Evolution of Çan-Etili (Çanakkale-NW Turkey) lignite basin: Sedimentology, petrology, palynology and lignite characterization

Original Research

Evolution of Çan-Etili (Çanakkale-NW Turkey) lignite basin: Sedimentology,petrology, palynology and lignite characterization

Mustafa Bozcu a, Funda Akgün b, Gülbin Gürdal a, Ayşe Bozcu a,n, Sevinç Kapan Yeşilyurt a, Öznur Karaca a,M. Serkan Akkiraz c

a Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, Terzioğlu Campus, 17100 Çanakkale, Turkeyb Dokuz Eylül University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, Tınaztepe Campus, 35397 Buca-İzmir, Turkeyc Dumlupınar University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, Merkez Campus, Kütahya, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 1 October 2012Received in revised form10 February 2015Accepted 3 March 2015

Keywords:Çan-Etili basin (NW Turkey)LigniteÇan formationSedimentologyPalinology

a b s t r a c t

This study examines the development and sedimentology of Çan-Etili lignite basin in Biga Peninsula(NW Turkey) along with the palynologic and petrographic properties of the coals in this region. The Çan-Etili lignite basin discordantly overlies Oligocene-aged Çan volcanics. The basin consists of caldera typesedimentation developed by the combined effects of volcanism and tectonics. The volcanic rocks formingthe basement of the basin consist of andesitic, dacitic and basaltic lava flows as well as agglomerates, tuffand silicified tuffs, and kaolin which is their alteration product. The basement volcanic rocks cooled fromhigh potassium and calc-alkaline magma. The trace element geochemistry of different rocks within thevolcanics reveals that they are from a volcanic arc. The Çan Formation contains lignites and consists of6 lithofacies representing alluvial, fluvial, marsh and lacustrine environments. These lithofacies are thelower volcanogenic conglomerate, the claystone, the lignite, the laminated organic claystone, the tuffintercalated sandstone–siltstone and the upper volcanogenic conglomerate. The lignite in the basin islimnic and is formed in a non-fluvial marsh and marsh-lake environment. An abundant percentage ofvegetation (Engelhardia, Sapotaceae, Cyrillaceae) is compatible with temperate and subtropical climaticconditions in the basin during sedimentation of lignite.The coals of Çan-Etili basin are humic with highsulfur content (6–6.5% average) mostly containing huminite compounds belonging to the class of lignite-low bituminous (C-A) coal. Their coalification rank is between 0.38% and 0.56% Ro. The coals are formedin limnic-limnotelmatic marsh zones based on their microlithotype components. The inorganiccomponents of the coal mostly consist of pyrite and clay. The trace elements, As, Th, U and V, arehigher than international coal standards. The coal quality is adversely affected by high sulfur content andsulfur driven trace element enrichments. The lignite reserve (possible-proved) of Çan-Etili basin isgreater than a hundred million tons, and the average coal seam thickness is 17 m. The lignite productionin the basin is 3 mt/year and 1.8 million tons of this are used in the local thermal power plant.& 2015 International Research and Training Centre on Erosion and Sedimentation/the World Association

for Sedimentation and Erosion Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Generally, continental clastics and lacustrine sediments, as well asvolcanic and volcano-clastic rocks, accumulated in depressions thatformed in western and northwestern Anatolia during the Neogene.These continental sediments, and volcano-clastic rocks, also containsignificant amounts of coal, bituminous shale, uranium, kaolinite andsilex beds.

There are significant lignite formations that accumulated in NNE-WSW-oriented fluvial and lacustrine basins in the Biga Peninsula.

Among them are the Lapseki-Şevketiye coals, which include UpperOligocene-aged fossil communities and palynomorphs (Akkiraz et al.,2009), while other basins (e.g., Çan-Etili, Yenice-Kalkım) contain nofossils other than palynomorphs, leaves and some freshwater fish.

The Çan-Etili basin is an approximately NE-SW oval-shapeddepression to the north of the Kazdağ High in the Biga Peninsula(Fig. 1). This basin, contains significant economic reserves of lignite,and has geomorphological and sedimentological differences fromother lignite bearing basins. The Çan-Etili basin was formed duringEarly-Middle Miocene, is approximately 35 km long and 8–10 kmwide, and is geographically located 200–250m below its surroundingareas. Generally, the coal seam, included in sediments consisting offluviatile and lacustrine clastics and volcano-clastics, has a thickness of17 m on average, and locally varies between 0 and 38m.

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International Journal of Sediment Research

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2015.03.0091001-6279/& 2015 International Research and Training Centre on Erosion and Sedimentation/the World Association for Sedimentation and Erosion Research. Published byElsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

n Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Bozcu).

Please cite this article as: Bozcu, M., et al. Evolution of Çan-Etili (Çanakkale-NW Turkey) lignite basin: Sedimentology, petrology,palynology and lignite characterization. International Journal of Sediment Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2015.03.009i

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The initial surveys for lignite bearing units in the Çan-Etili basinwere initiated by the Turkish General Directorate of MineralResearch and Exploration (MTA) studies in 1957 (Bayraktar &Özcan, 1983; Hezarfen, 1976; Özcanoğlu, 1962; Wedding, 1957).These surveys revealed a significant lignite potential, and variousreserve data were established using drill hole and surface datataken from different sections of the basin (Özcanoğlu, 1962; Özen,Aydın, Karaca, & Zaman, 2003). However, the investigations wereonly based on prospecting and surveys in limited areas. Therefore,the correlation of the stratigraphic positions of the units formingthe sedimentary fill of the basin, and total lignite potential couldnot be completed. Also, since drilling was concentrated in anarrow and limited area, the total lignite potential in the basincould not be fully identified. The drillhole exploration concen-trated on an area of approximately 7.5–8 km2, where open-pitmining by Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKI) has been operating since1972. However, the lignite-bearing Çan Formation occupies morethan 80 km2. Age assessments for the lignite-bearing Çan Forma-tion in the Çan-Etili basin include the following: Ülkümen (1960)suggested that the formation was formed by freshwater lakesediments of Neogene age; Özcanoğlu (1962) suggested that it isUpper Pliocene; Bayraktar and Özcan (1983) suggested that it isUpper Miocene–Pliocene; Siyako, Bürkan, and Okay (1989) sug-gested that it is Middle Miocene (Burdigalian–Early Serravalian);and Ediger (1990) suggested that it is Early-Middle Miocene basedon palynomorphs obtained from the unit.

In this study, a detailed geological map of the region of scale1/25,000 was prepared (Fig. 2). The stratigraphy and sedimento-logical properties of the Çan-Etili basin were determined alongstratigraphic sections measured at different locations in the basin.The measurements of the sections focused on geometry, lithofa-cies, fossil content (flora and fauna) and sedimentary structure ofthe units observed. The petrographic properties, as well aspalynological and paleobotanical properties, of the lignite bearingÇan Formation were studied, and results about the age, paleocli-matic conditions and depositional model of the unit are presentedfor the first time in this paper.

2. Regional geology

The Çan-Etili basin is located to the north of the Kazdağ High inBiga Peninsula in NWAnatolia (Fig. 1a). Rock groups of different originand age outcrop in the Biga Peninsula. The basement is formed by theKazdağ Group (Bingöl, Akyürek, & Korkmazer, 1973). The lithologiesforming the Kazdağ Group basically consist of Paleozoic-aged gneiss,amphibolite, meta-diorite, marble and quartzite as well as meta-dunite, meta-harzburgite, meta-serpentinite, and meta-gabbro. Thetop unit of the Kazdağ Group in the Biga Peninsula is formed bydetrital carbonates, consisting of meta-sandstone, sandy marble, chertnodule marble and dolomitic marble.

This basement is overlain with a tectonic contact by the KarakayaComplex, consisting of Triassic-aged meta-basite, meta-tuff, meta-pelite, and recrystallized limestone (Okay, Siyako, & Bürkan, 1990).

An Upper Cretaceous ophiolitic mélange (Çetmi ophioliticmélange; Okay et al., 1990) is located on the western and north-western flanks of the Kazdağ High over the Kazdağ Group andKarakaya Complex (Fig. 1a). The Çetmi ophiolitic mélange consistsof serpentinized harzburgite, dunite and gabbro, diabase andspilitic basalt. Furthermore, mudstone with radiolarite, chert andpelagic limestone beds form the matrix of the unit.

