTM and TBC scores (see Table 7.7), was experiencing “average”

satisfaction. Case teacher I, ranked low on the QTM and TBC, was experiencing a

relatively high level of living out perceived personal values at school. The question

of interest is whether or not the extent to which values are being lived out at school is

an important variable in influencing teacher effectiveness.

Another question raised by the data from Part 2 of the MVQ is the extent, if any, that

the effectiveness of a teacher is adversely affected by one or a small number of

personal values perceived by that teacher as not being lived out at school. The

obvious example, taking all values of the MVQ into account, is case teacher D.

Table 7.12 shows teacher D giving a score of only 2 out of 10 for the extent to which

two values, “Wellbeing” and “Family”, are being lived out at school. This teacher

rates another value, “Freedom”, as having a score of only 4 out of 10 as being lived

out at school. Interestingly, case teacher B, the best performing teacher, rated the

value “Fairness” as having a score of 1 out 10 for being lived out at school. These

anomalies highlight the complexity of trying to understand the impact of “living out”

values in a school context.

  226 

Table 7.13 provides a summary of the mean and standard deviation for the scores of

each of the 12 case study teachers across all 22 value items in the context of Part 2 of

the MVQ.

Table 7.13

Means and Standard Deviations of “Satisfaction” Scores for All MVQ Values

If we examine the means and standard deviations in Table 7.13 we find that teacher

A, for example, scored a mean of 8.2 for the degree of satisfaction achieved across

all 22 items in the context of living out the values at school. Teacher C scored the

highest mean of 9.4. This indicated a high degree of satisfaction in terms of living

out the 22 MVQ value items at school. On the other hand, teachers D, G and K each

achieved a mean of 6.5. This indicated a lower degree of satisfaction in terms of

living out theses values at school, in comparison to the cohort. Teachers C, H, I, A

and L were the five highest ranked teachers on the mean scores in terms of

satisfaction with living out the MVQ values at school. Teachers A, H, E and C had

the lowest standard deviations in their responses while teachers B, D and L had the

  227 

highest standard deviations. The anomaly of teacher B’s response to the Freedom

value contributed to the high dispersion of that teacher’s scores.

Table 7.14 provides a summary of the 12 case study teachers’ “satisfaction” scores

on Part 2 of the MVQ that identifies the extent to which teachers are “living out” in

the workplace those values deemed by each teacher as being most important.

Table 7.14

Means and Standard Deviations of “Satisfaction” Scores for most Important MVQ

Values Deemed by Each Teacher as Being Most Important

The five highest scoring teachers on the values deemed by each to be most important

were teachers C, I, H, A and F. The lowest scoring teachers on these individually

selected value items from the MVQ were teachers D, G and L. The teachers having

  228 

the lowest standard deviations in the scoring on their most important value items

were teachers B, C, F, E and H. The teachers having the highest standard deviations

in their scoring were teachers L and D. From these observations it can be deduced

that case study teachers C, F and H were most consistently enjoying living out all

their most important values in the workplace. Teachers L and D, on the other hand,

seemed to be experiencing a noticeable degree of dissonance between the values they

deemed to be most important and the level of satisfaction from living out their most

important values.

Generally, when a comparison is made between results for all “living out at school”

MVQ items and the “living out at school” results for the most important values, there

did not seem to be a noticeable difference. The results for teacher B, however, were

of interest. On the mean of the scores across all 22 MVQ value items, teacher B had

the third highest standard deviation (1.87) (see Table 7.13), thus demonstrating

considerable range of scores in the ratings given to the 22 values. Conversely, on the

mean of the scores across the 10 most important value items, teacher B had the

lowest standard deviation (0.40), thus demonstrating the least variation in the rating

of these value items.

As noted (see Table 7.13), when all 22 MVQ values are taken into account, teacher B

has the third highest standard deviation (SD) (ranked 10th from the lowest to highest

SD). When the standard deviation ranking is based on only the most important MVQ

values, however, teacher B has the lowest SD, having a ranking of 1 (from lowest to

highest SD). This anomaly is worth revisiting because teacher B was one of the best

performing teachers across both the QTM and the TBC. It was expected that teacher

B would have one of the lowest standard deviations across the 22 MVQ items

because of consistency in performance, as was demonstrated by case study teacher C,

another higher performance teacher. Teacher B’s low standard deviations for the

most important MVQ values, however, was in keeping with the pattern of

performance that was expected. There were a number of possible reasons why

teacher B had an unexpectedly high standard variation across all 22 MVQ items.

The low rating B gave to the Fairness value (1 out of a possible 10) indicated, for

  229 

example, that there may have been an interpersonal problem at school and that this

situation influenced that particular rating.

7.4.5 Summary

Part 2 of the MVQ indicated that four case study teachers (A, C, H and I) reported

that they were living out their values well above the mean of all 12 teachers in the

work place. Four teachers (D, G, K and L) were living out their values below the

mean of the cohort of case study teachers. The remaining four teachers were living

out their values at a level approximately equivalent or close to the mean of the cohort

(see Figure 7.3).

Data from Part 2 show case study teacher C as obtaining the highest level of

satisfaction from living out her values at school while case study teachers D and G

reported the lowest level (see Figure 7.3). Teachers C and D have been identified on

the QTM and TBC as being at extreme ends of the spectrum of strong to weak

teachers, based on classroom performance.

These data from the MVQ will be considered further in conjunction with data from

the IAF and NVivo analysis of the case study interviews. This will be done in the

context of drawing together the case study data in Chapter 9.

7.5 The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ)

The Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) was selected as one of the four case

study instruments because of its focus on the important area of teacher beliefs. The

parametric properties of the EBQ, together with its use in recent research, such as

that of Rideout and Morton (2007) indicated that this would be a useful instrument

  230 

for the purposes of differentiating between the case study teachers and that it could

contribute to the profile of an exceptional teacher.

The teachers were invited to respond to a questionnaire comprising three sub-scales

and 20 educational belief items. The three sub-scales were established in terms of

philosophical orientations. The structure of the questionnaire was as follows:

Perennialism, containing seven items; Romanticism, containing nine items; and

Progressivism, containing four items. Teachers were required to rate each of the 22

EBQ items on a scale of 1 to 6, with 1 being least agreement and 6 being maximum

agreement with a given belief statement.

Silvernail (1992b) used factor analysis based on “maximum-likelihood extraction

procedures with varimax rotation” (p. 663) for the development and factor structure

of the EBQ. He found that Factor 1, Perennialism, “combined the philosophies of

essentialism and traditionalism” (p. 665) and that Factor 2, Romanticism, “reflected

the educational philosophies of reconstructivism and existentialism” (p. 666). Factor

3, Progressivism, “reflected the progressive philosophy depicted in the earlier scales

of Kerlinger and Kaya and Sirotnik” (p. 666). Table 7.15 provides a summary of the

20 belief items and the three underlying philosophical factors of the EBQ.

  231 

Table 7.15

The Three Philosophical Factors and Item Structure of the EBQ

There are three questions to which answers will be sought from the EBQ data. They

are:

1) Is there a degree of agreement amongst the case study teachers as to how the

three philosophical orientations should be ranked in order of importance?

2) Are there beliefs listed in the EBQ that are held in common to be the most

important beliefs by the case study teachers? If so, what are these top rated

beliefs?

3) Do data from the EBQ discriminate between the case study teachers in any

way or ways?

The responses of the case study teachers to the EBQ are of particular interest because

of the focus on teachers’ educational beliefs. The following analysis is aimed

primarily at identifying educational beliefs that were perceived as being important by

the majority of case study teachers. The first issue to be addressed is the degree to

which there was agreement amongst the case study teachers as to how the three

  232 

philosophical orientations should be ranked in order of importance. There is strong

agreement that the Progressivism orientation is the most favoured of the three

dimensions, with Romanticism second and Perennialism being third and least

favoured. Data supporting this observation are supplied as Table 7.16 and Table

7.17.

There is a qualifying observation that should be made regarding the ranking of the

three philosophical dimensions of the EBQ. While Progressivism was ranked above

Perennialism on the basis of standardised scores (see Table 7.19), the standard

deviation was higher for Progressivism than for Perennialism (see Table 7.18),

indicating a lower level of agreement amongst the teachers concerning its relative

importance. This could be accounted for, at least in part, by the fact that teacher D

indicated a very low preference for the Progressivism orientation.

Table 7.16

Aggregated Scores for Philosophical Orientations

  233 

Table 7.17

The Percentage Weightings for Each Teacher and the Average Percentage

Weightings on Each of the Three Philosophical Orientations of the EBQ

Some important observations can be made from the aggregated EBQ scores of the 12

case study teachers. The percentage weightings for each teacher on each of the three

philosophical orientations are provided in Table 7.17. The average preference for the

Progressivism orientation, expressed in terms of percentage scores from each teacher

was 87.83%. This was in spite of the fact that teacher D, arguably the weakest of the

cohort, presented a response of only 45.8% in favour of the Progressivism

orientation. Four teachers (C, G, I and J) gave the Progressivism orientation a

maximum weighting of 100%. Teacher B, on the other hand, gave the Romanticism

orientation (88.9%) a slightly stronger percentage weighting than Progressivism

(83.3%).

Table 7.18 presents teacher ratings, variance and standard deviations for the 22 EBQ

items.

  234 

Table 7.18

Raw Scores, Standard Deviation and Z-scores in EBQ Item Responses for All Case

Study Teachers

The EBQ responses from all 12 case study teachers were analysed to show the

standard deviation for each item as shown in Table 7.18. The item standard

deviations proved to be a useful contribution for identifying those EBQ items on

which there was a degree of consensus across the cohort.

The second question regarding the EBQ asks if there are beliefs listed in the EBQ

that are held in common to be most important beliefs by the case teachers. If so,

what are these top rated beliefs? In order to answer these questions all 20 items in

the EBQ across all 12 case study teachers were analysed to produce standardised

scores for each item. These z-scores were then ranked in descending order as

presented in Table 7.19, showing clearly that there were belief items from the EBQ

considered by the case study teachers as being more important than others.

  235 

Table 7.19

Z-scores Ranking all EBQ Items

A summary of the standardised ranked EBQ items, together with the legend

describing the most important and the least most important items, is then shown in

Table 7.20.

 

 

  236 

Table 7.20

Distinguishing Between Most Important and Least Important EBQ Items

A close examination of the seven highest ranked items on the EBQ brings into focus

concepts that resonate with the five clusters of dispositions comprising the

Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM). Some examples of these dispositions from the

DCM reflected in the above ranking of EBQ items include: Flexible, Imaginative,

Pupil centred, Creative, and Risk-taking. This association of instrument items used

for data gathering and the five clusters of dispositions in the DCM is an important

one and contributes to making the DCM a practical instrument for differentiating

between teachers. More will be said about this aspect of the research in Chapter 9.

The third question that the analysis of EBQ data set out to answer was whether or not

the EBQ differentiated between the 12 case study teachers in any way or ways. After

examining the instrument data represented in tables and charts it was concluded that,

at this stage, there was not sufficient evidence to answer the question in the

  237 

affirmative. While the EBQ did provide interesting and potentially important data

regarding the educational beliefs of the 12 case study teachers collectively and

individually, it did not appear to differentiate significantly between the teachers.

This seems to provide some support for the idea that exceptional teachers might hold

a common set of educational beliefs.

7.5.1 Summary

In concluding the analysis in this section it is noted that the EBQ differentiated

between case study teachers in terms of their declared educational beliefs. The

degree of differentiation, however, was not fine enough to arrive at definitive

conclusions regarding the distinctly best performing teachers on other instrument

data (i.e. teachers B, C, J and K). It was possible, however, to observe a pattern in

the EBQ results that distinguished a group of the weakest performing case study

teachers according to these other instruments (i.e. teachers D, I and L). The EBQ

was useful in identifying educational beliefs on which there was a noticeable

consensus across the cohort. In order of importance these belief items were: 13

Schools should be sources of new ideas, 12 Students should learn from peers, 9

Schools should promote self awareness, 18 Students should learn essential

knowledge, 15 Learning should be experimental, 7 Subjects should represent a

society’s heritage, and 19 Teachers should be facilitators.

These identified beliefs will be shown in Chapter 10 to contribute to the ongoing

process of differentiating between exceptional teachers and other teachers within the

parameters of the case study on which the thesis data are based.

Decimal scores for the 12 case study teachers on the 88 items covering all four

instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ) are shown in Appendix F, together with

an instrument code legend (Appendix G) in order to provide a summary of the

  238 

analyses of each instrument. These raw scores have been converted to decimals for

the purposes of continuity and comparison.

7.6 Conclusions from case study instrument data

At the beginning of this chapter it was stated that the aim was to present and analyse

the data gathered from the four instruments, namely the Quality Teaching Model

(QTM), the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC), the My Values Questionnaire

(MVQ) and the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) in order to differentiate

between the 12 case study teachers in terms of their classroom performances and in

terms of their educational belief and personal values. The focus of the QTM was on

pedagogic elements that were evident in the observed classroom behaviour of the

teachers. The TBC focused on pedagogic elements as well as underlying

dispositional elements that were manifest in the teachers’ classroom behaviours. The

MVQ and EBQ relied on teacher self-reports to indicate personal values and

educational beliefs. It was expected that patterns of behaviours, values and beliefs

that differentiated between the cohort of 12 case study teachers would become

evident as a result of this process. The possibility existed, however, that on their

own these instruments would differentiate to varying degrees of effectiveness

between these teachers.

An important principle when examining the case study data was to take into account

each teacher’s performance across all four instruments. This allowed for the

identification of emerging patterns of performance across the cohort, as well as

tracking individual teacher performances across the instruments.

Each of the instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ) used in the case study was

scored according to its own scoring criteria and method for analysing responses from

the 12 case study teachers. Raw scores on each of the instruments were converted to

z-scores for the purposes of comparison and synthesis. The QTM, for example,

  239 

identified B as being the “best” performing teacher on that instrument, with a z-score

of 1.38 (see Table 7.3). This score was an aggregate of the three dimensions of

teacher behaviour comprising the instrument, namely: Intellectual quality, Quality

teaching environment, and Significance. Teachers A and I, according to the criteria,

were the least effective of the cohort, with z-scores of -1.28 and -2.05 respectively.

Teacher D, with a z-score of -0.77 was the third lowest performing teacher on the

QTM. Case teacher B would be regarded as the best and possibly the exceptional

teacher relative to the cohort of 12 case study teachers on the basis of performance

on the QTM criteria with a z-score of 1.38. Teacher C followed with a z-score of

1.04.

There was a rich source of data generated from the TBC. In terms of overall scores,

when the raw scores on the TBC were standardised (see Table 7.6), differences

between teacher performances were made clearer. Teachers A (z-score 0.61), B (z-

score 0.68), C (z-score 0.68) and K (z-score 0.68) all performed strongly, with

teacher J (z-score 0.74) being the strongest performing of the 12 case study teachers

on the TBC. Teacher D (z-score -2.46) was noticeably weaker on the TBC

performance than the cohort. Teachers F and L did not perform as strongly as the

cohort, with standardised scores of -0.96 and -1.15 respectively.

Overall, the 12 case study teachers performed better on the TBC ratings than they did

on the QTM. One observation to be made in this regard is that the TBC may

represent those behaviours upon which the school principals based their decisions

when nominating teachers for participation in the case study. A second observation

is that when considering all four instruments, teachers B and C performed at

consistently high levels.

Data from the MVQ were reported in two parts. Part 1 dealt with the personal

priority values of each teacher and Part 2 dealt with the level of satisfaction

experienced by each teacher in terms of living out these values in their school

contexts. Data yielded from Part 1 of the MVQ identified a limited hierarchy of

  240 

personal values that may contribute to exceptional teaching (see Tables 7.10 and

7.11), but it is not possible to say at this point with reasonable certainty whether or

not the specific values are associated with exceptional teachers. If the 12 teachers

were, in fact, all exceptional teachers there could be a case made that exceptional

teachers held these values. Some of the case teachers who were thought to be

exceptional by their principals appear to be profiling otherwise, according to the data

being analysed. At this stage, it cannot be claimed that the MVQ, as a stand-alone

instrument, is effective in differentiating between teachers in terms of overall

patterns of values. It will be shown, however, that the data from the MVQ does

contribute to the total differentiation process using the procedure described in

Chapter 9.

The results from Part 2 of the MVQ indicated that when data on teacher responses to

the level of satisfaction in living out values in their workplace were analysed in the

context of the 10 MVQ values rated by the cohort as being the most important, it was

found that the scores for teacher B demonstrated the lowest standard deviation and

that the scores for teachers D and I demonstrated the highest standard deviations. In

other words, teacher B was most consistently living out the top rated MVQ values in

his classroom teaching, while teacher D was least consistent in living out the top

rated values in her classroom teaching. There appeared to be a degree of consistency

in the patterns of results that differentiated highest and lowest rating teachers across

the QTM, TBC and MVQ. This indicated that the MVQ results on both Part 1 and

Part 2 are worth pursuing for purposes of gaining a holistic picture of what it means

to be an exceptional teacher through the process of differentiation, in the context of

this case study, as discussed in Chapter 9.

Data from the cohort of 12 case study teachers on the Educational Beliefs

Questionnaire (QBQ) indicated a preference for those beliefs associated with the

philosophical orientation described by Silvernail (1992a) as Progressivism. While

belief items associated with the philosophical orientation Romanticism also were

given a high rating by the cohort, the orientation Perennialism was given a

considerably lower rating. Expressed in terms of the percentage weightings of the

  241 

cohort on each belief item associated with each of the three philosophical

orientations, the results were: Progressivism = 87.83%, Romanticism = 80.86%, and

Perennialism = 61.91% (see Table 7.17). Teachers C, G, I and J each rated the four

items comprising the Progressivism orientation as 100% while teacher B rated the

items comprising this philosophical orientation (83.3%) lower than the items

comprising the Progressivism orientation (88.9%).

On face value, in terms of total scores, EBQ data do not appear to differentiate

significantly between teachers within each of the three philosophical dimensions or

across the three philosophical dimensions. But they did identify those educational

beliefs on which there was a strong consensus across the cohort. One outcome from

the EBQ data that is pursued in the next stage of the research and in Chapter 10 is

that the seven EBQ belief items ranked highest by the cohort did bring into focus

concepts that resonate with the five clusters of the DCM. These included

dispositional elements such as: Felixible, Imaginative, Pupil-centred, Creative, and

Risk-taking

It should be said at this point in the thesis that it is acknowledged that the subject

being taught is likely to influence a teacher’s classroom behaviour, as will variables

such as year level and class size. These are considerations worth noting for future

research and testing. It is a fundamental premise of this thesis, however, that values

and beliefs on their own are not dispositions. They do become foundation elements

of dispositions when they are manifest as behaviour in specific contexts that certainly

will vary over time. The following tentative theory is in keeping with Freeman’s

(2007b) formulation of the syntax of dispositions (see Chapter 8) that offers an

explanation of how it is possible for an exceptional teacher to manifest the same

dispositions when teaching different subjects and/or in different school contexts.

According to this proposed theory, an exceptional teacher’s values and beliefs

remain relatively stable while their behavioural manifestations may vary within a

“family” of related behaviours in different epistemological contexts determined by

the subjects taught. The syntax of dispositions functions as a type of equation that

explains how dispositions operate as a constant while behaviour, to a limited extent,

  242 

and context may vary. These variations are always in relationship with the

dispositions involved. While an examination of this theory lies beyond the limits of

this thesis, it will be referred to again in Chapter 10.

The following chapter moves on to Stages 4 and 5 of the research that examine the

case study interviews. In Chapter 8 the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) is

“operationalised” through the implementation of the Interview Analysis Framework

(IAF). Data from the IAF and NVivo analyses provide further input into the process

of differentiating between the 12 case study teachers. The findings and conclusions

from the present chapter and from the interview analyses in Chapter 8 will be

pursued in Chapters 9 and 10.

243

CHAPTER 8

Analysis of Case Study Interviews

8.1 Introduction and rationale

8.1.1 Introduction

The analysis of the case study interviews is an important part of Stage 3 of the thesis.

The videoing and assessment of the lessons focused on what the 12 case study

teachers actually do in the classroom, and the My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) and

the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) were self-reports regarding the

teachers’ values and beliefs. The case study interviews, while elaborating on such

aspects of their personal world-views as beliefs and values, focused on what the

teachers say they do when teaching.

The four instruments used in the case study were described in Chapter 6 and the

results of differentiating between the teachers on the basis of data gathered from

these instruments were discussed in Chapter 7. This chapter explains and discusses

the analysis of the 12 case study interviews.

The concept “dispositions” is of key importance to the focus of this study and was

defined and discussed in Chapter 1. The design of the Dispositional Cluster Model

(DCM) constituted Stage 2 of the thesis and was explained in Chapter 4. At that

stage, the DCM was presented as a conceptual model that was derived from the

literature review using constructivist methodology. In Stage 3, the conceptual model

is used in conjunction with Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions, as the basis for

designing the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) describe in this chapter. The

IAF is deployed as an instrument for differentiating between teachers by means of

assessing and rating the case study interviews through “operationalising” the DCM.

244

The design and implementation of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) is one of

the key contributions of this study. It is based on an analysis of the Dispositional

Cluster Model (DCM) within the theoretical framework of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax

of dispositions (see Chapter 2). Essentially, the purpose of the IAF is to rate teachers

on the basis of their interviews in order to assess the degree to which the

dispositional clusters of the DCM have been activated by the teachers.

8.1.2 Rationale underlying the case study interviews

The interviews were included in the case study of exceptional teachers in order to

gather data that were generated by the teachers themselves and that included their

personal reflections. While their responses to the MVQ and the EBQ provided

information about their values and beliefs, these instruments did not give opportunity

for the 12 case study teachers to reflect on themselves as individuals in the context of

the dispositions underlying their classroom behaviours. The analysis of their

teaching behaviours using the QTM focused on the observable manifestations of

their knowledge and skills (i.e. pedagogic variables) in the context of classroom

teaching and learning. Although the TBC is associated with teacher dispositions the

focus was, nonetheless, on observable classroom behaviour.

The data gathered from the application of the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ

contributed to the identification of patterns of classroom behaviours and the

dispositions and attributes that differentiated between the case study teachers. The

case study interviews were included in order to elicit data from the teachers that

could be used to enrich and consolidate the data already gathered from the four case

study instruments. This was to be done in the context of the teachers’ personal

reflections, thus providing an extra dimension of the teachers’ perceptions of

themselves.

The case study interviews were conducted at the end of the observation and video

recording of the three lessons taught by each of the 12 teachers. These interviews

afforded the opportunity to examine more closely the dispositional characteristics of

the teachers, including the underlying values and beliefs that distinguished the

245

teachers as individuals or as “selves”, at both the personal and the professional

levels. Further details of the interview are provided in Section 8.2.3.

A fundamental premise underlying teacher dispositions is that they are consistently

demonstrated. In other words, they underlie patterns of behaviour and decision-

making or “habits of mind” (Katz, 1993) that are an integral part of the fabric of not

only what the teacher does, but also of who the teacher is, as a person. These

dispositions are what Freeman (2007b) referred to as the “what else” (p. 12) that

distinguishes an effective teacher. He argued that while it is important to have the

knowledge and skills, as well as a variety of pedagogic strategies, understanding of

context as well as good judgement, there is more that makes effective teachers.

This is what Palmer (1998) referred to as the “inner landscape” of teachers’ lives.

Hare (2007) argued that we do not simply teach subjects or content, but that we also

teach who we are. Freeman’s (2007a, b) work on the syntax of dispositions has

provided substance and context for the examination of the nature of dispositions and

how they are manifest in the behaviour of effective teachers. The case study

interviews and the use of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) were designed to

examine more closely the dispositions of the 12 case study teachers, within the

context of the five clusters of the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM).

In addition to the IAF analysis, all 12 case study interviews were analysed using

NVivo software. A description of the NVivo process of analysis and data from the

analysis are presented later in this chapter.

8.2 The Interview Analysis Framework (IAF)

8.2.1 Explanation of the IAF

The design of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) is based on the premise that

it should be possible to differentiate between teachers on the basis of the dispositions

that are associated with teachers’ classroom behaviours. This can be done by

246

applying the four components of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions to the five

clusters of the DCM (i.e. Authentic, Committed, Communicative, Creative, and

Passionate) and their sub-dispositions. Four different secondary dispositions or sub-

dispositions have been identified from the literature as being associated with each of

the five DCM clusters, as explained and discussed in Chapter 4. The term syntax of

dispositions was used by Freeman (2007b) to refer to dispositions and the ways they

are structured and manifest in different contexts, such as teaching in the classroom.

Freeman formulated the syntax of dispositions in terms of four components:

“Constraints and possibilities of context + an intention-in-action + values to be

realized + pursuing selected strategies” (p. 133). He argued that “All of these

elements must be present in order for a disposition to be activated and result in

observable actions” (p. 133). Freeman further asserted “If a pattern of teaching

behavior is not producing the desired result, this syntax suggests that a systematic

examination of context, levels of intention, strategies, and values will assist in

identifying where change or adjustment is necessary” (p. 133). The components of

the syntax of dispositions as used in the IAF, together with the rating key, are

presented in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1

Interview Analysis Framework (IAF)

247

Section 8.2.6 provides examples of the use of the IAF for the analysis and rating of

case study interviews. These examples are intended to explain how the syntax of

dispositions has been applied with specific reference to the five clusters of the DCM.

An example of the IAF data grid, showing a more detailed structure and guidelines

for rating the case study interviews on the Authentic cluster of the DCM, is given in

Table 8.2.

Table 8.2

The IAF Data Grid: Structure and Guidelines for Rating the Case Study Interviews

on the Five Clusters of the DCM

Table 8.3 presents a sample analysis of the application of the IAF for case study

teacher A on the Authentic cluster.

248

Table 8.3

The IAF: Sample of Implementation for Rating the Case Study Interview for Teacher

A, Based on the Authentic Cluster from the DCM

8.2.2 The IAF protocol

Taking into account the four components that make up Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of

dispositions, the IAF was designed to analyse and rate the case study interviews

based on the following criteria:

(i) Values that either are explicitly or implicitly evident.

(ii) Demonstrated intention in action.

(iii) Selected strategies to implement the intention.

(iv) Acknowledgement or awareness of constraints that may hinder or

limit the implementation through teaching behaviour, as well as

possibilities that may facilitate the implementation in a given context

These criteria assist with the identification of patterns of dispositions and the

teaching behaviours through which they are manifest by focusing not only on the

dispositions, but on the syntax of those dispositions and whether or not they are

“activated” in classroom teaching.

249

Using these criteria, the purpose of the IAF is to identify patterns of dispositions

embedded in the interviews with the case study teachers. These patterns of

dispositions are identified by means of the syntax components referencing the

dispositions in the five clusters of the DCM. Table 8.1 showed a template of the

rating instrument used to implement the IAF.

The criteria associated with each of the four components of the syntax of dispositions

are derived from Freeman’s own analysis (Freeman, 2007b, pp. 126-133). First,

there are values that can be both explicit and implicit. Explicit values are those

personal and professional values that are identified by the teacher as being important

to their teaching (i.e. values to be realised). Implicit values are values not overtly

identified but that are implicit in the teachers’ comments. Second, there must also be

evidence indicating the likely ability to implement a plan of action and not simply

talk about the intentions (i.e. intention-in-action). Third, there needs to be evidence

indicating the strategies and plans the teacher has in place, or is planning, for

implementing his/her intentions and their underlying values. Finally, evidence from

the interview is required regarding the teacher’s ability to understand and work with

the constraints and possibilities of their teaching and learning context(s).

The IAF was used to rate the case study interviews using the four components of the

syntax of dispositions (see Table 8.1). During the process of analysing and rating an

interview transcript, the text was coded according to the requirements of the IAF and

each coded reference was rated as 0, 1 or 2. A score of zero (0) was entered in the

relevant cell of the instrument if there was no support for that element in the

interview or if there was only a passing reference without any substantiation during

the interview; 1 was entered if the item was detected in the interview, with moderate

support given during the interview; 2 was entered if the item was detected noticeably

in the interview and if there was strong substantiation or support given during the

course of the interview. Section 8.2.3 provides three examples of this process.

250

8.2.3 Three examples of coding and rating using the IAF

An example of this process of coding is taken from the interview transcripts of case

study teachers D, I and K with a focus on the Communicative cluster of the DCM

and the sub-disposition “humour”. Table 8.4 provides examples of excerpts from the

interview transcripts.

Table 8.4

Examples of Excerpts from Case Study Interview Transcripts Relating to the Sub-

disposition “Humour” from the Communicative Cluster of the DCM (Teachers D, I

and K)

Table 8.5 provides the IAF coding key for the four components of the

syntax of dispositions. The interview transcripts were deconstructed using

this code.

251

Table 8.5

The IAF Coding Key For the Four Components of the Syntax of

Dispositions

In order to understand how this coding system is applied to the case study

interview transcripts, Table 8.6 provides a coded sample of an excerpt

from the interview transcript of teacher K. This sample excerpt is

analysed and rated, using the IAF, later in this section.

252

Table 8.6

Coded Sample of an Excerpt from the Interview Transcript of Teacher K

Using the IAF Coding

In order to clarify the use of the IAF in analysing and rating the 12 case

study interviews in terms of the five clusters of the DCM, three examples

of samples from the interview transcripts of teachers D, I and K have been

chosen. These coded ratings use the syntax of dispositions for the sub-

disposition “humour” in the Communicative cluster of the DCM and are

presented in Tables 8.7, 8.8 and 8.9. Each Table is followed by a brief

explanation of the analysis of the rating for these teachers. The examples

are intended to serve the purpose of demonstrating how the IAF is

implemented in terms of a weak performance on the sub-disposition

“humour” (teacher D), a moderate performance (teacher I) and a strong

performance (teacher K).

253

Table 8.7

The Coded Rating for Case Study Teacher D on the Sub-disposition

“Humour” from the Communicative Cluster of the DCM using the IAF

There were no overt references to humour in teacher D’s interview. The only

inferences related to this sub-disposition were when the teacher laughed at the end of

statements such as “I’m very much an animal person. I’m a biologist so I guess

biology and animals tend to go together [laughs]”. A second example was when

teacher D commented on her reasons for becoming a teacher.

I never wanted to become a teacher… for the first three or four

years, I really didn’t want to be here. I was screaming and

kicking, but…slowly things settled down and I really feel that for

the last five or six year that I have been well and truly in the right

254

place… And I think…I probably will be here unless they kick me

out [laughs] for quite some time.

In terms of values to be realised there was moderate evidence throughout the

interview to infer that, although teacher D made no overt comments regarding the use

of humour in teaching, the teacher did demonstrate a degree of humour in the

comments that were made. This suggested that teacher D did place some value on

humour. For this reason, teacher D was given a rating of 1 out of a possible 2 for

values to be realised in the context of the sub-disposition “humour”.

When it came to the intention-in-action component of the syntax of dispositions for

the sub-disposition “humour”, there was no evidence indicating the likely ability of

teacher D to implement a plan of action regarding the use of humour in her teaching.

For this reason, teacher D was given a rating of 0 out of a possible 2 for intention-in-

action.

Similarly, there was no evidence from the interview to indicate that teacher D was

pursuing selected strategies for the use of humour in her teaching, nor was their

evidence to indicate that teacher D was aware of the constraints and possibilities of

the use of humour in the context of her classroom teaching. For these reasons,

teacher D was given a zero-rating for the syntax components pursuing selected

strategies and constraints and possibilities of context.

As shown in Table 8.7, teacher D was given a rating of 1 out of a maximum of 8

using the IAF. On the basis of the interview deconstruction and analysis, there was

no evidence to indicate that the sub-disposition “humour” from the DCM cluster

Communicative was activated in the case of teacher D.

Table 8.8 provides the coded IAF rating for teacher I on the sub-disposition

“humour”.

255

Table 8.8

The Coded Rating for Case Study Teacher I on the Sub-disposition “Humour” from

the Communicative Cluster of the DCM using the IAF

It

can be seen from the

sample excerpt from interview script in Table 8.1 that teacher I makes several direct

It can be seen from interview excerpt given in Table 8.4 that teacher I made several

references to humour in the case study interview. The given example of an excerpt

from the interview transcript begins with the overt value statement “The most

important strategy to have in a classroom, I believe, is humour…and I think if we put

a lot of humour into situations when it’s relevant and applicable, a child who is

laughing has a much better response”. In terms of values to be realised there is

strong evidence to support the strength of the value that teacher I places on the sub-

disposition “humour”. Teacher I continues to talk about the nature of humour and

how important it is to “know the balance when things stop becoming funny and go to

the ridiculous”. For this reason, teacher I was given a rating of 2 out of a possible 2

for values to be realised in the context of the sub-disposition “humour” from the

Communicative cluster of the DCM.

256

In terms of the intention-in-action component of the syntax of dispositions for the

sub-disposition “humour”, however, there is only moderate evidence that teacher I

actually implements this value. Teacher I makes the statement “And if you know

about them [students], they know about you, they know that you’ve got a sense of

humour, they know that you show them the boundaries”. This provides moderate

evidence in support of teacher I’s intention-in-action regarding the implementation of

“humour”, but it is not strong evidence because there is not a specific example of this

component of the syntax of dispositions. For this reason, teacher I was given a rating

of 1out of a possible 2 for intention-in-action. This aspect of the IAF rating will

become clearer when teacher I’s rating is compared with that of teacher K.

There is moderate evidence from the interview analysis to indicate that teacher I is

pursuing selected strategies for the use of humour in her teaching, particularly in

terms of controlling situations that can be potentially “silly”. Support for this is

found in the statement “And I guess that is just a strategy learnt by teachers how to

control that. Different children react in different ways. But learn what you can about

the children before you have them. And I guess that’s a little bit intuitive too”.

Although teacher I refers to the concept “strategy” twice in this text from the

interview transcript, the quality of evidence for pursuing selected strategies for the

Communicative sub-disposition “humour” is moderate, rather than strong. For this

reasons, teacher I was given a rating of 1 our to 2 for the syntax component pursuing

selected strategies.

Similarly, there is moderate evidence from the given example for the syntax

component constraints and possibilities of context. Evidence for this occurs when

teacher I states “Different children react in different ways…because children develop

in different ways”. Reference to the idea of differences between students suggests

that teacher I is aware of the constraint of pupil differences when it comes to using

humour in her teaching. On the basis of this, teacher I was given a rating of 1 out of

2 for awareness of the constraints and possibilities of using humour in the context of

her classroom teaching.

257

Teacher I received a rating of 5 out of a maximum of 8 on the sub-disposition

“humour” using the IAF. In contrast to teacher D, who received a rating of 1 out of

8, there was moderate to strong evidence indicating that for teacher I humour is an

active sub-disposition in the Communicative cluster of the DCM.

The coded sample excerpt from teacher K’s interview transcript was given in Table

8.6. This excerpt is now rated using the IAF, as presented in Table 8.9.

Table 8.9

The Coded Rating for Case Study Teacher K on the Sub-disposition “Humour” from

the Communicative Cluster of the DCM using the IAF

Teacher K emerges as one of the strongest performing of the 12 case study teachers

on the sub-disposition “humour”. The text excerpt given as an example from teacher

258

K’s interview transcript provides evidence to support this. Teacher K not only talked

about humour and fun, but also provided a specific anecdote drawn from personal

experience in the classroom. The use of personal narrative strengthened the quality

of evidence given by teacher K for all four syntax components in the IAF analysis of

the sub-disposition “humour”.

In the given example from the interview transcript, teacher K makes two overt value

statement regarding humour, which is equated with “fun”. The first statement is

“And, you know, if you can have a bit of fun along the way – I like having fun – and

use humour”. The second value statement occurs at the end of the anecdote and

iterates the strength of value that teacher K places on “humour”. She says “That was

really cool! So I’m learning “farm” and I’m teaching the kids about it. And if I use

humour – you know, get them to enjoy learning, then it’s really cool”. These

statements provide strong evidence for the focus on values to be realised regarding

the sub-disposition “humour”. For this reason, teacher K was given a rating of 2 out

of 2 for this syntax component of the IAF analysis. An interesting qualitative

distinction between teacher I and teacher K is that while teacher I talked about

“humour”, teacher I talked enthusiastically about how she used humour in the

classroom. This is reinforced by statements such as “It’s really cool!”

On the basis of the strength of the anecdotal evidence from the case study interview

transcript teacher K also was given a maximum rating of 2 out of 2 for the syntax

components intention-in-action and pursuing selected strategies. These ratings were

supported by the strength of the narrative and the focus on the effect of the use of

humour on the students and the quality of their learning. Unlike case study teachers

D and I, teacher K was able to draw from specific teaching experience to demonstrate

how she used humour in her teaching.

