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Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00420-1
RESEARCH Open Access
Ethnobotanical study on wild edible plants
used by three trans-boundary ethnicgroups in Jiangcheng County, Pu’er,Southwest China Yilin Cao1†, Ren Li2,3*† , Shishun Zhou2, Liang Song4, Ruichang Quan2 and Huabin Hu5*Abstract
Background: Dai, Hani, and Yao people, in the trans-boundary region between China, Laos, and Vietnam, havegathered plentiful traditional knowledge about wild edible plants during their long history of understanding andusing natural resources. The ecologically rich environment and the multi-ethnic integration provide a valuablefoundation and driving force for high biodiversity and cultural diversity in this region. However, little study hasuncovered this unique and attractive culture to the world.
Methods: We conducted ethnobotanical survey in 20 villages of Jiangcheng County from 2016 to 2020. Altogether109 local Dai, Hani, and Yao people were interviewed, and their traditional knowledge about wild edible plants wasrecorded. Voucher specimens were identified by the authors and deposited in the herbarium of XishuangbannaTropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences (HITBC). The use value was used as a quantitative index toevaluate the consumption frequency and relative importance of the wild edible plants. The Jaccard index wascalculated to assess the usage similarity of different areas. The relationship of age and recognized wild edible plantsby different ethnic people was performed by R.
Results: A total of 211 wild edible plants, belonging to 71 families and 151 genera, were recorded. These plantswere consumed as wild edible vegetables, seasonal fruits, salads, spices, sour condiments, tonic soups, teasubstitutes, liquor brewing, or dyeing materials. The use value (UV), current cultivation, market availability, and thequantitative traditional knowledge inheritance situation of these wild edible plants among different generations,were analyzed. Based on the data from the threatened species list of China’s higher plants and the IUCN Red List,the food plant list for Asia Elephant, the Subject Database of China Plant, and the calculated UV score, the top 30most important wild edible plants were selected for further cultivation in some local villages.
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© The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you giveappropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate ifchanges were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commonslicence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commonslicence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtainpermission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to thedata made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.
* Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected]†Yilin Cao and Ren Li contributed equally to this work.2Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences& Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical BotanicalGarden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla 666303, Yunnan, China5CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use,Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences,Mengla 666303, Yunnan, ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 2 of 23
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Conclusion: Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants, owned by Dai, Hani, and Yao people in JiangchengCounty, is rich but at risk of being lost among the young generation. Diversified cultivation of wild edible plants bythe local communities could be a solution for the sustainable use of natural resources and to conserve theendangered species in this trans-boundary region.
Keywords: Wild edible plants, Trans-boundary ethnic groups, Traditional knowledge, Conservation and sustainableuse, Jiangcheng County
BackgroundSoutheast Asia, including Southwest China, is one of the34 biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities in theworld [1]. The international borders are essential habitatfor the survival of many endangered species. Asia con-tains approximately 82% of the global border hotspots(the richest 5% of border segments) for threatenedtrans-boundary species, and the distribution of threat-ened species with trans-boundary ranges is concentratedprimarily in Southeast Asia [2]. China shares 1852 km ofborder with Laos and Vietnam, and there are around 15cross-border ethnic groups living in this trans-boundaryregion, with Dai, Hani, and Yao people as three main in-digenous groups [3, 4]. Known as a “green pearl” on theTropic of Cancer in Yunnan, China, Pu’er City is se-lected as a key conservation area because of its import-ant biodiversity status in Yunnan and even in China [5].Jiangcheng county, belonging to Pu’er City and locatedin Southwest China, is the only Chinese county borderedby three countries (China, Laos, and Vietnam). Jiang-cheng county was named after its three surrounding riv-ers and was part of the ancient Ailao Kingdom about2100 years ago [6]. Geographically, it is situated in theHengduan Mountain range, lying at the end of WuliangMountain with elevation ranging from 317 to 2207 m. Itis also a multi-ethnically inhabited region with 25 ethnicgroups [7]. All of these make Jiangcheng County a micro-cosm of the rich bio-cultural kingdom in the trans-boundary regions among China, Laos, and Vietnam.Wild edible plants, such as vegetables and fruits, play
an important role in our daily life. Wild vegetables arefavored by more and more people because they havefresh and aromatic taste, rich mineral nutrients,pollution-free growing environment, strong vitality, andhigh medicinal and human health benefits [8, 9]. Wildedible plants are important in many facets of life formany indigenous and agricultural communities [10–12].They could provide supplement food, nutrients, medi-cines, building materials, firewood, dyes, staple, and cashincome to native ethnic groups [13–17]. Settled in thelow mountain land and faraway from big modern cities,the local people in Jiangcheng County rely a lot on thenatural products from the wild. In the past, wild edibleplants were mostly self-harvested and consumed as main
food substitutes by the local people. Nowadays, wild ed-ible plants are more likely to be sold in the markets forurban citizens and tourists. Thus, the local communitieshave gathered abundant traditional knowledge fromthese long-term practices. Previous studies of the wildedible plants in Southwest China focused on providing alist of species [18, 19]. The traditional knowledge associ-ated with the listed species as well as their quantitativeinheritance information among different generationswere absent from these studies.Global climatic change poses a huge threat on biodiver-
sity [20], and results in global biodiversity loss throughdrought and warming [21]. There are an estimated 500,000 species of land plants and a third of all land plants areperhaps at risk of extinction due to habitat loss, fragmen-tation, and degradation, over-exploitation, invasive species,pollution, and anthropogenic climate change [22]. Currentspecies extinction rates are higher than would be expectedand the sixth mass extinction may be under way [23]. Be-sides, most of the residential ethnic groups in this regiondepend on the local forest for their livelihood. In additionto the poor economy and excessive collection of wildplants, large-scale rubber and other economic plantation,fragmentation, and a progressively decreased connectivityof forest aggravate the crisis on the sustainable use of thenatural resources and the situation of biodiversity conser-vation in this region is worsening [24–27].The traditional ecological knowledge, gathered by the
indigenous communities in their long interaction withnature, is an important part of human cultural heritage.Much traditional ecological knowledge is under threatand at the verge of disappearing due to environmentalchanges, livelihood diversification, and the influence ofcultural conflicts [28–31]. Meanwhile, the ethnic groupsin this region do not have or do not use their own writ-ten language, and their traditional knowledge could onlybe inherited by the next generation through oral com-munication. Any loss can turn out to be permanent.Thus, the exploration and documentation of the localtraditional knowledge of the wild edible plants in this re-gion are of the utmost importance.The aim of this study was to catalog the traditional
knowledge on the wild edible plants used by three trans-boundary ethnic groups in Jiangcheng County, to quantify
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 3 of 23
the inheritance of traditional knowledge, and to provideprimary scientific practices for future sustainableutilization and conservation of wild edible plants.