Very thick (more than 2500 m) magmatic rocks with differentchemical compositions were formed in the region during theCenozoic (Ercan, Satır, Sevin, & Türkecan, 1996; Siyako et al.,1989). Some of these magmatic rocks have indented contacts withsediments that formed synchronously. Eocene marine clastics andlimestones are the major sedimentary rocks, while andesite,dacite, trachyandesite, and rhyodacite, products of calc-alkalinevolcanism form indented contacts with these sediments. Moremagmatic activity is observed in the region in the Oligo-Mioceneperiod, and shallow granites as well as granodioritic rocks (Evciler,Kestanbol, Karabiga, Kuşçayırı, Ilıca-Şamlı, Nevruz-Çakırova gran-ites and granodiorites) formed during this period. Lavas withandesite, dacite, rhyodacite, and trachyandesite, components, aswell as tuff agglomerates and ignimbrites which are assumed to berelated to these granitic and granodioritic intrusions, also formed

Fig. 1. Geological map and generalized stratigraphic column of the Biga Peninsula (modified from Okay et al. (1990), Ercan et al. (1995), Okay et al. (1996), Duru, Pehlivan,Senturk, Yavaş, & Kar (2004)).

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267514401_Geology_and_tectonic_evolution_of_the_Biga_Peninsula_Northwest_Turkey?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267514290_Tertiary_Geology_and_hydrocarbon_potential_of_the_Biga_and_Gelibolu_peninsulas?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==


(Ercan et al., 1995; Genç, 1998; Yılmaz, Genç, Karacık, &Altunkaynak, 2001).

Terrestrial sediments, which are discordant with volcanic rocks,developed in the region during the Early-Middle Miocene. Theseconsist of bituminous shales, coal intercalated claystones, sand-stones and tuffs (Fig. 1b). Conglomerate, sandstone, shale andlimestone levels are of Upper Miocene–Pliocene age. During theUpper Miocene shallow marine sandstone, gravel, shale, marl andoolitic limestone with lateral and vertical transitions to thesesediments formed (Siyako et al., 1989).

More volcanic activity starts in the region towards the end ofthe Late Miocene, and alkaline basalt intrudes along young faultsthat formed due to extensional tectonics, or the strike-slip tectonicregime during that period (Aldanmaz, 2002; Aldanmaz, Köprübaşı,Gürer, Kaymakçı, & Gourgaud, 2006; Yılmaz et al., 2001).

3. Geological setting

The basement of the Çan-Etili basin is formed by the UpperCretaceous Çetmi ophiolite mélange (Okay et al., 1990), and theunit consists of basic volcanic rocks, pyroclastics, Triassic-Jurassicand Cretaceous aged blocks, and rarely serpentine blocks. Thematrix of the blocks observed within the unit is formed bymaroon-colored mudstone, radiolarite chert and micritic lime-stone lenses and levels (Okay et al., 1990). The Çetmi ophiolitemelange is overlain by the Çan volcanics (Ercan et al., 1995). In thisstudy, the volcanic units were divided into 5 litho-stratigraphicunits by considering their contact relationships, alteration, andlithology (Figs. 2 and 3).

The lignite-bearing sedimentary units are caldera fill thatdeveloped on these volcanic rocks. These consist of the ÇanFormation (Hezarfen, 1976), and the Kulfa Formation (Balkış &

Yazıcı, 1996). The Çan Formation overlies the volcanics discor-dantly. It consists of heterogeneous lithologies such as conglom-erate, sandstone, claystone, lignite, organic claystone, agglomerate,tuff, tuffite, etc. (Fig. 4). The Kulfa Formation outcrops in a smallarea of the Çan-Etili basin and consists of fluvial fan sediments.However, the existence of sandstone with carbonate cement andgypsum-bearing marl and claystone in the lower parts of the unitindicates local fluvial and lacustrine environments (Figs. 2 and 3).

3.1. Stratigraphy

3.1.1. Çan FormationThe Neocene-aged sediments in the study area were mapped

for the first time and called the “Çan Formation” by Hezarfen(1976). The formation mainly consists of heterogeneous litholo-gies, and includes conglomerate, sandstone, claystone, lignite,organic claystone, agglomerate, tuff, and tuffite (Fig. 4).

Profiles were taken at various locations in the basin to identifythe lateral variation of the lignite and characteristics of thelithologies forming the Çan Formation. The profiles were takenat four different localities (I–IV) shown in Fig. 2. The Çan Forma-tion has a thickness between 60 and 270 m on average.

The Çan Formation is best observed at TKİ Çan Lignite Enter-prises (Area I in Fig. 2). At this location, it is possible to see alllithologies of the formation in both stripping steps and drilling. Sixdifferent facies have been distinguished in the Çan Formation frombottom to top, as a result of field study and examination of drillcores (Fig. 4). The unit discordantly overlies the altered volcanicsbelow with a thin layer of conglomerates. The clastic elementsforming the gravel are generally angular and poorly graded. All ofthe gravels were derived from volcanic rocks, and include andesite,basalt, dacite, and rhyodacite. The size of the gravel varies between2 and 60 cm. Blocks with diameters of 1–2 m also exist locally. This

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Çan–Etili region. (Modified from Bozcu et al. (2008) and Gürdal and Bozcu (2011).)

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249057728_Mantle_Source_Characteristics_of_Alkali_Basalts_and_Basanites_in_an_Extensional_Intracontinental_Plate_Setting_Western_Anatolia_Turkey_Implications_for_Multistage_Melting?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223241609_Two_contrasting_magmatic_associations_of_NW_Anatolia_and_their_tectonic_significance?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

gravel level corresponds to an alluvial fan and flood level facies(Blair & McPherson, 1994). The matrix of this loosely cementedlevel is formed by sand, clay and silt sized fine clastic particles. Thegravel is overlain by sandstone and claystone with a gradation of

particle sizes. The claystone is dark gray, blackish green in colorand has a slippery surface. The claystone layer is overlain by alignite level, which starts with brown and black opaque lignite,and grades upward into bright lignite with an average thickness of

Fig. 3. Generalized columnar section of the study area.






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259051696_Blair_T._C.__McPherson_J._G.__Alluvial_fans_and_their_natural_distinction_from_rivers_based_on_morphology_hydraulic_processes_sedimentary_processes_and_facies_assemblages._Journal_of_Sedimentary_Research_A64?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

about 17 m (Fig. 5a). This level was deposited in a low energylacustrine and coastal marsh environment. The coal level is over-lain by dark gray, greenish (khaki) thinly-laminated claystone richin organic substances. The claystone is thinly layered, and lami-nated at all locations where the formation outcrops (Fig. 5b).Pyrite and gypsum crystals are observed locally in theseclaystones.

The greenish gray claystone is overlain by an interval startingwith a pink mudstone, which quickly changes to a coarse con-glomerate with boulders (Fig. 5c). The main material of thesepoorly stratified coarse clastics consists of volcanic rocks, withandesite, basalt and dacite components, and their sand, silt andclay size sediments, which may be intercalated with volcano-clastics, such as tuff and tuffite. The thickness of this interval,

Fig. 4. Generalized stratigraphic section of Neogene sediments outcropping in the study area. (Modified from Bozcu et al. (2008) and Gürdal and Bozcu (2011).)






Fig. 5. Stratigraphic location of the Çan Formation in the Çan lignite operation.






which is a typical mud and debris flow, locally reaches 100 m. Atthe top of this agglomerate level in the Çan Formation coarseclastics pass into fine clastic sediments laterally and vertically. Thislevel outcrops as agglomerate tuff and mud flow around Çan andYayaköy and corresponds to sandstone, tuffite and well foliatedclaystone around Dumanköy (Area II in Fig. 2) Etili, Hacıkasım,Keçiağılı, Küçükpaşaköy (Area III in Fig. 2) and Helvacı, Çomaklı,Yeniçeri (Area IV in Fig. 2) villages. The arrangement of gravels,and the position of long axes of the gravels, indicates that theclastics entered the basin from the north–northeast.