Intention-in-action is evident in the opening statement of the given example when

teacher K says “Students and children are young, developing adults that get treated

with respect for being a human being, that need to be guided through things. And,

you know, if you can have a bit of fun along the way…and use humour.” Here, there

is a clearly stated intention to use humour as part of the process of guiding students

and children, and treating them “with respect for being a human being”. Teacher K

259

associates humour and fun with the human element in teaching. She uses humour to

humanise her teaching so that it is accessible to her students. In the given example,

teacher K demonstrates strong awareness of the needs and interests of the group of

Year 9 boys that she teaches, and the appropriateness of humour.

Similarly, there is strong evidence for pursuing selected strategies through the use of

anecdotes and narrative. The strength of teacher K’s evidence is that it is based

firmly in actual classroom practice and it is not limited to theoretical or philosophical

talk. The sub-disposition “humour” is activated in teacher K’s classroom teaching.

In terms of the awareness of constraints and possibilities of context, teacher K was

given a rating of 1 out of 2. While the sample excerpt from the interview transcript

inferred a strong awareness of the possibilities of the activation of humour in the

context of teaching a group of Year 9 boys, this is not actually stated. The dialogue

between the teacher and the students, as narrated by the teacher, does provide support

for teacher K’s awareness of the possibilities and, by inference, constraints of this

context. This is evident, for example, in the following dialogue:

So what you do for the holidays, Miss?

Oh, we marked cattle.

What does that mean?

Well, you put your ear tag in and you give them a shot and

you turn all the boy cows – all the boy bulls into steers.

How do you do that, Miss?

Oh, with a pocketknife. You just use a pocketknife and cut

‘em off.

In this instance, it can be inferred from the nature of teacher K’s response to the

questions posed by the Year 9 boys that there is a degree of awareness of the

constraints of the given context. While the teacher uses humour, it is pitched at an

appropriate level that is not offensive.

260

8.2.3.1 Summary of examples

These examples of the coding and rating of sample excerpts from the interview

transcripts of case study teachers D, I and K on the sub-disposition “humour” from

the Communicative cluster of the DCM explain how the IAF is used. On the basis of

this rating, teacher K emerged as the strongest of the three teachers with a rating of 7

out of a maximum of 8 for the “humour” sub-disposition and this indicates that this

disposition is activated in teacher K’s classroom behaviour.

8.2.4 The interview questions

The case study interviews were semi-structured and allowed for teacher initiated

input. While core questions were asked, each teacher was given the opportunity to

pursue their own ideas and responses throughout the interview. Teachers were not

given a copy of the questions before the interview. The intention was to elicit

spontaneous responses to the interview questions from the teachers. The duration of

the interviews was between 45 and 60 minutes.

The questions were broadly designed to yield data pertaining to five spheres of

relevance to the thesis. These were: personal values; personal philosophy of learning

and teaching, including educational beliefs; dispositional references other than direct

reference to educational beliefs and values; statements about pedagogical classroom

practices; and, identification of factors beyond the classroom context that may be

significant and that may impact on the teacher’s teaching. There was also

opportunity to introduce open-ended material not covered by these “spheres of

relevance”.

In particular, Questions 5, 7, 8, 11 and 14 were designed to elicit information

meshing with both the QTM and pedagogical aspects of the TBC. Question 6

elicited pedagogical data from the TBC. Information with a dispositional orientation

meshing with both the MVQ and EBQ was elicited from Questions 1, 12 and 13.

Questions 2 and 9 sought information of a dispositional nature relating to the MVQ.

Question 3 was dispositionally oriented and intended to yield data from the TBC.

261

Question 10 sought to provide further insight into the systems of personal values

investigated by the MVQ.

The core questions were:

1. Tell me about your philosophy of teaching and learning.

2. What would you describe as your dominant values? You can link your response

directly to the classroom or to life in general.

3. What are your thoughts/feelings about school students and children, in general?

4. What benefit do you gain, at a personal level, from teaching?

5. Were you to give a graduate teaching some advice, what would that be?

6. How do you think students best develop values and beliefs in your subject area(s)

and in your class(es)?

7. What do you think is more important: high marks, or student motivation, or

enjoyment of the lesson, or something else? What is your reason for this

response?

8. What are your views about strategies for managing student diversity in your

classroom? We are talking about diversity in terms of ability, language, culture

and so on.

9. What are the things that you would most like to be remembered for in your

teaching?

10.What are some of your hobbies and interests outside of school?

11.Can you comment on how community and world events influence the way you

teach?

12.Can you share some of your goals for the future? These can be personal or

professional.

13.Do you remember when you decided to become a teacher? Were there any

influences that you remember?

14.Is there anything else about teaching and learning that you would like to comment

on?

262

8.2.5 Summary of the IAF protocol

In summary, each teacher’s responses to the interview questions were recorded on

audiocassette with the prior permission of the teacher. The interviews were

conducted after the three lessons had been observed and video recorded. This

allowed each teacher the opportunity to comment on or to refer to what had

transpired during those lessons, if they so chose. Each teacher nominated where the

interview would take place. Eleven out of the 12 teachers opted to be interviewed in

their classrooms. One teacher opted to be interviewed in the staffroom. The

recordings were transcribed, verbatim, and then deconstructed and analysed using the

Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) that is given in Table 8.1. There was a rating

sheet for each teacher for each of the five clusters of the DCM. An example of the

rating sheet for the Authentic cluster was given in Table 8.2.

After the interviews for each of the 12 teachers were recorded on audiocassette and

then transcribed, the transcriptions were deconstructed using Freeman’s (2007b)

syntax of dispositions. The first step in the deconstruction process was to colour

code the comments. This was done using key dispositional terms from the DCM

clusters and their sub-dispositions. Where teacher comments related to the Authentic

cluster, the colour blue was used. Comments relating to the Committed cluster were

colour coded in orange. The colour yellow was used to code comments relating to

the Creative cluster, while the colour green was used for the Communicative cluster.

Finally, the colour pink was used to code comments in the interview transcripts that

related to the Passionate cluster.

In addition to colour coding interview comments according to the DCM clusters,

teacher comments were also deconstructed and coded by applying Freeman’s syntax

of dispositions. The letter “V” indicated reference to Values to be realised; “I”

indicated an Intention-to-action; “S” indicated references to Selected strategies that

were pursued; and “C/P” indicated comments that referred to the teacher’s awareness

of the Constraints and possibilities of context. The syntax components are explained

in Section 8.2 of this chapter and a sample excerpt from a coded interview transcript

263

was provided in Section 8.2.3. Appendix H provides a more extended example of a

fully coded interview transcript.

Once the transcripts were deconstructed and coded, teacher comments were rated

using the syntax of dispositions as criteria and using evidence from the interview as

substantiation. The third step was to sub-total the ratings for each teacher on each

cluster of the DCM, with a maximum sub-total of 32. The sub-totals for each of the

five clusters were then totalled. This gave a maximum raw score of 160.

8.2.6 Data from the deployment of the IAF

As a result of implementing the IAF protocol in the case study interview procedure,

each of the 12 participant teachers were rated across the five clusters of the DCM.

A summary of IAF ratings for the teachers on each of the five clusters, including

ratings for each of the cluster sub-dispositions, is presented in Table 8.10. The Table

also presents the combined raw score and rank for each case study teacher across all

five DCM clusters.

264

Table 8.10

Case Study Teacher Scores and Ranks From IAF

The data from the IAF analysis of the case study interviews are compared to teacher

performances on the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ. This is in the form of correlations

between teacher scores on the IAF and each of these instruments. The rationale for

this comparison is to establish weight of evidence to support the IAF and, indirectly,

the DCM. For this reason, the IAF data will be included in Chapter 9 where data

form all the case study instruments are drawn together. The results of the

comparison will be included in the discussion of the case study findings in Chapter

10.

265

8.2.6.1 Interpreting IAF data that are presented in Table 8.10

If we take the example of the interview analysis results for case study teacher A on

the Authentic cluster, the interpretation is as follows:

1. The Authentic cluster of the DCM comprises four sub-dispositions, namely:

caring, empathic, open(ness), and reflective. On the basis of Freeman’s

syntax of dispositions, the teacher interview comments can be given a rating

of 0 to 8 for each of these sub-dispositions, with 8 being the maximum.

2. The teacher A interview received a rating of: 6/8 for “caring”; 4/8 for

“empathic”; 5/8 for “open(ness)”; and 2/8 for “reflective”.

3. In the “caring” sub-disposition, rated 6/8, teacher A was given: a maximum

of 2/2 for the values component of the interview comments; a maximum of

2/2 for the intentions component; a maximum of 2/2 for the strategies

component; a minimum of 0/2 for the constraints/possibilities component.

These ratings indicated that while there was strong evidence in the interview

comments for the components “values to be realized”, “intent-in-action”, and

“pursuing selected strategies”, there was very weak or no evidence to support

teacher A’s awareness of the constraints or possibilities of the context.

4. In the “empathic” sub-cluster, rated 4/8, teacher A was given: a maximum of

2/2 for values; a rating of 1/2 for intention; a rating of 1/2 for strategies; and a

rating of 0/2 for constraints.

5. In the sub-cluster “open(ness)”, rated 5/8 on the interview analysis, teacher A

was given: a maximum rating of 2/2 for both values and intention; 1/2 for

strategies; and 0/2 for awareness of constraints.

6. In the “reflective” sub-cluster, rated 2/8, the ratings were: 1/2 for values and

intention; and 0/2 for strategies and awareness of constraints.

This process resulted in a rating of 17/32 for teacher A on the Authentic cluster of the

DCM, using the IAF. The same procedure was implemented for each of the five

DCM clusters, using the components of Freeman’s syntax of dispositions as a

framework for rating the teacher interview comments.

266

Several observations can be made regarding the interview analysis for case study

teacher A on the Authentic cluster of the DCM. First, the interview comments

indicated that the component values to be realised was strong. The component

intention-in-action was relatively strong. There was moderate evidence for the

component pursuing selected strategies. For the component constraints and

possibilities of context, however, there was weak or no evidence in teacher A’s

comments to indicate an awareness. This identified a pattern of weakness across the

values to be realised component and suggested that teacher A might benefit from

further reflection and activation of values to be realised in the context of the

Authentic cluster of the DCM.

On the basis of these interview results, case study teacher A performed strongest in

the sub-dispositions of “caring” and “open(ness)”, with “reflective” appearing to be

an area of weakness. This suggests that teacher A might benefit from focusing on

the development of the reflective sub-disposition. Thus, the evidence indicates that

the IAF can be used as a tool for teacher self-evaluation because it can identify areas

of strength and weakness, in terms of teacher dispositions.

8.2.7 Examples of transcript extracts from each DCM cluster in the

IAF analysis

The application of the syntax of dispositions in the process of rating the case study

teachers on each of the five clusters of the DCM is best explained by providing

additional specific examples from the interviews. Italics have been used in teacher

statements to indicate where the teacher placed strong emphasis when speaking.

8.2.7.1 Authentic cluster – reflective

One of the four defining sub-dispositions selected to represent the Authentic cluster

was “reflective”. In the case study interview, teacher B demonstrated a strong

propensity for being reflective. The statement “It’s important to reflect…I think

reflection in your teaching is a really underrated quality” focused clearly on the value

to be realised.

267

Case study teacher B expressed the constraints and possibilities of being reflective in

the teaching and learning context in the following terms:

Look, my worst days of teaching have nothing to do with the kids.

And it’s quite often to do with either the people above you or your

colleagues…And if you’re having a bad time with the kids, well again

you have to stop and think, “Well, what could I be doing differently?”

And, “Am I dishing up nonsense that doesn’t deserve respect?” That

and, “How can I engage them more?” And those tough questions are

the hard questions and the ones you don’t like to ask yourself sometimes.

Yeah, they’re the hard ones.

Here, the teacher demonstrates a strong awareness of the constraints on being

reflective in the school context, and he expresses these in terms of the “tough

questions” that need to be confronted and reflected upon if the teacher is to engage

successfully with the students and overcome the challenges that are associated with

day-to-day teaching. The above statement also provides evidence that case study

teacher B is able to formulate questions that lead from the constraints of the teaching

situation and context to possibilities through thoughtful reflection and problem

solving, a disposition associated with the Creative cluster of the DCM. This, in turn,

indicates the dynamic relationship between the five clusters of the DCM and their

sub-dispositions.

The interview analysis pointed to the fact that case study teacher B not only

demonstrates intention-in-action in his comments and reflection, but he also pursues

specific strategies that enrich the attribute of being reflective. Support for this is

evident in statements such as,

At the end of each term…I’ll sit down and think, well, “What did I do

well?” And I’ve got a little list on my laptop. You might have a lesson

and it was an absolute shocker. And you didn’t do that well… It’s easy

to blame the kids. Quite often it’s a mix. And some lessons will fall

flat on their face. With a slight change… They’ll need a change… Well,

if things aren’t working I ask myself “Why aren’t they working?” and

“How can I fix them?”

268

Here, there is evidence to indicate that the teacher pursues two selected strategies.

One is the strategy of making a list of things that go well and things that do not go

well, and then putting that list on the laptop as a record of the things that the teacher

intends to reflect upon and change, where necessary. The other is the strategy of

questioning and probing for reasons why things go wrong and how they can be

improved. This indicates the strong pursuit of selected strategies that teacher B uses

for reflecting. In this, as in the previous example, all the components of Freeman’s

(2007b) syntax of dispositions are in play. There is convincing evidence from the

interview to support the fact that case study teacher B strongly demonstrates the sub-

disposition “reflective”.

8.2.7.2 Committed cluster – purposeful

One of the four representative sub-dispositions of the Committed cluster of the DCM

is “purposeful”. When rated on the Committed cluster, case study teacher E achieved

a moderate rating of 5/8 on the sub-disposition “purposeful”. In terms of the values

to be realised, teacher E stated in the interview “I like to see my kids doing well…

Whether that is that they achieve good marks on their tests or whether I just see them

make a leap in terms of their confidence…I like to see progress and I find that

rewarding.” This statement indicated that teacher E placed value on student success

and progress. The inference was that this value directed teacher E’s sense of purpose

in creating a supportive learning environment. There are very few direct references

to the concept “values” in the transcript of teacher E’s interview. Rather, there are

consistent references the words “I want…”. The underlying values are inferred.

Teacher E was given a rating of 1/2 for the syntax of dispositions component values

to be realised because there is a moderate degree of interview evidence for this

component in the context of the sub-disposition “purposeful”.

There is a clear statement of intention-in-action when the teacher states “I want to

provide a stimulating environment where kids are challenged about thinking and

learning new strategies…I guess, in a nutshell, I want to fill them with the desire to

want to learn and the strategies and skills and confidence to go out and learn”. A

269

later statement of purpose in the interview reinforces this when she indicates,

My goal is to try and create a learning environment in the school

where it’s cool to be bright, and it’s cool to think, and it’s cool to

do well…I can see a huge opportunity to really create a thinking

environment in this school.

This indicates that teacher E is purposeful and goal driven. The teacher’s focus on

promoting a school learning environment that will challenge students to think more

deeply provides clear evidence of teacher E’s intention-in-action. Therefore, for the

sub-disposition “purposeful” the teacher was given a rating of 2/2 on the component

intention-in-action.

The IAF syntax component pursuing selected strategies in the context of teacher E’s

stated aims and the inferred values for the sub-disposition “purposeful” is evident to

a moderate degree in the interview comment,

We talk a lot about different things that come up and different

things that we’re studying…I encourage them to discuss, to

challenge, to look…the consequences and the impact.

The references to talking about “different things”, and the acts of discussing and

challenging suggest the pursuit of one general strategy for implementing the stated

intention of developing a learning environment that encourages and nurtures thinking

and intellectual challenge.

The suggestion of selected strategies to be pursued is reinforced by a later statement

“I hope that a few of the little things that I do will inspire them…You know, raise

enough questions that they’re going to seek answers.” There is no evidence in the

interview comments, however, regarding the pursuit of specific strategies in actual

classroom practice. As a result, there is a degree of tension between what the teacher

talks about and what the teacher actually does. For this reason, teacher E was given

a rating of 1/2 for the component pursuing selected strategies of the syntax of

dispositions, in the context of the “purposeful” sub-disposition of the Authentic

cluster of the DCM.

Case study teacher E demonstrated a moderate sense of awareness of the constraints

and possibilities of teaching and learning in the context of the sub-disposition

270

“purposeful”. Evidence for an awareness of the constraints that challenge the aim of

creating a challenging learning environment where thinking is valued is expressed in

terms of management problems in the context of the primary classroom. “There are

the odd ones [students] who are challenges to manage”. A second constraint is

alluded to in terms of teacher boredom or disengagement. “If you’re bored doing

what you’re doing, the kids are going to be bored.” The assumption is that teacher

boredom is likely to detract from the “purposeful” sub-disposition of the teacher,

thus adversely affecting the Committed cluster of the DCM. Although there is

evidence of a moderate degree of awareness of the constraints of the teaching and

learning context in Teacher E’s interview, there is no evidence of the development of

or elaboration on these ideas. For this reason, teacher E was rated 1/2 on the syntax

component constraints and possibilities of context.

Teacher E was rated 5/8 on the sub-disposition “purposeful”. Using the syntax of

dispositions as a framework for the IAF analysis, the interview comments provide

weight of evidence to support the proposition that the disposition “purposeful” is

established to a moderate degree as part of teacher E’s professional self. The IAF

analysis indicates that teacher E’s performance on the sub-disposition “purposeful”

may be enhanced by strengthening the components values to be realised, pursuing

selected strategies, and awareness of the constraints and possibilities of context.

8.2.7.3 Creative cluster – risk taking

In the context of the DCM, a key dispositional cluster of exceptional teachers is that

they are creative. One of the defining sub-dispositions of the Creative cluster is “risk

taking”. This is associated with the concept “flexibility”. Student diversity and the

daily challenges associated with best teaching practice often call for risk taking and a

high degree of flexible thinking so that the different needs of students can be met.

The sub-disposition “risk taking” is associated closely with “problem-solving”. In

order to solve daily problems related to student learning, intelligent risk taking is

often called for. In this context, the sub-disposition “risk taking” is associated

directly with challenging the teacher’s and/or student’s “comfort zone” in order to

enhance and invigorate the quality of learning that occurs. This is true particularly in

271

the context of preparing students to function effectively in a world that is

characterised by change.

Case study teacher B strongly demonstrates the activation of the sub-disposition

“risk taking”. Evidence for the component values to be realised is found in

statements such as,

I think that’s really important: to stay challenged…I really…yeah,

don’t mind falling on my face every now and then in teaching if

I’ve had a go… In a school like this one it is very easy to stay safe.

You could turn up to a class here most days of the week and dish

up a bit of chalk and talk… But that’s not what kids here want.

The preference for challenge, rather than adhering to the safety of maintaining the

status quo and avoiding challenge or change indicates the high degree of implicit

value teacher B places upon being flexible and in-tune with student needs and

interests, and of taking risks in order to challenge his students. The statement “I

really don’t mind falling on my face every now and then in teaching if I had a go”

reinforces this. In this example, strong value is placed on the idea of “having a go”

or taking risks in order to enhance and stimulate student learning, rather than falling

“into a bit of a rut”. For these reasons, teacher B was given a rating of 2/2 on the

component values to be realised, in the context of the sub-disposition “risk taking” in

the Creative cluster of the DCM.

Teacher B’s ability to be flexible and “risk taking” is associated with the idea of

pushing the traditional boundaries of teaching and learning. This is evident in his

intention-in-action, as supported by the interview statement “And they’re [the

students] now growing that little bit further. And that’s when the lesson plan goes

out the window. And we grab the atlases. And we have a look at what we’re talking

about.” This statement also provides evidence to suggest that teacher B is confident

enough to take risks by pursuing the interests and needs of the students, rather than

rigidly adhering to a set program of work.

Further support for teacher B’s “risk taking” ability and philosophy of challenge and

student direction is found in the case interview statement,

Teaching is about inspiring the kids. And sure, getting through the

272

syllabus outcomes. And parents want their kids to do well. And

that’s all very important. But it’s those moments when the kids

take it off…take it well out of your hands and they can run with it

somewhere else.

Here, there is strong evidence of the teachers intention-in-action because he is

exhilarated and energised by taking the risk of empowering students to “take it [the

direction of the lesson] well out of your hands and they can run with it somewhere

else”. Teacher B was rated 2/2 on this component of the IAF.

In the case study interview, teacher B clearly demonstrates the IAF syntax

component pursuing selected strategies. In the context of the Creative cluster of the

DCM, the sub-disposition “risk taking” and the teacher’s flexibility are evident in a

continuation of the interview statement “And they’re now going that little bit

further.” Teacher B provides an energised statement that indicates strong ability to

be flexible and to take intelligent risks that are focused on the needs and interests of

his students.

And that’s when the lesson plan goes out the window. And we

grab the atlases. And we have a look at what we’re talking about.

And we get the library to tape it [the current affairs program].

And we watch it. And that kids tell us [the class] what’s on it.

And that’s…again, not a philosophy, but for me those moments

are the magic teaching moments.

Through convincing evidence, teacher B outlines the pursuit of selected strategies

that are associated directly with the sub-disposition “risk taking”. The interview

analysis demonstrates that at appropriate times teacher B encourages students to take

the lead in directing how the lesson progresses and he refers to these times as “the

magic teaching moments”. This is complemented by the idea that “just pushing the

way they think in a slightly different way” is a worthwhile pursuit. This is another

strategy that requires “risk taking” in terms of the learning outcomes that may or may

not occur. Teacher B highlights the risk involved in this when he says “And I guess

that’s even difficult as a teacher, too, because you’ve got to step back and be careful

you’re not pushing them to think like you. That you’ve got to learn to think like

them as well”. This suggests the pursuit of strategies that challenge not only the

students, but also the teacher who is required to take the risk of positioning himself

273

with the students so that “you learn to think like them as well”. The interview

analysis provided strong evidence that teacher B is prepared to take risks and to “fall

flat on his face” if it means inspiring and challenging his students. Teacher B was

given a rating of 2/2 for the component pursuit of selected strategies in the context of

the sub-disposition “risk taking” of the DCM cluster, Creative.

In the context of the given examples, teacher B’s ability to be “risk taking” and

flexible presents the possibility for students to own what they learn, to take

responsibility for their learning, and to self-direct. In the context of the sub-

disposition “flexible”, teacher B also demonstrates awareness of the constraints of

context. Evidence for this is provided in the statement “It’s something that they [the

individual students] want to know but not necessarily everybody else wants to know.

But every kid’s important and, of course, it was very much instilled in me…that

people are important.” This statement supports the fact that teacher B is very aware

of individual differences and the constraints of the learning process that are

introduced by the students, themselves. A high degree of flexibility is required to

address these student differences and the constraints of this teaching context. As

teacher B observes “Not necessarily everybody else wants to know” or to pursue a

particular line of thought and inquiry. Teacher B was given a rating of 2/2 for this

component of the IAF analysis for the sub-disposition “risk taking”.

In summary, the application of the IAF to the sub-disposition “risk taking” from the

Creative cluster of the DCM indicates that case study teacher B demonstrates a

strong propensity for intelligent risk taking, with a rating of 8/8. Evidence for this is

found in the teacher’s focus on the values to be realised, the teacher’s intention-in-

action, the selected strategies that teacher B pursues, as well as the teacher’s

awareness of the constraints and possibilities inherent in the particular teaching and

learning contexts of the examples that have been cited.

8.2.7.4 Communicative cluster – knowledgeable

The Communicative cluster of the DCM includes the sub-disposition

“knowledgeable”. It could be argued that the concept “knowledgeable” is associated

274

with pedagogic rather than dispositional attributes. In the context of the DCM,

however, “knowledgeable” is a sub-disposition of the cluster Communicative and is

best conceptualised as “knowledge-able”. From this perspective, the disposition

“knowledgeable” is associated with the concept “intelligence”, be it emotional,

intrapersonal, interpersonal, academic, spiritual or other. It is activated through the

four syntax components of the IAF, namely: values to be realised, intention-in-

action, the pursuit of selected strategies, and an awareness of the constraints and

possibilities of the context. This example indicates the inextricable link between the

underlying teacher disposition and its manifestation in classroom behaviour.

The exceptional teacher, it has been argued, is knowledgeable about self, the student,

others involved at the school or community level, and the world in which they

function, as well as being knowledgeable about subject content and pedagogical

theory. This is accompanied by a conviction about the importance of communicating

that knowledge to students and using knowledge in ways that assist students to

understand and apply what they have learnt to real-life situations. In the case study

interviews, the transcript of teacher K’s responses provides a convincing example of

this aspect of the DCM. The values to be realised are identified explicitly in the

statement,

People think teaching is the job you do when you can’t do

anything else… We need highly intelligent people because

we want a highly intelligent workforce. We want highly

intelligent kids…Teaching is a job you do with intelligence

and integrity, and it’s so important. It’s so important to put

kids out of school that are valuable and knowledgeable

members of society.

The implication of the concept “highly intelligent” is that case study teacher K

values teachers who are knowledgeable and who know what to do with that

knowledge and how to be communicative with their students so that student

knowledge and learning are enhanced. This includes effectively teaching and

facilitating students to understand and use knowledge in ways that not only enhance

their learning, but that also enhance their “real life” experiences. Further support for

this is evident in the value teacher K places on nurturing students so that they

become “valuable and knowledgeable members of society”. On the basis of this

275

evidence, teacher K was given a rating of 2/2 for the values to be realised component

of the IAF, in the context of the sub-disposition “knowledgeable”.

Intention-in-action is evident in teacher K’s statement that,

The purpose of being a teacher and the reason I do it is to have a kid

walk out of your classroom and say “I know something I didn’t

know when I got here this morning”. My whole philosophy revolves

around seeing that enlightenment on a kid’s face.

This focus on knowledge and the idea of enlightenment strongly supports the idea of

teacher K’s intention-in-action and her underlying motivation for teaching so that

students learn something of value in every lesson. This resulted in a rating of 2/2 for

“knowledgeable” on the intention-in-action component of the IAF.

The interview comments made by teacher K show that the teacher is pursuing

selected strategies to communicate with students in a knowledgeable way that relates

directly to the community and the world of events that affects them. The sub-

disposition “knowledgeable” is implicit in teacher K’s openness to the students, the

local community, and the more global view of the world in general. Evidence to

support this is found in the following anecdotal narrative.

This year it’s been really interesting, being a rural community that’s

facing drought issues, water issues. The environmental topics that

we teach the kids have become really important. I’ve probably

spent a lot longer on those issues than I normally would…I remember

teaching on the day after 9/11 and my Year 12 class were doing

disasters so, you know, that influences hugely what you teach. We

sat there and watched it [on the television]. And we pulled it

apart. And we looked at what the roles of the emergency

services were. And we watched those guys run into those

towers. And, you know, Year 12 walked out and said, “Thanks

for letting us do that.” It made what you were teaching out of

the paper real. We look at current affairs – yeah, drought is

around here at the minute. And bushfires… And global warming

comes up as a big issue.

276

This narrative not only provides evidence that teacher K demonstrates the sub-

disposition “knowledgeable”, but it also indicates the teacher’s pursuit of selected

strategies such as examining and discussing current issues with students, and then

applying that knowledge and discussion to the local conditions experienced by the

students in their own community, as well as at a more global level. In terms of

pursuing selected strategies teacher K demonstrates strong ability to facilitate

learning that is highly significant to the lives of the students. For this reason, teacher

K was given a rating of 2/2 for this component of the IAF, in the context of the sub-

disposition “knowledgeable” from the DCM cluster, Communicative.

Teacher K’s knowledge of the constraints and possibilities of the community context

of a small rural school with mixed ability students is demonstrated by the

observation,

Having worked with lower ability kids for so long, marks are

irrelevant…It’s whether or not they got something out of it

[the lesson]. And what they get out of it’s so different. I can

be teaching astronomy and they might have got out of it that

there’s something in the universe that looks like us, that they

never knew before. Whereas, if you’re teaching a top level

kid, it’s the size of things and how the solar system works

and what Big Bang theory was.

In spite of the constraints of attempting to communicate knowledge to students with

different abilities and levels of understanding, teacher K indicates an optimistic

belief in the possibilities of the teaching and learning context, including the belief

that,

It’s important to work with kids at school so that they are valuable

members of society. Unfortunately, in the society we live in, with

families breaking down as rapidly as they do, school is where they

learn everything…the underlying thing in everything I do is how

important this is to society because of what we [teachers and

schools] put out.

The statement “what we put out” refers to the quality of students that the school

graduates into society.

277

Although the interview responses indicate that teacher K has a degree of awareness

of the constraints and possibilities of a given context, the statements tend to focus

more on teacher beliefs and values which are a strong element of the interview.

Teacher K was given a rating of 1/2 for the IAF component constraints and

possibilities of context for the sub-disposition “knowledgeable”.

Case study teacher K achieved a sub-total of 7/8 for the sub-disposition

“knowledgeable”. This indicates a strong performance in terms of the IAF and in

terms of the “knowledgeable” sub-disposition of the Communicative cluster of the

DCM.

8.2.7.5 Passionate cluster – energetic

The Passionate cluster of the DCM is characterised by teachers loving what they do

and demonstrating high levels of enthusiasm and excitability. This cluster also

includes the sub-disposition “energetic”, a related element that refers to the vital

force or “entelechy” that drives a teacher to become all that he or she is capable of

becoming (Piechowski, 1998), within the context of teaching and learning. The sub-

disposition “energetic” extends beyond the physical level to include psychic and

emotional energy or drive. While motivation is associated strongly with the desire

for action, the sub-disposition “energetic” goes beyond motivation and includes the

enthusiasm and drive that are an integral part of the teacher’s personal and

professional values. This energy is an important part of the teacher’s psyche and is

value laden. Being “energetic”, in this sense, helps teachers realise their

involvement in teaching and learning as a key aspect of their personal and

professional fulfilment.

In the case study interviews, the responses of teacher C demonstrate a strong

performance on the sub-disposition “energetic”. The values to be realised are

evident in statements that link the teacher’s sense of self-fulfilment and efficacy with

what is happening at school and in the classroom. Teacher C iterates key words such

as “enthusiasm” and “love” in interview statements such as,

278

I like enthusiasm… being enthusiastic is extremely important… I

love it when they [the students] do things well. I love to see them

grow and mature and grow not just in knowledge but in maturity

and in their faith… I love it when children succeed.

On the basis of evidence from the interview analysis, teacher C was given a rating of

2/2 on the values to be realised component of IAF for the sub-disposition

“energetic”.

There is strong evidence to support the fact that teacher C places high value on

teaching and learning that results in a strong sense of fulfilment and that is expressed

in terms of “excitement”. Teacher C is energised by and focuses energy on the

possibilities of the teaching and learning context so that values are not simply stated

or “held” – they are activated and realised in the teacher’s classroom behaviour.

This is most obvious in the context of engaging students through the design of

assessment tasks where a strong awareness of the constraints and possibilities of

context is evident. This is enunciated in statements such as,

I am happier, I am the happiest I’ve ever been with the

assessment tasks that I’ve planned for the children. And I

get excited. Instead of them saying, “Oh no, here comes an

assessment task notification” I say to them “Don’t panic. I’m

really excited about this.

This statement provides evidence that teacher C is aware of the potential constraints

of negative pupil perceptions, but through the energy, drive and enthusiasm evident

in the case study interview, the possibilities of the context are dominant. The

interview demonstrates a high level of “energy” that is associated directly with

teacher C’s sense of personal satisfaction and self-fulfilment in what she does at

school.

Teacher C also demonstrates awareness of the constraints of the teaching and

learning context that are expressed in terms of self-perception as well as perceptions

of her students.

Sometimes I think I’m more of a serious natured teacher than a

fun teacher. Actually, I think that a lot. Marks to me are

important. But I look at so many other teachers who I think get

279

organised and creative and have fun with the children. And I

know I am continually having to work on that myself. Things

that they [the students] really enjoy. Marks are still important

because they [the students] need to show that they have covered

the outcomes. But if you can get them to achieve those good

marks and achieve the outcomes in a creative way, then you’re

achieving both.

From these comments, there is strong evidence to show that case study teacher C

also sees Creativity as an important disposition that can enhance the possibilities of

the teaching and learning context in which she engages with the students. Teacher C

was given a maximum rating of 2/2 for the constraints and possibilities of context

component of the IAF on the sub-disposition “energetic” of the Passionate cluster of

the DCM.

The intention-in-action associated with the sub-disposition “energy” is supported by

teacher C’s interview statement,

If I’m passionate about a particular topic or a particular thing

that I’m teaching, the children can become passionate as well.

As long as you are tuned into how they want to learn it… If I’m

passionate about something and teach them that way, then children

respond well, too. That’s great.

In this piece of evidence, teacher C repeats the key word “passionate” and associated

this directly with being in tune to the students’ needs, as well as being passionate

about the subject. This, in turn, relates directly to the teacher’s intention-in-action in

the French classroom where she teaches. On the strength of this evidence, teacher C

was given a rating of 2/2 for the intention-in-action component of the IAF on this

sub-disposition of the Passionate cluster of the DCM.

The sub-disposition “energetic” demonstrated by teacher C is strongly evident in the

syntax component pursuing selected strategies. In the context of a Year 7 French

assessment task, for example, teacher C narrates an experience where the focus is to

encourage the students so that they not only feel secure in their learning experience,

but that they also see relevance in what they are required to do. The teacher says to

the children,

280

This is a task that you will be able to use when you go to France.

We’re going to imagine that you are at that ticket booth window

buying your train ticket on the TVB to go down to Marseille and

this is so like what you’ll be doing when you’re in France. You’ll

be thrown into those situations. We’re going to practise it over

and over again. And then this is your assessment task. On the

day you will be well practised. And it’s something you’ll just

take out and use when you are in France. Your little palm cards

from your presentation. You’ll be able to keep those until you

go to France one day… I try to get as enthusiastic as possible

about the assessment tasks and make them as real-life as possible,

And then they get good marks.

This provides strong evidence of teacher C’s ability for pursuing selected strategies

and, therefore, a rating of 2/2 was given for this component of the IAF on the

“energetic” sub-disposition.

The teacher’s intention-in-action is evident in the penultimate sentence, “I try to get

as enthusiastic as possible about the assessment tasks and then make them as real-life

as possible”. A noticeable sense of satisfaction and fulfilment is evident when, later

in the interview, teacher C repeats the comment “I’m the happiest I’ve ever been. I

know I’ve just said that. But I am the happiest I’ve ever been”. The word “am” is

italicised in the interview transcript to indicate the emphasis give by teacher C.

When asked the question, “What are the things that you would most like to be

remembered for in your teaching?”, case study teacher C’s response was, “That I

loved what I do. That I love teaching French.”

From the evidence discussed in this section, it is clear that teacher C is a high level

performer on the “energetic” sub-disposition of the Passionate cluster of the DCM.

The application of the IAF resulted in teacher C achieving a maximum rating of 8/8

for the sub-disposition “energetic”.

281

8.2.7.6 Summary of the IAF analysis and findings

These examples from the case study interviews indicate how each of the components

of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions was active in the selected sub-

dispositions from each of the five dispositional clusters of the DCM (i.e. Authentic,

Committed, Creative, Communicative, and Passionate). In order to achieve the

highest rating for a dispositional cluster, it was necessary that a teacher’s case study

interview demonstrated that all four components of the syntax were active and that

there was strong evidence from the interview responses to support this.

The examples also demonstrate the high level of inter-relatedness between the five

dispositional clusters of the DCM and their sub-dispositions. In the Passionate

cluster, for example, teacher enthusiasm, excitability and a positive attitude are seen

to form a nexus with the sub-disposition “energetic”, as evident in the case study

interview comments of teacher C. Further, the examples cited from the case study

interviews demonstrate clearly that all four components of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax

of dispositions need to be activated if a dispositional cluster from the DCM is to be

demonstrated by the teacher.

The IAF provided a way of scoring and comparing the 12 case teacher interviews on

their performance in the five clusters of the DCM. This was done in terms of their

raw scores on each of the sub-dispositions and in terms of their rankings across the

total of the raw scores. The results from the IAF appeared to differentiate

successfully between the case study teachers and this will be discussed in the

concluding chapter of the thesis.

The implementation of the IAF identified areas of strength and weakness in terms of

teacher values to be realised, intention-to-action, pursuit of selected strategies, and

awareness of the constraints and possibilities of a given teaching/learning context.