In the measured section made at the outcrop near Dumanköy,the unit starts with a conglomerate level, with mudstone-supported volcanic blocks occurring discordantly above agglom-erate, kaolinite tuffs and silicic tuffs (Fig. 6). The gravel and block-sized materials forming the gravelstone are of volcanic origin andare composed of andesite, dacite and silica. The gravels are poorlyrounded and have sand and silt sized tuffite matrix. The thicknessof conglomerates in this area is around 8–10 m. The unit changesto sandstone and green claystone levels above. There are coal beds,with 5–15 cm thickness, and organic mudstones within the

Fig. 6. Measured stratigraphic section of the Çan Formation near Dumanköy.






sandstone and claystone intervals. The organic claystone, sand-stone and tuffite beds contain abundant carbonized plant debrisand leaf fossils. The middle–upper sections of the unit also containclaystone and tuffites with parallel lamination, as well as diatomitebeds. The uppermost sections of the unit in this area consist ofgreen claystones with slump structures. Alluvial fan sediments, inthe form of block and debris flow that developed discordantlyabove claystones with slump structures are present. The thicknessof the Çan Formation is around 60 m near Dumanköy and Şerbetli.

The Çan Formation starts at the lignite operation close toKeçiağılı village south of Etili, with a thin clay level abovebrecciated volcanics and an agglomerate unit. There are two lignitelevels above the clay level, which vary in thickness over shortdistances, laterally and on average are 4–6 m thick. Above thelignite level, there is a continuous stack of alternations of green-

gray clay, clayey siltstone and sandstone, which grades into tuffiteswith gypsum, foliated claystone, marl, yellow white dense leaffossils and diatoms (Fig. 7). The thickness of the Çan Formation inthis area is around 70 m. The Çan Formation was very influencedby tectonic effects where it outcrops west of Keçiağılı village, andsubstantial changes are observed in slope and dip within veryshort distances. Tectonic events that took place both during andafter the sedimentation of the unit have influenced the unit. Whilethe unit is almost horizontal at the lignite operation south ofHacıkasım village (Fig. 8a), the layers at the operation SW ofKeçiağılı village, which is approximately 300 m to the south, slope55–601 to the SE (Fig. 8b). Similarly, tectonic events that occurredsimultaneously with the deposition of the unit or synsedimentaryslump structures that developed in occasional depressions on thebasin's bottom are frequently observed within the unit (Fig. 9).

Fig. 7. Stratigraphic location of the Çan Formation in an open-pit slope west of Etili.






The stratigraphic position of the Çan Formation around Helvacı,Çomaklı and Yeniçeri villages (Area IV in Fig. 2) in the easternsection of the basin (Fig. 10) is similar to outcrops in the west(around Hacıkasım and Keçiağılı). Occasional tuffite levels withmarker level characteristics, which can be correlated, are observedwithin the unit at both areas. Moreover, tuffites and claystonesthat show flaky lamination, and contain abundant leaf fossils andrare fish fossils have similar characteristics in both areas. Suchtuffite, marl and claystone levels are either not observed at all nearÇan and Yayaköy, in the central sections of the basin, or areobserved in the form of lenses with interpenetrant contacts withheterogeneous agglomerate and debris flow lithologies.

The Çan Formation shows frequent thickness changes laterallyand vertically. The geometry of the basin and geological events(synsedimentary faulting in the form of growth faults, subsidence,slump folding, etc.) during sedimentation may be importantreasons for such thickness variations. However, some levels ofthe formation that can be considered markers are seen in all areaswhere the formation outcrops. These are: lignite levels and alaminated organic claystone level above, as well as light yellowclaystones, marls and tuffites showing paper shale cleavage, whichcontain plant branches, leaves and seeds. Between these twomarkers, there are agglomerate levels that developed in the form

of volcanic-sourced agglomerate and debris flow with interpene-trant contacts with such levels.

There are fish fossils in thin layered and laminated claystone,tuffite and marl levels corresponding to mid-upper levels of theÇan Formation. Ülkümen (1960) found fish fossils of the Cyprini-dae family northwest of Etili, on the right side of Gölcük stream(Fig. 11), in organic shale, sandstone, marl and tuffite levels withpaper shale cleavage. She identified the units as freshwatersediments containing only freshwater fish. Ülkümen (1960) alsostated that while the Cyprinidae in the Bohemia region are foundwithin Upper Oligocene formations dated using other character-istic fossils, the lack of similar characteristic fossils in our regionresulted in broad dating as Neogene.

In this study fish fossils were found within the stripping area ofthe lignite operation south of Helvacı village, which is located tothe east of the study area, and at the Turkish Coal Enterprise Çanlignite operation (Fig. 12a and b). However, lacustrine gastropodand pelecypod fossils, which are found abundantly in other lignitebasins, were not encountered within the Çan Formation. The basinlacks carbonate sediments that form from the shells of suchorganisms; a reason for this could be the fact that the basin wasanoxic and a highly acidic environment throughout much of itsdevelopment.

Ediger (1990) palynologically analyzed the coal and claystonesamples collected from the coal basins in the Biga Peninsula. Hedetected an abundance of Pityosporites, haploxylon-type speci-mens, and the presence of Baculatisporites primarius, Inapertur-opollenites emmaensis, Triatriopollenites coryphaeus,Tricolpopollenites microhenrici, T. liblarensis, Tricolporopollenitespseudocingulum, Leiotriletes microadriennis and Arecipites tranquil-lis. The palynologic similarity of the sporomorph population of theÇan Formation with the Eskihisar sporomorph population (Benda,1971a, 1971b) was emphasized, and as such, the coals of the basinevaluated in the present study are dated as Late Burdigalian?–Mid-Serravallian (late Early Miocene–early Mid-Miocene).

Later studies on palynology and palynofacies have confirmedthat the coals and claystones of the Çan Formation were depositedduring late Early Miocene–early Mid-Miocene (Mid-Orleanian–Early Astaracian) (Akkiraz et al., 2009; Bozcu et al., 2008;Steininger & Rögl, 1984).

3.1.2. Kulfa FormationThis formation which consists of conglomerate is dominated by

poorly sorted, well-rounded gravel and sandstone alternations

Fig. 8. Outcrops of organic claystone and coal alternations of the Çan Formation south of Hacıkasım village (a) and southwest of Keçiağılı village (b).

Fig. 9. Slump structures observed in greenish, gray organic clay levels in upperlevels of the Çan Formation (location: south of Hacıkasım village-Yiğit MiningLignite Enterprise, aspect from east to west).






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259759364_Palaeoecology_of_Coal-Bearing_Eocene_Sediments_in_Central_Anatolia_(Turkey)_Based_on_Quantitative_Palynological_Data?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259759364_Palaeoecology_of_Coal-Bearing_Eocene_Sediments_in_Central_Anatolia_(Turkey)_Based_on_Quantitative_Palynological_Data?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

(Fig. 13a, b). The formation outcrops best around Kulfa village,hence the name given by Balkış and Yazıcı (1996) and Özen et al.(2003). The gravel components of the formation are generally

derivatives of volcanic rocks, with basalt, andesite, dacite, rhyoda-cite and silex. While lower levels of the unit consist of sandstonesof brownish gray, occasionally limonitic (rusty) color, and which

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic section of the Çan Formation northeast of Çomaklı village lignite enterprise.






are medium–thick layered, loosely cemented gravel and blocks ofwell-rounded and poorly sorted conglomerates are observedtowards the upper parts.

The contact between the Kulfa Formation and the Çan Forma-tion is not very clearly visible; however, lithological differences, as

well as the differences in layer dips and slopes point to the factthat it is discordant with the Çan Formation.

The Kulfa Formation is subaerial and fluvial fan sediments arefound in a very small section of the Çan–Etili basin. However, theexistence of carbonate-cemented sandstones, marl and claystones

Fig. 11. Paper shale levels with fish fossils of the Çan Formation west of Alibey Çiftliği.

Fig. 12. Fish fossils belonging to the Cyprinidae family observed in marl and leafy claystone levels of the Çan Formation. (Location: (a) stripping area of lignite enterprisesouth of Helvacı and (b) TKİ Çan lignite stripping area.)

Fig. 13. (a) Boundary of the Kulfa Formation with the Çan Formation (b) sandstone and coarse conglomerate of the Kulfa Formation (location: south of Kulfa village).






containing gypsum in the lower sections of the unit indicateoccasional incursions of fluviative–lacustrine sediments.

4. Materials and methods

For the palynological investigation, coaly parts of the ÇanFormation were sampled. A total of 45 samples were taken fromthe fine grained deposits (Fig. 4). However quantitative data areconfined to 33 productive samples (Fig. 14). For preparation,samples were treated with HCl, HF and HNO3 according tostandard procedures. The organic residue was sieved through an8 μm mesh screen and 1–6 slides per sample were prepared fortransmitted light microscopy. Pollen counts were carried out at amagnification of 400� and 1000� using an Olympus microscope.TILIA software was used to calculate the pollen and spore records,and TILIAGRAPH was used to plot the pollen diagram (Fig. 14)(Grimm, 1994).

Proximate analyses were carried out using the well-establishedprocedures given by ASTM D3173-11 (2011), D3174-11 (2011) andD3175-11 (2011) (Çan Turkish Coal Enterprise Coal Laboratory).Specified parameters were moisture, ash yield, volatile matter(ASTM D7582), total sulfur (ASTM D3177-02, 2002), upper andlower calorific values (ASTM D5865). Sulfur forms were identifiedby using TS 329 ISO 157 (2000) standard at the General Directorateof Mineral Research & Exploration (MTA) Analysis Laboratory inAnkara, Turkey.

Maceral analysis was carried out to define organic petrographiccomposition and coal rank by vitrinite (huminite) reflectance (%Rrandom, Rr) was determined at MTA, Coal Analysis Laboratory.All coal samples were crushed to less than 1 mm, mounted inepoxy resin, ground and polished. The microscopic determinationswere carried out on polished sections in incident white light andfluorescent light using a Leitz MPV-SP reflected light microscope(λ¼546 nm) under standard conditions. Point counting (at least500 points) was performed on all samples under both white andfluorescent light. Maceral classification followed the InternationalCommittee for Coal and Organic Petrology (ICCP) nomenclature(1998, 2001) and Sykorova et al. (2005). For vitrinite reflectancemeasurements, 100 readings were taken into consideration usingLeitz MPV GEOR software. Leitz Sapphire Standard (Nr.1422, Roil0.551%) and Leitz Glass Standard (Nr.1320, Rair 1.24%) were used asa standard for calibration. Mineralogical analyses of 14 coal and4 clay samples were performed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) at MTA,Mineralogical Analysis Laboratory.

5. Palynology

NNE–WSW-trending Cenozoic basins containing coal, whichare mainly lacustrine in origin, are arranged from north to south.The Lapseki–Biga, Çan–Etili and Yenice–Kalkım basins are ofOligocene to Miocene age. Apart from the Lapseki–Biga coals, theother basins that were deposited during the Early-Middle Mioceneand consist of lacustrine and fluviatile sediments interfingeredwith volcano-sedimentary rocks. In the sequences, the only fossilgroups are palynomorphs and leaf fossils. Previous authors indi-cate that the ages of the volcano-sedimentary rocks surroundingÇanakkale are between 15 and 21.8 Ma (Early-Middle Miocene)(Ediger, 1990). The filling of the Çan-Etili basin mostly consists ofclastic and pyroclastic rocks, including some lignites. In the currentstudy the age of the Çan lignites was based on palynomorphcontent taking isotopic data into consideration. The palynologicalassemblage of the Çan lignites is characterized by high percentageof pollen from Pinus, Juglandaceae, Quercus, Castanea, Alnus andFagaceae (Fig. 14). Counts indicate that abundantly occurringspecies are not important stratigraphically, since the spore andpollen genera identified in the Çan lignites show a broad rangeover the Tertiary. In contrast, according to published studies onTertiary palynomorphs, a diversity of spore species that generallyoccur in Eocene–Oligocene sediments, including Baculatisporitesnanus, Trilites microvallatus, Verrucatosporites megafavus, Polypo-diaceoisporites gracillimus, Verrucingulatisporites rugosus, Leiotri-letes maxoides ssp. maxoides, L. maxoides ssp. minoris,Lycopodiumsporites cf. altranftensis, and also some pollen speciessuch as Liriodendronpollenites semiverrucatus, Myricipites myri-coides, Plicatopollis plicatus, Platycaryapollenites miocaenicus,Momipites punctatus, Momipites quietus, Subtriporopollenites anu-latus ssp. nanus, Tricolpopollenites liblarensis ssp. fallax and Tricol-poropollenites cingulum ssp. fusus, should be present in lowpercentages in the assemblage (Akgün & Sözbilir, 2001; Akgün,2002; Akkiraz & Akgün, 2005; Akkiraz., Kayseri, & Akgün, 2008;Akkiraz, Akgün, Utescher, Bruch, & Mosbrugger, 2011). Theirpercentages decrease towards the Miocene. However, Quercopol-lenites robur type, Q. petrea type and Q. cf. granulatus emerge in thelate Early Miocene, and their presence continues through time(Akgün, Kayseri, & Akkiraz, 2007; Akkiraz et al., 2009; Planderová,1990). Thus, we suggest that the age of deposition of the coalhorizons in the Çan Formation is late Early Miocene, and earlyMiddle Miocene (late Burdigalian–Langhian). Looking at thepaleovegetation, mesic gallery forests containing Myrica, Laura-ceae, Engelhardia, Liguidambar, Ulmus, Comptonia and Zelkova grewonwet terrain surrounding a paleolake (Fig. 14). Sclerophyllus oakssuch as Pinus and Cupressaceae formed scrub-like woodland on

Fig. 14. Pollen diagram of coaly parts of the Çan Formation showing the percentages of floral components in samples.






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223418421_Palaeoclimatic_evolution_and_vegetational_changes_during_the_Late_OligoceneMiocene_period_in_Western_and_Central_Anatolia_(Turkey)?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223418421_Palaeoclimatic_evolution_and_vegetational_changes_during_the_Late_OligoceneMiocene_period_in_Western_and_Central_Anatolia_(Turkey)?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46777429_Miocene_Microflora_of_Slovak_Central_Paratethys_and_Its_Biostratigraphical_Significance?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46777429_Miocene_Microflora_of_Slovak_Central_Paratethys_and_Its_Biostratigraphical_Significance?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237440762_Classification_of_huminiteICCP_System_1994?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

Table 1Maceral composition of coal samples from Çan Basin (from Gürdal and Bozcu, 2011).

Sample Humınıte (vol%, mmf) T.H (%) Lıptınıte (vol%, mmf) T.L (%) Inertınıte (vol%, mmf) T.I (%) Mınerals (vol%)

Humotelinite Humodetrinite Humocollinite (Sp) (Re) (Al) (Cu) (Lp) (F) (M) (Fu) (Id) (T.Py) (Cl) TMM

(T) (Tu) (Eu) (At) (D) (G) (Cp)