The application of the IAF to the case study interviews also allowed for comparison

between teacher performances on the DCM and the case study instruments (i.e.

QTM, TBC, MVQ, and EBQ).

282

The development of a single rating system for interview analysis presents

possibilities for use by school principals as well as teachers. These, together with the

limitations of the case study interviews, will be discussed in detail in the final

chapter of the thesis.

8.3 NVivo analysis of the case study teacher interviews

8.3.1 Context and rationale for the use of NVivo

The main purpose of the NVivo analysis of interview scripts was to provide

additional data regarding the 12 case study teachers that were not available through

the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ. This NVivo data served three purposes. One was

to provide an alternative means for differentiating between the case study teachers

and a second purpose was to provide supplementary evidence supporting the IAF

results and, thereby, indirectly to provide weight of evidence adding credibility to the

DCM. A third purpose was to contribute to the understanding of what it means to be

an exceptional teacher by identifying and enriching possible components that could

be added to the process of differentiating between the case study teachers on the

basis of the data gathered from the QTM, TBC, MVQ, and EBQ.

NVivo is a computer-based tool developed by QST International. It is intended to

assist in the analysis of qualitative data. In addition, it is used as a tool for the

organisation and management of those data. In the context of the case study

interviews, NVivo is used to organise data after the deconstruction of the transcribed

texts by grouping key words and concepts associated with instrument data into “Tree

Nodes”. This allows for an approach to the analysis of case study teacher interviews

that tracks the frequency of all the interviewee’s references to any of the items in the

four instruments used for data collection earlier in this thesis (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ,

and EBQ). It also allows for an approach to analysis that encompasses and organises

references in an interview that are not covered by any of the four instruments, but

that could prove useful for differentiating between the case study teachers and for

profiling exceptional teachers. Key words, concepts or ideas from this second

approach to NVivo analysis are coded and processed as “Free Nodes”. The concepts

283

“Tree Nodes” and “Free Nodes” are explained in more detail in Section 8.7.2 of this

chapter.

8.3.2 Method of analysis

All 12 case study interviews were analysed in depth using NVivo software. The

coding system for the analysis was based on all instrument items in the QTM, TBC,

MVQ and EBQ.

There were three levels of analysis. Interview transcripts were first analysed for text

that could be associated with specific instrument items. Data from this first level of

analysis were stored in “Tree Nodes” that Bazeley (2007) defined as being storage

areas for references to coded text. Tree Nodes contain data that are structured

hierarchically according to a chosen schema. The schema used for analysing the 12

interview transcripts in this first level were based on coding directly using all QTM,

TBC, MVQ and TBC items.

8.3.2.1 Level 1 NVivo analysis – Tree Nodes

Level 1 of NVivo analysis is illustrated by Tables 8.11 to 8.14, inclusive, that show

the coding of all items from the QMT, TBC, MVQ and EBQ for all 12 case study

teachers. The items are represented as NVivo Tree Nodes and the numbers in the

table are frequencies showing the number of times particular Tree Nodes are coded

in each teacher’s interview.

284

Table 8.11

Frequency of Coding for the QTM Tree Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

Table 8.11 presents the frequency of interview references made by each of the 12

case study teachers to the three domains and the elements of the QTM. For example,

on the basis of the NVivo coding for QTM Tree Nodes, teacher B made one

reference to each element of the domain Intellectual quality. Teacher B made 12

references to “Student Direction”, element 2.6 of the domain Quality learning

environment. (The instrument code legend was given in Chapter 7 as Table 7.22).

Case study teachers G and L, on the other hand, made no specific references to the

domains of the QTM, according to the NVivo analysis. In contrast, teacher B’s

interview analysis demonstrated a rich array of comments pertaining directly to the

domains and elements of the QTM.

Table 8.12 presents the frequency of coding for all 12 case study teachers for the

TBC Tree Nodes. This is expressed in terms of references to the 28 items

comprising the TBC.

285

Table 8.12

Frequency of Coding for the TBC Tree Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

Table 8.12 indicates that case study teachers A, B and C presented a rich array of

interview comments directly associated with the TBC items, according to the NVivo

analysis of frequency of references to the coded TBC items. In contrast, Teachers G

and L had relatively few references to the coded TBC items, with total frequencies of

9 and 10 respectively.

The frequency of coding for MVQ Tree Nodes is shown in Table 8.13. The coding

of these tree nodes is based on the 22 values items comprising the MVQ.

Table 8.13

Frequency of Coding for the MVQ Tree Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

286

The frequency of coding for the NVivo analysis of the MVQ Tree Nodes indicates

that teacher B again demonstrates a strong performance with a rich array of interview

comments across all 22 MVQ items. Teacher C demonstrates a similar pattern of

comments. In contrast, according to the NVivo analysis, case study teachers D, G

and L demonstrate a weaker array of comments in the context of the MVQ tree

nodes.

Table 8.14 presents the frequency of NVivo coding for EBQ Tree Nodes for all 12

case study teachers.

Table 8.14

Frequency of Coding for the EBQ Three Philosophical Orientations of the EBQ Tree

Nodes for All Case Study Teachers

This Table presents the frequency of coding based on the three philosophical

orientations of the EBQ, namely: Perennialism, Romanticism, and Progressivism.

The 20 items comprising the EBQ are structured according to these three

philosophical orientations. For this reason, the EBQ Tree Nodes have been collapsed

into these three philosophical groupings. The NVivo analysis for the frequency of

coding for the EBQ Tree Nodes indicates that teacher B presents the richest array of

287

comments pertaining to the EBQ, particularly regarding the beliefs associated with

the philosophical orientations of Romanticism (10 coded references to EBQ NVivo

Tree Nodes) and Progressivism (11 coded references to EBQ NVivo Tree Nodes). In

contrast, teacher F had no references to the EBQ NVivo Tree Nodes. Apart from

teachers B and C, the remainder of the cohort had a limited array of references to the

EBQ NVivo Tree Nodes.

8.3.2.2 Summary of Tree Node analysis (Level 1)

On the basis of the frequency of coding for instrument items in the NVivo “Tree

Nodes” for the interview analysis, a pattern of strong responses emerged for teachers

B and C. This was in keeping with the levels of teacher performances indicated by

the IAF data and analysis. Table 8.15 provides a summary of the total frequencies of

instrument items coded for each case study teacher. It can be seen from the table that

the interviews with teachers B and C were clearly richer in content than those

interviews with all other teachers in the cohort with reference to the instruments:

QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ.

Table 8.15

A Summary of Total Frequencies of Instrument Items Coded for Each Case Study

Teacher

288

A consideration worth examining, at this stage, is a comparison of the IAF analysis

of the teacher interviews and the NVivo “Tree Node” analysis based on instrument

item coding. Tables 8.16 and 8.17 use the data from Table 8.15 and presents the

correlation between the IAF interview analysis data and the NVivo “Tree Node”

data.

Table 8.16

Data from the IAF Interview Analysis and the NVivo “Tree Node” Interview

Analysis

Table 8.17

Correlations between the IAF Data and the NVivo “Tree Node” Data Presented in

Table 8.16

289

It can be seen that there is a relatively high correlation (0.78) between the IAF data

and the NVivo “Tree Node” data. This correlation is suggesting that there is a strong

relationship between what teachers said in the interview that was related to

dispositions and what they said in relation to their pedagogy, educational beliefs and

values. This inference is supported by the conclusion reached earlier in this chapter

that the IAF, by virtue of its association with both interviews and the DCM, was a

useful instrument for differentiating between teachers.

The correlation of 0.78 between the two sets of scores together with aspects of the

pattern of scores prompted a re-examination of the NVivo interview data that used a

system of coding based on items form the instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ).

One feature of the pattern of scores in Table 8.16 that attracted attention was that

four case study teachers (A, B, C and D) had scores on Total Frequencies of

instrument items that were higher than their scores on the IAF. The other eight

teachers all had Total frequency scores less than their IAF scores.

A question raised by these results was: Why did two overall weaker performing

teachers (A and D) from the case study cohort, as well as the two overall best

performing teachers (B and C) have NVivo frequency of references scores higher

than their IAF scores? The most obvious answer is that the total frequency of

references is a count of the number of times instrument items are referred to in an

interview. IAF scores, on the other hand, are essentially evidence from the

interviews of the degree to which a teacher has activated the five clusters of

dispositions (including the secondary dispositions) of the DCM in a classroom

context. This is bearing in mind that the IAF is based on the DCM as well as

Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions. This syntax is saying, in essence, that

values, intention and a strategy are being activated to implement the teacher’s values

in a classroom context. In other words, IAF scores are essentially evidence from the

interviews of intention and a strategy to activate and implement a teacher’s values in

a classroom context. It is quite possible for the frequency of interview instrument

item references to be higher or lower than relevant IAF scores because one is not

dependent on the other, even though the two sets of scores can have a high degree of

correlation. Therefore, the correlation is probably best interpreted as a measure of

290

the degree of consistency in the relationship between the Total frequencies and IAF

scores.

The two “exceptional” teachers, B and C, had high scores in terms of both the Total

frequency of references in their interviews and also their IAF scores. They both

spoke in depth about the behaviours, values and educational beliefs represented by

the instrument items. They also indicated having a strategy and their intention to put

the values into practice in a meaningful way in their classrooms. With teachers A

and D there was more “talk” than evidence of intention or ability to meaningfully

apply what they were saying to their classroom practice. All eight remaining case

study teachers had Total frequency of reference scores that were lower than their IAF

scores. This indicated a predilection for “action” rather than “talk”.

The question raised in a previous paragraph deserved further investigation, so the

results of the NVivo Tree Node interview analysis were re-examined. It is clear

from Table 8.16 that the frequency of references to scores on the TBC was the most

likely source of data explaining why the weaker teachers, A and D, had higher Total

frequency of reference scores than their IAF scores. Therefore, a summary of the

TBC data is presented in Table 8.17. Here, the items are shown as numbers that

correspond with the items in the TBC instrument (see Chapter 6, Table 6.1). If the data in Table 8.12 are examined closely it will be seen that for teacher A, seven

items accounted for 43 of the total 66 references in that teacher’s interview. These

items were: 1 Accessible, 2 Approachable/Personable, 7 Encourages and cares for

students, 10 Flexible, 22 Rapport, 23 Realistic expectations of students/Fair testing

and grading, and 24 Respectful. If three further items are added in terms of their

frequencies, namely: 5 Creative, 9 Establishes daily and academic term goals, and 28

Understanding, then 10 items account for 78.8% of the total (66) frequencies for

teacher A.

Only item 9 (Establishes daily and academic term goals) from the 10 TBC items

identified by teacher A is clearly pedagogic. The remaining nine TBC items are

dispositional in character. This aspect of the analysis shows that the distribution of

291

topics referred to in teacher A’s interview was confined mainly to less than half of

the total 28 items in the TBC and these were overwhelmingly (9/10) “soft”

dispositional items. It could be argued that the interview questions were biased

towards dispositions, but the important aspect of data that militate against this

argument is that the frequency of reference scores for teacher B, for example, is

distributed across all items, with the exception of item 1 (Accessible).

Similar observations can be made with reference to teachers C and D where teacher

C, although not as widely distributed across all items in the TBC as teacher B, has

references to 21 of the 28 TBC items. Teacher D, by comparison, has references to

only 15 TBC items. Of these 15 items, seven account for 73% of the total references

made by teacher D to items from the TBC. These items were: 2 Accessible, 3

Authoritative, 7 Encourages and cares for students, 13 Humble, 20 Provides

constructive feedback, 22 Rapport, and 24 Respectful.

Overall, it is submitted that the interview and IAF data summarised in Table 8.16 not

only differentiated effectively between the case study teachers, but also provided

weight of evidence concerning the credibility of the IAF for providing data regarding

the relationship between teacher dispositions and their performance in the classroom.

When the NVivo Tree Node data from the interviews and data from the IAF were

analysed for further correlations, they were shown to be consistently high. These

correlations are reported in Table 8.17 and are:

QTM:MVQ 0.88 QTM:TBC 0.74

QTM:EBQ 0.95 TBC:MVQ 0.84

TBC:EBQ 0.85 QTM:IAF 0.74

MVQ:IAF 0.82 EBQ:IAF 0.71

The correlation QTM:EBQ 0.95 is particularly interesting and suggests that teachers

who spoke a lot about QTM related items in the interview also spoke a lot about

EBQ related items. It could be interpreted that educational beliefs were an important

292

variable associated with pedagogic practices in the classroom. Although it may just

be that teachers who spoke a lot about pedagogic related items, as in the QTM, also

spoke a lot about beliefs. They simply may have been more prolific talkers; likewise,

with the TBC:MVQ 0.94 correlation. This, in itself, is worth reflecting on because

NVivo Tree Node analysis may indicate that some teachers are more communicative

than others from the case study.

8.3.3 Level 2 NVivo analysis – Free Nodes

A second level of analysis involved identifying text in the interview transcripts that

could not be appropriately coded by association with items from the QTM, TBC,

MVQ or EBQ. Where a teacher made a comment that could not be associated with a

code from these instruments, but that existed as a discrete entity, that item was coded

and stored initially as a Free Node.

8.3.3.1 The process followed in gathering and analysing the Free

Node data

When the case teacher interviews were first analysed using a Tree Node coding

system based on all 88 items in the QTM. TBC, MVQ and EBQ, it became apparent

that there was content in the interviews that was of interest in differentiating between

the teachers, but that was not amenable to being coded as Tree Nodes. This material

not coded using the instrument coding system was initially coded loosely as 206

independent and unclassified Free Nodes.

In order to illustrate the composition of these Free Nodes, the first 25 nodes are

presented in alphabetic order as Table 8.18. The entire list of 206 Free Nodes is

included as Appendix I. “Sources” refers to the number of teacher interview scripts

coded with a particular Free Node and “References” is the number of times the

relevant Free Node is actually coded.

293

Table 8.18

Example of Free Nodes (alphabetic order) in the Initial Stage of Interview Coding

An investigation of the 206 Free Nodes spread across all 12 interviews suggested

they could be classified into 10 categories. These were: Becoming a Teacher,

Curriculum, Marks and Assessment, Orientation Other Than School, Orientation

Towards the Future, School, Self-Reflection, Students, Teachers, and Miscellaneous

Topics.

Further examination of the interview responses followed. The procedure was to first

run an NVivo enquiry to identify all words that were four or more characters in

length across all 12 interviews. Words were then selected using three criteria. These

were: 1) Frequency of occurrence; 2) Association with the Free Node categories in

the first level of analysis (Becoming a Teacher, Curriculum, Marks and Assessment,

Orientation Other Than School, Orientation Towards the Future, School, Self-

Reflection, Students, Teachers, and Miscellaneous Topics); and, 3) Words of

294

“interest” deemed to be important for reasons other than being connected directly to

an instrument item.

8.3.3.2 Findings from closer analysis of the NVivo Free Nodes

Results from this procedure for analysing the case study teacher interviews a second

time are reported in two tables. Table 8.19 shows: the words identified as being of

“interest” sorted alphabetically; their frequency across all 12 case study teachers; and

the frequency of each word for a particular teacher expressed as a percentage of the

total number of words in that teacher’s interview script.

295

Table 8.19

Free Nodes from the Initial Stage of Interview Coding

Table 8.20 displays relevant Free Nodes grouped into seven categories that are an

adapted version of the list of 10 categories that emerged from the initial NVivo

analysis of the interviews. This Table sorts the content of each of the seven node

296

categories into those that are Person/Experiential in orientation and those which are

Pedagogic in nature.

Table 8.20

Free Nodes with Their Orientations Grouped into 7 Categories

In Table 8.20 “sources” refers to the number of case study teachers who used words

coded as relevant NVivo nodes. “References” reports the total number of times a

word was coded across all 12 teachers. The Frequencies in the “References” column,

unlike those in the two “Frequencies” columns, do not use duplicate uses of words.

297

This explains why the “References” total may differ from the sum of the frequencies

in the two subcategories (“Personal_Experiential” and “Pedagogic”).

Examples of extracts illustrating the findings represented in Table 8.18 will be

presented by way of explanation in Table 8.21

298

Table 8.21

Examples of Free Node Extracts with Their Orientations

299

Five word concepts, other than those included in the seven categories referred to in

Table 8.18, were identified by virtue of their frequency of occurrence during the

NVivo Free Node analysis (See Table 8.17 for frequencies and usage). These “stand

alone” words were, in almost every instance, found to be dispositionally oriented in

the way they were used in the interviews across all 12 case study teachers. Examples

of their usage are provided in Table 8.22.

Table 8.22

Examples of Usage “Stand Alone” Word Concepts of Interest

In the context of the case study interviews, each of the “stand alone” words in Table

8.20 was used with meanings of noticeable consistency across the 12 case study

teachers, the main differences being with reference to frequency of usage (See Table

8.17). “Life” was used primarily to refer to the state of being alive as a human being.

“Love” was used to convey a feeling of deep affection.

“Think” was used differently in most instances from the other five words. There was

an initial reaction to exclude “think” on the grounds that it overwhelmingly appeared

to be used by the teachers to indicate that they were expressing an opinion. It was

common for a teacher to preface a statement by saying “I think”. As the analysis of

interviews continued, however, it became more apparent that the teachers were

WORD EXAMPLE

life It’s not just a job. It’s always…. it’s lifestyle. Um, and also with my media and my media scripts,

chasing all sorts of current affairs, that it’s a part of your life. So that you’re living teaching. CS

B

love We just, we care for them. We love them. I love it when they do things well. I love to see them

grow and mature and, um, grow not just in knowledge but, um, in maturity CS C

think I think that every student should feel a sense of self worth and there should be areas in their day

or their life or their week where they are proud of what they accomplish CS A

work I wake up every morning and I’m really happy to go to work. Like, I really…. I look forward to

my work, and I enjoy it, and I find it a great CS F

people I believe that these are people and that they deserve the respect I would give to an adult. CS G

300

engaging in episodes of self-reflection and, in doing so, were opening themselves to

phenomenological interpretations of the meanings of the thoughts being expressed.

On these grounds “think” was retained as a word of interest.

“Work” was used to convey the sense of both mental and physical effort undertaken

with a purpose in mind. It was used with reference to the teacher engaging in “work”

and also students engaging in “work”. The word “work” was also used to refer to the

world of employment that students needed to prepare for and could expect to enter at

an appropriate time in their life journey. The term was nearly always used in an

experiential sense.

The case study teachers all used the word “People” either to mean their peers and

those they worked with, or to refer to their students as being human beings. Both

meanings placed emphasis on the human aspects of personal existence.

8.3.3.3 Observations and conclusions regarding the findings of the

interview Free Node analysis

The first observation made when coding the case study interviews with reference to

material not linked to the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ was the wide-ranging scope of

the topics covered. This is to be seen in the fact that there were 206 topics coded as

Free Nodes, and also in the sample of topics presented in Table 8.17. These topics in

the Table ranged from “Achieving academic goals creatively” to making a “Clear

decision to be a teacher”. The material available in the interviews remains a

potentially valuable resource for future research on a variety of themes. While there

was a large number of topics coded, these highly specific topics were scattered

across the cohort of 12 case study teachers and almost all of them were restricted to

only a few for each teacher “source”.

When the 206 coded Free Node topics were examined for associations between

topics, it was found possible to group most of them into seven broad categories that

provided a key component of the framework for Table 8.18. These were:

Teaching_Learning, Teaching Values, Teacher and Teaching, Students, Schools,

301

Marks and Assessment, and Curriculum. These are all core areas of importance in

today’s educational circles in Australia. Measured in terms of the number of

references in the interviews, three topics that occupied positions of prominence with

these teachers who were deemed by their school principals as being “exceptional”

were: Teaching and Learning (132 references); Teacher and Teachers (119

references); and Students (45 references). In terms of the number of times they were

referred to in the interviews, these topics were the ones that the case study teachers

wanted to talk about. The things they said about these topics were predominantly

different in nature compared with the Tree Node topics associated with the four

instruments that were used to gather data earlier in the research process.

It is proposed that the most important discovery arising from the NVivo analysis of

the interviews is that the nature of the Free Node extracts is overwhelmingly

“Dispositional” in character. Table 8.18 shows that 79.3 percent of the coded Free

Nodes were classified as having to do with the “person” of the teacher and students,

and was experiential in character. In other words, the thoughts expressed were

“Dispositional” in orientation. By way of contrast, statements that were “Pedagogic”

in nature accounted for only 20.7% of the content coded as Free Nodes. Examples

from the case study teacher interviews illustrating the distinction between the two

orientations are given as Table 8.18. This observation is reinforced by findings with

reference to interview usage of five “stand alone” words identified in Table 8.17 and

illustrated in Table 8.19.

8.4 Conclusions to be drawn from the interview analysis

The interview analysis, including IAF analysis, yielded data and findings that

provided weight of evidence supporting the approach to differentiating between

teachers being investigate in this thesis. One finding in particular deserves to be

given prominence. This finding is that the empirical data (raw scores and ranked

scores) from the TQM, TBC, MVQ and EBA are positively correlated with the raw

scores and ranked scores from the IAF analysis. Correlations between IAF scores

and instrument scores are shown in Table 8.23.

302

Table 8.23

Correlations Between IAF Scores and Instrument Scores (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ and

EBQ)

Because the IAF is structured on the clusters of the DCM it seems reasonable to

conclude that the relatively high correlations between scores on the QTM and the

IAF, and on the TBE and the IAF indicate that the structure of the DCM has

credibility. This conclusion is extremely interesting when it is remembered that the

interview analysis data are derived from what teachers say and not what they actually

are observed to be doing in the classroom.

It is to be expected that correlation would be low between the MVQ and the EBQ

(MVQ:EBQ = 0.35) because one instrument measures personal values and the other

measures educational beliefs. The low correlation suggests that there is a low level

of association between these two somewhat discreet attributes. The same reasoning

applies to the low correlations between these instrument scores and the IAF

(MVQ:IAF = 0.17; EBQ:IAF = 0.27). The scores on the IAF take into account the

variables operating within the complexity of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of

dispositions.

303

The relatively low correlation between the QTM and TBC scores (0.22) reflects the

fact that although these instruments both measure the teacher’s observable classroom

behaviour, each instrument does so from a different perspective. In other words, the

QTM and the TBC probably are measuring different aspects of observable teacher

behaviour. In spite of their different perspectives, both instruments include

pedagogic variables. The two most obvious differences that contribute to the

correlations not being higher are: first, that the TBC also includes a strong

component of dispositionally oriented items; and second, that even though both

instruments include pedagogic items the QTM and TBC have different systems for

identifying and defining the pedagogic concepts in these systems.

Bearing in mind that the focus of this thesis is on dispositions, a second important

finding from the NVivo analysis is that when the interview analysis examines data

that emerge from the interviews themselves and not from external sources such as

data gathering instruments, the nature of the interview content is unquestionably

“Dispositional” in character. Analysing the interviews using NVivo has been a

lengthy but absorbing experience providing resources and ideas for continuing future

research. A third level of NVivo analysis will be discussed in Chapter 10 where data

input from the Free Node analysis is revisited.

A third finding is that the IAF analysis of the case study interviews has provided

important data pertaining to what it means to be an exceptional teacher, particularly

in terms of the activation of teacher dispositions that have been identified in the

DCM. It is postulated that it is not enough that a teacher has certain beliefs and

values about teaching and learning. These beliefs and values need to be activated.

This was demonstrated most noticeably in the interview transcripts of those teachers

who were able to identify and discuss the values to be realised, together with

intention in action, the selection of appropriate strategies, and who demonstrated an

awareness of the constraints and possibilities of the teaching and learning contexts

where they were engaged with students.

The IAF analysis demonstrated the high level of inter-relatedness between the five

dispositional clusters of the DCM (i.e. Authentic, Committed, Communicative,

Creative, and Passionate) and their sub-dispositions. This was in conjunction with

304

Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions that provided a framework for assessing

the degree to which the sub-dispositions of the DCM clusters were activated in the

teaching of each of the 12 case study teachers. In this way, the IAF provided a way

of exploring the nexus between each of the DCM clusters and their sub-dispositions.

This opens the way for future investigation into the dynamic relationship between

teacher dispositions and the effect this has on the quality of teaching and learning.

In summary, the results of the IAF analysis appeared to differentiate successfully

between the case study teachers on the basis of the interviews. An important

outcome of the interview analysis was that the IAF provided a way of scoring and

comparing the teachers on their performance in the five clusters of the DCM. It was

found, for example, that teachers B and C demonstrated the highest level of

consistent performance across all five DCM clusters, on the basis of the IAF

analysis. The development and deployment of the IAF is one of the major

contributions of this study to the field of effective teachers and effective teaching and

will be discussed further in Chapter 10.

305 

CHAPTER 9

DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN TEACHERS: THE

EXTRA DIMENSION TO EXCEPTIONALITY

9.1 Introduction

This chapter draws together and reviews data from the different stages in the process

of differentiating between 12 case study teachers on the basis of “exceptionality”,

given that each teacher in the cohort was identified by his/her school principal as

being “exceptional”. The study comprised five stages. The first was to review

literature from five related fields, namely: effective teaching and effective teachers,

giftedness and talent, intelligence, creativity, and dispositions. Based on the findings

from this literature, the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) was designed as a

conceptual model for identifying and organising primary and secondary dispositions

(sub-dispositions) that were associated with “exceptional teachers”. This was done

in the second stage of the research.

The third stage involved a case study of 12 teachers who were identified by their

school principals as being exceptional teachers. This included the observation, video

recording and analysis of three lessons using the Quality Teaching Model (QTM)

and the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC). Self-reports were elicited in the form of

the My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) and the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire

(EBQ). This provided a rich array of data for the purposes of differentiating between

the teachers. The data from this stage were discussed in Chapter 7.

An important aspect of the study was to “operationalise” the DCM. This was done

through the design and implementation of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF).

306 

The dominant feature of the IAF was that it utilised the DCM in the context of

Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions. This was done for the purpose of

analysing the case study interviews. The design and implementation of the IAF

constituted the fourth stage of the study.

A new source of data originated with the IAF and this was explained and described

in Chapter 8. In addition to the implementation of the IAF, NVivo analysis was used

to extract relevant data from the case study interviews. This also was discussed in

Chapter 8. Of particular importance in the NVivo analysis was the identification of

“Free Nodes”. These comprised teacher input that was not associated directly with

the QTM, TBC, MVQ or EBQ. Rather, the Free Node data introduced aspects of

teaching and learning that originated with the teachers themselves. This aspect of the

NVivo analysis and its contribution to the understanding of what it might mean to be

an exceptional teacher is discussed in further detail in Section 10.7 of this chapter.

It is important to note that the sources outlined above provide both pedagogic and

dispositional data that are associated with the concept “exceptional teacher”.

Pedagogic data are provided by the QTM and the TBC. Dispositional data are

provided by the MVQ and the EBQ. In addition, the IAF and the NVivo analyses of

the case study interviews provide data that are pedagogically and dispositionally

oriented.

As a result of the deployment of all these instruments and the data that have been

yielded from them, two teachers were identified as having consistently high scores

across the four case study instruments (the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ), the IAF,

the NVivo analysis. These were teacher B and teacher C.

In essence, this chapter examines the instrument data that differentiate between the

case study teachers with particular attention to teachers B and C. It draws

conclusions regarding the nature of these data in terms of pedagogic and

307 

dispositional considerations. The IAF was used to analyse the case study interviews

and the data yielded by the implementation of the IAF provided another source of

input in the differentiation process. Finally, interview data from the NVivo analysis

provided further input into the process of differentiating between the teachers.

A summary of the findings with reference to those data of a pedagogic kind and

those of a dispositional orientation will be presented and an interpretation of the

findings will follow. This will be discussed and explained in the context of the five

clusters of the DCM and in terms of the dynamic nature of the DCM. Chapter 9

concludes by summarising the findings of the case study with reference to pedagogic

and dispositional dimensions of exceptionality.

9.2 QTM data that differentiated between teachers

Table 9.1 contains all the QTM item scores for all teachers included in the case

study. The scores are sorted from highest to lowest. Table 9.1 also shows the

standard deviations for each set of item scores.

308 

Table 9.1

QTM Scores with Standard Deviations of Item Scores Sorted

It will be seen that all the teachers scored uniformly high on four QTM items

(standard deviations <1.0 and scores of 4 and 5). These items with their standard

deviations were: 11 Students’ self-regulation (0.51), 8 Engagement (0.39), 10 Social

support (0.39), and 16 Inclusivity (0.29). It is significant that the first three of these

items with high scores and low standard deviations constitute 50% of the set of

Quality learning environment elements in the QTM. The fourth item, Inclusivity, is

from the Significance domain of QTM items and has the lowest standard deviation

(0.29) or alternatively, the highest level of agreement, of all 18 items in the QTM.

309 

By way of contrast, three of the four QTM items with the highest standard deviations

are from the Intellectual quality dimension of the QTM. These are sorted in

descending order of their standard deviations. They are: 6 Substantive

communication (1.53), 3 Problematic knowledge (1.51), and 5 Metalanguage (1.51).

The QTM item with the highest standard deviation (1.85) was 18 Narrative, from the

Significance set of items in the QTM. The two items that differentiated most

strongly from the Significance dimension were: 18 Narrative (1.85), and 15

Knowledge integration (1.50). This analysis of QTM data is summarised in Table

9.2 according to the degree to which the QTM items differentiate between teachers in

terms of level of dispersion.

Table 9.2

Degree to which QTM Items Differentiate Between Teachers in Terms of Standard

Deviations

310 

When the scores of the three case study teachers who had the highest scores on the

QTM are examined, it will be seen that overall they were the teachers who manifest

most strongly the classroom behaviours represented by the items that differentiated

most highly between the teachers. If the scores of case teachers B, C and J for the

five QTM items that have the highest standard deviations are transposed into Table

9.3, it shows that teacher B has maximum scores of 5 for the three Intellectual

quality items (Substantive Communication, Problematic knowledge, and

Metalanguage) and 5 for Knowledge integration in the Significance dimension. B

scores a 3 for Narrative but this compares favourably with the cohort as a whole, in

which five teachers scored 1 and one teacher scored 2.

Teacher C presents a similar scenario of scores for the QTM items that have standard

deviations ≥1.5. Teacher C scores a maximum of 5 for item 6 Substantive

communication, item 5 Metalanguage and 4 for item 3 Problematic knowledge in the

Intellectual quality dimension. In the Significance dimension Teacher C’s scores are

5 for item 18 Narrative and 3 for item 15 Knowledge integration.

It seems reasonable to conclude from the above data that the items in the QTM

identified as being discriminators between teachers on the given criteria will be

manifest more strongly by exceptional teachers.

A core conclusion to be drawn from the QTM data is that theoretically, truly

exceptional teachers are expected to be highly effective practitioners with reference

to all items in the three dimensions of the model. The reality with reference to the 12

case study teachers in this study is that only two (teachers B and C) approached this

implied standard of pedagogic exceptionality, with a third (teacher J) being a teacher

of interest by virtue of having the third highest total score (75). The QTM items that

most noticeably differentiated between teachers B and C and the remainder of the

case teacher cohort were three items in the Intellectual quality dimension

311 

(Substantive communication, Problematic knowledge and Metalanguage) and two in

the Significance dimension (Narrative, and Knowledge integration).

A final observation to make with reference to the QTM data is that all 12 case study

teachers scored relatively high on items in the Quality learning dimension. With

reference to items 11 Student self-regulation, 8 Engagement, and 10 Social support,

the scores were all either 5 or 4 out of a maximum of 5. It appears that these aspects

of teaching may have been influential in the selection of “exceptional teachers” and

core criteria used by the school principals at the outset of the case study.

9.3 TBC data that differentiated between teachers

The sorted scores and standard deviations for all case study teachers from the TBC

are presented in Table 9.3.

312 

Table 9.3

TBC Scores with Standard Deviations for Each Item Sorted

In this Table the TBC item scores are given for each teacher, with a maximum item

score being 5 and a minimum score being 1. It also shows the standard deviations

for scores on each item and the total score for each case study teacher on all items in

the TBC. The method of rating the lessons using the TBC was described in Chapter

7.

The top-ranking teacher was case study teacher J with a total score on all items of

140. Teachers B, C, and K followed closely with a score of 139. Standard deviations

for the TBC items ranged from a high of 1.24 to a low of 0.00. All 12 teachers

achieved a maximum score of 5 for TBC item 24 Respectful.

313 

Standard deviations were sorted in descending order to indicate which items in the

TBC showed the highest spread and which the lowest and these also are shown in

Table 9.3.

Three sets of TBC scores were identified by means of the standard deviations of the

scores: those TBC instrument items with the standard deviations ≥ 1.0; those with

standard deviations < 0.5; and the remainder with standard deviations ≥ .05 < 1.0.

There were 8 items with a low level of score dispersion, having standard deviations

less than 0.5. At the highest level of score dispersion there were 5 items, each with a

standard deviation ≥ 1.0.

Those TBC items that showed the highest level of dispersion of scores across the 12

case study teachers were items 1, 20, 28, 26 and 27. The description of these 5 items

is included here because they can be extracted directly from the instrument itself. A

complete description of all the TBC items is to be found in Chapter 6.

1  Accessible (Gave the impression that the teacher could be contacted at times other

than in school hours e.g. gave out information about out-of-class availability & help;

offered to meet at time other than class time)

20 Provides Constructive Feedback (Wrote comments on returned work, answered

students’ questions; gave advice on test-taking)

28 Understanding (Accepted legitimate excuses for missing class of coursework; was

available before/after class to answer questions; did not lose temper at students;

took extra time to discuss difficult concepts; “Are you understanding? Did I make that

clear?”)

26 Strives to Be a Better Teacher (Requested feedback on his/her teaching ability from

students; continues learning [attends workshops, etc. on teaching]; used new

teaching methods)

314 

27 Technologically Competent (Knew how to use a computer, knew how to use e-mail

with students; knew how to use electronic and other equipment during class; had a

Web page for classes)

Those eight items with a low level of score dispersion, having standard deviations

less than 0.5, are listed below with their descriptions.

13 Humble (Admitted mistakes; didn’t brag when had opportunity to do so; gave credit

to others)

7 Encourages and Cares for Students (Provided praise for good student work; helped

students who needed it; offered bonus points and rewards; knew student names)

6 Effective Communicator (Spoke clearly/loudly; used precise English; gave clear,

compelling examples)

14 Knowledgeable About Subject Matter (Easily answered student’s questions; spoke

without having to read from a book or notes; used clear and understandable

examples)

9 Establishes Daily and Academic Term Goals (Had lesson aims and objectives; these

were shared with the students; the teachers teaching contributed to reaching the

subject syllabus aims and objectives and overall curriculum goals)

22 Rapport (Made class laugh through jokes and funny stories; initiated and maintained

class discussions; knew student names; interacted with students before, during and

after class)

23 Realistic Expectations of Students/Fair Testing and Grading (Covers material tested

during class, relevant test questions, students not overloaded with reading; teaching

was at an appropriate level for the majority of students; provision made for “slow”

learners)

24 Respectful (Did not humiliate or embarrass students in class; was polite to students

[said thank you and please, etc.]; did not interrupt students while they were talking;

did not talk down to students)

Whereas the QTM represents a strongly pedagogic approach to assessing classroom

teaching, the TBC can be described as a “softer” mixed pedagogic and dispositional

approach to assessing teacher behaviour. It is “softer” in the sense that some of its

315 

28 items are “dispositional” in character and there is a higher degree of subjectivity

in applying it to analyse lessons than is the case with the QTM. Particular interest at

this stage of the study is in the outcome of differentiating classroom teaching using

the TBC. We would like to know which key items are associated with the best

performing teachers amongst the case study teachers and whether the differentiating

variables are pedagogic or dispositional in character. It would be a mistake to ignore

the importance of those TBC items where the spread of scores is minimal, indicating

that all 12 teachers were given the same or similar scores. Table 9.4 has been

prepared to display concisely the data from the TBC analysis relevant to these issues.

Table 9.4

Analysis of Most and Least Discriminating TBC Items with Reference to High

Performing Teachers.

316 

There are several aspects of Table 9.4 that require explanation. Firstly, while

teachers B and C have been identified as the consistently best performing teachers

across all measures used in this study, teachers J and K had equally high scores on

the TBC (see Table 9.3). Therefore, their scores have been included in Table 9.4.

Secondly, the scores of 5 in all cells in Table 9.4, except three cells with scores of 4,

are largely the result of the protocol used to analyse the lessons (See Chapter 7) and

also the nature of the TBC itself (see Chapter 6). Thirdly, the classification of items

being pedagogic is based on a methodologically oriented interpretation of teaching.