W06/2-1 0.0 10.7 26.2 6.0 10.7 31.0 0.0 84.5 4.8 0.0 0.0 1.2 2.4 8.3 0.0 2.4 2.4 2.4 7.1 6.00 10.00 16.00W06/2-2 0.0 4.0 18.4 5.3 23.7 32.9 0.0 84.2 5.3 1.3 0.0 0.0 1.3 7.9 0.0 4.0 1.3 2.6 7.9 6.00 18.00 24.00W06/2-5 1.2 3.5 4.6 0.0 5.8 71.3 0.0 86.2 5.8 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 0.0 3.5 2.3 0.0 5.8 8.00 5.00 13.00W06/2-6 0.0 2.3 5.6 0.0 44.9 39.3 0.0 92.1 3.4 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.1 5.6 0.0 1.1 1.1 0.0 2.3 7.00 4.00 11.00W06/2-7 0.0 2.2 5.6 4.4 27.8 47.8 0.0 87.8 3.3 1.1 2.2 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 3.3 1.1 1.1 5.6 5.00 5.00 10.00W06/4-1 7.0 9.3 16.3 2.3 11.6 38.4 1.2 86.1 5.8 1.2 0.0 1.2 0.0 8.1 1.2 2.3 2.3 0.0 5.8 2.00 12.00 14.00W06/4-2 0.0 4.8 10.7 0.0 26.2 46.4 0.0 88.1 4.8 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 4.8 1.2 0.0 6.0 1.00 15.00 16.00W06/4-3 5.3 11.8 23.7 0.0 7.9 43.4 0.0 92.1 4.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 5.3 0.0 1.3 1.3 0.0 2.6 4.00 20.00 24.00W06/5-1 0.0 0.0 4.3 0.0 17.0 67.0 0.0 88.3 2.1 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 5.3 0.0 3.2 1.1 2.1 6.4 1.00 5.00 6.00W06/5-2 2.1 4.2 4.2 0.0 16.8 61.1 0.0 88.4 2.1 4.2 1.1 0.0 0.0 7.4 0.0 3.2 0.0 1.1 4.2 1.00 4.00 5.00W06/5-3 5.8 7.0 9.3 0.0 20.9 45.4 0.0 88.4 2.3 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 3.5 2.3 3.5 1.2 1.2 8.1 5.00 8.00 13.00W06/5-4 1.1 3.4 5.6 0.0 24.7 53.9 0.0 88.8 2.3 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.0 4.5 0.0 5.6 0.0 1.1 6.7 6.00 5.00 11.00W06/5-5 0.0 0.0 3.7 6.2 37.0 39.5 0.0 86.4 3.7 0.0 2.5 0.0 1.2 7.4 0.0 3.7 1.2 1.2 6.2 6.00 13.00 19.00WO6/6-1 0.0 0.0 12.8 16.3 32.6 26.7 0.0 88.4 3.5 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 5.8 0.0 4.7 0.0 1.2 5.8 4.00 10.00 14.00W06/6-2 0.0 0.0 10.6 3.5 31.8 43.5 0.0 89.4 3.5 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 5.9 0.0 3.5 1.2 0.0 4.7 2.00 13.00 15.00W06/6-4 2.2 7.8 18.9 0.0 13.3 46.7 0.0 88.9 4.4 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.0 7.8 0.0 2.2 1.1 0.0 3.3 3.00 7.00 10.00W06/6-6 0.0 9.8 20.7 0.0 14.6 43.9 0.0 89.0 3.7 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 4.9 0.0 3.7 2.4 0.0 6.1 4.00 14.00 18.00W06/6-7 6.0 4.8 14.5 3.6 22.9 36.1 0.0 88.0 4.8 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 6.0 1.2 2.4 1.2 1.2 6.0 5.00 12.00 17.00W06/6-8 2.4 2.4 23.8 0.0 14.3 42.9 0.0 85.7 6.0 0.0 1.2 1.2 0.0 8.3 0.0 2.4 2.4 1.2 6.0 4.00 12.00 16.00W06/6-9 0.0 0.0 12.6 5.8 27.6 41.4 0.0 87.4 4.6 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8 0.0 3.5 1.2 2.3 6.9 4.00 9.00 13.00W06/6-10 0.0 0.0 17.8 3.3 20.0 46.7 0.0 87.8 4.4 1.1 1.1 0.0 1.1 7.8 0.0 2.2 1.1 1.1 4.4 6.00 4.00 10.00W06/6-11 0.0 0.0 20.0 5.9 24.7 36.5 0.0 87.1 4.7 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 7.1 0.0 3.5 1.2 1.2 5.9 6.00 9.00 15.00W07/6-1 2.3 5.7 12.5 0.0 21.6 43.2 0.0 85.2 4.6 1.1 0.0 0.0 2.3 8.0 1.1 4.6 1.1 0.0 6.8 3.00 9.00 12.00W07/6-2 0.0 0.0 7.6 3.3 34.8 41.3 0.0 87.0 4.4 2.2 0.0 0.0 2.2 8.7 1.1 3.3 0.0 0.0 4.4 2.00 6.00 8.00W07/6-3 3.8 5.1 5.1 0.0 21.5 57.0 0.0 92.4 3.8 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.1 0.0 1.3 1.3 0.0 2.5 7.00 14.00 21.00W07/6-4 0.0 0.0 9.5 0.0 9.5 65.5 0.0 84.5 2.4 1.2 0.0 4.8 0.0 8.3 0.0 4.8 1.2 1.2 7.1 6.00 10.00 16.00W07/6-5 0.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 23.3 40.0 0.0 80.0 4.4 0.0 0.0 2.2 0.0 6.7 3.3 5.6 2.2 2.2 13.3 5.00 5.00 10.00W07/8-1 9.0 15.7 28.1 0.0 15.7 21.4 0.0 89.9 3.4 1.1 0.0 1.1 0.0 5.6 0.0 2.3 1.1 1.1 4.5 3.00 8.00 11.00W07/8-2 0.0 0.0 7.9 3.4 31.5 46.1 0.0 88.8 2.3 0.0 2.3 1.1 0.0 5.6 1.1 4.5 0.0 0.0 5.6 6.00 5.00 11.00W07/8-3 3.3 6.5 9.8 0.0 28.3 38.0 0.0 85.9 3.3 0.0 2.2 0.0 1.1 6.5 1.1 4.4 1.1 1.1 7.6 4.00 4.00 8.00W07/8-4 5.6 8.9 16.7 0.0 7.8 47.8 0.0 86.7 5.6 0.0 2.2 2.2 0.0 10.0 0.0 2.2 1.1 0.0 3.3 1.00 9.00 10.00W07/10-1 10.8 8.4 7.2 0.0 30.1 33.7 0.0 90.4 3.6 0.0 1.2 0.0 1.2 6.0 1.2 1.2 0.0 1.2 3.6 4.00 13.00 17.00W07/10-2 10.0 7.8 11.1 2.2 20.0 35.6 0.0 86.7 4.4 3.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.8 0.0 3.3 0.0 2.2 5.6 3.00 7.00 10.00W07/10-3 6.7 5.6 21.1 0.0 10.0 43.3 0.0 86.7 5.6 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 6.7 0.0 5.6 1.1 0.0 6.7 3.00 7.00 10.00W07/11-1 3.6 7.2 18.1 0.0 15.7 42.2 0.0 86.8 3.6 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 4.8 1.2 1.2 7.2 5.00 12.00 17.00W07/11-2 0.0 0.0 20.3 24.3 12..2 28.4 0.0 85.1 4.1 2.7 1.4 0.0 0.0 8.1 0.0 5.4 1.4 0.0 6.8 6.00 20.00 26.00W07/12-1 11.3 6.3 18.8 2.5 21.3 31.3 0.0 91.3 3.8 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 1.3 3.8 4.00 16.00 20.00W07/12-2 4.9 9.9 25.9 0.0 4.9 43.2 0.0 88.9 3.7 0.0 1.2 0.0 1.2 6.2 0.0 2.5 2.5 0.0 4.9 4.00 15.00 19.00W07/12-3 14.0 11.6 10.5 0.0 16.3 34.9 0.0 87.2 3.5 3.5 0.0 0.0 1.2 8.1 1.2 2.3 1.2 0.0 4.7 5.00 9.00 14.00W07/12-4 4.9 9.9 14.8 0.0 17.3 45.7 0.0 92.6 2.5 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.7 1.2 2.5 0.0 0.0 3.7 5.00 14.00 19.00W07/12-5 5.1 15.4 29.5 0.0 20.5 21.8 0.0 92.3 1.3 0.0 2.6 1.3 0.0 5.1 0.0 1.3 1.3 0.0 2.6 4.00 18.00 22.00

14-1/14-1 0.0 11.1 18.1 2.8 22.2 31.9 0.0 86.1 4.2 1.4 1.4 0.0 0.0 6.9 2.8 2.8 1.4 0.0 6.9 6.00 22.00 28.00W07/14-2 0.0 0.0 20.0 5.0 20.0 37.5 0.0 82.5 5.0 1.3 2.5 0.0 0.0 8.8 2.5 2.5 1.3 2.5 8.8 5.00 15.00 20.00W07/14-3 0.0 0.0 20.8 2.6 23.4 40.3 0.0 87.0 3.9 1.3 1.3 0.0 0.0 6.5 0.0 3.9 1.3 1.3 6.5 6.00 17.00 23.00W07/14-4 0.0 0.0 20.8 0.0 18.2 50.7 0.0 89.6 5.2 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 6.5 0.0 2.6 1.3 0.0 3.9 7.00 16.00 23.00W07/14-5 0.0 0.0 19.7 4.0 15.8 48.7 0.0 88.2 4.0 0.0 2.6 0.0 0.0 6.6 0.0 2.6 2.6 0.0 5.3 7.00 17.00 24.00CANP-1 6.0 7.1 9.5 0.0 14.3 51.2 0.0 88.1 2.4 1.2 1.2 0.0 1.2 6.0 0.0 3.6 1.2 1.2 6.0 1.00 15.00 16.00CANP-3 3.3 5.4 7.6 0.0 8.7 54.4 0.0 79.4 3.3 7.6 0.0 0.0 2.2 13.0 0.0 5.4 0.0 2.2 7.6 1.00 7.00 8.00CANP-4 0.0 0.0 32.3 0.0 4.2 44.8 0.0 81.3 4.2 2.1 0.0 2.1 0.0 8.3 1.0 5.2 2.1 2.1 10.4 1.00 3.00 4.00CANP-7 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 5.3 74.7 0.0 86.3 3.2 0.0 1.1 2.1 0.0 6.3 0.0 4.2 1.1 2.1 7.4 1.00 4.00 5.00ETİLİ-1 0.0 0.0 16.9 3.1 26.2 41.5 0.0 87.7 4.6 0.0 1.5 0.0 1.5 7.7 0.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 4.6 7.00 28.00 35.00ETİLİ-2 0.0 0.0 18.2 0.0 27.3 43.6 0.0 89.1 3.6 1.8 1.8 0.0 0.0 7.3 0.0 1.8 1.8 0.0 3.6 8.00 37.00 45.00ETILI3 0.0 0.0 14.3 0.0 16.7 58.3 0.0 89.3 2.4 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.0 6.0 1.2 3.6 0.0 0.0 4.8 4.00 12.00 16.00ETİLİ-5 6.9 13.7 16.4 2.7 21.9 24.7 0.0 86.3 4.1 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.0 8.2 1.4 2.7 1.4 0.0 5.5 6.00 21.00 27.00YAY-SK2-1 0.0 0.0 15.4 0.0 15.4 47.4 0.0 78.2 10.3 3.9 3.9 0.0 0.0 18.0 0.0 2.6 1.3 0.0 3.9 12.00 10.00 22.00YAY-SK2-2 5.2 3.9 13.0 0.0 13.0 54.6 0.0 89.6 3.9 0.0 1.3 1.3 0.0 6.5 0.0 2.6 1.3 0.0 3.9 9.00 14.00 23.00YAYSK3-1 0.0 5.4 12.2 0.0 14.9 41.9 0.0 74.3 13.5 2.7 2.7 0.0 0.0 18.9 0.0 5.4 1.4 0.0 6.8 11.00 15.00 26.00YAY-SK1-1 0.0 6.3 20.3 2.5 11.4 48.1 0.0 88.6 5.1 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 6.3 0.0 3.8 1.3 0.0 5.1 3.00 18.00 21.00YAY-SK1-2 6.1 14.6 23.2 0.0 8.5 36.6 0.0 89.0 4.9 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 6.1 0.0 3.7 1.2 0.0 4.9 5.00 13.00 18.00YAY-SK1-3 2.4 6.0 10.7 2.4 11.9 52.4 0.0 85.7 7.1 0.0 1.2 1.2 0.0 9.5 0.0 3.6 1.2 0.0 4.8 5.00 11.00 16.00COM-1 0.0 0.0 5.6 0.0 30.3 50.6 0.0 86.5 5.6 1.1 1.1 0.0 0.0 7.9 1.1 3.4 1.1 0.0 5.6 4.00 7.00 11.00COM-2 0.0 0.0 13.6 2.3 12.5 63.6 0.0 92.1 2.3 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 1.1 2.3 0.0 0.0 3.4 5.00 7.00 12.00COM-3 0.0 4.5 13.5 0.0 21.4 50.6 0.0 89.9 2.3 1.1 1.1 0.0 0.0 4.5 2.3 2.3 0.0 1.1 5.6 3.00 8.00 11.00COM-4 0.0 0.0 11.1 0.0 25.0 58.3 0.0 94.4 2.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.0 1.4 1.4 0.0 2.8 9.00 19.00 28.00COM-5 4.1 6.8 21.6 1.4 14.9 44.6 0.0 93.2 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.1 0.0 2.7 0.0 0.0 2.7 5.00 21.00 26.00YEN-1 2.4 3.5 4.7 0.0 8.2 61.2 0.0 80.0 4.7 2.4 3.5 0.0 2.4 12.9 0.0 3.5 1.2 2.4 7.1 2.00 13.00 15.00YEN-3 0.0 3.8 10.0 0.0 3.8 68.8 0.0 86.3 5.0 0.0 3.8 1.3 0.0 10.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 1.3 3.8 3.00 17.00 20.00YEN-4 0.0 0.0 16.9 0.0 3.6 60.2 0.0 80.7 4.8 1.2 2.4 0.0 1.3 9.7 0.0 4.8 2.4 2.4 9.6 5.0 12.0 17.0YEN-6 0.0 0.0 8.5 0.0 3.2 78.7 0.0 90.4 2.1 0.0 2.1 1.1 0.0 5.3 0.0 3.2 1.1 0.0 4.3 3.00 3.00 6.00






drier substrates. All pollen data indicate a very warm and humidtemperate climate.

6. Coal petrography and geochemistry

6.1. General characteristics of Çan coals

The basic characteristics of Miocene Çan coals were studiedusing proximate, ultimate, X-ray diffraction, and petrographicanalyses. Additionally, studies (Gürdal, 2008, 2011) concerningthe trace element geochemistry of Çan-Etili basin coals wereperformed in order to determine the concentrations and modesof occurrence of trace elements in coal. Here, properties andcharacteristics of Çan-Etili basin coals are summarized based onprevious studies (Bozcu et al., 2008; Gürdal, 2008, 2011; Gürdaland Bozcu, 2010). In the Çan-Etili basin, total coal reserves are over100 Mt and main production is consumed by the Çan coal-fired

power plant. In the basin, one main coal seam, with a thicknessranging from 17 to 35 m, is mined.

Studied coal samples were collected from drill cores or fromseams in mines, namely, Etili, Yayaköy, Çan, Yeniçeri, and Çomaklımines (Fig. 2). For Çan-Etili basin coals, the volatile matter (dry ashfree basis; daf) and the gross calorific value (moisture ash freebasis; maf) were evaluated for coal rank classification using theASTM standard D388 12 (2012) (Stach et al., 1982). The volatilematter ranges between 45.45 and 62.25 wt% (daf) and the grosscalorific values vary from 3419 to 6479 kcal/kg (maf), indicating alignite to sub-bituminous rank. The coal rank is also confirmed byhuminite reflectance values, which vary between 0.38% and 0.54%Rr. Total sulfur contents range from 0.21 to 14.36 wt% (on as-received basis). The presence of high sulfur content in the coal isattributed to the peat environment and regional volcanic activityas well as to alkaline depositional environments with intensivesulfide mineralization (Gürdal and Bozcu, 2011; Gürdal, 2011).

The atomic H/C and O/C ratios were calculated and plotted on aVan-Krevelen diagram, which placed all of the samples at thelignite sub-bituminous coal boundary. The Çan coals are typicalhumic coals formed from terrestrial organic matter. Petrographicanalysis indicated that the coals have 74–95 vol% huminite(mineral matter free, mmf), 2–19 vol% (mmf) liptinite, and 2–13 vol% (mmf) inertinite (Table 1). The huminite group consists ofhumotelinite (3.7–72.9 vol%), humodetrinite (4.2–48.8 vol%) andhumocollinite (14.1–78.7 vol%) subgroups. In general, humoteliniteis the most abundant. Eu-ulminite is the prevailing humotelinitemaceral in all samples. Textinite and texto-ulminite macerals areeither present in small amounts or non-existent. The greaterabundance of eu-ulminite over textinite is an indication ofincreased gelification (Gürdal & Bozcu, 2011). The mineral matterranges widely, between 4 and 45 vol%, and consists mostly of clayminerals and pyrite.