Here, the descriptor “pedagogic” is not based on how it may be interpreted by some

with reference to its use in connection with the QTM. Pedagogy in the context of

classifying TBC items in Table 9.4 alludes to the teacher being a “practitioner” with

a repertoire of skills, strategies and methods at his/her disposal. The classification of

a TBC item as being “dispositional” views a teacher behaviour as emanating from

the teacher as a person rather than as a skilled practitioner who is “technically”

competent in the “science” of teaching.

From the data presented in Table 9.4 it is possible to identify which key items in the

TBC are associated with the best performing teachers amongst the case study

teachers and whether the differentiating variables are pedagogic or dispositional in

character. Where the spread of scores is minimal, indicating that all 12 teachers were

given the same or similar scores, it can be concluded that if all 12 teachers were

originally deemed by their school principals to be their best teachers, then the

behaviours represented by these TBC items are associated with high performing

teachers. However, they are not indicators of those teachers who in the context of

this study are described as “exceptional”.

9.4 MVQ data that differentiated between teachers

Each of the instruments (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ, and EBQ) was unique in its own

way and, where necessary, different criteria had to be devised to investigate how it

differentiated between the teachers and how best to interpret the outcome of the

317 

differentiation process for the purposes of this investigation. While the decisions

involved were based on empirical evidence using instrument scores, there was a

degree of subjectivity involved. With reference to the MVQ the criterion used to

differentiate between the case study teachers was to use two percentiles, the 80th and

90th, to identify items in the MVQ that were scored by the teachers as having greatest

importance to them personally.

By identifying MVQ items at the two percentile levels it was possible to identify

values from the MVQ at two levels of differentiation. At the 80th percentile it was

possible to identify those MVQ values held in common by the 12 case study teachers

who were deemed by their principals as being “exceptional”. These values appeared

to have a strong association with effective teaching. At the 90th percentile, on the

other hand, the scores did differentiate between teachers, thus enabling the

identification of the values associated with those teachers who emerged as being

“exceptional” amongst the 12 teachers in this study.

Table 9.5 shows the scores of all 12 case study teachers for all items in the MVQ,

with scores at the 90th percentile level colour coded (orange). These scores were an

expression of the importance the teachers attached to each value. The maximum

possible score for each value item was 100. A description of the values in the MVQ

is given in Chapter 6.

318 

Table 9.5

MVQ Scores at the 90th Percentile Level Highlighted

Seven teachers recorded scores at the 90th percentile level. The two values scored by

most teachers (3) at the 90th percentile were: Family (item 8) and Fun (item 10). All

other values in the MVQ were scored twice each at the 90th percentile level by 7

teachers. The remaining 5 teachers did not give a rating to any value at the 90th

percentile level.

Considering the attention being paid to teachers B and C, it may be worth noting that

teacher C attached a high level of importance to 16 of the 22 values, more than any

other teacher. These value items were: 1 Achievement, 2 Caring, 3 Community, 4

Connection, 7 Fairness, 8 Family, 10 Fun, 12 Influence, 14 Integrity, 15 Recognition,

319 

16 Security, 17 Self expression, 18 Service to society, 20 Spirituality, 21 Tradition,

and 22 Wellbeing

Although teacher L achieved the highest number of value scores in the 90th

percentile, this teacher’s performance on the combined QTM and the TBC was

relatively weak. This indicated a degree of inconsistency between what teacher L

reported in the questionnaires (i.e. MVQ and EBQ) and what teacher L did in terms

of observable classroom behaviour. If the results for teacher L are extracted because

of this inconsistency, then the next highest rating teacher was teacher B who had the

second highest number of value scores at the 90th percentile level, a total of 6. These

values are given here because teacher B has emerged in most instances in the study

as the consistently best performing teacher, along with teacher C whose performance

on all instruments has also been consistently high. Teacher B’s values at the 90th

percentile were: 4 Connection (defined in the MVQ documentation as “being close

and intimate with others in a meaningful way), 6 Exploration (perhaps associated

with the fact that he is a Geography teacher), 9 Freedom (noted for his interest in

field work and the outdoors), 10 Fun, 11 Independence, and 15 Recognition.

There were three values that teachers B and C both scored at the 90th percentile level.

These were: 4 Connection, 10 Fun, and 15 Recognition (Recognition being described

as “the feeling of being valued and acknowledged by others”). The only two values

at the 90th percentile scored by three teachers were: 8 Family (teachers A, C and L),

and 10 Fun (B, C and I). It seems possible that these four values (Connection, Fun,

Recognition, and Family) are core values held by the very best teachers. In view of

the importance attached to Family as a value, its meaning as used in the MVQ

documentation is given again here. It encompasses both family as a specific group,

as well as the sense of family as a feeling and it encompasses also “home, ancestry

and history”. It was relatively common for teachers in their interviews (Chapter 8) to

refer to both their home and school communities as “family”.

320 

Table 9.6 shows the scores of all 12 case study teachers for all items in the MVQ,

with scores at the 80th percentile level colour coded (yellow).

Table 9.6

MVQ Scores at the 80th Percentile level Highlighted

There are several observations to be made when comparing the values coded at both

80th and 90th percentile levels. One observation is that with reference to teachers B

and C the value Insight (item 13) is included as having a relatively high level of

importance. A second observation is that teacher C joins teacher B in attaching a

high level of importance to Exploration (item 6), which is associated with the

Creativity cluster in the DCM. The Community (item 3) value is another value

identified by teacher B as being important at the 80th percentile level, thereby joining

teacher C in acknowledging it as a value of relatively high importance. When MVQ

321 

scores are analysed at the 80th percentile level the importance to teacher C of

Independence (item 11) is recognised, as it was with teacher B, at the 90th percentile

level.

Apart from the additional information about the importance attached to particular

MVQ values by teachers B and C, there is the general observation that the number of

instances where the case study teachers as a whole recorded scores meeting the

selection criteria at the relevant percentile levels increased from 46 at the 90th

percentile level to 72 at the 80th percentile level. Despite the increase in values being

recorded as having importance there were two teachers (F and J) who did not rate

any value as being important at the 80th percentile level. There were another three

(E, H and K) who recorded only one of the 22 values in the MVQ as being important

at the 80th percentile level. It could be interpreted that these teachers were more

conservative in their scoring than their peers in the case study cohort and that they

were reluctant to spread their scores throughout the full range from 1 to 100, even

when asked to do so when the instrument was being applied.

9.5 EBQ data that differentiated between teachers

Scores for all case study teachers from the EBQ are shown in Table 9.7. The Table

presents the 20 item scores for each teacher, 6 being the maximum score for each

item. Table 9.7 shows also the standard deviations sorted for scores on each item. A

description of the items and the EBQ itself can be found in Chapter 6.

322 

Table 9.7

EBQ Item Scores and Standard Deviations Sorted

 

323 

Statistically, the one difference between the criteria being used for analysing EBQ

data and those used for analysing QTM and TBC data is the standard deviation

parameters. The chosen parameters were determined by the nature of the data. They

were standard deviations ≥1.5 and standard deviations <0.5.

It will be seen from Table 9.7 that it would serve little purpose to use a standard

deviation of 1.0 to differentiate between EBQ item scores as 12 of the 20 items

record standard deviations ≥ 1.0. Therefore, a standard deviation of ≥ 1.5 has been

subjectively but rationally set as the upper limit for item scores that differentiate

meaningfully between teachers in this case study. Similarly, a standard deviation of

≤ 0.5 has been set for the lower limit.

The two EBQ items that differentiated at the highest level (≥ 1. 5) between the case

study teachers were: 14 Personality of students is important in learning, and 16

Schools should preserve values. Teachers B and C, who were being closely

monitored through the differentiation processes, each scored these educational

beliefs as being very important by giving them the maximum score of 6.

The one EBQ item for which there was the highest level of agreement (SD ≤ 0.5) by

all the teachers was 13 Schools should be sources of new ideas. Teachers B and C

gave the maximum score of 6 to indicate how important they believed this aspect of

teaching to be. This is worth noting because it can be postulated that if all 12 case

study teachers had uniformly high scores on item 13 in the EBQ, then these teachers

who were deemed to be best performing by their school principals agreed it was

important that schools should be sources of new ideas. It is likely, therefore, that

most “good” teachers will hold this educational belief. The fact that teachers B and

C gave maximum ratings of 6 to this educational belief gives emphasis to the

proposition that exceptional teachers believe schools should be sources of new ideas.

One further observation to make with reference to Table 9.7 is that the third

324 

educational belief regarded by both teachers B and C to be very important

(maximum score of 6) was that Schools should promote self-awareness (EBQ item

9).

Table 9.8 shows the educational beliefs represented by items in the EBQ and how

they could be classified as being pedagogic or dispositional.

Table 9.8

EBQ Items Identified as Pedagogic or Dispositional/Personality

The two items that differentiated at the ≥ 1.5 level are: 14 Personality of students is

important in learning, and 16 Schools should preserve values. Both educational

beliefs were given the same high scores by case study teachers B and C. Both beliefs

were dispositional in character.

325 

The one item that all teachers agreed (SD ≤ 0.5) was very important (scores of 5 and

6) was 13 Schools should be sources of new ideas. It was the one item from the

EBQ that could reasonably be interpreted as both pedagogic and dispositional, but

with weight of argument probably towards it being more to do with pedagogy in the

context of the EBQ. On the other hand, it is unrealistic to assume that new ideas can

emerge as a continuing expectation from the teaching-learning process without the

teacher himself/ herself manifesting the disposition of being Creative as interpreted

within the framework of the DCM. For this reason, item 13 in Table 9.8 is shown as

able to be interpreted as both pedagogic and dispositional.

One further observation of interest to be made from this analysis of the outcomes of

differentiating between the case study teachers is that teachers B and C both gave the

maximum score of 6 to two other items in the EBQ. These were item 20 (SD 1.4)

and item 9 (SD 0.7). Item 20 was the belief that Schools should foster intellectual

learning, and item 9 was the belief that Schools should promote self-awareness. Item

20 is clearly pedagogic in nature while item 9 is clearly dispositional in nature. It is

a matter for reflection that these two teachers (B and C) who have been identified as

being exceptional in the context of this case study both hold these educational beliefs

to be of “maximum” importance. This seemingly minor observation from a large

and varied pool of data may have considerable significance. A possible explanation

is that it may well be indicative of the fact that exceptional teachers manifest a

balance of pedagogic and dispositional variables as they fulfil their role as teachers.

9.6 IAF data that differentiated between teachers

Scores for all case study teachers from the IAF are shown in Table 9.9. The IAF and

the nature of the data in the Table are dealt with in Chapter 9. It should be

remembered that the term “secondary disposition” is used as an organising

convention to refer to a disposition within one of the five clusters of dispositions in

the DCM. In addition to the scores for each case study teacher for every secondary

disposition (item) in all five dispositional clusters of the DCM, the standard

326 

deviations of the scores for each item are shown in the left column of Table 9.9.

These standard deviations range from a high of 2.15 to a low of 1.86.

Table 9.9

IAF Scores and Standard Deviations for All Teachers

To decode the data in the IAF for purposes relevant to this study the standard

deviations for the scores in each DCM cluster were first sorted from highest to

lowest. Similar criteria to those used for the EBQ were then applied to arrays of

scores in the IAF. These were: 1) Selecting a standard deviation as the threshold for

327 

differentiating at a high level of dispersion deemed reasonable in the context of all

the data from the IAF; 2) Selecting a standard deviation as the threshold for

differentiating at a low level of dispersion deemed to be reasonable in the context of

all the IAF data; and 3) Identifying teachers who most strongly evidenced these

secondary dispositions which, in their interviews, met the parameters of criterion 1.

The intention was that if there were tied scores then all teachers with that score

would be identified.

An assumption is being made here and it is this: if a case study teacher, who is

perceived to be an exceptional teacher, has the highest score on an IAF item (i.e. a

disposition) that distinguishes most clearly between that teacher and the cohort, then

that disposition probably contributed significantly to the exceptional teacher’s

classroom performance. Table 9.10 presents a summary of the findings resulting

from the procedure and criteria described above.

328 

Table 9.10

IAF Item Standard Deviation of Scores Sorted for All Teachers

For convenience and emphasis, IAF items meeting the criterion of having a standard

deviation ≥ 2.0 have been colour coded orange, along with the name of the

“secondary disposition” and the highest teacher scores complying with the relevant

criteria. The decision to identify the two highest scores, rather than just one in each

high standard deviation array of scores was made when it was discovered that in 8 of

the 9 instances teachers B and C both had the highest IAF scores (either 8 or 7), with

one exception. The one exception was with reference to “Risk Taking” where

329 

teacher J scored better than teacher C. It will be recalled that teacher J was identified

as “a teacher of interest” because of a high level of performance, along with teachers

B and C, when analysing the case teacher scores on the QTM. The fact that teacher J

received the maximum score of 8, along with teachers B and C, on the sub-

disposition “Motivated” justifies teacher J remaining a “teacher of interest”.

The two items (dispositions) colour coded yellow, according to the standard

deviations associated with them, were those where the dispersion of scores was

relatively low, indicating that the teachers were scored fairly uniformly. The mean

score for “Purposeful” was 5.4 and for “Knowledgeable” the mean was 5.8.

Teachers B and C each received a score of 7 for both “Purposeful” and

“Knowledgeable”, further consolidating their emerging status as being the

exceptional teachers in the case study. By way of comparison, teacher J scored 6 on

both “Purposeful” and “Knowledgeable”.

It would seem from the IAF analysis that, by virtue of their power to differentiate

between teachers and their association with teachers B and C, the following

dispositions from the DCM may be indicators of exceptionality: Reflective

(Authentic); Motivated (Committed); Risk Taking, Originality, Curious (Creative);

Listener, Engagement (Communicative); Excitability, Energetic (Passionate).

9.7 NVivo data that differentiated between teachers

NVivo analysis of the case study interviews differentiated between the teachers in

several ways. The first was with reference to the richness of the content of the

interview, in terms of the frequencies of instrument item concepts that were coded

using NVivo Tree Nodes. These were discussed in Chapter 8. Table 9.11 provides

the frequencies of references in the interviews for each teacher on each of the

instruments used for data gathering.

330 

! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , -./012 3

4-5 6 78 97 8 : 7 ; 7 < < : 6 =7 =>?:

-"# 66 == 999 7@ 77 9@ ? <9 <7 7@ <: 9; 8@@ :9>86

5A4 7@ @; 68 98 9@ <; 97 9: 96 9= 9? 97 7;7 78>;?

%"4 < << 98 : < ; 9 9 9 9 9 9 :; :>:

-B-!,C 999 <98 <;< 6; :@ 8; <7 8; 8< := :; 7; ?97

3 9< <7 << @ 6 8 7 8 : 6 : 7

DA)ABE#B$)D'EB&E)D-%FA)%GCE"!C%$EBDE)DC-FH5%D-E)-%5C

Table 9.11

Frequencies of References Associated with QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ Items

Teachers B and C are distinguished for together accounting for 45 percent of the total

interview references associated with the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ. Teacher B’s

interview was impregnated with 214 (23%) statements associated with items in these

instruments. Case teacher C’s tally was 202 (22%). It is of interest to note that

teacher J, identified as a teacher of interest because she performed highly on the

QTM, said things in the interview that accounted for only 6% of all total references

associated with instrument items.

An aspect of the interviews that is of particular relevance to this study is how the

teachers compared on content of a dispositional nature. It is postulated that values

are a core variable in dispositions. This was demonstrated by Freeman’s (2007b)

syntax of dispositions. All items in the MVQ are values, therefore frequency of

references in the interviews to MVQ items should provide an indication of the

comparative emphasis given by teachers to values when talking and thinking about

teachers and teaching. In this regard it can be observed that teachers B and C again

were distinguished by the frequency of their references, this time to items in the

MVQ. Their combined number (134) of MVQ references that were coded using

NVivo was 44 percent of the total MVQ references (303) made by all teachers.

331 

If the interview data are examined from another perspective it will be seen that 31

percent of all references (70 out of 214) in teacher B’s interview were associated

with the values in the MVQ. For teacher C the prominence of values in the interview

is indicated by the values content being a frequency of 64 out of a total of 202

references (32%).

When the pedagogic components of the interviews are examined and compared with

the disposition (values) components, it will be seen that much greater emphasis was

given to dispositions than to pedagogy, if frequency of reference is taken as the

measure of comparison. The total references for all teachers for the QTM was 83

(8.95%). For the MVQ the figures were 303 (34.09%). The reason for the decision

to restrict the comparison between values and pedagogy to the MVQ and QTM is

that data from these two instruments represent the “purest” distinction between

personal values and pedagogy, with reference to the four data gathering instruments.

The TBC contain items that are a mix of both dispositional and pedagogic variables.

The EBQ focuses on educational beliefs, as distinct form values.

When these comparisons are made from the case study interview data it could be

argued that the topics raised by the questions were slanted towards dispositions and

values. This may be true to some extent, but when the interviews themselves are

read and the extracts coded the way that has been described, it will be found that the

teachers had ample opportunity to talk about pedagogy rather than values and

dispositions. The fact that the teachers, who were deemed to be “exceptional” when

the case study was being set up, chose to talk more about the human dimensions of

teaching rather than pedagogy seemed to indicate where they felt the emphasis

should be placed when considering what was important about teachers and teaching.

The “non-instrument” content in the teacher interviews encompassing matters not

associated directly with the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ has been discussed in

Chapter 8 and will not be discussed again here. Table 9.12, originally Table 8.18

from Chapter 8, shows a breakdown of an analysis of “non-instrument” items in

332 

terms of distinguishing between pedagogic and dispositional references. Again,

allowing for the structuring of the interviews being interpreted as possibly slanted

towards the human dimensions of teaching, there was considerable scope for

interviewees to raise matters to do with pedagogy, but these teachers

overwhelmingly chose to talk about teachers and teaching in terms of the

dispositions.

Table 9.12

Analysis of NVivo Free Node Categories

333 

Table 9.13 shows data that differentiation between the teachers in terms of the

interview references to DCM disposition clusters (Creative, Authentic,

Communicative, and Passionate).

Table 9.13

Interview NVivo Coding Scores for Items Aligned to DCM Clusters

9.8 The contribution of the DCM to differentiating between

teachers

A new dimension to differentiating between the case study teachers was introduced

in section 9.6 where data from the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) was

reviewed. Up to that point in Chapter 10 data from the four instruments (QTM,

TBC, MVQ and EBQ) were reviewed. Interview data, with the IAF, provided a new

body of evidence supporting the propositions that dispositions were important in

teaching, that they were “measureable”, they could be modelled in terms of five

clusters of dispositions, and they were important variables differentiating between

teachers and indicators of teachers who were exceptional.

334 

The dominant feature of the comparison is the consistently high scores of teachers B

and C across all five DCM clusters of dispositions. The new insight from looking at

the data from the perspective of the DCM enables the teacher variables of the two

exceptional teachers to be described in terms of five clusters of dispositions

(Authentic, Committed, Communicative, Creative, and Passionate) rather than in

terms of just teacher behaviour in the classroom.

In this closing phase of the chapter, emphasis is given to the proposition that the

DCM is a dynamic model where the five clusters and their sub-dispositions are

interactive and inter-related. While teacher scores on the four case study

instruments (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ, and EBQ) were found to differentiate between

the case study teachers, it is postulated that it is the “dynamic” operating within the

DCM in terms of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions that most convincingly

differentiates between the teachers in terms of identifying the dispositions that have

been activated by the teachers. This “dynamic” is best conceptualised in terms of the

nexus of beliefs, values and behaviours that interact within each of the clusters.

9.9 Concluding observations

This section deals with the concluding observations regarding attributes identified in

the case study as differentiating between teachers and as being associated with the

best performing or “exceptional teachers” in the case study. It is axiomatic that all

the teachers who obtained maximum scores on all of the items in the two instruments

designed to assess classroom performance, the QTM and TBC, would have

established themselves as being exceptional. In the real world of the classroom this

is not likely to happen. In the reality of teaching, however, we could expect that

teachers approaching the ideal of being exceptional would score highly on the QTM

and TBC - higher than their peers. This was true of case study teachers B and C,

with teacher J also being distinguished by receiving scores noticeably higher than her

peers.

335 

The four pedagogic attributes that contributed most to considering B and C as being

better than their peers on the QTM included three components from the Intellectual

quality dimension, namely: 6 Substantive communication, 3 Problematic knowledge,

and 5 Metalanguage. To this list of differentiators can be added 18 Narrative from

the Significance dimension set of the QTM. While other teachers may have scored

highly with teachers B and C on most of the items in the QTM, it was the above

differentiators that marked teachers B and C as being superior.

Using the same reasoning for the TBC as for the QTM, the items in the TBC that

distinguished Teachers B and C as being better performing than their peers were: 1

Accessible, 20 Provides Constructive Feedback, 28 Understanding, 26 Strives to be a

Better Teacher, and 27 Technologically Competent. An important contribution of

the TBC to investigating what makes the difference between exceptional teachers

and their peers was that three of the five TBC differentiators were dispositional in

nature.

When values from the MVQ are considered as differentiators, it has to be

acknowledged that the values in the study were personal values based on research

associated with the My Values Questionnaire. Another set of values would probably

yield different findings. From the MVQ data it was deduced that the personal values

distinguishing teachers B and C from their peers were: 13 Insight, 6 Exploration, and

3 Community.

While the data in Chapter 10 are primarily from the QTM, TBC, MVQ and the EBQ,

it should be remembered that the IAF also yielded data that enabled the case study

teachers to be differentiated from an alternative but related perspective. This is

particularly so with reference to the “values to be realised” component of the IAF. In

Chapter 8 it was shown that in the case study interviews values could be identified

that were associated with the five clusters of the DCM. This was done by means of

336 

the IAF. Furthermore, the correlations between the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ

NVivo “Tree Node” analysis and the IAF, shown in Table 8.16 of Chapter 8,

indicated that there was a relatively high level of agreement between these

instruments with reference to differentiating between the teachers. This was

particularly interesting when the teachers were differentiated on the basis of values.

The MVQ used personal values set by the instrument itself, but the IAF identified

values that were idiosyncratic and tended to be related to the context set up by the

case study. The IAF identified values associated with each of the sub-dispositions of

the five clusters of the DCM. There were, for example, values associated with risk

taking, originality, curious(ity), and problem-solving. Further research would be

needed to systematise these idiosyncratic values identified by the IAF, but examples

can be found in Chapter 8 (see 8.2.7).

Allowing that there are other educational beliefs held by exceptional teachers, there

were two items from the EBQ that served as indicators of exceptionality by their

being scored highest by teachers B and C. These were the two teachers who were

flagged as “exceptional” by virtue of scoring highest on the combined QTM and

TCM instruments. The EBQ items were the two for which there was the widest

dispersion of scores across the cohort of case study teachers, namely: 14 Personality

of students is important in learning, and 16 Schools should preserve values.

Interview data suggested that exceptional teachers can be differentiated from their

peers by the extent to which they are more professionally focused on pedagogic

aspects of teaching and learning, as represented in the QTM and TBC. But having

made this observation, it is more noticeable from the interview data that exceptional

teachers seemingly attach more importance to the human dimensions of teaching.

From the teacher interviews it was deduced that exceptional teachers: 1) demonstrate

a high level of self-reflection with respect to their teaching; 2) reflect more than their

peers on dispositional considerations; and, 3) are more passionate.

337 

Various indicators of teacher exceptionality have arisen form the process of

differentiating between teachers in this case study. The probable “glue” that binds

these indicators is that they are all manifest at a high level of consistency. This is

conceivably a core feature of the data from the case study. If the concept model of

the DCM as well as the IAF earn credibility for contributing to the differentiation

process, it can be concluded that teachers can be analysed and described in terms of

five clusters of dispositions: Authentic, Committed, Communicative, Creative and

Passionate. It is proposed that this study has demonstrated that such an analysis and

description is feasible.

  338 

CHAPTER 10

Discussion and Implications of Findings

10.1 Introduction

The debate about what constitutes highly effective teaching and highly effective

teachers is ongoing. From literature in the field, pedagogic models such as the New

South Wales Quality Teaching Model (NSW, DET, 2003), Productive Pedagogy,

Authentic Pedagogy and Quality Pedagogy indicated the kinds of knowledge and

behaviours that teachers need to master to ensure that quality teaching and learning

occur. Although these pedagogic models inferred teacher dispositions, they gave

little or no overt indication of the kinds of dispositions that were needed in order to

manifest appropriate teaching behaviours and best practice. The aim of this chapter is

to discuss and draw to a conclusion the challenges and implications of the study of

the role of dispositions in the context of a case study of 12 teachers perceived by

their school principals to be exceptional teachers. This includes a discussion of the

process of differentiating between the teachers and the process of coming to an

understanding of the variables, particularly those of a dispositional nature, that are

associated with exceptional teachers.

10.2 The context and challenges of the study

This study was undertaken with the intention of contributing insight and

understanding to the debate on effective teachers and effective teaching by exploring

what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”. This was an ambitions aim,

particularly in view of the volume of research and literature that proliferates the field

and the complexity of a field of study that is constantly changing. Each year sees the

  339 

growth of new research and information that add to the body of knowledge and

literature associated with effective teaching. In the diversity of all this information

and the associated theories, however, it is possible to lose sight of the human

dimension of the teacher and how the quality of teaching and learning is affected by

the dispositions that characterise the teacher as self.

One of the challenges that presented in this study was to identify and examine what it

means to be an exceptional teacher in the context of the diverse conceptions of

teacher effectiveness (Cruickshank, 1990). From the literature review it was evident

that different perspectives focus on different aspects of the teacher and teaching.

This was noticeable in the different descriptors applied to the concept such as

“gifted” (Towers & Porath, 2001), “wise” (Arlin, 1999), “highly effective”

(McEwan, 2002), “excellent” (Collinson, 1999), “master” (Buskist, 2004; Minor,

Onwuegbuzie &Witcher, 2000), “elite” (Simplicio, 2000), and “legend”

(Scheidecker & Freeman, 1999), to name a few. Each descriptor implied a different

set of criteria that distinguish what it means to be an “exceptional teacher”. In

addition, different pedagogic theories and models also come into play regarding the

issue and serve to indicate the complex and diverse notions of teaching and learning

that influence the way the concept “exceptional teacher” is perceived and interpreted.

Another area of challenge was the controversial and subjective nature of the field of

dispositions that included concepts such as beliefs, values and attitudes, and the

question of measuring these concepts. This, in turn, influenced the nature of the

methodology that was adopted. The research methodology for this thesis focused on

a case study approach, using “mixed methods” in the gathering and analysis of the

research data. In the early stages of the research, the principles of constructivist

inquiry theory were used in the design of a conceptual model, the Dispositional

Cluster Model (DCM).

  340 

10.3 Findings from the literature review – Stage 1 of the study

One motivation underpinning the literature review was an attempt to explore the

nexus between pedagogic considerations, such as teacher skills, knowledge and

competencies, and the attributes that distinguish the teachers as “self”. To this end,

the literature review focused on five complementary fields of research and thinking,

namely: effective teachers and effective teaching, giftedness and talent, creativity.

intelligence, and dispositions. A conceptual model of the dispositions associated

with exceptional teachers was derived from the literature review using constructivist

inquiry theory and this was discussed in Chapter 4.

10.3.1 Findings from the field of effective teaching and

effective teachers

An examination of literature in the field of effective teachers and effective teaching

indicated three general areas for consideration in the study of exceptional teachers.

The first was the area of teacher skills and competencies, the second was the area of

teacher knowledge, and the third was the area of teacher dispositions and attributes.

Two broad categories associated with teacher effectiveness were identified as

Pedagogic and Dispositional. A critical aspect of the case study was to explore the

nexus between pedagogic and dispositional aspects of exceptional teachers.

The New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (2003) (QTM) was used as a

benchmark for teachers who demonstrated high quality performance in their

classroom teaching. It was accepted that “exceptional” teachers were those who

demonstrated consistently high levels of performance across all three domains of the

QTM and this model was discussed in some detail in Chapter 2.

  341 

10.3.2 Findings from the field of giftedness and talent

Literature in the field of giftedness and talent provided different perspectives for

investigating what it means to be an exceptional teacher. Gagné’s (1995a, 1995b)

Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent, for example, provided insight into the

difference between giftedness as potential and talent as the fulfilment of potential.

Of particular interest were the catalysts that were at work in the developmental

process of the mastery of knowledge and skills that are necessary for talent to be

realised. In the context of the study of exceptional teachers, Gagné’s conception of

“personal catalysts” was of particular interest, as was Tannenbaum’s (1986)

inclusion of “non-intellective factors” in his conception of a psychosocial model of

talent.

The principle underpinning Gagné’s (1995a, 1995b) Differentiated Model of

Giftedness and Talent suggested that there are innate abilities and predispositions

that constitute giftedness. These innate abilities, however, do not necessarily

translate into adult talent if the developmental process, including the influence of

different groups of “catalysts”, does not function effectively. He indicated that some

catalysts might have a negative impact on that process, thus impeding the

development of giftedness into talent. There is a corollary with the development of

teacher dispositions and their association with “exceptional teachers”. One issue that

extends beyond the parameters of this study, but that merits future investigation, is

whether dispositions are “born” or “made”. An application of theory from the field

of giftedness and talent is that if teacher dispositions are innate, they do not

automatically translate into exceptional teaching. From this standpoint, it could be

argued that what is needed is an effective process of learning and skill mastery,

together with appropriate personal and environmental “catalysts” that facilitate the

development of exceptional teachers. This finding has ramifications in the context of

tertiary training and in the context of ongoing professional and personal development

in the schools.

  342 

10.3.3 Findings from the field of creativity

Literature from the field of creativity provided another general perspective from

which to study the dispositions associated with exceptional teachers, with researchers

such as Simplicio (2000) arguing that creativity is a distinguishing feature of “elite”

teachers. He made direct associations between teacher creativity, dispositions and

specific kinds of behaviour. Sternberg (2000a), on the other hand, associated

creativity with the attitudes and beliefs that are held by the individual. He argued

that to be creative was a conscious decision rather than an innate ability. Piirto

(1999) provided yet another perspective on creativity when she argued, “Creativity is

in the personality” (p. 164). There continues to be considerable debate regarding the

definition and nature of creativity, including the argument by proponents such as

Sternberg, that creativity is teachable, rather than innate. The diverse interpretations

of the concept “creativity” presented an interesting challenge in the context of

studying the dispositions associated with exceptional teachers. The major finding

from the field of creativity was that creativity is likely to play an important part in

distinguishing exceptional teachers from other teachers and that creativity comprises

several defining “sub-dispositions” or secondary dispositions.

10.3.4 Findings from the field of intelligence

The field of intelligence provided yet another perspective from which to identify and

explore dispositions associated with the exceptional teacher. There were obvious

parallels, as well as tensions, between the different fields of literature, particularly

giftedness and talent, and creativity, and the relationship between dispositions in

these fields and in that of intelligence. This was enunciated clearly in the work of

Gardner (1983), Sternberg (2000a, 2000b), Goleman (1996), and Zohar and Marshall

(2000). Findings from literature in the field of intelligence indicated that there are

“multiple” intelligences operating in the lives of exceptional teachers, and that there

are different dispositions associated with the different intelligences. These findings

reinforced the notion of the complex and diverse nature of the field and the need to

  343 

“unravel” and organise the plethora of dispositions that are associated with the

concept “intelligence” and how this pertains to our understanding of what it might

mean to be an exceptional teacher.

10.3.5 Findings from the field of dispositions

Literature in the field of dispositions also indicated that there are different schools of

thought about the nature of dispositions. If, as Wasicsko (2007) suggested,

dispositions are innate or “natural”, then it follows that they need to be developed

and nurtured through a process similar to that described by Gagné (1995a, 1995b) in

the development of giftedness into talent. In the context of teacher dispositions, one

line of argument is that exceptional teachers are those whose classroom behaviours

and practices clearly demonstrate that they have engaged successfully in the process

of the development and “activation” of those dispositions, together with mastery of

prerequisite knowledge and skills. This perspective was based on the premise that all

teachers have at least some innate dispositions that can be developed through a

process of training and practice.

The work of Larry Freeman (2007a, 2007b) was of particular note in literature in the

field of dispositions. His syntax of dispositions added clarity to the understanding of

the nature of dispositions and provided a theoretical framework for examining how

dispositions are “activated”, taking into account syntax components that include the

values to be realised, intention in action, selection of appropriate strategies, and

awareness of the constraints and possibilities of the given context. Freeman’s work

has made an important contribution to the development of the Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) that will be discussed in Section 10.5 of this chapter.

  344 

10.3.6 Summary

Evidence from the different fields of literature and research has pointed to the fact

that while there may be a multitude of different dispositions pertaining to teacher

effectiveness, there do appear to be clusters of dispositions that are manifest in the

teaching behaviours of teachers who could be considered exceptional. These

clusters, however, are not mutually exclusive. Rather, the literature has provided

evidence to support the notion that dispositions are strongly inter-related and inter-

dependent.

While the debate about the nature of dispositions is interesting, more important

questions in the context of this study have been: Who are our exceptional teachers?

What kinds of dispositions and associated behaviours do they manifest? What can

we learn from these teachers that can help enhance the quality of teaching for all

teachers? The literature review provided a rich array of information about

dispositions associated with exceptional teachers. This information formed the basis

of the design of a conceptual model, the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM),

associated with exceptional teachers.

10.4 The DCM (a conceptual model) – Stage 2 of the study

The aim of Stage 1 of the study, then, was to identify a range of personal dispositions

that are associated with exceptional teachers based on informed judgements arising

from the literature review. This resulted in the development of the Dispositional

Cluster Model (DCM), a conceptual model that provided a graphic representation of

the five core clusters of dispositions that are associated, in theory, with exceptional

teachers.

  345 

One of the most challenging aspects of the study was to find a way to identify the

dispositions of exceptional teachers, and to conceptualise and explain how the

dispositions are manifest in their teaching behaviour. The design of the conceptual

model that associated dispositions with exceptional teachers was informed by the

literature review and rested on the principles of constructivist inquiry theory. Stage 2

of the study included a response to the challenge of researching what it means to be

an exceptional teacher, with specific reference to the human dimension or the “self”

of the teacher. The rationale was that while there are well researched, convincing

models that account for pedagogic components of the “profile” of an exceptional

teacher, these models may not go far enough in accounting for the human dimension,

particularly the dispositions, necessary to be an effective teacher. Particular

dispositions were selected from the literature review because of their inextricable

link with observable teaching behaviour and because recent research points to

dispositions as a key consideration in explaining the nexus between pedagogic

models, the human dimension of effective teaching, and best practice in teaching.

In order to inform the approach to dispositions followed in this study, the researcher

adopted a particular definition, namely that Dispositions are inherent qualities that

incline a person to act in consistent ways that can only be observed through patterns

of behaviour in particular contexts. From the literature review five primary

dispositions were identified, each having four associated “sub-“ or “secondary”

dispositions. The final clusters of the primary and secondary dispositions were as

follow: Authentic - Caring, Empathic, Open(ness), and Reflective; Committed -

Purposeful, Organised, Motivated, and Resilient; Creative - Risk taking,

Original(ity), Curious, and Problem-solving; Communicative - Knowledgeable,

Listener, Engagement, and Humour; and Passionate - Enthusiastic, Excitable,

Positive, and Energetic.

The second phase in the development of the DCM involved its “operationalisation”

through the design and implementation of the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF),

as explained in Chapter 8. This aspect of the development of the DCM, together

  346 

with the case study findings from the findings from the deployment of the DCM will

be discussed further in Sections 10.6 and 10.7.

10.5 Application of the case study instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ,

EBQ) – Stage 3 of the study

The chief mode for gathering the research data was a case study of 12 teachers who

were identified by their school principals as being exceptional teachers. Four

principal instruments were selected for use in the initial stage of the case study,

namely: the instrument derived from the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model

(QTM), the Teacher Behaviors Checklist (TBC), the My Values Questionnaire

(MVQ), and the Educational Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ). These instruments were

selected because of their capacity to measure pedagogic and dispositional

components of teacher behaviour, values and beliefs. In addition, these instruments

were selected in order to differentiate between the 12 case study teachers. Section

11.5 summarises and discusses results from the application of these four instruments.

This process includes a summary of results from the two instruments used to rate the

teachers’ observable classroom behaviours (the QTM and the TBC), together with

data from the IAF.