Table 1 (continued )

Sample Humınıte (vol%, mmf) T.H (%) Lıptınıte (vol%, mmf) T.L (%) Inertınıte (vol%, mmf) T.I (%) Mınerals (vol%)

Humotelinite Humodetrinite Humocollinite (Sp) (Re) (Al) (Cu) (Lp) (F) (M) (Fu) (Id) (T.Py) (Cl) TMM

(T) (Tu) (Eu) (At) (D) (G) (Cp)

YEN-8 14.1 25.9 32.9 0.0 8.2 14.1 0.0 95.3 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 0.0 1.2 1.2 0.0 2.4 1.00 14.00 15.00

Abbreviations: Textinite (T); texto-ulminite (Tu); eu-ulminite (Eu); attrinite (At); densinite (D); gelinite (G); corpohuminite (Cp); total huminite (T.H); sporinite (Sp); resinite(Re); alginite (A);cutinite (Ct); liptodetrinite (Lp); total liptinite (T.L); fusinite (F); macrinite (M); funginite (Fu);inertodetinite (Id); total Inertinite (T.I); total(Tot); total pyrite(T Py.); Clay (Cl), total mineral matter (TMM).

Table 2GWI and VI indices for Çan coals (Gürdal & Bozcu, 2011).

Sample GWI VI Sample GWI VI

W06/2-1 1.35 1.48 W07/11-2 1.49 0.57W06/2-2 2.92 0.64 W07/12-1 1.87 1.30W06/2-5 9.79 1.00 W07/12-2 1.65 4.71W06/2-6 12.11 0.19 W07/12-3 1.81 2.06W06/2-7 7.00 0.24 W07/12-4 2.77 1.63W06/4-1 1.87 1.67 W07/12-5 1.29 2.17W06/4-2 5.73 0.50 W07/14-1 2.57 1.14W06/4-3 1.85 3.10 W07/14-3 3.10 0.73W06/5-1 21.16 0.20 W07/14-4 3.71 0.71W06/5-2 7.88 0.74 W07/14-5 4.42 0.84W06/5-3 3.63 0.95 W07/14-6 3.74 0.83W06/5-4 8.87 0.36 CANP-1 3.60 1.33W06/5-5 9.67 0.08 CANP-3 4.36 1.69WO6/6-1 2.52 0.26 CANP-4 1.64 2.83W06/6-2 6.40 0.30 CANP-7 13.46 0.50W06/6-4 2.41 1.59 ETİ-1 5.13 0.48W06/6-6 2.51 1.67 ETİ-2 6.35 0.65W06/6-7 2.63 0.81 ETİ-3 6.37 0.82W06/6-8 2.56 1.26 ETİ-5 1.85 1.32W06/6-9 4.46 0.34 YAY-SK2-1 5.51 0.75W06/6-10 3.63 0.65 YAY-SK2-2 4.10 1.21W06/6-11 2.94 0.58 YAYSK3-1 4.71 0.71W07/6-1 3.75 0.87 YAY-SK1-1 2.76 1.31W07/6-2 7.74 0.26 YAY-SK1-2 1.44 3.00W07/6-3 7.14 0.60 YAY-SK1-3 3.75 0.84W07/6-4 9.56 0.60 COM-1 16.36 0.22W07/6-5 4.40 0.62 COM-2 5.54 1.00W07/8-1 0.91 2.53 COM-3 4.61 0.86W07/8-2 7.88 0.24 COM-4 10.02 0.40W07/8-3 3.80 0.63 COM-5 2.53 1.60W07/8-4 2.11 2.00 YEN-1 7.97 0.85W07/10-1 3.05 0.79 YEN-3 6.73 1.22W07/10-2 2.11 1.12 YEN-4 4.79 1.67W07/10-3 1.90 2.00 YEN-6 10.33 1.33W07/11-1 2.59 1.47 YEN-8 0.51 6.89

Fig. 15. Facies diagram (GWI vs VI) and suggested depositional environments forthe Çan coals (Calder et al., 1991; modified from Gürdal & Bozcu, 2011)






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279545512_Peat_formation_in_a_Westphalian_B_piedmont_setting_Cumberland_Basin_Nova_Scotia_implications_for_the_maceral-based_interpretation_of_rheotrophic_and_raised_paleomires?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248517311_Geochemistry_of_trace_elements_in_an_coal_(Miocene)_anakkale_Turkey?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264739714_Stach's_Text_Book_of_Coal_Petrology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-4ac2c5c6-7565-494d-8ef0-4e7889278b42&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI4MTEzNTU2NDtBUzoyNjczMjQ4ODg0NDkwMzJAMTQ0MDc0NjYyODczNA==

The modified facies model of Calder, Gibling, and Mukhopadhyay(1991) based on Groundwater Index (GWI) and Vegetation Index (VI),has been applied to Çan coals in order to identify major mirepaleoenvironments representing rheotrophic, mesotrophic andombrotrophic hydrological conditions (Table 2) (Fig. 15). These petro-graphic indices are used for the interpretation of the degree ofgroundwater influence, relative rainfall (Kalkreuth et al., 1991), vegeta-tion, mineral matter content and degree of preservation of macerals(oxidation–gelification) due to water level and/or fluctuation. Mod-ification was also made to Calder's ratio for the low rank Çan coals.

The GWI and VI are calculated as follows:

GWI¼ geliniteþcorpohuminiteþdensiniteþmineral mattertextiniteþtexto� ulminiteþeu� ulminiteþattrinite

VI¼ textiniteþtexto� ulminiteþeu� ulminiteþresiniteþfusiniteattriniteþdensiniteþ inertodetriniteþcutiniteþsporiniteþ liptodetrinite

According to VI/GWI indices, Çan coals were formed in a limnotel-matic to limnic coal facies under rheotrophic regimes and on the ABCternary diagram (Fig. 16) (Mukhopadhyay, 1989) the coals of the Çanbasin were formed in slightly oxic to anoxic conditions. According toVI/GWI indices, Çan coals were formed in a limnotelmatic to limniccoal facies under rheotrophic regimes. In general, the results areconsistent with the sedimentalogical data which indicate a fluvial tolacustrine depositional environment. According to the XRD results, theidentified mineral matter in all the investigated coal samples are clayminerals (kaolinite), quartz, mica, pyrite, and feldspar.

Table 3 lists ranges and average values of major and traceelement concentrations in Çan basin coals including world coalvalues (Bozcu et al., 2008; Gürdal, 2011; Ketris & Yudovich, 2009).As compared with the world coals (Ketris & Yudovich, 2009), Çancoals have higher values for most trace elements including B, Sc, V,Co, Cu, Zn, Ga, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Cs, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Er, Yb Hf, Ta,Tl, Pb, Th and U. Twenty trace elements, including As, B, Ba, Be, Cd,Cu, Co, F, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Th, Tl, U, V and Zn, receivemuch attention due to environmental and human health concerns.Major element oxides correlate positively with dry ash contentsdemonstrating an association with inorganic constituents. Themodes of occurrence and concentration of trace elements may

change in coal seams depending on the different regions of originwithin the Çan-Etili basin. Concentrations of trace elements aredifferent within the Çan coal samples depending on ash yields andsulfur contents. Most of the trace elements, excluding, U, correlatepositively with ash yields and sulfur contents, demonstrating anassociation with inorganic matter in the coal seam. The enrich-ment of trace elements in the Çan coals is dominantly influencedby sediment source region.

7. Development of Çan-Etili basin and depositional conditionsof the Çan Formation

The data on basin geometry, facies distribution, climate, mor-phology and morpho-tectonics obtained from the Miocene Çan-Etili basin, together with regional characteristics, indicate that thebasin developed due to extensional tectonics synchronous withvolcanism. Such alluvial and fluvial sediments of syntectonicsedimentation are located on the edges of the basin, and in thelower sections of the lacustrine pile (Fig. 17). Changes in thebottom of the basin, as well as synsedimentary faults and formeddepressions, together with climate, controlled the sedimentationand coalification in the basin.

The alluvial, fluvial and lacustrine systems in the Çan-Etili basinindicate that the NNE section of the basin represents a morpho-logically elevated zone, and is a fault controlled basin (Fig. 18).

The conglomerates with volcanic elements, which comprise thelowest section of the Çan Formation, and the sandstone, siltstoneand claystone levels, which have lateral–vertical intersections withthem, indicate a fluvial system where sedimentation started withhigh energy that gradually lost its energy. The zones where coarseclastic elements are dominant within the field of survey are thevicinities of Turkish Coal Enterprise Çan lignite operation, and inthe areas of the Bahadırlı and Yayaköy coal operations. Such coarseclastic elements are not observed laterally around Dumanköy,Şerbetli, Etili, Hacıkasım, Büyükpaşa village and Yeniçeri in thewestern and southern sections of the basin. The cause of this maybe interpreted to be topographic elevation, as the basin edge is

Fig. 16. ABC ternary plot of the Çan coals showing suggested peat forming environments (after Mukhopadhyay, 1989; modified from Gürdal & Bozcu, 2011).







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located in the northern section of the basin, and being a half-graben basin fed from the northeast. This is confirmed by thepresence of the axes of channel areas reaching the southern andeastern sections of the basin. The flow direction is from NE to SWwhich is indicated by channel fill oriented NNE, and gravelimbrications, as well as measurable cross bedding, although rare,in the sandstones.

The thin lignite banded organic siltstone above that level pointsto claystone level flood plain and swamp environments. The lignitezone above that level (lignite level and the laminated organicclaystone level above it) indicates a shallow water lake and swamp.Above the lignite zone, sandy silted levels formed as a result ofdeepening of the water due to depression of the lake bottom and/orrevival of clast sedimentation. Increases in the depression rate ofthe bottom of the basin or rapid elevation of the erosion zone at theedge of the basin caused the development of coarse clastics derivedfrom volcanic rocks, particularly in the zone near Çan, Yayaköy andBahadırlı, where the Çan Formation has greatest thickness. Whilecoarse clastics were deposited around Çan, Yayaköy and Bahadırlı, itis observed that these have lateral intersections with fine clasts andtuffites around Etili, Hacıkasım, Keçiağılı and Küçükpaşaköy, as wellas the villages of Helvacı and Çomaklı (Figs. 5, 7 and 10). Further-more, although there is one lignite seam in the area of the TurkishCoal Enterprise Çan lignite operation and Yayaköy lignite operation,there are additional lignite seams in the area of the Keçiağılı andHacıkasım lignite operations west of Etili and Çomaklı and Yeniçerilignite operations. This indicates that while a fluvial system wasdominant at the northern edge of the basin, lacustrine sedimenta-tion continued, with water level frequently changing at the south-western and southeastern edges. In this area, sediments indicate alake environment where sediment deposition is limited, with lowenergy, insufficient oxygen (closed basin) and high evaporation.Most of the sedimentary materials are colloids suspended in thelake and particles of silt–clay size. Therefore, the environmentwhere the Çan Formation deposited was a basin with ellipsoidalstructure and was asymmetrical with respect to sediment transport(Figs. 17 and 18).

8. Discussion and results

The Çan-Etili lignite basin consists of a caldera type depressionformed by Oligocene–Lower Miocene Çan volcanism, and is dis-cordant above volcanic rocks. The depression zone is 30–35 kmlong in east–west direction and 8–10 km wide in north–southdirection. The area where the sedimentary rocks outcrop is atlevels that are 250–300 m lower than their surroundings. Thesedimentary units of the basin consist completely of fluvial andlacustrine detritics. While there is one lignite seam in the centralsection of the basin, there are two lignite levels on the southernand eastern edges and three in some sections. Detritic sedimentsdeposited at the edges of the basin occasionally stopped peatformation, and therefore more than one coal layer was formed.Such stratigraphy points to the fact that the subsidence rate of thebasin occasionally increased. When the subsidence rate increases,lacustrine sediments are deposited on top of the fluvio-deltaicsediments at the edges of the basin. During regression periods,thin lignite levels were deposited alternately with detritic ele-ments at the edges of the basin.

The stratigraphic characteristics and lignite layers in the Çan-Etilibasin reflect the transition from fluvial to lacustrine environment. Thefact that there is only one lignite seam, with a thickness varyingbetween 8 and 35 m in the central sections of the basin, indicates thatthe subsidence rate was quite low. The transgressions and regressionsas well as formation of detritic layers without lignite at the edges ofthe basin must be related to synsedimentary faulting.

As a result:

1- The Çan lignite basin is a caldera type basin, which formed as aresult of the combined influence of volcanism and tectonicsduring Late Oligocene–Early Miocene periods.

Table 3Concentration ranges and average values of major and trace elements in the Çancoals (results are compared to the ranges for world coals from Ketris and Yudovich(2009)).

Element Çan Basin coals a (n¼81)World Coal b

Range AM

SiO2 (%) 0.47–45.23 11.53 NdAl2O3 (%) 0.40–29.55 6.37 NdFe2O3 (%) 0.05–14.12 2.94 NdMgO (%) 0.03–0.49 0.16 NdCaO (8%) 0.13–1.73 0.64 NdNa2O (%) 0.02–1.13 0.34 NdK2O (%) o0.04–0.82 0.11 0.133TiO2 (%) 0.02–1.32 0.2 0.011P2O5 (%) o0.01–0.16 0.03 0.053MnO (%) o0.01–0.03 0.01 NdCr2O3 (%) o0.001–0.012 0.002 16 (ppm)TOT/S 0.06–14.36 4.12 NdAg o0.1–0.1 0.09 NdAu 0.05–4.20 1.46 NdAs 1.4–6413.8 253.5 8.3Ba 12.2–735 99 150Be o1.0–5.0 1.4 1.6Bi 0.09–0.7 0.18 0.97B 97–1186 328 52Cd o0.10–2.00 0.18 0.22Cu 1.9–67.5 20 16Ce 1.7–120.30 28.36 23Co o0.5–74.2 9 5.1Cs 0.01–10.0 2.13 1Dy 0.05–9.74 1.74 2.1Eu 0.05–2.87 0.58 0.47Er 0.05–5.82 1.01 0.93F o10–730 64 88Gd 0.05–12.52 2.05 2.7Ga 0.49–32.00 5.96 5.8Hf 0.30–6.70 1.53 1.2Ho 0.05–1.73 0.32 0.54Hg 0.01–0.29 0.1 0.1La 0.70–49.90 13.3 11Lu 0.01–0.89 0.16 0.2Mo 0.1–41.6 3.7 2.2Ni 0.8–40.1 6.3 13Nd 0.70–72.00 12.9 12Nb 0.49–15.50 3.86 3.7Sc 0.9–26.00 5.44 3.9Se o0.5–7.0 1.1 1.3Sn o1.0–4.0 1.05 1.1Sr 15.80–289.80 92.21 110Sb o0.1–1.5 0.2 0.92Sm 0.10–14.06 2.36 2Tl o0.1–3.4 0.32 0.63Ta 0.09–1.30 0.34 0.28Th 0.3–35.2 8 3.3Tb 0.02–1.90 0.34 0.32

Tm 0.03–0.87 0.15 0.31U 0.5–64.5 8.7 2.4V 26–491 128 25W 0.09–5.80 1.11 1.1Y 0.7–52.20 10.73 8.4Yb 0.05–6.43 1.06 1Zr 4.30–233.90 55.98 36Zn 3–524 50 23

AM: Arithmetic mean.a Content of elements from Çan Basin (Bozcu et al., 2004; Gürdal, 2011).b From Ketris and Yudovich (2009).






2- The Çan Formation and Kulfa Formation, which constitute thesedimentary fill of the basin, were deposited in fluvial andlacustrine environments.

3- The Çan Formation consists of six lithofacies which depositedin fluvial and lacustrine environments. It consists of a lowerconglomerate, sandstone–claystone, lignite, laminated organicclaystone, sandstone–siltstone and agglomerate facies.

4- Freshwater fish fossils, and abundant palynomorphs and leaffossils are present in the lacustrine sediments within the ÇanFormation. The paleontological and palynomorph studies indi-cate that the climate was very warm and wet during sedimen-tation of the Çan formation.

5- The Çan coals are lignite to sub-bituminous coal, with a broadof ash yields and sulfur contents. The lignite is of limnic origin,and was deposited in an inundated marsh and lacustrine facies.The basin contains a lignite reserve of over 100 million tons.

6- The coarse clastic sediments at the north edge of the basin arereplaced by fine grained sediments towards the south of thebasin. Therefore, the thinning of grain sizes of the basin fromNNE to SSW indicates that the basin developed asymmetricallyunder the control of faults.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Scientific and TechnologicalResearch Council of Turkey (TUBİTAK) Project (No. 105Y114). Theauthors are indebted to Cortland Eble (Kentucky GeologicalSurvey) for his insightful comments and suggestions whichimproved the manuscript.

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Documents

Evolution of Çan-Etili (Çanakkale-NW Turkey) lignite basin: Sedimentology, petrology, palynology and lignite characterization