10.5.1 Findings from the QTM

10.5.1.1 QTM items that most strongly differentiated between

teachers

The importance of the QTM as a benchmark in the case study has been discussed.

The literature review supported a core conclusion regarding the QTM, a pedagogic

model that is underpinned by a strong research foundation. The conclusion is that,

  347 

theoretically, all three dimensions and their 18 elements define the high quality of

teaching that is manifest by exceptional teachers. One of the main purposes of the

case study, however, was to differentiate between the teachers. Regarding the 12

case study teachers, it was shown in Chapter 9 that only two of these teachers, B and

C, approached this implied standard of pedagogic exceptionality. Teacher J, who

achieved the third highest total score on the QTM was also of interest in terms of the

process of using the QTM scores to differentiate between the teachers.

Those QTM items that most noticeably differentiated between teachers B and C, and

the remaining cohort were: 6 Substantive communication, 3 Problematic knowledge,

and 5 Metalanguage (from the Intellectual quality domain); 18 Narrative, and 15

Knowledge integration (from the Significance domain).

In Chapter 9 it was observed that all 12 case study teachers were given relatively

high ratings on the items comprising the Quality learning environment dimension.

From this, it can be inferred that the elements comprising this dimension of the

QTM, particularly: 11 Student self-regulation, 8 Engagement, 10 Social Support, and

16 Inclusivity, may have been influential in the principals’ nominations of teachers

to participate in the case study.

10.5.1.2 Summary of the QTM

The process of rating the 12 case study teachers on the QTM was described in

Chapter 7. One of the limitations of this process was that the two university

educators rated only one out of the three lessons taught by each of the teachers. In

the case of the TBC, all three lessons were rated for each of the 12 teachers by two

independent educators, with a third monitoring the process. It is debatable, however,

whether or not there was a negative impact on the QTM ratings because of only one

lesson per teacher being rated. The pattern and consistency of performance for the

case study teachers across all instruments indicates that there probably would have

  348 

been a negligible difference had all three lessons been rated. This proposition is

supported by the similar correlations between the IAF and the QTM, on the one

hand, and between the IAF and the TBC, on the other (see Chapter 8). Nonetheless,

were the case study to be repeated, it would be preferable to rate the teachers on all

three of the lessons that were taught in order to check for anomalies that may occur.

10.5.2 Findings from the TBC

While the TBC focuses on observable behaviour, it includes both pedagogic and

dispositional variables and, therefore, “measures” different aspects of teacher

behaviour than does the QTM. This was evident in the relatively low correlation

(0.22) between teacher ratings on the two instruments. As with the QTM, the TBC

was successful in differentiating the two best performing case study teachers (B and

C) from the cohort, although with this instrument two other case study teachers, A

and K, performed as strong as teachers B and C, and teacher J performed marginally

stronger than teachers B, C, A and K. Teacher D had the weakest performance on

both the TBC and the QTM. A summary of the TBC ratings and scores was given in

Table 7.5 and Table 7.6 in Chapter 7. The standardised scores for the TBC were

given in Table 7.7.

As noted, the TBC differentiated on the basis of instrument items that could be

interpreted as being either pedagogic or dispositional, and this instrument was

described as a “softer” mixed pedagogic and dispositional approach to differentiating

between the teachers than was the QTM. It is also worth noting that while all 28

items of the TBC are indicators of effective teaching, some items differentiated more

strongly between the case study teachers. The TBC items that differentiated most

strongly between the 12 case study teachers were: 1 Accessible, 20 Provides

constructive feedback, 28 Understanding, 26 Strives to be a better teacher, and 27

Technologically competent. Those items from the TBC that differentiated least

between the teachers were: 13 Humble, 7 Encourages and cares for students, 6

Effective communicator, 14 Knowledgeable about subject matter, 9 Establishes daily

  349 

and academic term goals, 22 Rapport, 23 Realistic expectations of students/Fair

testing and grading, and 24 Respectful.

The conclusion to be drawn is not that these latter TBC items are unimportant. On

the contrary, the fact that all 12 case study teachers performed relatively strongly on

these items indicates that they are probably central to effective teaching. Rather, the

TBC data indicate those items that most strongly differentiated between the teachers.

In other words, the strongest discriminators indicated those things that the best

teachers were doing most effectively and those things that some teachers were doing

strongly.

10.5.2.1 Summary of the TBC

The process of rating the TBC was effective for several reasons. The first was that

all three video recorded lessons of each of the 12 teachers were rated so that patterns

of teacher behaviour could be noted and tracked. The second reason why the TBC

rating process was effective is that two experienced educators were involved in

independently rating each teacher, with a third monitoring the rating process. This

provided a “check” on subjectivity.

The fact that, generally speaking, the case study teachers were given higher ratings

on the TBC than on the QTM is interesting. This may give further indication as to

why the school principals selected these particular teachers as representative of the

“exceptional teachers” from their schools. As noted, the TBC differentiated on the

basis of items that could be interpreted as being pedagogic or dispositional, whereas

the QTM differentiated on the basis of items that were dominantly pedagogic in

nature. This is an aspect of the study that may warrant further investigation in future

studies, particularly as it pertains to principals’ perceptions of what constitutes an

“exceptional teacher”.

  350 

10.5.3 Findings from the MVQ

The MVQ was selected as one of the case study instruments because of its focus on

the personal values of the teachers. More data were gathered from administering the

MVQ than from the other main data gathering instruments. One reason was that the

MVQ is structured in two parts. Part 1 involved the reflection and self-report of each

case study teacher in response to personal values and Part 2 of the MVQ involved

reflection and self-report on the extent to which the teachers perceived that they were

actually living out their values at school.

Part 1 of the MVQ focused on teaching ratings of 22 items. From the data that were

gathered, it was possible to establish a clear ranking of the values in terms of the

individual teacher’s responses, as well as those of the cohort. The results of the

ranking process can be found in Tables 7.10 and 7.11 of Chapter 7. Ranking on the

basis of raw scores was considered first in the context of teachers B and C, and then

in the context of the remaining cohort of 10 teachers. Finally, these rankings of

QTM items were compared with the rankings given by the group, as a whole. The

top ranked MVQ items for all three sets of results were compared and then, on the

basis of theses rankings, items were selected as descriptors for differentiation

purposes. The values ranked as the top 10 by the group as a whole matched the

ranking of the two best performing teachers, B and C. These MVQ items were: 14

Integrity, and 8 Family.

The MVQ items were coded at both the 90th percentile level and the 80th percentile

level. This was done in order to differentiate between the teachers on the basis of the

strength of their personal values. It was found that, generally, teacher B and C (the

best performing teachers) gave higher numeric ratings to the MVQ value items than

did the remainder of the case study cohort. In Chapter 9, it was shown that it is

possible that four core values from the MVQ are common to the very best teachers.

  351 

These are: 4 Connection, 10 Fun, 15 Recognition, and 8 Family. “Recognition” was

described as “the feeling of being valued and acknowledged by others” and “Family”

was described in terms of encompassing “both family as a specific group” and the

sense of family as a feeling that encompasses “home, ancestry and history”. This

sense of “family” was seen to extend to the teachers’ sense of school community.

When comparing the values coded at both the 80th and 90th percentile, it was found

that teachers B and C attached relatively high importance to the MVQ values: 13

Insight, 6 Exploration, 3 Community, and 11 Independence.

Part 2 of the MVQ did differentiate between the teachers, identifying three teachers,

B, C and F, as having the least variance of all 12 case study teachers in the context of

living out their values at school (refer to Table 7.16 in Chapter 7). While these

findings contributed to understanding the patterns of behaviour and dispositional

attributes of each of the 12 case study teachers, they did not contribute directly to

differentiating between the teachers for the purposes of this study. The results from

Part 1 of the MVQ, on the other hand, did fulfil that function.

10.5.3.1 Summary of the MVQ

In the context of the emerging pattern of performances of the 12 case study teachers

the MVQ data became more important in the process of differentiating between the

teachers. The emerging pattern of performances across all four instruments indicated

clear differentiation between the consistently best performing teachers, B and C, and

the weakest performing teachers, D and I. The consistency of performance across

the spectrum of instrument items of case teachers B and C, on the one hand, and

teacher D, in particular, on the other, became increasingly evident.

  352 

10.5.4 Findings from the EBQ

While the MVQ examined teacher values, the 20 items of the EBQ focused on the

educational beliefs of the teachers. These were expressed in the context of three

philosophical orientations: Perennialism, Romanticism, and Progressivism. Analysis

of the data produced in response to the EBQ identified two items as differentiating

strongly between the teachers. These items were: 14 Personality of students is

important, and 16 Schools should preserve values. Both of these EBQ value items

have a dispositional focus.

The highest level of agreement amongst the case study cohort was on item 13

Schools should be sources of new ideas. This indicated that EBQ item 13 was a

focus value held by all 12 teachers. Teachers B and C each gave this value a

maximum rating of 6. Arguably, EBQ item 13 has both a pedagogic and a

dispositional orientation, and this was discussed in Chapter 9. There it was noted

that teachers B and C indicated a balance between pedagogic and dispositional

variables when it came to identifying their belief preferences from the EBQ items.

As was stated, this may well be indicative of the fact that exceptional teachers

manifest a balance of pedagogic and dispositional variables as they fulfil their role as

teachers.

10.5.4.1 Summary of the EBQ

The ranked Z-scores for the cohort of 12 case study teachers can be found in Table

7.19 of Chapter 7. While there was a degree of agreement amongst the teachers as to

how the three philosophical orientations (Perennialism, Romanticism, and

Progressivism) of the EBQ should be ranked, the division of the scores on each of

these three orientations did not provide meaningful data for differentiating amongst

the teachers. While the EBQ belief items were used to provide data for purposes of

  353 

differentiation, the categorisation of the EBQ items into the three philosophical

orientations was not particularly useful in the context of the case study.

10.5.5 Summary of the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ data

Data from the 88 items of the four instruments i.e. the QTM (classroom behaviour

videoed, observed and rated by the two university lecturers), the TBC (classroom

behaviour videoed, observed and rated by two senior educators and monitored by a

third experienced teacher), the MVQ (teacher reflection and self-report), and the

EBQ (teacher reflection and self-report) provide relatively strong weight of evidence

in support of working hypotheses (ii) and (iii) These hypotheses state that:

(ii) It is possible in the context of a case study to differentiate between teachers

considered to be exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their

classroom behaviour and their personal reflections.

(iii) Differentiation between exceptional teachers and other teachers can be achieved

through the modelling of personal dispositions

10.6 Findings from the case study interviews – Stage 4 of the study

10.6.1 Findings from the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF)

The Interview Analysis Framework (IAF), which is based on a combination of the

Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) and Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions,

was found to be a very effective means of analysing and evaluating teacher responses

to the case study interview questions. The IAF analysis differentiated between the

teachers, particularly the best performing (B and C) and the weakest performing (D

and I). The IAF analysis also indicated the dispositions from the DCM that each

teacher had activated in their classroom teaching and those dispositions that had not

  354 

been activated. This was a found to be a critical aspect of the IAF and in this

context, the IAF proved to be a useful diagnostic tool.

On the basis of the data gathered as a result of the case study, it was found that there

was a relatively high correlation between the IAF and the QTM results and between

the IAF and the TBC results (see Chapter 8). The correlations on the raw score data

were as follow:

QTM:IAF 0.77

TBC:IAF 0.69

The correlations on the rank order were:

QTM:IAF 0.76

TBC:IAF 0.92

If the standardised scores from the QTM and TBC are taken conjointly the

aggregated scores provided further evidence supporting the credibility of the IAF.

Two reasons for converting raw scores from the QTM and TBC to standardised

scores were for the purpose of comparison. The z-scores from the QTM and the

TBC, when taken together, provided an additional dimension to differentiating

between the teachers, compared with the scores from the two instruments taken

separately.

When the conjoint scores of the QTM and TBC were correlated with data from the

IAF as shown in Table 10.1, the result provided strong weight of evidence

substantiating the credibility of the IAF as an instrument for differentiating between

teachers. The correlation was 0.93.

  355 

Table 10.1

Correlation Between Conjoint QTM and TBC Scores and IAF Scores

The findings suggest that the IAF is likely to have practical value in terms of

predicting which teachers are likely to be the best classroom practitioners. The

reliability and validity of the IAF, however, need to be tested further, preferably with

a larger sample of teachers, and this is an area of investigation worthy of future

study.

The raw scores and ranks of the 12 case study teachers from the IAF analysis can be

found in Table 8.2 in Chapter 8. These data provide indirect but strong weight of

evidence in support of the effectiveness of the DCM in differentiating between the

case study teachers. This includes evidence supporting B and C as being the two

best performing case study teachers. The use of the IAF to rate and analyse the case

study interviews also provides strong weight of evidence to support the proposition

that exceptional teachers are defined, to a considerable extent, in terms of their

ability to activate their intentions and values into behaviours that result in

consistently high quality teaching and learning.

  356 

Similarly, the data gathered from the IAF provided strong weight of evidence

supporting D and I as being the two weakest performing case study teachers. The

relatively strong correlations between the total scores of the QTM and the IAF, and

between the TBC and the IAF (see Table 8.3 in Chapter 8) add further support to

these propositions.

As with the QTM, this thesis argues that all five clusters of the DCM come into play

when differentiating between teachers to investigate what it means to be an

exceptional teacher. From the case study data, however, the IAF analysis pointed to

the following dispositions as having particularly strong powers in differentiating

between the case study teachers: Reflective (from the Authentic cluster); Motivated

(from the Committed cluster); Risk taking, Original(ity), and Curious (from the

Creative cluster); Listener, and Engagement (from the Communicative cluster); and,

Excitability and Energetic (from the Passionate cluster).

While the issue of values is complex, the analysis of the case study interviews using

the IAF did provide relatively strong weight of evidence to support the proposition

that teacher values play a critical role in the behaviour and classroom practices of an

exceptional teacher. Further, the application of the principles of Freeman’s (2007b)

syntax of dispositions indicated clearly that the best teachers not only voiced their

values, but also found way to activate their values. This was manifest in reflective

teacher behaviour as well as overt classroom practices. One manifestation of value

in action, as described in some case study interviews, was that the best case study

teachers spent extra time with students to ensure that meaningful learning occurred.

10.6.1.1 Summary of findings from the IAF

In summary, the data from the IAF provided strong weight of evidence in support of

working hypotheses (ii) and (iii). They were that:

  357 

(ii) It is possible in the context of a case study to differentiate between teachers

considered to be exceptional using a series of instruments that explore their

classroom behaviour and their personal reflections.

(iii) Differentiation between exceptional teachers and other teachers can be achieved

through the modelling of personal dispositions.

10.6.2 Findings from the NVivo analysis

The application of NVivo analysis to the case study interviews provided insight into

the dispositions of “exceptional teachers” and also contributed to an understanding of

the nexus between pedagogic and dispositional elements of the teacher. This was

discussed in Chapter 8. Of particular importance were the “Free Node” items and

teacher comments that were not related directly to the items from the case study

instruments (i.e. QTM, TBC, MVQ, and EBQ). The “Free Node” items or categories

were generated by the teachers’ reflections on their own experiences, beliefs and

values.

From the NVivo analysis, seven broad categories of Free Nodes were identified,

namely: Teaching_Learning, Teaching Values, Teacher and Teaching, Students,

Schools, Marks and Assessment, and Curriculum. An analysis of the teacher

comments indicated that approximately 79% were Personal_Experiential in nature

and approximately 21% were Pedagogic in nature. In other words, as a result of the

NVivo analysis of the case study interviews, it was found that teacher comments

were strongly “Dispositional” in nature, as discussed in Chapter 8.

The NVivo analysis provided evidence to support the importance of Passion in terms

of teacher association between teacher values and beliefs, and classroom behaviour.

In addition, teacher comments expressed in terms of “Free Nodes” indicated the

critical function of the teacher as a “Self-reflective” person, as distinct from the

more general disposition of being “Reflective”.

  358 

10.7 The Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) revisited

10.7.1 Input from the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF)

Initially, the DCM was designed as a conceptual model that was informed by the

literature review. The process of identifying the five dispositional clusters and

populating each cluster with sub-dispositions made use of the principles of

constructivist theory. The DCM was “operationalised” by means of the Interview

Analysis Framework (IAF). This instrument was designed for the purpose of

analysing the case study interviews. The design of the IAF included Freeman’s

(2007b) syntax of dispositions in order to make it possible to evaluate the degree to

which the five dispositional clusters of the DCM were activated by each of the 12

case study teachers. This was done with reference to the interviews by coding and

rating each of the four sub-dispositions for each of the five clusters. The findings of

the IAF analysis are discussed in Section 10.6 of this chapter.

The use of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions gave a sense of “connectedness”

between the DCM and the case study teachers, as well as a context to the DCM in

terms of the four components: values to be realised, intention in action, selection of

strategies to be implemented, and awareness of the constraints and possibilities of the

context. This was a critical aspect of the change from the DCM as a conceptual

model to the DCM as an “operationalised” model. For this reason, when revisiting

the DCM, Freeman’s syntax is included as a contextual component of the model

because it has been shown to be a key variable in transforming the DCM into a

useful instrument by means of the IAF.

  359 

10.7.2 The Interview Analysis Framework (IAF) - values

The IAF results pointed to a potentially fruitful field for future research in terms of

teacher values. While the MVQ focused on the teachers’ personal values, the IAF

focused on values associated directly with each of the five dispositional clusters of

the DCM. For example, in the Authentic cluster, the focus was on the underlying

values associated with the dispositions: caring, empathy, openness, and reflective.

While all four components of the Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions work

together in determining the degree to which a disposition has been activated, it is

worth considering the ratings given to each of the 12 teachers for the values to be

realised component of the IAF because this provides insight into the strength of those

values in the activation of each sub-disposition of the five dispositional clusters of

the DCM. The value scores for each of the five DCM clusters in the IAF are

presented in Table 10.2

  360 

Table 10.2

Value Scores from Each of the Five DCM Clusters in the IAF

After examining the research findings from the IAF data, it was decided that the

basic structure of the DCM should remain in tact. There are aspects of the DCM,

however, that may be given more emphasis as a result of the findings from the

interview analysis.

10.7.3 Input from the NVivo analysis

Input from the NVivo analysis of the case study interviews confirmed the importance

of the dispositional cluster Passionate. It also confirmed the importance of the

disposition “Self-reflective”. While the sub-disposition “Reflective” is included as a

  361 

one of the four sub-dispositions of the Authentic cluster, it was found that “Self-

reflective” was a more personal type of reflection where the teacher focused on

examining “self” and the role of “self” in teaching and learning. Because of the

strength and richness of the interview responses associated with the NVivo Free

Node “Self-reflective”, particularly on the basis of input from the stronger

performing teachers, it was found that the item “Self-reflective” requires particular

attention when considering the sub-disposition “Reflective”.

The findings from the NVivo Free Node analysis emphasise the importance of the

Passionate cluster of the DCM. This provided further weight of evidence in support

of this dispositional cluster. The richness of Free Node comments regarding

“passionate” made by teachers B and C was noteworthy.

The findings from the IAF and NVivo analysis of the interview comments have

provided a sense of “connectedness” between the DCM and the classroom, as well as

a clearer context for the “operationalised” DCM. Figure 10.1 shows a diagrammatic

representation of the DCM that includes this enriched contextual framework.

  362 

Figure 10.1 The DCM revisited

10.8 Reflecting on the principal findings

Chapter 1 of this thesis enunciated three research questions that underpinned this

study. In order to consider the first question: What does it mean to be an exceptional

teacher? it was necessary to take into account aspects of teacher behaviour

(pedagogic and other) as well dispositional considerations in the development of a

conceptual model, the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM). Five complementary

fields of literature informed the development of this model. In answering the second

question: What is the role of dispositions in defining an exceptional teacher? the

DCM was operationalised through the development of the Interview Analysis

Framework (IAF) that made use of the principles of Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of

dispositions. In response to the third question: How are the characteristics of an

exceptional teacher manifest in practice? a case study of 12 teachers was

undertaken. This included the video recording of three lessons taught by each of the

  363 

12 participant teachers, self-reflections on personal values and educational beliefs in

the form of responses to two questionnaires, and a case study interview. The lessons

were rated and analysed using the QTM and the TBC. The MVQ and the EBQ were

used to elicit teacher values and beliefs, and the IAF was used to rate and analyse the

interview transcripts of each of the 12 teachers. NVivo analysis was also applied to

the interview transcripts. Using the data drawn from these instruments, it was

possible to differentiate between the 12 case study teachers on the basis of their

dispositions as well as their observable classroom behaviours.

10.8.1 Effectiveness of the differentiation process

A number of salient points can be made regarding the effectiveness of the

differentiation process, taking into account the variety of instruments that were used.

The most notable point is that the differentiation between the two best teachers, B

and C, and the case study cohort was clearly established. Teacher D and teacher I

emerged as the two weakest teachers, but the usefulness of the various instruments in

the differentiation process was less clear for the rest of the cohort of case study

teachers.

A second point was that not all the teachers performed very well in all of the

instruments. Some teachers performed poorly on some of the instruments. This may

reflet on the weaknesses of the opportunity sampling process, in that not all the case

study teachers, as nominated by school principals, actually were exceptional in the

context of the case study. This, in turn, brings into question the perceptions of the

school principals when it came to nominating teachers to be involved in the study.

The main criteria for nomination were on the basis of the domains and elements of

the QTM and, to a lesser extent, the DCM. Although the principals participated in an

introductory workshop on both instruments so that selection criteria could be

discussed, there was considerable divergence in the cohort of 12 teachers who were

nominated. This was demonstrated most noticeably by the fact that teacher C, one of

  364 

the two strongest case study teachers, and teacher D, the weakest performing teacher,

were nominated from the same school by the same school principal.

This divergence was demonstrated also in the ratings that each of the 12 teachers

achieved on the case study instruments. Several reasons for this phenomenon have

been suggested. It is possible that some of the school principals, whether

consciously or not, focused more strongly on the domain Quality learning

environment than on the other two domains of the QTM when nominating teachers

for participation in the study. The relatively high scores that all 12 case study

teachers achieved for the QTM dimension Quality learning environment supported

this possibility.

A third point regarding the process of differentiating between the case study teachers

was that the benefits of triangulation were very evident, given that the differentiation

between the teachers was much clearer from the correlation of data across

instruments.

10.8.2 Deployment of the DCM – Stage 5 of the study

Subsequent to its development as a conceptual model in Stage 2 of the study, the

DCM was deployed using the IAF as an instrument in association with Freeman’s

(2007b) syntax of dispositions. An important point is that the initial DCM

conceptual model, as derived from the literature, was of only speculative value until

it was deployed as part of the IAF in Stage 4 of the study. Thus, the deployment of

the DCM with Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of dispositions to form the IAF assessment

tool proved to be a most interesting and important use of the DCM. Evidence in

support of this, together with the IAF, was provided indirectly by the strong

correlations between the IAF and the QTM, and between the IAF and the TBC.

  365 

10.8.3 Relationship between dispositions, classroom behaviour and

educational beliefs

One of the key challenges impinging on all stages of this study has been the

identification of the relationship between dispositions, classroom behaviour and

educational beliefs. A number of pertinent observations can be made regarding the

implications of meeting this challenge. Although the deployment of the case study

instruments yielded useful data, it did not directly address the question of the

relationship between dispositions and observable behaviours. The use of Freeman’s

(2007b) syntax of dispositions, however, did provide an important framework for

understanding how the relationship between dispositions, classroom behaviour, and

educational beliefs and values are manifest in practice. When used in conjunction

with the DCM to create the IAF, Freeman’s syntax proved to be particularly useful.

A second observation is that important inferences can be drawn from the various

correlations that resulted from the application of the research instruments. These

inferences suggest the relatively strong relationship between the three categories,

namely: dispositions, classroom behaviour, and educational beliefs and values. It is

a recommendation of this study that these relationships or associations need to be

explored more fully in future studies. The data yielded in this study indicate that

understanding the nature of these relationships has the potential to be of critical

importance for enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in schools. The IAF

and the DCM, when deployed as an instrument, opened the way for exploring the

nexus between the pedagogic and dispositional variables of effective teachers, and

this has been an important outcome of the case study.

10.8.4 Effectiveness of the methodological framework

For the reasons already discussed, the complexity and scope of the study required a

multi-pronged methodological framework. This included both qualitative and

  366 

quantitative elements, and it is worth making a number of observations as to its

effectiveness or otherwise.

The first observation is that a case study approach to the exploration of the research

questions and working hypotheses appears to have worked well, in that a vast array

of data was elicited from the participants. In general, the qualitative and quantitative

data gathered from each stage of the research appear to warrant the inferences drawn

in the results of the study. This was evident in Chapters 9, for example, where the

data and findings from the case study were drawn together for the purposes of

identifying those instrument items that most strongly differentiated between the case

study teachers.

The application of the various instruments (QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ) in the case

study had both its strengths and its weaknesses. The fact that the large number of

items (88) contained in the instruments provided a variety of perspectives on the

classroom behaviours, values and beliefs of the case study teachers proved to be a

strength. On the other hand, it was challenging to draw together the data from the

various instruments in a consistent way that clearly demonstrated the process of

differentiation between the case study teachers.

This brings us to the third observation, namely that the use of a mixed method

approach appears to have been reasonably successful for investigating the complex

and subjective nature of dispositions. The correlations arising from the descriptive

statistical exercises mostly confirmed the effectiveness of the complementary

methodology of making qualitative judgements based on the application of the

various instruments. In adopting the mixed method approach, there was an inherent

risk that subjectivity could be interpreted as a potential weakness in the design of the

study.

  367 

A fourth observation regarding the effectiveness of the methodological framework is

that consistency in the weighing of evidence was achievable in most stages of the

investigation. This was particularly true with regard to the differentiation process

and the identification of the two best performing teachers, B and C, and the two

weakest performing teachers, D and I. It was less effective, however, in terms of

weighing evidence with regard to the middle ranking teachers. There are several

possible reasons for this. It may be that, in future research, the inclusion of a larger

number of case study participants would be more successful. Another possibility is

that different instruments need to be included in the study.

A further important observation is that the high number of significant correlations

derived during this study appears to confirm that there was a reasonable level of

consistency in weighing the evidence. The emerging patterns of behaviour, both

pedagogic and other, and the dispositions that were identified attested to this.

Finally, it was observed that the various stages of the methodology facilitated a

reasonably coherent path for examining the four working hypotheses and for

establishing the implications of these hypotheses. An important aspect of this

methodology was the use of triangulation as a “check” on the data input and results

of the process of differentiating between the case study teachers. This proved to be a

relative strength of the study.

10.9 The working hypotheses and the research questions

The thesis explored four working hypotheses that focused on the concept

“exceptional teacher” and the associated dispositions. Working hypothesis (i) stated:

A range of personal dispositions associated with exceptional teachers can be

identified and organised in a conceptual model. The evidence and analysis

associated with the conceptual model of dispositions (DCM), as part of the IAF,

suggests that the intention of working hypothesis (i) has been fulfilled and that the

  368 

resulting model played an important part in the investigation of the role of

dispositions in effective teaching. In making this assertion, it is not claimed that the

dispositions contained in either the original or the revisited DCM are definitive. As

has been noted and discussed in various parts of the study, practitioners and

researchers define and arrange dispositions in a variety of ways. It should be

possible to make use of such a conceptual model using a different set of sub-

dispositions for each of the five clusters, albeit that this is an untested proposition

that is subject to further research. When deployed in this study, the DCM was found

to be dynamic and flexible in nature. While the five dispositional clusters remain, it

is possible that the sub- or secondary dispositions comprising each cluster are

flexible and this is a proposition that merits future study.

Working hypothesis (ii) stated: It is possible in the context of a case study to

differentiate between teachers considered to be exceptional using a series of

instruments that explore their classroom behaviour and their personal dispositions.

One of the strengths claimed as a result of this study is that the use of a number of

instruments to triangulate the results of observed classroom behaviour and of the

self-reflections of the case study teachers fulfilled an important purpose in providing

a body of evidence that supported the clear differentiation of case study teachers B

and C as being the best performing teachers and, therefore, possibly the “exceptional

teachers” from the case study cohort. In addition, the methodology provided

evidence that supported the clear differentiation of case study teachers D and I as

being the weakest performing teachers. The main qualification to the claim that the

differentiation process was relatively successful in differentiating between the

strongest and weakest performing teachers is that the sample was small and it would

be of interest to test the approach against a larger sample in future research.

The third working hypothesis was that: Differentiation between exceptional teachers

and other teachers can be achieved through the modelling of personal dispositions.

The use of the DCM as an additional means of differentiating between the case study

teachers provided weight of evidence to support this hypothesis. The dispositions

contained in the DCM were used in association with Freeman’s (2007b) syntax of

  369 

dispositions (values to be realised + intention in action + pursuit of selected

strategies + constraints and possibilities of context) to develop and test an instrument

designated as the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF). The correlation results from

the application of this instrument were very high in terms of differentiation when

compared to the other instruments, particularly the TBC and the QTM, and this is

one of the most important contributions of this study, in that the IAF was a relatively

easy instrument to apply in practice.

The case study yielded rich sources of data through the application of a number of

instruments that took into account both classroom behaviour (QTM, TBC) and

teacher self-reflections (MVQ, EBQ). This allowed the extrapolation of relevant

data that moved towards a clearer understanding of what it means to be an

exceptional teacher. The instruments yielded different forms of data of relevance to

the three key component types underpinning the concept “exceptional teacher”.

These were pedagogic practices, educational beliefs and values, and personal

dispositions. The use of scores from the two best performing teachers provided a

starting point for the development of a more holistic interpretation of what it might

mean to be an exceptional teacher through the process of differentiation explored in

this study. This was supplemented by elements from the instruments that were

discussed in Chapter 9. The components for differentiating between the teachers that

resulted from this process may or may not be typical of all exceptional teachers. It is

important to stress that these are the components that emerged from this particular

case study of 12 teachers who were identified by the school principals as being

“exceptional teachers”. Further research using a larger number of case study

participants would be needed to confirm these results.

The fourth and last working hypotheses stated that: The study of the role of

dispositions in differentiating between teachers may prove useful for enhancing

quality teaching and the implementation of pedagogic models such as the New South

Wales Quality Teaching Model. The outcomes of this study appear to have several

important implications for enhancing the implementation of pedagogic models, such

as the New South Wales Quality Teaching Model (QTM), through incorporation in

  370 

professional development programs and in the assessment of teacher performance,

particularly in the area of teacher self-assessment and self-reflection.

The most important outcome is the evidence supporting the need for attention to be

devoted to the role of dispositions in developing effective teachers. The outcomes of

this study could help redress what currently appears to be an imbalance, particularly

in the Australian context. The need for balance was demonstrated in the mix of

pedagogic and dispositional beliefs held by teachers B and C regarding the analysis

of the results on the TBC, as discussed in Chapter 9. In particular, the use of the

DCM and the IAF to assist with professional development and teacher assessment

would appear to have considerable potential, irrespective of the type of pedagogic

model adopted.

The use of the IAF as an assessment tool appears, from the study, to be of

considerable relevance for use in schools by principals who are looking for an

effective means of assessing teachers on the basis of interviews. In addition, the IAF

has the potential to be a useful tool for teacher reflection and self-evaluation. These

aspects of the study suggest a fruitful line of enquiry for further investigation and

development.

The findings of this study point to the need for addressing the apparent imbalance

between pedagogic components and dispositional components when modelling

effective teaching. The development of the Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) and

the Interview Analysis Framework (IAF), in particular, appear to provide

possibilities for future research in the important investigation of what it means to be

an “exceptional teacher”.

  371 

10.10 Limitations of the study

A study of exceptional teachers that focuses on dispositions when differentiating

between teachers has inherent limitations, the first of which is its vulnerability to

subjectivity. While every effort has been made to ensure objectivity, by its very

nature, a study of dispositions invites subjectivity because it is dealing with aspects

of the teacher as self. In order to provide balance and objectivity, four research

instruments were selected for the case study. Two focused on teachers’ classroom

behaviours and two focused on teachers’ beliefs and values. In addition, five

evaluators were used in the process of rating the 12 case study teachers’ classroom

teaching. The use of Freeman’s (2007a) syntax of dispositions was also aimed at

strengthening the objectivity of the IAF as a research tool. Having said this, it is

acknowledged that a degree of subjectivity is present in the study and the research

design addressed this issue.

A second limitation is the size of the case study. While the 12 participant teachers

represented a relatively diverse cross-section of experience, interests and

background, they were all working in independent school systems in New South

Wales and were selected on the basis of opportunity sampling. Future study in the

area of teacher dispositions calls for a larger sample size that represents a broader

range of educational settings.

Related to the size of the case study was the manner in which the 12 participant

teachers were selected and this may be interpreted as a third limitation of the study.

In spite of being workshopped on the QTM, school principals appeared to have

different interpretations of the criteria for nominating ‘exceptional’ teachers from

their schools. As a result, it became apparent that while all the nominated teachers

were competent practitioners, they were not necessarily all ‘exceptional’ teachers.

This placed a limit on the extent to which the research could distinguish between

teachers who were truly exceptional.

  372 

A fourth limitation of the study was that only one of the three lessons taught by each

of the 12 case study teachers was rated using the QTM instrument. Ideally, all three

lessons should have been rated.

10.11 Implications of the Study

A central argument of this thesis is that when considering what it means to be an

effective teacher or, indeed, an exceptional teacher, it is of critical importance to

obtain a holistic picture. While pedagogic models such as the New South Wales

Quality Teaching Model (QTM) provide a strong framework with which to examine

teacher behaviours and teacher knowledge, it is the contention of this thesis that

attention must also be given to an examination of teacher dispositions, values and

beliefs so that we can gain a broader, more holistic understanding of what it means to

be an ‘exceptional’ teacher. The underlying premise is that such understanding can

be used to enhance the quality of teaching for most teachers. The findings of the

study have important implications for the areas of educational policy, practice and

theory in New South Wales and in Australia. These implications may have far-

reaching effects that extend beyond Australian education.

10.11.1 Implications for educational policy

This study of exceptional teachers has potential ramifications for educational policy

at both the state and national levels in Australia, as well as at the school level,

particularly regarding the increasingly important areas of teacher quality and teacher

professionalism. Currently, in Australia there is a strong move towards a National

Curriculum and towards National Professional Teaching Standards (PTSs). This

provides a timely opportunity to include teacher dispositions when establishing

criteria and descriptors for PTSs. Evidence from both the literature review and the

case study strongly support the principle of including teacher dispositions when

designing policy associated with the quality of teaching and learning in Australian

schools.

  373 

The New South Wales (NSW) Institute of Teachers has implemented its Professional

Teaching Standards (PTSs), particularly regarding Graduate and New Scheme

Teachers. As noted in Chapter 1, however, these standards make very little direct

reference to teacher dispositions. In view of the move towards a National Curriculum

and National Teaching Standards, it would be timely for policy makers at both the

state and national levels to consider the inclusion of teacher dispositions when

establishing descriptors for PTSs. This study provides strong support for a serious

examination of the role of teacher dispositions when designing policy for the

implementation of PTSs for the purposes of teacher evaluation and professional

development.

At the school level, there is much to be gained from taking into account teacher

dispositions when designing school policy directly related to teaching and learning.

There is a strong focus on teacher and school accountability, professional

development and evaluation. The findings from the case study of 12 ‘exceptional’

teachers provides convincing evidence in support of the thesis that by focusing on

teacher dispositions, it is possible to differentiate between teachers, even those

identified as being exceptional practitioners. This suggests strong grounds for taking

into account teacher dispositions when designing school policy that is the basis for

processes such as the hiring of teachers and professional development.

10.11.2 Implications for educational practice

The findings of this study regarding educational practice have potential impact in

several broad areas. The first is in the area of teacher employment. The Interview

Analysis Framework (IAF) has specific implications for employment profiling of

prospective classroom practitioners. School principals, for example, can use the IAF

to profile prospective employees through the analysis of their interviews. The

development of the IAF as part of the study has particularly interesting potential as a

practical tool for use by principals when interviewing prospective employees. In the

study, the IAF proved to be a relatively easy tool to use and the results from its

  374 

application were highly consistent with results produced from the other case study

instruments.

The second area of potential impact is that of teacher appraisal. The IAF and the

Dispositional Cluster Model (DCM) provide a theoretical framework for teacher self-

reflection and self-appraisal. When used in conjunction with pedagogic models such

as the Quality Teaching Model (QTM), this study indicates that the IAF and DCM

provide the added dimension of teacher dispositions. This necessitates a more global

view of what it means to be a quality teacher so that teacher behaviours and

knowledge are linked directly to teacher beliefs, values and dispositions.

The IAF has been trialled in employment interviews and teacher appraisal situations

in a representative sample of Hunter Region Independent Schools and initial

indicators are that it has a very useful contribution to make in these areas. At a more

general level, this study offers insights into the complexity of associating

dispositions with effective classroom behaviour. The implication is that such

insights could serve as a catalyst for further debate on how best to improve the

quality of teachers at all levels in schools and, possibly tertiary institutions, in

Australia.

Finally, this study appears to have significant implications in the areas of teacher

professional development and teacher training. Perhaps the most important of these

implications is the use of the findings as a focal point for re-evaluating the content of

professional development programs. Currently, emphasis is placed on updating

subject content knowledge, including knowledge of educational theory, and the

mastery of new teaching and learning strategies. The findings of this study indicate

that appropriate emphasis needs to be placed on teacher dispositions, values and

beliefs when facilitating the professional and personal development of teachers.

  375 

In the context of teachers’ professional development, the IAF and the DCM provide

a framework for discussion of and reflection on what it might mean to be a high

quality or exceptional teacher. This framework broadens the traditional focus on

what the highly effective teacher does and what the teacher knows by including the

important dimensions of what the teacher is as an individual. One implication of

using the IAF as a profiling instrument, in conjunction with the QTM is that the

emerging profile of an ‘exceptional’ teacher could be used as an exemplar for

assisting teachers to take a holistic approach to their own professional development.

Literature in the field of effective teaching and effective teachers indicates that while

it is imperative that teachers undergo rigorous training and professional

development, there remain differences in the quality of teaching and learning

emanating from those teachers. By focusing more on teacher dispositions, using

tools such as the IAF and the DCM, we may come closer to understanding the

complex dynamic of action, knowledge and dispositions that make the ‘exceptional’

teacher. With this broadened understanding, we can enhance and strengthen teacher

training and professional development. This, in turn, is likely to have positive

repercussions regarding the quality of teaching and learning that is delivered in our

schools.

10.11.3 Implications for educational theory

It has been noted that increasing demands and pressures are being placed on teachers

and teaching. The very nature of teaching has changed considerably over the past

decades and it continues to undergo rapid change as teachers prepare students for an

ever-changing world. Educational theory, too, is undergoing change. Effective

educational theory not only reflects but also accommodates this change.

Considerable attention has been given to the New South Wales Quality Teaching

Model (QTM) as being of fundamental importance in this study of exceptional

teachers. Not only is this a well-researched pedagogic model, there also is strong

evidence to support the effectiveness of its practical application to classroom

teaching. In spite of these qualities, however, it can be argued that there are some

  376 

aspects of high quality teaching that cannot be explained by pedagogic theory alone.

Why is it, for example, that a group of teachers having the same quality of teacher

training, the same level of skill acquisition and the same level of teaching experience

may not demonstrate the same high quality of teaching? One explanation supported

by this study is that there is a need to take into account the concept of teacher as

‘self’, including teacher dispositions.

It has been shown, however, that the identification of those teacher dispositions that

make a difference to the quality of teaching and learning is not an easy task. Also, it

is difficult to quantify or measure dispositions. This, in turn, may make some

educational theorists uneasy. This study, however, proposes the IAF as a possible

mediating instrument for facilitating the inclusion of dispositions in the development

of educational theory that explores a broadening view of what it means to be a high

quality teacher.

10.12 Closing reflection

This study has touched on many areas of knowledge and research that are

controversial and it has attempted to meet the challenge of investigating one of the

most complex areas, that of the human dimension of teaching. It has done so

because of a firm conviction that this is an area of knowledge that has been theoretic

and esoteric for far too long. The times in which we live are such that the pressures

and demands being placed on education require that we have the very best teachers it

is possible to have to teach our children. It is envisaged that all of our teachers

should be prepared during the course of their professional “training” to be the best

teachers it is possible for them to be, both in terms of pedagogy and in terms of their

human potential. It is envisaged also that some teachers are going to be

“exceptional” by virtue of the way they teach and “who they are”. It is contended

that these teachers should be identified and resourced by governing school bodies

and by Government authorities such as the New South Wales Institute of Teachers,

  377 

in order to use them as facilitators to improve the overall quality of teaching in

schools.

378

REFERENCES

Airenti, G., Bara, B.G., & Colombetti, M. (1993). Failures, exploitations and deceits in

communication. Journal of Pragmatics, 20(4), 303-326.

Albert, R.S., & Runco, M.A. (1986). The achievement of eminence: A model based

on a longitudinal study of exceptionally gifted boys. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E.

Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp.332-357). New York: Cambridge

University.

Albert, R.S., & Runco, M.A. (1999). A history of research on creativity. In R.J.

Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp.16-34). Cambridge, England:

Cambridge University Press.

Amabile, T.M. (1983a). The social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer-

Verlag.

Amabile, T.M. (1983b). The social psychology of creativity: A componential

Conceptulazation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(20), 357-

376.

Amabile, T.M. (1988). A model of creativity and innovation in organizations. In B.M.

Staw & L.L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol.10, pp.

123-167), Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Amabile, T.M. (1996). Creativity in context. New York: Westview.

Anderson, G. (1994). Simple tests of distributional form. Journal of Econometrics, 66

(2), 265-276.

379

Anderson, K.M. (2007). Differentiating instruction to include all students. Preventing

School Failure, 51(3), 49-54.

Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl, D.R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching,

and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New

York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Anthony, W. (1979). Progressive learning theories: The evidence. In G. Berbaum (Ed.),

Schooling in decline. London: Macmillan.

Ardelt, M. (2004). Wisdom as expert knowledge system: A critical review of a

contemporary operationalization of an ancient concept. Human Development,

47(5), 257-285.

Arlin, P.K. (1993). Wisdom and expertise in teaching: An integration of perspectives.

Learning and Individual Differences, 5(4), 341-349.

Arlin, P.K. (1999). The wise teacher: A development model. Theory into Practice,

38(1), 12-17.

Arnstine, B. (1967). Philosophy of education: Learning and schooling. New York:

Harper and Row.

Averill, J. & Thomas-Knowles, C. (1991). Emotional creativity. In K. Strongman (Ed.).

International review studies on emotion (Vol.1, pp.269-299). London: Wiley.

Ayres, P., Dinham, S. & Sawyer, W. (2000). Successful Senior Secondary School

Teaching; Paper No. 1. In the Quality Teaching Series (pp.1-20). Australian

College of Education: ACT.

Aylor, B., & Oppliger, P. (2003). Out-of-class communication and student perceptions

380

of instructor humor orientation and socio-communicative style. Communication

Education, 52(2), 122-134.

Baggini, J. (2005). What’s it all about: Philosophy and the meaning of life. Oxford, UK:

Oxford University Press.

Bain, H.P., Lintz, N., & Word, E. (1989). A study of fifty effective teachers whose class

average gain scores ranked in the top 15% of each of four school types in Project

Star. Paper presented at the 1989 annual meeting of the American Educational

Research Association. San Francisco, CA. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from

http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/367126.html .

Ball-Rokeach, S., Rokeach, M., & Gruber, J. (1984). The great American values test.

New York: Free Press.

Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). Toward a psychology of wisdom and its ontogenesis.

In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp.87-

120). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (1998). Wisdom. In H. Friedman (Ed.), Encyclopedia

of mental health (pp.699-706). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Banner, J.M. & Cannon, H.C. (1997). The elements of teaching. Yale University Press.

Barron, F. (1995). No rootless flower: An ecology of creativity. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton

Press.

Barron, F., & Harrington, D. (1981a). Creativity, intelligence, and personality. Annual

Review of Psychology, 32, 439-476.

Barron, F.X., & Harrington, D.M. (1981b). The disposition toward originality. Journal

381

of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 478-485.

Bazeley, P. (2007). Qualitative data analysis with VVivo. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.

Bennett, N. (1976). Teaching styles and pupil progress. London: Open Books.

Bennett, N. (1987). Changing perspectives on teaching – learning processes in the

post-Plowden era. Oxford Review of Education, 13(1), 67-79.

Bennett, N. (1988). The effective primary school teacher: The search for a theory of

pedagogy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(1), 19-30.

Benninga, J., Diez, M., Dottin, E., Feiman- Nemser, S., Murrell, P., and Sockett, H.

(2008). Making professional conduct in education more intelligent: Using

knowledge and skills to enhance moral sensibilities (dispositions). Team C,

Work-in-Progress. Prepared for AACTE Annual Meeting, February 7-9, 2008.

New Orleans, Louisiana.

Berliner, D.C. (1986). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. Educational Researchers,

15(7), 5-13.

Bernard, B. (1995). Fostering resilience in children. ERIC/EECE Digest, EDO-PS-99.

Bernstein, B. (1970). Education cannot compensate for society. New Society, 26

(February), 344-347.

Bernstein, B. (1990). The structuring of pedagogic discourse. Volume 1V: Class codes

and control. London: Routledge Kegan Paul.

Bernstein, B. (1995). Code theory and its positioning: A case study in misrecognition.

382

British Journal of Sociology of Education, 16(1), 3-19.

Bernstein, B. (1996). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity: Theory, research,

critique. London: Taylor & Francis.

Biddle, B. J., & Ellena, W. J. (Eds.). (1964). Continued research on teacher

effectiveness. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Biggs, J.B. (1992a). A qualitative approach to grading students. HERDSA News, 14(3),

3-6.

Biggs, J.B. (1992b). Teaching for learning. Melbourne: Australian Council for

Educational Research.

Biggs, J.B., & Collis, K.F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning – the SOLO

Taxonomy. New York: Academic Press.

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children. Baltimore:

Williams & Wilkins.

Bloom, B.S.(Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of

educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman,

Green and Co.

Bloom, B.S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw

Hill.

Booth-Butterfield, S., & Booth-Butterfield, M. (1991). Individual differences in the

communication of humorous messages. The Southern Communication Journal,

56(3), 205-18.

383

Brady, L. (2004). Towards optimal student engagement in teacher education. Australian

Journal of Teacher Education, 29(2), 1-10.

Breese, L., & Nawrocki-Chabin, R., (2007). Social cognitive perspective in dispositional

development. In M. E., Diez & J Raths (Eds.), Dispositions in teacher education

(pp.31-53). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Breyer, L. (1997). The moral contours of teacher education. Journal of Teacher

Education, 48(4), 245-254.

Brookfield, S.D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

Brookfield, S.D. (2006). The skillful teacher: On technique, trust, and responsiveness

in the classroom (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brophy, J.E. (Ed.) (1989). Advances in research in teaching, Volume 1. Greenwich, CT:

JAI Press.

Brophy, J.E. (2004). Motivating students to learn (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum.

Brophy, J., & Good, T.L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M.C.

Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, (3rd ed.) (pp.315-375). New

York: Macmillan.

Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University.

Bruner, J.S. (1977). Processes of education. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University

Press.

384

Bruner, R.F. (2002). Transforming thought: The role of humour in teaching. Retrieved

November 5, 2004, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=298761

Bunch, R. (2006). Assessing and developing teacher dispositions [Powerpoint].

Presentation at the Oregon Association of Teacher Educators Annual

Conference. Retrieved June 13, 2007, from

http://defiant.corban.edu/rbunch/orate.ppt

Burant, T., Chubbuck, S. & Whipp, J. (2005). Deliberating about dispositions in a Jesuit

teacher education program (pp. 1-31). Presentation at Nurturing Commitment to

Justice Conference, John Carroll University, 13-16 October. Retrieved June10,

2007, from

http://www.mu.edu/education/pages/resources/news/documents/panel26_Burant

ppr.pdf

Burant, T.J., Chubbuck, S.M., & Whipp, J.L. (2007). Reclaiming the moral in the

disposition debate. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(5), 397-411.

Burden, P. & Byrd, D. (2003). Methods of effective teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Buskist, W. (2004). Ways of the master teacher. APS Observer, 17(9), 1-3. Retrieved

January 8, 2007, from

http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/getArticle.cfm?id=1637.

Buskist, W., Sikorski, J., Buckley, T., & Saville, B.K. (2002). Elements of master

teaching. In S.F. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds.), The teaching of psychology: Essays

in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie and Charles L. Brewer (pp.27-39). Mahwah,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Campbell, R.J., Kyriakides, L., Muijs, R.D., & Robinson, W. (2004). Effective teaching

and values: Some implications for research and teacher appraisal. Oxford Review

385

of Education, 30(4), 451-465.

Carroll, J. (1963). A model for school learning. Teacher College Record, 64, 723-733.

Carusetta, E., & Cranton, P. (2005). Nurturing authenticity: A conversation with

teachers. Teaching in Higher Education, 10(3), 285-297.

Chapman, C., & King, R. (2005). Differentiated assessment strategies: One tool doesn’t

fit all. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through

qualitative analysis. London: Sage Publications.

Chickering, A.W., Dalton, J.C., & Stamm, L. (2006). Encouraging authenticity and

spirituality in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Clark, B. (2002). Growing up gifted (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-

Hall.

Clark, C.M., & Peterson, P.L. (1986). Teachers’ thought processes. In M.C. Wittrock

(Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.) (pp.255-296). New York:

Macmillan.

Claxton, G. (1999). Wise up: The challenge of lifelong learning. London: Bloomsbury.

Claxton, G., Edward, L., Scale-Constantinou, V. (2006). Cultivating creative

mentalities: A framework for education. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 1(1), 57-

61.

Clayton, V.P. (1976). A multidimensional scaling analysis of the concept of wisdom. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Southern California, Los Angeles,

California.

386

Cole, P. & Chan, L.K.S. (1986). A new perspective on teaching processes:

Implications for theory and practice. Paper presented at the Annual Conference

of the South Pacific Association for Teacher Education. Perth, Western

Australia.

Collard, T Y. (1994). Hello ... Hello? Is Anybody Listening? Teacher as Listener in the

Classroom. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International

Listening Association. Boston, MA. March 3-5.

Collins, M.A., & Amabile, T.M. (1999). Motivation and creativity. In R.J. Sternberg

(Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp.297-312). Cambridge, England: Cambridge

University Press.

Collinson, V. (1996a). Becoming an exemplary teacher: Integrating professional,

interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge. Paper prepared for the JUSTEC

Annual Conference. Naruto University of Education. Naruto, Japan. (ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No.ED 401 227).

Collinson, V. (1996b). Reaching students: Teachers’ ways of knowing. Thousand Oaks,

CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

Collinson, V. (1999). Redefining teacher excellence. Theory into Practice, 38(1), 4-11.

Collinson, V., Killeavy, M., & Stephenson, H. (1999, October). Exemplary teachers:

Practicing and ethic of care in England, Ireland, and the United States. Journal

for a Just and Caring Education, 5(4), 340-366.

Combs, A. W., (1974). Humanistic goals of education. In I. D. Welch, F. Richards, &

A.C. Richards (Eds.), Educational accountability: A humanistic perspective. San

Francisco, CA: Shields.

387

Combs, A. W., (1999). Being and becoming: A field approach to psychology. NY:

Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

Conti, R., Coon, H., & Amabile, T. M. (1996). Evidence to support the componential

model of creativity: Secondary analyses of three studies. Creativity Research

Journal, 9(4), 385-389.

Cook-Sather, A. (2002). Authorizing students’ perspectives: Towards trust, dialogue and

change in education. Educational Researcher, 31(4), 3-14.

Cotter, T. (2006). My values questionnaire (MVQ): Technical manual. Melbourne:

Awake.

Crace, R.K., & Brown, D. (1996). Life values inventory. Chapel Hill, NC: Life Values

Resources.

Cranton, P. (2001). Becoming an authentic teacher in higher education. Malabar, FL:

Krieger.

Cranton, P. (2006). Editor’s notes. New Directions for Adult Education, 111(Fall), 1-3.

Cranton, P. & Carusetta, E. (2004a). Developing authenticity as a transformative

process. Journal of Transformative Learning, 2(4), 276-293.

Cranton, P., & Carusetta, E. (2004b). Perspectives on authentic teaching. Adult

Education Quarterly, 55(1), 5-22.

Cresswell, J.W. (2003). Research designs: Qualitative and quantitative and mixed

methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

388

Cropanzano, R., James, K., & Citera, M. (1993). A goal hierarchy model of personality,

motivation, and leadership. In L.L. Cummings & B.M. Staw (Eds.), Research in

organization behavior (Vol. 15, pp.267-322). Greenwich, CT: JAI.

Cropley, A. (1994). More ways than one: Fostering creativity. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Cropley, A.J. (2001). Creativity in education and learning: A guide for teachers and

educators. London: Routledge Farmer.

Crosswell, L., & Elliott, B. (2004). Committed teachers, passionate teachers: The

dimension of passion associated with teacher commitment and engagement. In

Proceedings AARE 2004 Conference, Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved January

1, 2007, from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00000968

Cruickshank, D.R. (1986). Profile of an effective teacher. Educational Horizons,

64(2), 80-86.

Cruickshank, D.R. (1990). Research that informs teachers and teacher educators.

Bloomington, In: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No. ED 325 476).

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988a). Motivation and creativity: Toward a synthesis of

structural and energistic approaches to cognition. New Ideas in Psychology, 6(2),

159-176.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988b). Society, culture, and person: A systems view of

creativity. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity: contemporary

psychological perspectives (pp.325-339). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). The domain of creativity. In M.A. Runco & R.S. Albert

(Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp.190-214). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

389

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1995). Creativity across the life-span: A systems view. In

Colangelo & Assouline (Eds.), Talent Development III. Gifted Psychology Press.

Retrieved January 5, 2006 from

http://www.gt-cybersource.org/Record.aspx?NavID=2_0&rid=10559

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. New York: Harper Collins.

Cunningham, I. (1994). The wisdom of strategic learning: The self-managed learning

solution. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.

Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston: Little, Brown.

Dabrowski, K. (1972). Psychoneurosis is not an illness. London: Gryf.

Dabrowski, K., & Piechoswki, M.M. (1977). Theory of levels of emotional development

(Vols. 1 & 2). Oceanside, Y: Dabor Science.

Damon, W. (2005). Personality test: the dispositional dispute in teacher preparation

today, and what to do about it. In Fwd: Arresting Insights in Education, 2(3),

1-6. Thomas B. Fordham Institute. Retrieved June 11, 2007, from

http://www.edexcellence.net/institute/publication/publication.cfm?id=343

Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn: A blueprint for creating schools that

work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of

State Policy Evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). Retrieved

November 14, 2005, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1/

Day, C. (1999). Developing teachers: The challenge of lifelong learning. London:

390

Routledge Falmer.

Day, C. (2004). A passion for teaching. London: Routledge Falmer.

Day, C., Harris, A., Hadfield, M., Tolley, H. and Beresford, J. (2000). Leading schools

in times of change. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

de Bono, E. (1996). Textbook of wisdom. London: Penguin/Viking.

Department of Education, Science and Training. (2000). Teachers for the 21st century:

Making the difference. Report commissioned by the Australian Government.

Retrieved December 31, 2006, from

http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/publications_resources/profiles

/teachers_21st_century.htm#authors

Dewey, J. (1916). Freedom and education. New York: Free Press.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan.

Dewey, J. (1968). The school and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Diez, M. (2005). Assessing dispositions: Five principles to guide practice. In H. Sockett

(Ed.), Teacher dispositions: Building a teacher education framework of moral

standards (pp.49-68). Washington DC: American Association of Colleges for

Teacher Education.

Diez, M.E. (2007). Assessing dispositions: Context and questions. In M.E. Diez &

J.Raths (Eds.). Dispositions in teacher education (pp.183-201). Charlotte, North

Carolina: Information Age Publishing, Inc.

Diez, M.E., & Raths, J. (Eds). (2007). Dispositions in teacher education. Charlotte,

391

North Carolina: Information Age Publishing, Inc.

Dollinger, S. J., Burke, P. A., & Gump, N.W. (2007). Creativity and values. Creativity

Research Journal 19(2-3), 91-103.

Duignan, P.A., & Bhindi, N. (1997). Authenticity in leadership: An emerging

perspective. Journal of educational administration, 35(3), 195-209.

Dunkin, M.J., & Biddle, B.J. (1974). The study of teaching. New York: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston, Inc.

Ebro, L.L. (1977). Instructional behavior patterns of distinguished university teachers.

Doctorial dissertaion, The Ohio State University, 1997. Dissertation Abstracts

International, 38A, 7731860.

Edick, N, Danielson, L, & Edwards, S. (2007). Dispositions: Defining, aligning and

assessing. Academic Leadership: Empirical Research, 4(4). [Online journal]

Retrieved June 20, 2007, from

http://www.academicleadership.org/emprical_research/Dispositions_Defining_A

ligning_and_Assessing_printer.shtml

Edwards, S. (2007). Dispositions: Research, assessment and defensibility. AACTE 59th

Annual Meeting Pre Conference, New York City. Retrieved June 12, 2007, from

http://www.aacte.org/Programs/TEAMC/sarah_edwards_paper.pdf

Eggleston, J.F., Galton, M.J., & Jones, M.E. (1976). Process and products of science

teaching. London: Macmillan.

Elliott, B., & Crosswell, L. (2001). Commitment to teaching: Australian perspectives on

the interplays of the professional and the personal in teachers’ lives. Paper

presented at the International Symposium on Teacher Commitment at the

392

European Conference on Educational Research. Lille, France.

Elliott, D. C. (2005). Teaching on target: Models, strategies, and methods that work.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Ennis, R. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In J. Barton

& R. J. Sternberg, (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice (pp.9-26).

New York: W. H. Freeman and Company

Ericsson, K.A. (1996). The acquisition of expert performance: An introduction to some

of the issues. In K.A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of

expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 1-50).

Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ericsson, K.A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and

acquisition. American Psychologist, 49(8), 725-747.

Ericsson, K.A., & Lehmann, A.C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance:

Evidence on maximal adaptations on task constraints. Annual Review of

Psychology, 47, 273-305.

Erickson, P., Hyndman, J. & Wirtz, P. (2005). Why is the study of dispositions a

necessary component of an effective educator preparation program? Essays in

education, 13, Spring. Retrieved June 12, 2007, from

http://www.usca.edu/essays/vol132005/Erikson.pdf

Eysenck, H. J. (1981). The intelligence controversy. New York: John Wiley.

Eysenck, H. J. (1985). The nature and measurement of intelligence. In J. Freeman (Ed.),

The psychology of gifted children (pp.115-140). London: John Wiley.

393

Eysenck, H. J. (1993). Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory.

Psychological Inquiry, 4(3), 147-178.

Eysenck, H.J. (1997). Creativity and personality. In M.A. Runco (Ed.), Creativity

Research handbook (Vol.1, pp.41-66). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.

Feigin, J., Orum, A. & Sjoberg, G. (Eds.) (1991). A case study for case study. Chapel

Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Feist, G.J. (1999). The influence of personality on artistic and scientific creativity. In

R.J. Sternberg (Ed.). Handbook of Creativity (pp.273-296). Cambridge, England:

Cambridge University Press.

Feldhusen, J.F. (1986). A conception of giftedness. In R.J. Sternberg & J.W. Davidson

(Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp.112-127). New York, NY: Cambridge

University Press.

Feldhusen, J.F. (2002). Creativity: The knowledge base and children. High Ability

Studies, 13(2), 179-183.

Feldhusen, J.F., & Goh, B.E. (1995). Assessing and accessing creativity: An integrative

review of theory, research, and development. Creativity Research Journal, 8(3),

231-247.

Feldman, D.H. (1988). Creativity, dreams, insights, and transformation. In R. J.

Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity (pp. 271-297). New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Feldman, D.H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Gardner, H. (1994). Changing the world: A

Framework for the study of creativity. Westport, CT: Praeger.

394

Feldman, D.H., & Goldsmith, L.T. (1991). Nature’s gambit: Child prodigies and the

development of human potential. New York: Teachers College Press.

Fendler, L. (2001). Educating flexible souls. In K.Hultqvist & G. Dahlberd (Eds).,

Governing the child in the new millennium (pp.119-142). London: Routledge.

Fenstermacher, G. (1992). Some moral considerations on teaching as a profession. In

J. Goodland, R. Soder, & K. Sirotinik (Eds.), The moral dimension of teaching

(pp. 130-151). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Flanders, N. A. (1960a). Interaction analysis in the classroom: A manual for observers.

Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

Flanders, N. A. (1960b). Teacher influence, pupil attitudes, and achievement. Final

report. University of Minnesota; Project 397. Washington, D.C.: United States

Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Cooperative Research Program.

Office of Education.

Flanders, N. (1970). Analyzing teaching behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Fleith, D. (2000). Teacher and student perceptions of creativity in the classroom.

Roeper Review, 22(3), 148-152.

Freeman, L. (2005). Comments for keynote panel. Fourth Annual Symposium on

Educator Dispositions. Northern Kentucky University. Retrieved June 14, 2007,

from

http://www.educatordispositions.org/moodle/moodle/file.php/1/symposium_

2005/program/kentucky1116.doc

Freeman, L. (2007a). An overview of dispositions in teacher education. In M. Diez & J.

395

Raths (Eds.), Dispositions in education. (pp.3-29). Charlotte, NC: Information

Age Publishing.

Freeman, L. (2007b). Teacher dispositions in context. In M. Diez & J. Raths (Eds.),

Dispositions in teacher education (pp.117-138). Charlotte, NC: Information Age

Publishing.

Frego, K. A. (2006). Authenticity and relationships with students. New Directions for

Adult and Continuing Education, 111, Fall, 41-50.

Freire, P. (1998). Teachers as cultural workers: Letters to those who dare teach.

Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Fried, R.L. (1995). The passionate teacher: A practical guide. Boston, MA: Bacon

Press.

Gage, N. L. (1963). Handbook of research on teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Gage, N. L. (1972). Teacher effectiveness and teacher education. Palo Alto, California:

Pacific Books.

Gage, N. L. (1978). The yield of research on teaching. Phi Delta Kappan, 60(3), 229-

235.

Gage, N. L., & Berliner, D. C. (1992). Educational psychology (5th ed.). Boston:

Houghton Mifflin.

Gagné, F. (1993). Constructs and models pertaining to exceptional human abilities. In

K.A. Heller, F.J. Monks, and A.H. Passow (Eds.), International handbook of

research and development of giftedness and talent (pp.69-87). Oxford: Pergamon

Press.

396

Gagné, F. (1995a). From giftedness to talent: A developmental model and its

impact on the language of the field. Roeper Review, 18(2), 103-111.

Gagné, F. (1995b). Hidden meanings of the “talent development” concept. The

Educational Forum, 59(4), 350-362.

Gardner, H. (1983). Multiple intelligence: The theory into practice. New York: Basic

Books.

Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (2nd ed.).

Hammersmith, London: Fontana Press.

Getzels, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The creative vision: A longitudinal study of

problem finding in art. New York: Wiley.

Getzels. J.W., & Jackson, P.W. (1963). The teacher’s personality and characteristic. In

N.L. Gage (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp.506-582). Chicago:

Rand McNally.

Gilchrist, M. (1972). The psychology of creativity. Melbourne, Victoria: Melbourne

University Press.

Glasser, R. (1996). Changing the agency for learning: Acquiring expert performance. In

Ericsson, K. (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert

performance in the arts and sciences, sports and games (pp.303-311). Mahwah,

New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum Assoc.

Glatthorn, A. A. (1975). Teacher as person: The search for the authentic. The English

Journal, 64(9), 37-39.

397

Gleeson, D., & Gunter, H. (2001). The performing school and the modernisation of

Teachers. In D. Gleeson & C. Husbands (Eds.), The performing school:

Managing, teaching and learning in a performance culture (pp.139-158).

London: Routledge Falmer.

Gluck, J., Ernst, R., & Unger, F. (2002). How creatives define creativity: Definitions

reflect different types of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 14(1), 55-67.

Goertz, J. (2000). Creativity: A component for effective leadership in today’s schools.

Roeper Review, 22(3), 158-162.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books

Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. London:

Bloomsbury.

Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Good, T. L., Biddle, B. J., & Brophy, J. E. (1975). Teachers make a difference. New

York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston.

Goodlad, J., Soder, R. & Sirotinik, K. (Eds.). (1990). The moral dimensions of teaching.

San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Goold, A., Craig, A., & Coldwell, J. (2007). Accommodating culture and cultural

diversity in online teaching. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,

23(4), 490-507.

Gore, J.M. (2002). Pedagogy, power, and bodies: On the un(der)-acknowledged effects

of schooling, body movements pedagogy, politics and social change. Cresskill,

New Jersey: Hampton Press Inc.

398

Gore, J.M., Griffiths, T., & Ladwig, J.G. (2001). Productive pedagogy as a framework

For teacher education: Towards better teaching. Paper presented at the Australian

Association of research in Education (AARE), Perth. Retrieved November 5,

2004 from

http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/gor01501.htm

Gore, J.M., Griffiths, T., & Ladwig, J.G. (2002). Exploring ‘productive pedagogy’ as

a framework for teacher learning. Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual

Meeting of the Australian Association for Research in Education. Brisbane,

December 2-5, 2002. Retrieved November 5, 2004, from

http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/gor02267.htm

Gore, J.M., Griffiths, T., & Ladwig, J.G. (2004). Towards better teaching: Productive

pedagogy as a framework for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher

Education, 20(4), 375-387.

Gore, J.M., Williams, C.A., & Ladwig, J.G. (2007). On the place of pedagogy in the

Induction of early career teachers. Proceedings of the Australian Association for

Research in Education 2006 Annual Conference, Adelaide.

Gorham, J., & Christophel, D. (1990). The relationship of teachers’ use of humor in the

classroom to immediacy and student learning. Communication Education, 39,

46-62.

Greene, J.C., Caracelli, V.J. & Graham, W.F. (1989). Towards a conceptual framework

for mixed method evaluation design. Educational Evaluation and Policy

Analysis, 11(3), 255-274.

399

Griffiths, T., Gore, J., & Ladwig, J. (2006). Teachers’ fundamental beliefs, commitment

to reform, and the quality of pedagogy. Paper prepared for presentation at

Australian Association for Research in Education Annual Conference. Adelaide,

November 26-30. Retrieved October 9, 2007, from

http://www.aare.edu.au/06pap/gri06386.pdf

Gronbeck, B. E., German, K., Ehninger, D., & Monroe, A. H. (1998). Principles of

speech communication (13th brief ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley.

Groves, R, Wallace, J., & Louden, W. (2001). Teaching standards and moral

dispositions: Can we have one without the other? In P.L. Jeffrey (Ed.), AARE

2001

Conference (Freemantle). Melbourne: Australian Association for Research in

Education. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from

http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/gro01456.htm

Gruber, H.E. (1985). Giftedness and moral responsibility: Creative thinking and human

Survival. In F. Horowitz & M. O’Brien (Eds.), Gifted and talented:

Developmental perspectives (pp. 301-330). Washington, DC: American

Psychological Association.

Gruber, H.E. (1993). Creativity in the moral domain: OUGHT implies CAN implies

CREATE. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 3-16.

Guilford, J.P. (1950). Creativity. Presidential address to the American Psychological

Association. American Psychologist, 5(9), 444-454.

Guilford, J.P. (1956). The structure of intellect. Psychological Bulletin, 53(4), 276-293.

Guilford, J.P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.

400

Guilford, J.P. (1968). Intelligence, creativity, and their educational implications. San

Diego: Knapp

Guilford, J.P. (1975). Creativity: A quarter century of progress. In I.A. Taylor & J.W.

Getzels (Eds.), Perspectives of creativity (pp.37-59). Chicago: Aldine Publishing

Company.

Guilford, J.P. (1986). Creative talents: Their nature, uses and development. Buffalo,

NY: Bearly Ltd.

Haberman, M. (2005). Star teachers: The ideology and best practices of effective

teachers of diverse children and youth in poverty. Houston: The Haberman

Educational Foundation.

Hamacheck, D. (1999). Effective teachers: What they do, how they do it, and the

importance of self-knowledge. In R.P. Lipka & T.M. Brinthaupt (Eds.), The

role of self in teacher development (pp.189-224). Albany, N.Y.: State University

of New York Press.

Hammerness, K. (2004). Teaching with vision: How one teacher negotiates the tension

between high ideals and standardized testing. Teacher Education Quarterly,

31(4), 33-43.

Hansen, D. (2001). Teaching as a moral activity. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of

research on teaching, (4th ed.) (pp.826-857). Washington, DC: American

Educational Research Association.

Hare, S.J. (2007). We teach who we are: The intersection of teacher formation and

educator dispositions. In M. E. Diez & J. Raths (Eds.), Dispositions in teacher

education (pp.139-149). Charlotte, North Carolina: Information Age Publishing,

401

Inc.

Hargreaves, A. (2000). Mixed emotions: teachers’ perceptions of their interactions

with students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(8), 811-826.

Hargreaves, A., Lieberman, A., Fullan, M. & Hopkins, D. (1998). International

handbook of educational change. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academics Publishers.

Harris, A. (1998). Effective teaching: A review of the literature. School Leadership

& Management, 18(2), 169-183.

Hay/Mcber. (2000). Research into teacher effectiveness: A model of teacher

effectiveness. Research Report No. 216. Golgate, Norwish: Department for

Education and Employment. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from

http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=Hay+McBer+(2000)+report+on+teacher+e

ffectiveness&hl=en&rlz=1G1GGLQ_ENAU302&um=1&ie=UTF-8&oi=scholart

Hazelwood, R. (1988). Outcomes of change in teaching and learning styles. In Hopkins,

D. (Ed.), TVEI at the change of life (pp.65-72) Bristol: Multilingual Matters

Limited.

Helson, R. (1996). In search of the creative personality. Creativity Research Journal,

9(4), 295-306.

Helson, R. (1999). A longitudinal study of creative personality in women. Creativity

Research Journal, 12(2), 89-101.

Hennessey, B. A., and T. M. Amabile. (1987). Creativity and Learning. Washington,

DC: National Education Association.

Hill, G. (2002). Reflecting on professional practice with a cracked mirror: Productive

402

Pedagogy experiences. The Association for Active Educational Researchers.

Retrieved November 1, 2004, from

http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/hil02657.htm

Hillman, J. (1996). The soul’s code: In search of character and calling. New York:

Random House.

Hodgkinson, C. (1991). Educational leadership: The moral art. Albany, NY: State

University of New York.

Houtz, J.C., Selby, E., Esquivel, G.B., Okoye, R.A., Peters, K.M., & Treffinger, D.J

(2003). Creativity styles and personal type. Creativity Research Journal,

15(4), 321-330.

Huitt, W. (1995). A systems model for teaching/learning process. Valdosta, GA:

College of Education, Valdosta State University.

Hunsacker, S.L. (1994). Creativity as a characteristic of giftedness: Teachers see it, then

they don’t. Roeper Review, 17(1), 11-15.

Hunt, B.G., & Seney, R.W. (2001). Planning the learning environment. In F.A. Karnes

& S.M. Bean (Eds.), Methods and material for teaching the gifted and talented

(pp.43-89). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Ivcevic, Z., Brackett, M., & Mayer, J. (2007). Emotional intelligence and emotional

creativity. Journal of Personality, 75(2), 199-235.

James, K., & Asmus, C. (2000-2001). Personality, cognitive skills, and creativity in

different life domains. Creativity Research Journal, 13(2), 149-159.

Jeffrey, B., & Craft, A. (2004). Teaching creatively and teaching for creativity:

403

Distinctions and relationships. Educational Studies, 30(1), 77-87.

Johnson, R.B., & Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2004). Mixed methods research: a research

paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26.

Jupp, V. (Ed.). (2006). The Sage dictionary of social research methods. Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage Publications, inc.

Kagan, D. M. (1992). Implications of research on teacher belief. Educational

Psychologist, 27(1), 65-90

Kahle, L.R. (1983). Social values and social change: Adaptation to life in America. New

York: Praeger.

Kasof, J. (1995). Explaining creativity: The attributional perspective. Creativity

Research Journal, 8(4), 311-366.

Kasof, J., Chen, C., Himsel, A., & Greenberger, E. (2007). Values and creativity.

Creativity Research Journal, 19(2 & 3), 105-122.

Katz, L. (1993). Dispositions as educational goals. ED 363454 1993-09-00. ERIC

Digest. Retrieved November 16, 2007, from

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/edoutcomes.html

Katz, L. & Raths, J. (1985). Dispositions as goals for teacher education. Teacher and

Teacher Education, 1(4) 301-307.

Keeley, J., Smith, D., & Buskist, W. (2006). The teacher behaviors checklist: Factor

analysis of its utility for evaluating teaching. Teaching of Psychology, 33(2),

84-91.

404

Kher, N., Molstad, S., & Donahue, R. (1999). Using humor in the college classroom

to enhance teaching effectiveness in “dread courses”. College Student Journal,

33(3), 400-406.

Killen, R. (1990). Teacher clarity in reflective teaching and regular classroom lessons.

Doctoral thesis, Faculty of Education, University of Newcastle.

Killen, R. (2001). Productive teaching and learning. Unpublished paper, Faculty

of Education, University of Newcastle.

Killen, R. (2002). Outcomes-based education: Principles and possibilities.

Interpretations, 35(1), 1-18.

Killen, R. (2003). Validity in outcomes-based assessment. Perspectives in Education,

21(1), 1-14.

Killen, R. (2005). Programming and assessment for quality teaching and learning.

South Melbourne, Victoria: Thomson Social Science Press.

Killen, R. (2007). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice

(4th ed.). South Melbourne, Victoria: Thomson Social Science Press.

Korthagen, F. (2004). In search of the essence of a good teacher: Towards a more

Holistic approach in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(1),

77-97.

Kottler, J.A., Zehm, S.J. & Kottler, E, (2005). On being a teacher: The human

dimension. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of education

objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 2: Affective

405

domain. New York: David McKay Company.

Kreber, C., Klampfleitner, M., McCune, V., Bayne, S., & Knottenbelt, M. (2007). What

do you mean by “authentic”? A comparative review of the literature on

conceptions of authenticity in teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 58(1), 22-43.

Kuh, G.D. (1996). Guiding principles for creating seamless learning environments

for undergraduates. Journal of College Student Development, 37(2), 134-148.

Kumar, V.K., Kemmler, D., & Holman, E.R. (1997). The creativity styles questionnaire

- Revised. Creativity Research Journal, 10(1), 51-58.

Kyriacou, C. (1986). Effective teaching in schools. Hemel Hempstead: Simon &

Schuster Education.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). Beyond the big house: African American educators on

teacher education. New York: Teachers College Press.

Ladwig, J. G., Gore, J. M., Griffiths, T., & Amosa, W. (2004). Quality teaching: Student

performance scoring manuals(working title). Produced for the Systemic

Implications of Pedagogy and Assessment in New South Wales public schools

(SIPA) research project: The University of Newcastle.

Ladwig, J.G., Smith, M., Gore, J.M., Amosa, W., & Griffiths, T. (2007). Quality of

pedagogy and student achievement: Multi-level replication of authentic

pedagogy. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in

Education conference, Freemantle, 25-29 November. Retrieved November 21,

2008, from

http://www.aare.edu.au/07pap/lad07283.pdf

Lang, S., & Wilkerson, J. R. (2007). Disposition: How do you know it when you see it!

406

Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Colleges

for Teacher Education. Hilton New York, New York, NY. Online (PDF).

Retrieved November 16, 2007, from

http://www.allacademic.com/mata/p142564_index.html

Lauer, J.M., & Asher, W.L. (1988). Composition research: Empirical designs. USA:

Oxford University Press.

Leinhardt, G., & Greeno, J.C. (1986). The cognitive skill of teaching. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 78(2), 75-95.

Leithwood, K. (1990). The principal’s role in teacher development. In B. Joyce (Ed.),

Changing school culture through staff development (pp.71-90). Washington,

D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Lincoln Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Publications.

Lingard, B., Ladwig, J., Hayes, D., Mills, M., Christie, P., Gore, J., & Luke, A. (2001).

Queensland school reform longitudinal study: Final report, vol.1. Brisbane:

Report prepared for Education Queensland by the School of Education, The

University of Queensland.

Lingard,B., Mills, M., & Hayes, D. (2000). Teachers, school reform and social justice:

Challenging research and practice. The Australian Educational Researcher,

27(3), 93-109.

Lovecky, D.V. (1986). Can you hear the flowers singing? Issues for gifted adults.

Journal of Counseling and Development, 64(9), 572-575.

Lubart, T.I. (2000-2001). Models of the creative process: Past, present and future.

407

Creativity Research Journal, 13(3&4), 295-308.

MacKinnon, D. W, (1978). In search of human effectiveness. Buffalo, NY: Creative

Education Foundation.

Macoby, M. (1976). The gamesman. New York: Simon and Schuster.

MacGilchrist, B., Myers, K., & Reed, J. (2004). The intelligent school (2nd ed.).

London: Sage.

Maingay, P. (2006). Teaching intelligence. Humanising Language Teaching, Year 8;

Issue 4. Retrieved June10, 2008 from http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jul06/mart05.htm

Malikow, M. (2006-2006). Effective teachers study. National Forum of Teacher

Education Journal-Electonric, 16(3E), 1-9. Retrieved November 27, 2008, from

http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Malikow,%2

0Max%20Effective%20teacher%20Study.pdf

Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative Researching (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mayer, J.D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D.

Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational

Implications (pp.3-31). New York: Basic Books.

Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D.R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory,

findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197-215.

Mayer, R.E. (1999a). Designing instruction for constructivist learning. In C.M.

Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models. Volume II (pp.215-

237). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

408

Mayer, R.E. (1999b). The promise of educational psychology: Learning in the content

areas. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

McCann, M. (1998). The creativity/IQ interface: Old answers to some new questions.

Paper presented to the 7th National Conference on Giftedness. Hobart,

Tasmania, June 16-21.

McEwan, E.K. (2002). Ten traits of highly effective teachers: How to hire, coach, and

mentor successful teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Inc.

McFadden, M., & Munns, G. (2002). Student engagement and the social relations

of pedagogy. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 23(3), 357-366.

McGloughlin, C. (2001). Inclusivity and alignment: Principles of pedagogy, task and

assessment design for effective cross-cultural online learning. Distance

Education, 22(1), 7-29.

McIlrath, D., & Huitt, W. (1995). The teaching-learning process: A discussion of

models. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved May 30, 2008 from

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/papers/modeltch.html

McWilliam, E., & Dawson, S. (2006). Understanding creativity: A survey of ‘creative’

academic teachers. A report produced for the Carrick Institute for Learning and

Teaching in Higher Education. Queensland, Australia: CCI. Retrieved July 7,

2008 from

http://www.altc.edu.au/carrick/webdav/users/siteadmin/public/fellowships_assoc

iatefellow_report_ericamcwilliam_may07.pdf

Metcalfe, A., & Game, A. (2006). Teachers who change lives. Melbourne: Melbourne

University Press.

409

Michalko, M. (1998). Cracking creativity: The secrets of creative genius. Berkeley, CA:

Ten Speed Press.

Minor, L.C., Onwuegbuzie, A.J., & Witcher, A.E. (2000). Preservice teachers’

perceptions of characteristics of effective teachers: A multi-stage mixed

methods analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South

Educational Research Association. Lexington, KY. (November 15-17).

Retrieved November 16, 2007 from

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/000001

9b/80/16/d8/20.pdf

Minor, L.C., Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Witcher, A.E., & James, T.L. (2002). Preservice

teachers’ educational beliefs and their perceptions of characteristics of effective

teachers. The Journal of Educational Research, 96(2), 116-127.

Mitzel, H.E. (1960). Teacher effectiveness. In C.E. Harris (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

Educational Research (3rd ed., pp.1481-1486). New York: Macmillan.

Moll, A.M. (2003). Differentiated instruction guide for inclusive teaching. Alexandria,

VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Moon, S.M. (2003). Personal talent. High Ability Studies, 14(1), 5-21.

Mullin, D. (2003). Developing a framework for the assessment of teacher candidate

dispositions. ERIC Document 479255.

Mumford, M.D. (2001). Something old, something new: Revisiting Guildford’s

conception of creative problem solving. Creativity Research Journal, 13(3&4),

267-276.

Mumford, M.D. (2003). Where have we been, where are we going? Taking stock in

410

creativity research. Creativity Research Journal, 15(2&3), 107-120.

Mumford, M.D., Connelly, M.S., Baugham, W.A., & Marks, M.A. (1994). Creativity

and problem solving: Cognition adaptability and wisdom. Roeper Review, 16 (4)

241-246.

Mumford, M.D., Supinski, E.P., Threlfall, K.V., & Baughman, W.A. (1996). Process-

based measures of creative problem solving skills III: Category selection.

Creativity Research Journal, 9(4), 395-406.

Munns, G., McFadden, M., & Koletti, J. (2002). The messy space: Research into student

engagement and the social relations of pedagogy. Retrieved November 15, 2004,

from www.aare.edu.au/02pap/mun02359.htm

Munson, P. J. (1991). Winning teachers teaching winners. San Francisco, CA: ETR

Associates.

Murray, H. (1999). Teaching behaviours inventory. The Teaching Professor, October,

3-4.

Myers, M.D. (nd). Qualitative research in information systems. Available from the

Qualitative Research in Information Systems website, 1-10. Retrieved February

23, 2008, from http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2002). What teachers should know

and be able to do (pp.1-22). Retrieved September 21, 2006, from

http://www.nbpts.org/UserFiles/Files/What_teachers.pdf

National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. (1996). What matters most:

Teaching for America’s future. New York, NY.

411

National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2002).

Professional standards for the accreditation of schools, colleges and department

of education. Washington, DC.

National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2006a). Second

draft of revisions to the Unit Standards Glossary. Retrieved June 10, 2007, from

http://www.ncate.org/documents/Standards/May06_revision/2ndDraftGlossary06

.Doc

National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2006b). A

statement from NCATE on professional dispositions. Retrieved June 10, 2007,

from

http://www.ncate.org/public/0616_MessageAWise.asp?ch=150

National Framework for Professional Standards for Teaching (2003). Prepared by the

Teacher Quality and Educational leadership Taskforce. Ministerial Council on

Education, Employment Training and Youth Affairs, Melbourne: Curriculum

Corporation. Retrieved June 10, 2007, from

http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/national_framework_file.pdf

Nelson, D. B., Low, G. R., & Nelson, K. (2006). The emotionally intelligent teacher: A

transformative learning model. Retrieved Jun 17, 2008, from

http://www.tamuk.edu/edu/kwei000/Research/Articles/Article_files/Emotionally

_Intelligent_Teacher.pdf

Nevill, D.D., & Super, D.E. (1989). The values scale: theory, application and research

(2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

New Jersey Department of Education. (2004). New Jersey Professional Standards for

Teachers and School Leaders. Retrieved April 23, 2008, from

http://www.state.nj.us/education/profdev/profstand/standards.pdf

412

New Jersey Professional Standards for Teachers and School Leaders. (2004). New

Jersey Department of Education. Retrieved April 24, 2008 from

http://www.state.nj.us/education/profdev/profstand/standards.pdf

Newmann, F.M. (1990). Higher order thinking in teaching social studies: A rationale for

the assessment of classroom thoughtfulness. Journal of Curriculum Studies,

22(1), 41-56.

Newmann, F.M. (1991). Linking restructuring to authentic student achievement. Phi

Delta Kappan, 72(6), 458-463.

Newmann, F.M. (Ed.). (1992). Student engagement and achievement in American

secondary schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Newmann, F.M., & Associates. (1996). Authentic achievement: Restructuring schools

for intellectual quality. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Newmann, F.M., Brandt, R., & Wiggins, G. (1998). An exchange of view on

semantics, psychometrics, and assessment reform: A closer look at ‘authentic

assessments’. Educational Researcher, 27(6), 19-22.

Newmann, F.M., Bryk, A. & Nagaoka, J. (2001). Authentic intellectual work and

Standardized tests: Conflict or coexistence? Chicago: Consortium on Chicago

Research. Retrieved October 26, 2004, from http://www.consortium-

chicago.org/publications/p0a02.html

Newmann, F.M., Marks, H.M., & Gamoran, A. (1996). Authentic pedagogy and student

performance. American Journal of Education, 104(3), 280-312.

Newmann, F.M., & Wehlage, G.G. (1993). Five standards of authentic instruction.

Educational Leadership, 50(7), 8-12.

413

New South Wales, Department of Education and Training. (2003). Quality teaching in

NSW public schools: Discussion paper. Sydney, NSW: Professional Support and

Curriculum Directorate.

New South Wales, Department of Education and Training. (2003). Quality teaching in

NSW public schools: Annotated bibliography. Sydney, NSW: Professional Support

and Curriculum Directorate. Retrieved July 14, 2005, from

http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au

New South Wales, Department of Education and Training. (2006). Quality teaching in

NSW public schools: An assessment practice guide. Ryde, NSW: Professional

Learning and Leadership Development Directorate.

New South Wales, Institute of Teaching (2005). Professional teaching standards.

Retrieved November 17, 2007, from

http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/IgnitionSuite/uploads/docs/Professional%20

Teaching%20Standards.pdf

Norton, R.W. (1977). Teacher effectiveness as a function of communicator style.

In B.D. Reuben (Ed.), Communication Yearbook I (pp.524-541). New

Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books.

Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric Theory (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row.

Nuthall, G., & Church, J. (1973). Experimental studies of teacher behaviour. In G.

Chanan (Ed.), Towards a science of teaching (pp.9-25). London: NFER.

Palmer, P.J. (1998). The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of the

teacher’s life. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Inc.

414

Pearsall, J. (1998). New Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Perkins, D.N. (1981). The mind’s best work. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Perkins, D.N. (1995). Outsmarting IQ: The emerging science of learnable intelligence.

New York: The Free Press.

Perrott, E. (1982). Effective teaching. London: Longman.

Pickard, A. & Dixon, P. (2004). The applicability of constructivist user studies: How a

constructivist inquiry informs service providers and systems designers.

Information Research, 9(3), 1-9. [An international electronic journal]. Retrieved

August 15, 2007, from http://informationr.net/ir/9-3/paper175.html

Piechowski, M.M. (1998). The self victorious: Personal strengths, chance, and co-

incidence. Roeper Review, 20(3), 191-198.

Piirto, J. (1991). Encouraging creativity in adolescents. In J. Genshaft & M. Bireley

(Eds.), Understanding gifted adolescents (pp.104-122). New York: Teachers

College Press.

Piirto, J. (1995). Deeper, wider, broader: The pyramid of talent development in a

giftedness construct. Educational Forum, 59(4), 363-371.

Piirto, J. (1999). Talented children and adults: Their development and education

(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill.

Piirto, J. (2004). Understanding creativity (3rd ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential

Press.

Pillay, H.K, & Albert, L. (2003). Perspectives of flexible learning: Mapping the

415

shared understanding and conflicting expectations of students and staff.

Journal of Digital Contents, 1(1), 116-122.

Proctor, C.P. (1984). Teacher expectations: A model for school improvement. The

Elementary School Journal, 84(4), 468-481.

Queensland School Restructuring Longitudinal Study. (1998). March report:

Productive pedagogy classroom observation scoring manual. Brisbane,

Australia: Education Queensland.

Queensland School Restructuring Longitudinal Study (QSRLS) (2001). School reform

longitudinal study: Final report, Volume 1. Brisbane, Queensland: Educational

Queensland. See also

http://www.education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/html/pedagogies/pedagog.

html

Raths, J. (2006). Looking at the role of dispositions in teacher education. Presentation to

the Music Education SIG Business Meeting. Retrieved June 15, 2007, from

http://www.udel.edu/soe/raths/teacher_dispositions.pdf

Reiman, A.J., & Thies-Sprinthall, L. (1998). Mentoring and supervision for teacher

development. New York: Addison-Wesley Longman.

Reiman, A.J., Sprinthall, N.A., & Thies-Sprinthall, L. (1999). The conceptual and

ethical development of teachers. In R.L. Mosher, D.J. Youngman, & I.M. Day

(Eds.), Human development across the life span: Educational and psychological

applications (pp.203-218). Westport, CT: Praeger Publisher.

Reisbeck, R. (1983). Teacher effectiveness/communication style. Journal of Extension,

21(4). Retrieved September 26, 2007, from

http://www.joe.org/joe/1983july/rb1.html

416

Renzulli, J.S. (1978). What makes giftedness? Reexamining a definition. Phi Delta

Kappan, 60(3), 180-184, 261.

Renzulli, J.S. (1986). The three-ring conception of giftedness: A developmental model

for creative productivity. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions

of giftedness (pp.53-92). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Renzulli, J.S. (1998). The three-ring conception of giftedness. In S.M. Baum,

S.M. Reis, & L.R. Maxfield (Eds.), Nurturing the gifts and talents of primary

Grade student (pp.1-27). Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. #

Rhodes, G., & Schaible, R. (1992). Talking students/listening teachers: The

student-led discussion. Issues & Inquiry in College Learning and Teaching, 15(3),

44-61.

Richards, R. (2001). Millennium as opportunity: Chaos, creativity, and Guilford’s

structure of intellect model. Creativity Research Journal, 13(3&4), 249-265.

Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula

(Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp.102-199). New York:

Simon and Schuster.

Richmond, V. P., & Martin, M. M. (1998). Socio-communicative style and socio-

communicative orientation. In McCroskey, J. C., Daly, J. A., Martin, M.M., &

Beatty, M. J. (Eds.). Communication and Personality: Trait perspectives

(pp.133-148). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.

Rideout, G.W. (2006). Educational beliefs and the learning environment. Academic

Exchange, 10(2), 67-71.

417

Rideout, G. W., & Morton, L. L. (2007). Pre-service teachers’ beliefs and other

predictors of pupil control ideologies. Journal of Educational Administration,

45(5), 587-604.

Rischin, R. (2002). Exploring learning styles: Developing a flexible teaching approach.

The American Music Teacher, 52(2), 53-55.

Ritchhart, R. (2001). From IQ to IC: A dispositional view of intelligence. Roeper

Review, 23(3), 143-150.

Rogers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill.

Rogers, C.R. (1983). Freedom to learn for the 80s. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: The Free Press.

Rosengren, C. (2004). The occupational adventure. Retrieved January 1, 2007, from

http://curtrosengren.typedpad.com/occupationaladventure/2004/03/passion_defin

ed.html

Rothenberg, A., & Sobel, R.S. (1980). Adaptation and cognition: An experimental study

of creative thinking. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 168(6), 370-374.

Rubin, L. (1989). The thinking teacher: Cultivating pedagogical intelligence. Journal of

Teacher Education, 40(6), 31-34.

Runco, M.A. (1993a). Cognitive and psychometric issues in creativity research. In S.G.

Isaksen, M.C. Murdock, R.L. Firestien, & D.J. Treffinger (Eds.), Understanding

and recognizing creativity: The emergence of a discipline (pp.331-368).

Norwood, NJ: Ablex

418

Runco, M.A. (1993b). Divergent thinking, creativity, and giftedness. Gifted Child

Quarterly, 37(1), 16-22.

Runco, M.A. (Ed.). (1994). Problem finding, problem solving, and creativity. Norwood,

NJ: Ablex.

Runco, M.A. (1995). Insight for creativity, expression for impact. Creativity Research

Journal, 8(4), 377-390.

Runco, M.A., & Chand, I. (1994). Problem finding, evaluative thinking, and creativity.

In M.A.Runco (Ed.), Problem finding, problem solving, and creativity (pp.40-

76). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Runco, M.A., & Chand, I. (1995). Cognition and creativity. Educational Psychology

Review, 7(3), 243-267.

Runco, M.A., & Nemiro, J. (2003). Creativity in the moral domain: Integration and

implications. Creativity Research Journal, 15(1), 91-105.

Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimor, P., & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours:

Secondary schools and their effects on schoolchildren. Somerset: Open Books.

Rutter, R. A., & Jacobson, J. D. (1986). Facilitating teacher engagement. Madison, WI:

National Center on Effective Secondary Schools. Retrieved June 18, 2008, from

http://eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detail

mini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED303438&ERIC

ExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED303438

Sak, U. (2004). About creativity, giftedness and teaching the creatively gifted in the

classroom. Roeper Review, 26(4), 216-222.

Saunders, P. (2004). Characteristics of effective teaching [online]. Center for Teaching

419

and Learning, Western Michigan University. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from

www.wmich.edu/teachlearn/new/char_tch.html

Scheidecker, D., & Freeman, W. (1999). Bringing out the best in students: How

legendary teachers motivate kids. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

Schussler, D. (2006). Defining dispositions: Wading through murky waters. The Teacher

Educator, 41(4), 251-268.

Schussler, D.L., Stooksberry, L.M., & Bercaw, L.A. (2005). Conceptualizing

dispositions: Intellectual, cultural and moral domains of teaching. Paper

presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research

Association. Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical

advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Journal of Advances in

Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1-65.

Searle, J. (1983). Intentionality, an essay in the philosophy of mind. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Shepard, R., Fasko, D., & Osborne, F. H. (1999). Intrapersonal intelligence: Affective

factors in thinking. Education, 119(4), 633-642.

Shulman, L. (1992). Research on teaching: a historical and personal perspective. In

F.K. Oser, A. Dick, & J-L. Patry (Eds.), Effective and responsible teaching: The

New Synthesis (pp.14-29). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Sill, D. (1996). Integrative thinking, synthesis, and creativity in interdisciplinary studies.

Journal of General Education, 45(2), 129-151.

420

Silvernail, D.L. (1992a). The educational philosopohies of secondary school teachers.

The High School Journal, 76, 162-166.

Silvernail, D. L. (1992b). The development and factor structure of the Educational

Beliefs Questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(3), 663-

667.

Simonton, D.K. (1975). Age and literary creativity: A cross-cultural and transhistorical

survey. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 6, 259-277.

Simonton, D.K. (1984). Genius, creativity, and leadership: Historiometric inquiries.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Simonton, D.K. (1986). Biographical typicality, eminence and achievement

styles. Journal of Creative Behavior, 20(1), 17-18.

Simonton, D.K. (1994). Greatness: Who makes history and why. New York: The

Guilford Press.

Simonton, D.K. (1995). Exceptional personal influence: An integrative paradigm.

Creativity Research Journal, 8(4), 371-376.

Simonton, D.K (1996). Creative expertise: A life-span developmental perspective.

In K.A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to expert performance: Empirical evidence from

the arts and sciences, sports and games (pp.227-253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum.

Simonton, D.K. (2000). Creative development as acquired expertise: Theoretical

issues and an empirical test. Developmental Review, 20(2), 283-318.

421

Simplicio, J.S.C. (2000). Teaching classroom educators how to be more effective and

creative teachers. Education, 120(4), 675-680.

Sisk, D. (2006). Ethical perspectives. In B. Wallace & G.I. Eriksson (Eds.), Diversity in

Gifted education: International perspectives on global issues (pp.168-177). New

York, NY: Routledge.

Skilbeck, M. & Connell, H. (2003). Attracting, developing and retaining effective

teachers: Australian country background report. Canberra, ACT:

Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved December 16, 2004, from

http://www.oecd.org/datoecd/63/50/3879121/pdf

Skowron, J. (2006). Powerful lesson planning: Every teacher’s guide to effective

Instruction, (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

Smiley, J. (2005). Defining communicative. Lifelong Learning: Proceedings of the

4th Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference, May 14-15. Japan: Tokyo

Keizai University.

Smith, R. L., Hurst, J., & Skarbek, D. (Eds.). (2005). The passion of teaching:

Dispositions in schools. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Publications.

Sockett, H. (2005). Character rules and relationships. In H.Sockett (Ed.), Teacher

dispositions: Building a teacher education framework for modal standards (pp.8-

33). Submitted to American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education

for publication as a monograph.

Sockett, H. (2006). Character rules and relationships. In H. Sockett (Ed.), Teacher

dispositions: Building a teacher education framework of moral standards. (pp.9-

25). Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.

.

422

Soltis, J.F. (1973). The passion to teach. Theory into Practice, 12(1), 5-12.

Starko, A. J. (2005). Creativity in the classroom: Schools of curious delight (3rd ed.).

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Steinaker, N.W., & Bell, M.R. (1979). The experiential taxonomy: A new approach to

teaching and learning. New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc.

Sternberg, R. J. (1988). A three-facet model of creativity. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), The

nature of creativity: Contemporary psychological perspectives (pp.125-147).

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Giftedness according to the triarchic theory of human

intelligence. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted

education (pp.45-54). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Sternberg, R.J. (1997a). Successful intelligence: How practical and creative intelligence

determine success in life. New York: Plume.

Sternberg, R. J. (1997b). What does it mean to be smart? Educational Leadership, 54(6),

20-24.

Sternberg, R. J. (1999). The theory of successful intelligence. Review of General

Psychology, 3(4), 292-316.

Sternberg, R.J. (2000a). Creativity is a decision. In A.L. Costa (Ed.), Teaching for

intelligence II (pp.85-106). Arlington Heights, Il.: Skylight Training and

Publishing.

Sternberg, R. J. (2000b). Identifying and developing creative giftedness. Roeper Review,

23(2), 60-64.

423

Sternberg, R. J. (2006). The nature of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 18(1),

87-98.

Sternberg, R.J. (2007). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R., & Davidson, J. (Eds.). (1986). Conceptions of giftedness. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R.J., & Grigorenko, E.L. (2000-2001). Guilford’s structure of intellect model

and model of creativitiy: Contributions and limitations. Creativity Research

Journal, 13(3&4), 309-316.

Sternberg, R.J., & Lubart, T.I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its

development. Human Development, 34(1), 1-31.

Sternberg, R.J., & O’Hara, L.A. (1999). Creativity and intelligence. In R.J. Sternberg

(Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp.251-272). Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Sternberg, R.J, & Williams, W.M. (Eds.). (1998). Intelligence, instruction, and

assessment: Theory into practice. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Stronge, J. H. (2002). Qualities of effective teachers. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Stronge, J., & Hindman, J. (2006). The teacher quality index: A protocol for teacher

selection. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

424

Sweller, J. (1989). Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and

problem solving in mathematics and science. Journal of Educational Psychology,

84(4), 457-466.

Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1991). Evidence of cognitive load theory. Cognition &

Instruction, 8(4), 351-362.

Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1994). Why some material is difficult to learn. Cognition &

Instruction, 12(3), 185-233.

Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for

problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2(1), 59-89.

Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educator’s guide to the human

brain. Alexandria, Vancouver: ASCD.

Tannenbaum, A. J. (1983). Gifted children: Psychological and educational perspectives.

New York: Macmillan.

Tannenbaum, A. J. (1986). Giftedness: A psychosocial approach. In R.J. Sternberg &

J.E. Davidson (Eds.). Conceptions of giftedness (pp.21-52). New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J.W. (2007). Editorial: The new era of mixed methods.

Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 3-7.

Taylor, A. (1959). The nature of creative process. In P.Smith (Ed.), Creativity (pp.521-

582). New York: Hastings House.

Taylor, R., & Wasicsko, M. (2000). The dispositions to teach. Presentation to the

425

Southeastern Regional Association of Teacher Educators. Lexington, Kentucky.

Retrieved June 6, 2007, from

http://www.educatordispositions.org/dispositions/The%20Dispositions%20to%2

0Teach.pdf

Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples.

Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 77-100.

Terman, L.M., & Merrill, M. (1916). Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Boston;

Houghton Mifflin.

Thibodeau, G. P., & Hillman, S. J. (2003). In retrospect: Teachers who made a

Difference from the perspective of preservice and experienced teachers.

Education, 124(1), 169-180.

Thomas, C.E., Richmond, V.P., & McCroskey, J.C. (1994). The association between

immediacy and socio-communicative style. Communication Research Report,

11, 107-114.

Thornton, H. (2006). Dispositions in action: Do dispositions make a difference in

practice? Teacher Education Quarterly, 33(2), 53-68

Tirassa, M. (1999). Communicative competence and the architecture of the mind/brain.

Brain and Language, 68(3), 419-441.

Tisdell, E. (2003). Exploring spirituality and culture in adult and higher education. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Tischler, L., Biberman, J., & McKeage, R. (2002). Linking emotional intelligence,

spirituality and workplace performance. Definitions, models and ideas for

research. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 203-218.

426

Tomlinson, C.A. (1999b). Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction.

Educational Leadership, 57(1), 12-16.

Tomlinson, C.A. (2000). Reconcilable differences? Standards-based teaching and

differentiation. Educational Leadership, 58(4), 6-11.

Tomlinson, C.A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms,

(2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

Torrance, E.P. (1962). Guiding creative talent. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Torrance, E.P. (1974a). Norms-technical manual: The Torrance tests of creative

thinking. Bensenvill, Il.: Scholastic Testing Service.

Torrance, E.P. (1974b). The Torrance tests of creative thinking. Bensenville, Il.:

Scholastic Test Services, Inc

Torrance, E.P. (1979). The search for sotori and creativity. Great Neck, NY: Creative

Synergetics.

Torrance, E.P. (1981). Thinking creatively with action and movement. Bensenville, Il.:

Scholastic Testing Services.

Torrance, E.P. (1983a). Creativity in the classroom. Washington, DC: National

Education Association.

Torrance, E. P. (1983b). Status of creative women: Past, present, and future. The

Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 6(3), 135-145.

427

Torrance, E.P. (1995a). Insights about creativity: Questioned, rejected, ridiculed,

ignored. Educational Psychology Review, 7(3), 313-322.

Torrance, E. P. (1995b). Why fly? A philosophy of creativity. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.

Towers, E., & Porath, M. (2001). Gifted teaching: Thought and action. Roeper Review,

23(4), 202-206.

Treffinger, D.J. (1995). Creative problem solving: Overview and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 7(3), 301-312.

Trilling, L. (1972). Sincerity and Authenticity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press.

Usher, D. (2002). Arthur Comb’s five dimensions of helper belief reformulated as five

dispositions of teacher effectiveness. Paper presented at the First Annual

Symposium on Educator Dispositions: Effective teacher-effective person.

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY.

Van der Zee, K., Thijs, M., & Schakel, L. (2002). The relationship of emotional

intelligence with academic intelligence and the Big Five. European Journal of

Personality, 16(2), 103-125.

Vialle, W., & Quigley, S. (2002). Selective students’ views of the essential

characteristics of effective teachers. University of Wollongong. Retrieved

November 2, 2004, from www.aare.edu.au/02pap/via02437.htm.

Vincent, A.S., Decker, B.P., & Mumford, M.D. (2002). Divergent thinking, intelligence,

and expertise: A test of alternative models. Creativity Research Journal, 14(2),

163-178.

428

Wakefield, A. P. (1993). Learning styles and learning dispositions in public schools:

Some implications of preference. Education, 113(3), 402-406.

Ward, T.B., Smith, S.M., & Finke, R.A. (1999). Creative cognition. In R.J. Sternberg

(Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp.189-212). Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Wasicsko, M. M. (2007). The perceptual approach to teacher dispositions: The effective

teacher as an effective person. In M.E. Diez & J. Raths (Eds.), Dispositions in

teacher education (pp.53-90). Charlotte, NC: Information Age publishing.

Weaver, D.A. (2003). Evolution of a staff development program in promoting quality

online teaching. In Interact, Integrate, Impact: Proceedings ASCILITE

Conference. Adelaide. 7-10 December, pp. 532-540. Retrieved April 23, 2008,

from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/adelaide03/docs/pdf/532.pdf

Weiner, H., & Cohen, A., (2003). Dispositions in teacher education programs: An

opportunity for reform. Presented at the Second Annual Conference on Teacher

Dispositions. Eastern Kentucky University. Richmond, Kentucky. Retrieved

June 10, 2007, from http://www.education.eku.edu/dispositions/resources/

Dispositions%20Proceedings%20Session%20k.doc

Weisberg, R.W. (1999). Creativity and knowledge: A challenge to theories. In R.J.

Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 226-250). New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Williams, B. (2002). Truth and truthfulness: An essay in genealogy. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press.

Wisehart, R. (2004). Nurturing passionate teachers: Making our work transparent.

Teacher Education Quarterly, 31(4), 45-53.

429

Wragg, E.C. (Ed.). (1984). Classroom teaching skills. London: Croom Helm.

Wubbles, T., Levy, J., & Brekelmans, M. (1997). Paying attention to relationships.

Educational Leadership, 54(7), 82-86.

Wyman, J.E. (1974). Authentic, supportive, teaching. Journal of Architectural

Education, 28(1/2, Part 2), 115-116.

Yero, J.L. (2001-2002). Beliefs. Teacher’s Mind Resources. Retrieved May 20, 2007,

from http://ww.TeachersMind.com

Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,

California: Sage Publications, Inc.

Zhixin, S. (1990). Exploring the moral socialisation of teacher candidates. Oxford

Review of Education, 16(3), 367-391.

Zimmerman, B. (1989). Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement.

In B. Zimmerman and D. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic

achievement: Theory, research and practice (pp. 1-25). New York: Springer-

Verlag.

Zohar, D. & Marshall, I. (2000). SQ: Connecting with our spiritual intelligence. New

York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Zuckerman, H. (1977). The scientific elite. New York: Free Press.

430

Appendix A

Compliance With Ethics Committee, University of Newcastle

1 Processing by the Ethics Committee of the University of Newcastle

The Ethics Committee of the University of Newcastle presented a rigorous

process for gaining permission to conduct the research for data collection. The main

reason was that the research required school and student access. The most obvious

ethical considerations that arose as a result of the nature of the data collection

focused on three main areas:

1. The video recording of lessons for the case study

2. The confidentiality of teacher responses to questions in the

interviews

3. The protection of student identities in the recording of lessons and

in the response to questionnaires.

2 Video recording of lessons for the case study

The video recording of three lessons taught by each of the case study teachers

necessitated the protection of the identity of the participant school, of the teacher and

of the students involved in the classes. For this reason, information letters, including

parental/carer permission slips, were sent to schools involved in the case studies.

The schools were identified by code, rather than by name. Teachers were given the

opportunity to view the video recordings and vet anything about which they felt

uncomfortable.

3. Interview and teacher confidentiality

The interviews were sound recorded on cassette and with the permission of

the participant case study teachers. Each teacher’s interview was coded with the

teacher not identified by name. Before the interview was recorded, the teacher was

shown the questions. It was indicated clearly to the teachers that if they felt

uncomfortable with a question or if, after responding to a question, they felt

uncomfortable with their response, then that would be erased from the cassette

recording. Participant teachers were given the opportunity to listen to the recording

of the interview before it was transcribed.

431

4 Protection of student identities

A video recording was made of three lessons taught by each participant

teacher. The camera was situated at the back of the classroom and every effort was

made to protect the identity of students. The respondents to student questionnaires

were given codes. They were instructed not to identify themselves by name or by

school.

5 General issue of confidentiality

A more subtle ethical issue was associated with the actual study topic and the

conduct of the research. By signalling out exceptional teachers as case study

participants, school principals ran the risk of being perceived as biased in their

perceptions of some teachers. Further, the researcher ran the risk of being labelled as

elitist because of the research focus. For these reasons communication with school

principals and nominated case study teachers was kept private and confidential.

432

Caring Assimilate emotion related feelings Compassion Concern for others Empathic Helpfulness Kindness Positive support Sensitive to student needs Closeness in human relations Connectedness Deep sense of humanity Establish relationships Inclusive Interpersonal intelligence Perceive emotions Relates easily to people Respect Responsiveness Social interaction Willingness to engage Confident Perception of self Positive view of self Self confidence Self prizing Assertiveness Curious Effective sharing Attentiveness Communicate attitudes Communicate ideas about self Good listener Persuasion Precise Relaxed Well spoken Willing to share Enjoy life Emotionally intelligent Beliefs and intentions interplay Congruence Genuine Humility Open

Receptive Self acceptance Self efficacy Sense of fulfilment Shared beliefs Character (soul of intelligence) Wisdom Entelechy Energetic Enthusiastic Excitability Intensity Ethical Dedication Honest Principled Responsible Flexible Independence Resilient Resourceful Tolerance Tolerance for ambiguity Humour Imaginative Idea generating Inventive Originality Insightful Intuition Perceptiveness Integrity Fairness Self discipline Trustworthy Values-led Will (volition/exercise of choice) Knowledgeable Bright Synthesis (of knowledge) Love of what they do Love of learning Love of teaching Motivated Inspiration Motivational Optimistic Positive view of others

Perception of others as able Sets high standards Perception of purpose Persistent Patient Perseverance Positive reinforcement Problem solving Professionalism Image Impression leaving Pupil centred Interested Reflective (see interviews) Self awareness Self confrontation Self knowledge Intrapersonal knowledge Self monitoring Risk taking Courage

Appendix B

Catalogue of Dispositions

From the Literature Review

433

attribute passionate communicative creative committed authentic page reference Caring TBC7, 24 Assimilate emotion related feelings Compassion Concern for others Empathic Helpfulness Kindness Positive support QTM10 Sensitive to student needs TBC25

x 9, 28, 45c, 46c, 60g, 80d, 84d, 89d 29 35w, 47c, 89d 8 5, 32, 33a, 35w, 45c, 89d 47c 47c 8 5, 8, 58gp, 89d

Closeness in human relations TBC22 Connectedness Deep sense of humanity Establish relationships Inclusive Interpersonal intelligence Perceive emotions Relates easily to people Respect Responsiveness Social interaction Willingness to engage

x 31. 59gp 30, 39g, 40g 9 35w nil 40g 29 nil 45c 33a, 45c 43c 33a

Confident TBC4 Perception of self Positive view of self Self confidence Self prizing Assertiveness

x Nil 87d 89d 73c 32a 45c

Appendix C

Grid Showing Dispositions and Their References in the Literature Review

(Note: Page references refer to the draft of the Literature Review (Chapter 2) on which the DCM concept model is based.

Chapter 2 has undergone numerous revisions during the writing of the thesis, but the page references have been retained to

illustrate the process described in Chapter 5)

434

Effective sharing TBC6 Attentiveness Communicate attitudes Communicate ideas about self Good listener TBC11 Persuasion Precise Relaxed Well spoken Willing to share

x

32a 46c 41g 43c 44c, 46c, 76d 70c 46c 46c 7 42c

Emotionally intelligent Beliefs and intentions interplay Congruence Genuine Humility TBC13 Open Receptive Self acceptance Self efficacy Sense of fulfilment Shared beliefs Character (soul of intelligence) Wisdom

42c 32a 5, 38 39w, 89d 5, 32, 32, 45c, 53g, 59gp 32A 32a 53g 34a 42c 49te 38

Entelechy TBC8 Energetic Enthusiastic Excitability Intensity

x 59gp 55gp, 57gp, 57gp, 60gp, 60gp 8, 55gp, 58gp, 62gp, 84d, 84d 59gp 57gp, 60gp

435

Ethical MVQ14 Dedication Honest Principled Responsible

x x 5a, 8, 89d 83d 5, 32, 32, 45c, 80d 57gp 80d

Flexible TBC10 Independence Resilient Resourceful Tolerance Tolerance for ambiguity

x 73c, 75c 63c, 69c, 73c 53g nil 89d 63c, 68c, 70c

436

Appendix D

My Values Questionnaire (MVQ) Technical Manual

(pages 437 to 452)

437

For access to this documentation,

contact Tim Cotter at:

timc@awake.com.au

or

http://www.linkedin.com/in/timcotterawake

or

http://www.valuestest.com/author.html

453

Appendix E

Teacher Responses to Knowledge of QTM Questionnaire

STAFF DATA KNOWLEDGE/UNDERSTANDING SCHOOL M F YEARS P S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 QTM A 16 31 706 20 27 11 7 11 2 4 2 6 - 2 2 ANON 1 6 7 143 7 6 2 4 2 2 1 1 - - - 1 ANON 2 2 8 169 7 3 1 1 1 - 3 2 - 1 1 - ANON 3 5 5 166 5 5 6 1 - - - 1 2 - - - ANON 4 11 9 228 1 19 7 4 3 1 - 1 3 - 1 - BTA 7 4 127 3 8 - 1 1 1 4 1 2 - - 1 QTM D 16 24 489 16 24 23 6 2 4 2 - 2 1 - - LG 4 5 149 2 7 - - 2 - 1 2 2 2 - - MC 4 18 324 10 12 6 2 5 1 1 1 3 1 - 2 MV 5 15 132 6 14 14 2 1 2 - 1 - - - - StP 10 12 267 4 18 1 1 2 4 1 1 6 5 1 - StPCC 5 18 299 13 10 - 1 - 2 4 4 6 4 1 1 TOTALS 91 156 3199 94 153 71 30 30 19 21 17 32 14 6 7 247 Mean

13

454

Male = 91 Female = 156 Primary = 94 Secondary = 153 Average years teaching experience = 13

• 131 teachers rated knowledge/understanding of the model 3 or below 53% o 55 of the 131 were primary school teachers 42% o 76 of the 131 were secondary school teachers 58%

• 59 teachers rated knowledge/understanding of model 7 or higher 23.9% Of these:

o 16 were primary school teachers 17% (of all primary school teachers)

o 43 were secondary school teachers 28.1% (of all secondary school teachers)

o 21 had 4 years or less teaching experience 35.6%

o 30 had 10 or more years teaching experience 50.9%

o 2 teachers each had 40 years teaching experience and had ratings of 7 and 8 respectively

o 1 was a primary school teacher o 1 was a secondary school teacher

o 2 teachers had 30 and 33 years teaching experience and had ratings of 10 and 8 respectively.

o Both were secondary school teachers o 19 were males. This is 20.9% of total male teachers in sample (91) o 40 were females. This is 25.6% of total female teachers in sample (156)

455

Appendix F

Teacher Decimal Scores for All Items in the QTM, TBC, MVQ and EBQ

456

457

Appendix G

Instrument Code Legend

458

459

Appendix H

Extended Example of an Interview Transcript Coded Using the IAF

460

TRANSCRIPT CASE STUDY I:

21st to 23rd November 2006

Di, I want to thank you, first of all, for participating in this case study and, secondly, for the delight of being in your classroom. I thoroughly enjoyed yesterday’s lesson observation and I’m looking forward to tomorrow. Now, a couple of questions that I want to ask you and the first is this: can you tell me your philosophy? And it can be your philosophy of teaching or your philosophy of life in general. Mmmm. My philosophy of teaching and philosophy of life, um, from where I come from are probably linked - intrinsically linked. Um, because life is a journey. It’s an educational journey and you don’t get anywhere without being on that journey, and education is part of that journey. So, I guess that my philosophy comes from the fact that, ever since I was three, I can remember, I wanted to be a teacher. Now, at that stage, I can’t explain, obviously, why I wanted to be a teacher. When I started to be a teacher, I knew that this is where I wanted to be to, ah, be part of children’s journey of life. And I guess that’s the philosophy – to share with them what I can; to get them to see what they can be; get the best out of them; and, hopefully, when I leave my classroom, there’s something positive they’ll remember and something that they can, they can build on as they grow up. Committed (Purposeful) (VI) So, I guess that philosophy, it’s, it’s linked. You can’t differentiate between life and education because life’s one long learning curve. That’s an excellent response. Thank you. Now, the next question has to do with your beliefs and your values. Can you tell me – just describe to me – your dominant beliefs and values. Any dominant beliefs? It can be about teaching and education, or about life in general. I believe in the intrinsic beauty and value of children. I don’t believe they’ve changed over the years. A lot of people have said that have. I believe in trying to find the best in a person Authentic (Caring) (VO) but, unfortunately, at times, I….. I tend to err the other way and maybe I should be a little more, sort of, giving and - my perspective is probably too old to do that now (laughs). Communicative (Humour) (VI) But, I think the belief in the, in the worth of a person, on the importance of them, on the values that they….. the values they take on board, whether they take them on through learning them themselves, or whether they’re helped…… Um, that is to see themselves as, you know….. I think that the importance they see in themselves comes back to that old statement, “God don’t make no rubbish”. And I think, you know, I’ve sort of used that

Colour code: Blue = Authentic Grey = Committed Green = Communicative Yellow = Creative Pink = Passionate

461

on lots of occasions and, and, you know, I’ve got children to see that whatever you do, there’s something great about you. Authentic (Caring) (VI) Although, sometimes when you look at children, honestly, you do find something very hard to like, but there haven’t been many children like that. But there are some and, I mean, we don’t live in a perfect world, so not every child is perfect. And there are some children who I’ve still yet to find something lovely in them (laughs). Authentic (Caring) (CPO) But, but the philosophy is that everybody, you know….. has a purpose. We’re all here for a purpose, um…. some of us, you know, have to get very old before we realise what that purpose is (laughs)….. and, even then, we’re not too sure. And, um, you know, it’s, it’s of course very hard to get that philosophy across to children – that they’re here for a purpose. So to get them to, uh, to see what they’re good at and enjoy doing it, interact with other people. Philosophy is, if I treat somebody nicely, hopefully they’ll treat me that way or treat other people - you know what the old adage is - as I want to be treated. Authentic (Caring)(IO) That’s the, that’s the whole philosophy and the belief thing that I want to get over to the children. And be the best they can at what they can, and not to compare themselves with other people. Authentic (Caring) (VI) I could see your philosophy in practice in the classes, yesterday, which was delightful. The respect that you have for the children, that they have for each other, that you’ve inculcated, is just lovely. Di, can you tell me – and you have alluded to this, but I’ll ask you specifically – how do you feel about students and children? What are your feelings about children? I love them Passionate (Positive) (VO)– except in school holidays (laughs). You have to line up behind them at movie theatres and I think, “Why are all these kids here!” Communicative (Humour) (VI). Um, I love their openness and their honesty Authentic (Caring) (VO). And, and sometimes people say, “Oh you’re a school teacher because you’re escaping the real world.” And I’m thinking, “Well, I think we’re shaping the world.” We’re shaping the world to come and it’s, it’s the values, the beliefs, the learning styles – Authentic (Reflective) (VI) everything that we do with the children here – that’s the world of tomorrow and that’s what I keep saying to these…… Committed (Purposeful) (II) Because, you know, we’re talking about global warming and I say, “This is your problem, you know, how you’re going to deal with it.” Communicative (Knowledgeable) (II) So, so that’s, that’s what it’s, what it’s all about. That, you know, kids are honest and, and they’ve got a sensitive heart. Committed (Purposeful) (VI) Um, they’ve got all the, all the senses, you know, and you see the negatives and… and sometimes your reactions are not always right. You know, none of us gets it right all the time. But you see… you think, well, you hope you’re sort of showing them a…an alternative, maybe. That there’s a way they can do it, a better way than another way Authentic (Caring) (VI + CPI). But just, you know, the joy of kids and fun and spontaneity in them, I just love. Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VO) + Passionate (Excitable) (VI) Excellent. I can identify very strongly with your response. Can you tell me, just in a nutshell, what you gain personally from teaching? Oh, a sense of satisfaction. Of growth. Um, the feeling that, that when somebody’s having a problem and, all of a sudden, they look at you and they say, “I’ve got it!” You get goose pimples. The, the way that they react with you and towards you is a, a great feeling. And the ones that, that you know that you don’t get on with and you think, well, you know, I don’t get on with that person as well. Passionate (Positive) (VI) +

462

Passionate (Energetic) (VI; CPO) And I know why. Probably they’re too much like me. Authentic (Openness) (CPI) Or, you know, there’s something about them that I can’t warm to. But there’s just a feeling of… that, um….. yeah, satisfaction with sort of doing the job. And I think I’m… I’m pushing the kids. I don’t ….. my standards are very, very high. I’ve been criticised a lot for that – not, not by educational people, but at the home level. Um, my standards are high and I think that’s why I get good responses from the children. If you expect that level (points up high), you’ll get that level. If you expect that level (points down low), you’re gonna get that level. Committed (Purposeful) (VI; CPI; II) And I, I don’t know whether this comes in with this sort of question, but a really important idea is, um……. I’ve said to a lot students that I’ve had, like student teachers – what you need is respect. If you get respect, then they’ll like you. If they like you, it doesn’t necessarily mean they’ll respect you. And I think if you give yourself the chance to show the children that you have something they can respect, and you respect them, you get a much better reaction from them than, “Oh, let’s go and let’s all be jolly, jolly ‘cause we have heaps of fun in here”, but there’s….. you know, they know… they know the boundary and I think that’s important. From respect comes liking, but not necessarily from liking becomes respect. Authentic (Caring) (VI; II) Very wise. If you were to give a beginner teacher – and it’s almost as if you’re reading my mind, here – not a student teacher, but a first year teacher out, some words of wisdom and advice, what would you tell them? Probably what I’ve just said in the last…. Um, get to know, get to know your students. Get them to respect you. Respect them because they’re people. Communicative (Knowledgeable) (VI) + Committed (Purposeful) (IO) Just because you’re the teacher……you are, you are a facilitator; you’re not, you know, not the old type of teacher. Never ever believe that you can get through everything you want to do in any lesson. It doesn’t work that way. Committed (Purposeful) (CPI) There will never be anything that you could call (laughs) a “normal” week, because it doesn’t happen. Communicative (Humour) (VI) But, as a beginning teacher, they all come out bright eyed and bushy tailed, and they’ve got these beautiful programs and “I’m going to do this and this….” If they realize, in the first week, that it doesn’t happen. They’ve got to go by the seat of their pants, but still sit at the end of the day and think, “Well, I’ve done something- I mightn’t have done a lot. Um, the kids have responded and I am gaining their respect.” Authentic (Reflective) (IO; VI) Well, that is the philosophy that I’ve given to all of the, all of the, the student teachers or the beginning teachers that I’ve had. That is excellent advice. Excellent advice, grounded in deep-rooted experience (laughs). Tell me, how do students in your class develop positive values and positive beliefs? From…. hopefully, from my example. From the tone of the school. Um, sometimes, not always from home, which is, which is extremely sad. Committed (Purposeful) (II) And I’ve noticed that more as the years have gone on. But, we try to do what we can here, with being positive. Get the children to see the purpose in life. Um, get them to value themselves and value each other. Value what they do. Um, get them to see what they’re doing is worthwhile, so long as it’s their best. Again, treating others as they would be treated. I think that’s, that’s important. And also, the way we treat them – again, as I’ve said, you know, you can’t sort of demand respect if you’re not respecting the children. And it’s also how the staff interact, as well. If the staff are getting along, getting along fine, the children are great at sensing that. Authentic (Caring) (VO; II;

463

CPI; SI) So, if you’ve got an, an harmonious staff, as we have here, um…. you know, we’ve got our glitches, Committed (Motivated) (CPI) as any, any group of adults would have….. but the children see me laughing with Mrs Sheeman and giving another teacher a bit of a nudge, the children realize that “Oo, it’s OK to do that. We’ve got a happy staff.” And that sort of flows on to the children. Committed (Motivated) (VI; IO) That’s so true. Now, this next question I think is quite an interesting one. What do you think is more important: marks for the content – getting the high marks; or student motivation; or enjoyment; or something else? What do you think is the most important? Like when you’re doing a project? Ah, yes. Any sort of work – yes. The most important thing is the, the application. The student gets into the work. And when they look at the work, they say to themselves, “This is the best that I’ve done.” That’s far more important than an actual, an actual mark. Um, unfortunately, because we live in such a competitive society, a child will look and say, “Well I’ve got a C and so-and-so has got a B, therefore my work is not as good.” Committed (Motivated) (VO; CPO) And that’s something I’ve really – all the years I’ve been teaching, I’ve said, “If C is your best, and B is your best, that’s good enough for me. So, therefore, it’s, it’s good enough for you.” Authentic (Caring + Empathic) (VI; II) So, the actual mark, in itself, is not the important…. It, it is important in the context, but the attitude and the, the willingness to complete the task the best, the best way they possibly can - that’s more important. The mark is, is like the end result. Committed (Purposeful) (VI) And that annoys me because the philosophy of the primary school is you’re teaching the children to be independent learners, and you’re teaching them that, you know, go and research here and do this, and well done. And all of a sudden they get to high school and there’s the textbook and they’re given all those exams and at the end of their high school days, they’re graded on, on marks. Passionate (Energetic) (VI; II) You know, that’s been a soapbox thing of mine for years and have… something that will have to be addressed, um, and that’s where the marks are important. So we’re giving the children two different messages: leave primary school; I can do this. Then, all of a sudden, they get that textbook, they have to work out of that textbook, um… you know, this is obviously, maybe, where middle school is going to come in and, and I may be out of my league with some of those problems. Passionate (Enthusiastic) (CPO) I haven’t done much research, but the mark is, is important in it’s way and relative, but it’s the way the child attacks the task and the way they feel about it when they’ve finished and my response, and the rest of the class’s response that’s important. Passionate (Energetic + Enthusiastic) (VO) Very wise answer. Thank you for that. What are your views about strategies for managing student diversity? And we’re talking not just about academic ability, but different personalities, learning styles, home backgrounds and so on. Right. Strategy, first of all, is to learn as much as you can about the student before you, you have them. Strategy is also ask the parents to communicate, Communicative (Knowledgeable) (VI; II; SO) + Committed (Purposeful) (VI; II; SO) as much as they can, ah, because things that go on at home – without us wanting to be sticky beaks – if we know there is something at home, then we can act accordingly. Strategies, ah, to create the atmosphere where the children want to learn, where the children feel

464

comfortable, where they feel happy to express themselves. Authentic (Caring) (II) And the most important strategy to have in a classroom, I believe, is humour. Um, if ....you know, there’s not enough laughter in the world and I think if we put a, a lot of humour into situations when it’s relevant and applicable, um, a child who is laughing has a much better response, takes in more information, um, and I just, I just think humour is an integral part – it’s an integral part of life. Communicative (Humour) (VO; IO) But then, of course, the thing is to know the balance when things stop becoming funny and go to the ridiculous. Communicative (Humour) (CPO) And that I guess that is just a strategy learnt by teachers how to control that. Different children react in different ways. But learn what you can about the children before you have them. And then, I guess it’s a little bit intuitive, too because children develop in different ways. But if you know about them, they know about you, they know that you’ve got a sense of humour, they know what you…… show them the boundaries. You know how far you can go. Communicative (Knowledge) (II) Yes, we can go there. Wow, we have lots of fun. Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VI) As soon as you step over the boundaries, there’s the consequence. Technically, you shouldn’t have too many problems (laughs). Very good response. Thank you. What are the things that you would like to be remembered for as a teacher? That I got the best I could out of the children. Um, that they enjoyed being in my class. Passion (Enthusiastic) (VO) Um, respect. Authentic (Caring) (VO) Sense of humour Communicative (Humour)(VO). The fact that they know things about me not totally related to, to teaching. Like the coffee, the golf and the gin and the dog. And the fact that, whenever I saw them in out of the school situation, they would acknowledge – say “Hello”, “Do you remember me?” Want to tell me about the things they’ve been doing since they’ve been in my class. That’s, that’s very special. Authentic (Openness) (VI) But I think a sense of humour and, and that Communicative (Humour) (VO)…..perhaps that I helped them somewhere. Authentic (Caring) (VO) And they did learn a lot of things. Learnt to do things. Um, and know they could always come up to Mrs G and. and have a chat at any time. You use humour beautifully. What are some of your hobbies and some of the things that you like doing outside of school, if you have time? Right, well, of course, I love golf. That’s a passion of mine. Um, I like reading. Love reading but don’t have time because of all the work. I have my family: two sons, granddaughter, husband – not necessarily in that, that order of importance. dog. Um, walking. Not into the gardening. Would play the piano if I had more time. Will do that when I get to be older and leave this job. But, mainly, I love, love sport Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VO). I played a lot of sport, but now I’ve only got time for the golf. So it would probably be golf and reading and going to movies and relaxing. That’s about it. But golf. It’s wonderful. You and Deanna need to get together. We do, believe me. Form a team. That’s wonderful. Can you comment on how events and circumstances within the community and even beyond – within the world – affect your teaching?

465

Well, I guess because I’ve got a senior primary class and I’m encouraging them to think beyond their house and their town, Creative (Original) (VI; IO) um, the effects….. the things that are happening in the world are, are very important to them because they need to know what’s happening, warts and all. Um, they… because, you know, very, very quickly this is going to be the world in which they live. So, there needs to be some sort of a preparation for that. Committed (Purposeful) (VI) So, you know, they, they can’t see themselves as, as just being insular. This is why we have “News”. You know, we have personal news and then we have world news to get them to see that there is a big world out there, um, and they are part of a community, a part of a small community. Communicative (Knowledgeable) (SO) + Communicative (Listener)(VI) Increasingly, they are going to be part of a global community. So, the insular person who really doesn’t want to get involved is, is probably going to have a, a pretty miserable sort of a life. Now, when you’ve got some students who are …. you’d call them perhaps the, the gifted and talented ones who tend to go off by themselves and do their own thing – there’s always going to be people like that. But what we have to do here, and this is something that I’m trying to work on at - well next year, I hope, with the new principal - is to get to see them… see how they can fit into society. Not necessarily “fit”, but make society a more pleasant place for them to be and accepted because they are different. Because they have these skills. Communicative (Engagement) (VI; II; SI) And I think we do that very well here. We’ve got, like we’ve got – I’m waffling along – we’ve got a boy in the class who’s absolutely incredible. He can tell you anything about the history of the kings and queens and Queen Elizabeth the 1st….. oh, he’s – it’s just a pity he’s not here this week. Absolutely amazing! Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VI) And he chats and we talk about North Korea. And he’s brought the other children on board and I realized, you know, the problem with North Korea and the refugee problem. So, I think that’s part of my job – to get these children to see that they are part of a big world, um, and it will impact on them and it’s not always going to be pleasant. Committed (Purposeful + Motivated) (VO; IO) We’ve done a study of water. They’ve realized the droughts and things and how important that is. We’ve done the Antarctic and they realize, you know, the effect of global warming and all that sort of stuff. Ah, we’ve done the cane toad. Committed (Purposeful) (IO) So, we’ve done a lot of things that have incorporated the world, um, and I think we really need to start doing in Years 5 and 6 ‘cause they’re ready for it and they need to be exposed. So, yes, that’s what we’ve done. Wonderful. So you’re relating what you’re teaching to the real world. It’s not just a bunch of theory and useless information. I’m not too fussed on a lot of theory, I’m afraid, over, you know, all these years…..I’ve sort of…… I believe that….. when I started teaching, there were things I did and philosophies I that I had that I still do and I….. philosophies I still keep. You know, the…… good old things like, uh, some rote learning. You know, the theorists will now say, “Oh, my goodness gracious me.” If you make that fun, like we do, Creative (Problem-solving) (VI; II) it has it’s place. You know, Bloom and Gardner and all those people – yes, I work well with those. They’ve also got things, but we still have to have a balance. And I think the, the important thing is to, is to take what works. If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it. But that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t be able to, to look into new ways and new means for doing things. You know, you’re always doing that. Committed (Motivated) (VI) If you’ve got something that works and you know it works, there’s no reason why you can’t incorporate that in some way without feeling that you’re still teaching in the, you know, in the 50s or the 60s. And I think that’s been

466

my, that’s been my philosophy. But, always look for a new or a, you know, an interesting way to do it. And even if you’ve got, like, the same class – like I had Year 6 at St James – for 18 years and I never, ever felt that we got stale because you had a different group of children every year. The only, the only thing the same was the same old face at the front. But, you have the same subjects, the same things. But you’re always looking – let’s just do this a little bit differently. Creative (Originality) (VI; II) Let’s do this just a different way to, to work with the group of kids that you have. So, it’s up to us as teachers to just keep that, that one step ahead, but realize that what was good – don’t throw the baby out with the bath water. You know, Di, the fact that you’ve been teaching for 40 years and you’re still so open to learning, to change, to doing what is needed for the sake of the children – it’s just inspirational. It is wonderful. Um, what are some of your goals for the future? And this can relate to teaching or to life, in general. I’d like to keep teaching here, till the end of my career. I’m not sure when that is. But my goal will be to finish teaching, not when I feel I’ve had enough but when I feel I can do more. Because that wouldn’t be fair to the students that I was teaching if I thought, “Gosh, I’ve only got six more months to, to wait.” Authentic (Caring) (VI) So I want to, to go out feeling that, that I can still do more. Um, I want to travel. I want to go to all the golf courses in the world. I want to watch my granddaughter grow up. I want to see my sons, you know, live a long and happy life. But, look back – I want to keep abreast of what’s happening in the educational field and go “Tut, tut, tut – we didn’t do that in my day” (laughs) Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VI) or “Oh, my goodness gracious me” which I do now, as well. Uh, I think the most important thing is I want to leave, you know, I want to leave here on top. When I do leave, I’m going to leave. I’m not going to do casual or anything like that. I’ll leave with, with absolutely no regrets. Um, I’ve been a class teacher. I’ve been Executive. I’ve been there and done that. Wasn’t my…. you know, I did it, I was happy to do it, uh, but….. when the, you know, position of principal came up my husband wanted me to do that. I said, “No thank you. I love to be with the kids.” Passionate (Enthusiastic + Positive) (VO) So I’m not going to leave with any regrets that I didn’t, sort of, climb the Executive tree. I, I got up where I wanted to be and I decided that the classroom was where…..was that I’m just going to look back and think, well, you know, if I could write a book, I could blackmail lots of parents! But I don’t think I’ll do that. Um, I wish I’d have kept a book over 40 years of the things the children said, because they wouldn’t believe it. I just feel that, um, as far as being a professional, um, and an educator. I hope I, I’ve touched lives and, you know, as I drive down the 18th fairway thinking, “Well, this is now where I want to be” and I’m really happy if the kids that I’ve taught will still say, “Oh, I know that little old, white haired, old lady (laughs) who, you know, taught us in Year 5 or Year 6” will still recognize me and just be happy to say hello. And I’ll die happy. Authentic (Reflective + Openness) (VI) You have referred to the fact that you knew from the age of 3, from when you were just a little girl that you were going to become a teacher. Can you tell me a little bit more about the formal decision to become a teacher and the influences that there may have been acting on that decision? Um, that’s interesting. I don’t know if there were any, any formal decisions. When I look back on my own schooling, um, I wouldn’t say there were any teachers that, that stood out, um, for me to say, “Wow, when I get to be a teacher, I want to be like that!”

467

Perhaps I had, um, my, um, English teacher in senior high school was a Mr Hawk. Gorgeous man and he instilled even more of a love of literature into my life, which I think it’s been the underpinning of my teaching Passionate (Enthusiastic + Excitability) (VO) – more literature, you know, rather than, say, Maths or the, or the other subjects. But I mean, if you’re not literate you’re not anything, anyway. Um, and I, I…. I would just…. just sort of went to school. Did the best I could. I was always sort of fairly able, thank goodness, so I never struggled. So I guess I was lucky there. And the, the fact that, um, in my family situation I had to – my mother died when I was young – and, um, didn’t have the most pleasant of childhoods, Authentic (Openness) (VI) I suppose, and I, I just sort of became fairly self reliant, resilient. Committed (Resilient) (VI) And thought, “Well, this is what I’m going to do. I’m not, you know……my aim is to get the Leaving Certificate; is to get the scholarship into Teacher’s College. Pack myself off there. So, I guess it was just…. it’s hard to define because it’s just what I always wanted to do. There was no other thought of doing anything else and, and I just sort of….. I just went ahead and, and did it. It…. I’ve sort of probably never been asked that question before, but it…. I just couldn’t see myself, you know, doing any….. doing anything else. That’s just where I….. where I wanted to be and, and I suppose I was lucky that, you know, in the situation that, um, you know, I was able follow the goals, as I say, to go to high school. Committed (Purposeful) (VI; IO) At least have a…. not a stable home, but, you know, where I was…. I was able to study. I didn’t have any other, um, distractions. Um, was able to go and play all my sports. So I was balanced there. Had a great time at Teacher’s College and, um…. but it just…. I suppose it just happened. Silly statement isn’t it, but I just….. You know, Di, we’ve almost come to the end of, um, our interview and it has been delightful. Is there anything about teaching, in particular – teaching and learning – that we haven’t really looked at, that you think is important and you’d like to include as a comment in this interview? Um, okay, probably……well… putting my, my professional hat on, because I get very, um….. I get very possessive about, about the profession and I’m thinking, I’m sad in a way that I think our reputation has been diminished over the years, by groups of people perhaps not doing the right thing for the right reason. Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VI) But, I think we, we as a profession have to be honest to ourselves. And we’re always talking about this quality teaching and quality learning. To have quality teaching, you must have the quality teachers. And I think – no, I don’t think, I believe that we’re not being terribly honest in ourselves – and I’ve seen this over the forty years – where I’ve come across teachers who I felt, um, haven’t really come to the mark. Authentic (Openness) (VO) Um, and I think we really need to look – and this is obviously what, what you’re doing – we need to look how we deal with these teachers. Authentic (Reflective) (VI; II) We’ve got young teachers coming out now, they’re coming out of university, ah, they’ve got all the theory. I don’t believe they have enough, enough practicums. I don’t believe that the teachers who look after them, in some cases, are honest enough to say to them, “Hey, you really need to be a Woollies checkout chic rather than a teacher.” There are people who are in the job for the holidays, not necessarily for the pay (laughs) and the hours. But it does concern me that, that if we’re talking about quality teaching, we have to have things in place and we have to have guts enough to stand up and say to somebody, “You’ve got a problem here. We need to fix it, um, or perhaps you need to be thinking of another job.” Authentic (Openness) (VI; II) Now that still sounds all very grandiose for me, but I do see that, I do see that as a major problem. You have to be able to tell a person…. because, if you’re out – as my

468

husband calls it – the “real” world and somebody’s not doing their job properly, they’re told. They go. They get the flick. But in the education system, we tend to tolerate mediocrity and it’s at the expense of the children. It’s at the expense of the school. And, unfortunately, at times it’s at the expense of that person. Authentic (Caring) (VI) And I think, therefore, we need really, really good mentors. And even somebody who….. who’s a professional mentor. Who could go around schools and look at these teachers who are having some trouble, ah, or not just quite gelling with the children. I think that’d be a wonderful idea, actually, because it’s very hard to get a, a teacher to be a mentor as well as teaching. Committed (Motivated) (VI; II; SI) You can have him come and look at you and say, “Well, this is what I do. It mightn’t necessarily.” We really need to be on that, on that bandwagon of, of working out how we deal with teachers who are not up to the mark and, and do things accordingly because, as I say, they wouldn’t be allowed in normal business. They shouldn’t be allowed. And if they’re not professional enough to be sort of exposed to, “Well look, you know….. maybe you need to work on this. You need this.” Well, I don’t think they’re professional enough to be teachers because this is my life and it’s got to be the best. Passionate (Enthusiastic) (VI; CPI) Di, I just want to thank you for sharing your breadth of experience and wonderful wisdom. It is a privilege to include you in the case study of exceptional teachers interacting with students.

469

Appendix I

List of All NVivo Coded Free Nodes

470 Name Sources References Academic goals achieved creatively 2 2

Achievement without rapport 1 1

Administration needs to be supportive of staff 1 1

Administration seen as conflict solving 1 1

Advice to new teachers 6 7

Ask for help 1 1

Assessments flexible 1 1

Authentic 2 2

Bad teachers 3 4

Balance needed 1 1

Becoming a teacher 6 9

Becoming a teacher a bad experience 4 6

Becoming a teacher an epiphany in 3rd world country 1 1

Beliefs and values should permeate curriculum 1 1

Beliefs are important 2 2

Beliefs of teacher 1 1

Benefitted from year off after school 1 1

Bright students work with themselves 1 1

Broad Educational Goals 2 8

Bullying 1 1

Christian values 3 4

Class management a problem 1 1

Class management issues 1 1

Clear decision to be a teacher 1 1

Closing comments 3 3

Combine methods 2 4

Committed 3 3

Competition can be harmful 1 1

Confidence needed for students to succeed 1 2

Conflict family and work 2 3

Content capable takes 5-7 years 1 1

Content takes precedence over culture 2 2

Critical of curriculum 1 1

Critical of existing values education 1 1

Critical of Teacher Education at Uni 1 1

Cultural needs too difficult for classroom teachers 1 1

Current events outside school 3 3

Curriculum stretched _takes opportunity to learn 1 2

Curriculum to be seen and experienced as an integrated whole 1 1

Decision to be a teacher influenced by 2 2

Depression 1 1

Differences in what students learn 1 1

471 Differentiated learning practised 4 13

Differentiation a myth 1 2

Difficult students a reality 2 2

Diversity in the classroom 6 6

Don't hold grudges 2 2

Enjoying learning 4 6

Enjoying teaching important 2 4

Enjoyment must be purposeful 3 3

Enjoys teaching 2 2

Entered teaching with a purpose to make a difference 1 1

Every child can learn 2 2

Every child special 2 2

Exceptional teachers 1 1

Excursions important 1 1

Experience important 2 3

Experienced good and bad teachers 2 2

External influences on teaching 3 3

Family affects teaching negatively 3 5

Family influences 1 1

Feelings 2 3

Feelings about children 1 2

Feels valued 1 1

Fierce focus on becoming a teacher 2 2

Finds teaching challenging 1 1

First time asked about values 1 1

Flexibility not necessarily diminished with age 1 1

Formula for success as a teacher 1 1

Frustration 3 3

Fun 3 5

Future as teacher 1 1

Future Goals 7 7

Good and bad teachers should be identified 2 2

Good with gifted children 1 1

Group work 2 4

Health and wellbeing 1 1

Hidden curriculum important when judging a school 1 1

High marks but not enjoying school 1 1

High marks but not enjoying school 1 1

Highly intelligent 1 1

Highs and lows in teaching 2 2

Home room important 1 1

How to know students 1 1

Human Rights 1 1

472 Human side of teaching important 3 4

Ideas not all original, come from many sources 1 1

Incongruity between primary and high schools 1 1

Individual needs met intuitively not planned 2 2

Intelligence needed by teacher 1 1

Involved in school life 1 3

Knowledge of students important 1 1

Knows students 2 2

Learn from daily experiences 1 1

Learning styles 2 4

Learnt from inspired peers 2 3

Lifelong learning 5 6

Liking a subject is important 1 1

Love of subject 2 2

Loves being with children NOT loves children 1 2

Loves children 1 1

Loves teaching 3 4

Lower ability students need help 1 1

Magical_Memorable moments 1 1

Marks irrelevant 1 1

Management style 1 1

Marks and assessment tasks 2 2

Marks and Enjoyment 4 4

Marks debilitating in Middle School 1 1

Marks important 4 7

Marks not most important 7 8

Marks to be kept in perspective 6 9

Mastery important 1 1

Mentors valued 3 6

Motivation important 2 3

Need to be challenged 1 2

Need to be engaged 1 1

Negative about future prospects as teacher 1 1

Network of friends 1 1

New experience every day 1 1

No patience with weak students 1 2

Non discrimination 1 1

Nurturing new teachers is important 1 1

Observe_Listen to other teachers 1 1

Openness 3 3

Out of school interests - values 10 11

Parental understanding important 1 1

Parents involved 2 3

473 Passion 2 8

Passion and Fun 1 1

Peer relationships 2 4

Personal Experience 2 6

Personal goals 1 1

Perspective important for coping 1 1

Positive thinking important in Students 1 2

Practice important 1 1

Presents own values 1 1

Primary school teachers important 2 2

PRIORITY VALUES 0 0

Proactive in creating teaching environment 1 1

Quality Teaching 1 1

Range of teachers as models 1 1

Rapport must be worked on 2 2

Realistic but optimistic view of students 2 4

Reasons for being a teacher 2 2

Relationships important 2 2

Resilience needed 2 3

Respect is earned 2 2

Responsibilities outside syllabus 1 1

Retired teachers a valuable resource 1 1

Rewards of teaching 6 9

Risk taking in teaching 1 2

Safe room 1 1

School affects family 1 1

School as community 1 2

School as family 2 2

Schools should not be judged on academic results alone 1 1

Secondary Teaching preference 1 1

Self concepts of students important 5 8

Self motivation 1 2

Self Reflection 7 13

Self-fulfilling prophecy 1 1

Sets Standards 1 1

Settling period into teaching 1 1

Skills important 1 1

Skills more important than syllabuses 1 1

Social network 1 1

Some students get low marks but love school 1 1

Special moments in a lesson 1 2

Stress 3 3

Student self direction 1 3

474 Students evaluate teachers 1 1

Students treated as individuals 5 12

Students valued 2 3

Success needs to be experienced 2 3

Support left to support teachers 1 1

Teacher burnout 1 1

Teacher evaluation unsatisfactory 1 1

Teacher influence 1 1

Teacher stay motivated 1 1

Teachers need to stay challenged 1 1

Teachers not an influence to become a teacher 1 1

Teachers resistant to change 1 1

Teaching as a means of income 2 2

Teaching is a complex act 2 2

Teaching is a learning experience for teacher 1 1

Teaching is a lifestyle 1 2

Teaching is about empowering students 2 2

Teaching is about inspiring learners 1 1

Teaching is caring and sharing 2 2

Teaching not first choice 2 2

Teaching seen as ministry 2 3

Teaching style not suited to weak students 1 1

Teaching values 6 8

Technological competence_content mastery essential 2 2

Think like students 1 2

Travel overseas 2 2

Understands students 2 7

Values taught by Being 4 6

Values teaching done intuitively_no planning 1 1

Values to be stabilised at school 1 1

Wants to be remembered for 3 3

Wants to be remembered for_2 4 4

Willing to learn 1 2

Work quality needs quality relationship 1 1

Young teacher burnout 1 1