MethodsStudy areaJiangcheng County is bordered by Laos and Vietnam,and its geographical coordinates are between longitudes101° 14′-102° 19′ east and latitude 22° 20′-22° 36′ northwith a subtropical humid climate. Its spring and autumnperiods are longer than summer and winter with anaverage annual rainfall of 2189.3 mm and a comfortableaverage temperature of around 19.4° [7]. During 2016-2020, ethnobotanical studies on wild edible plants uti-lized by local people were carried out in 20 villages andnearby markets, distributed at all 6 townships of Jiang-cheng County (Fig. 1). Zhengdong, one of township inJiangcheng, has been recognized with one of the fourthbatch of national beautiful and livable townships awardsby the Chinese Ministry of Housing and Urban-RuralDevelopment, and as an ecological civilization townshipby the Yunnan province. Zhengdong town is also an im-portant habitat for around 44 Asian elephants [32]. Ninedifferent villages of Zhengdong township, which arefamous for multi-ethnic traditional culture and well-preserved natural forest, were chosen for a detailedstudy. There is no frost and snow in the whole year, richin heat resources and fertile land with corn, rice, rubber,tea, coffee, passion flower, nuts, bananas, and mangoesas the main economic crops [7]. Hani, Dai, and Yaopeople are the three major ethnic minorities that are liv-ing at China, Laos, and Vietnam trans-boundary region
Fig. 1 Location of study sites in Jiangcheng Couty, Pu’er City, Southwest, CVillages no. 1-3 and 19-20 are Dai people’s village named Chenzisanzhai, M4-6 are Yao people’s village named Xiamanqing, Xicaotang, and XiaomangHuibaohe, Maliqing, Shibajia, Xinjiang, Luoqiya, Nabanhe, Medeng, Gejie, Ba
and have a long tradition and abundant practices of eat-ing wild plants.
Ethnobotanical surveyBefore ethnobotanical survey in each village, we had ameeting with the village head in which we explained ourresearch objective. Consent from the village head andevery interviewed villager was gained and all investiga-tions were conducted following the ethical guidelines ofthe International Society of Ethnobiology [33]. Ethno-botanical field survey on wild edible plants consumed bythree trans-boundary ethnic groups were carried out in20 villages (13 Hani, 4 Dai, 3 Yao) during different sea-sons of 2016 to 2020 (Fig. 2). Multiple interdisciplinarymethods, including key informant interview, semi-structured interview, and direct observation were usedin the survey [34] (Fig. 3). The main informants were in-troduced by the local village head at first, then recruitedhaphazardly during house-to-house questioning. A totalof 109 informants, including 50 males and 59 females,with ages ranging from 21 to 78 years old, were inter-viewed. The “5W + H” questions (i.e., questions con-cerning what, when, where, who/whom, why, and howthe subjects utilize wild edible plants) [34, 35] were usedto collect the local name, used parts, usage, preparationmethods, function, richness, or availability informationof the wild edible plants. The investigations of differentmarkets nearby the village were also conducted tocollect the selling and consumption information of wildedible plants in local peoples’ daily life.Interviews were carried out mainly in Mandarin, al-
though ethnic languages were also used with assistancefrom local village heads or guides in the study sites. The
hina. Different shapes and colors represented different ethnic villages.ankuan, Mantan, Zhongping, and Shuicheng respectively. Villages no.ong respectively. Villages no. 7-18 are Hani people’s village namedga, Basan, Nuna, and Mengkang respectively
Fig. 2 Investigated Dai (a), Hani (b), Yao (c) village, and local market (d)
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 4 of 23
local names of wild edible plants were recorded by Chin-ese Pinyin. The collected voucher specimens were iden-tified by the authors with reference to the flora of Chinaand were deposited in the Herbarium of XishuangbannaTropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sci-ences (HITBC). We adopted the APG IV system for thetaxonomic definition of plant families and species [36].The uniform nomenclature of plants was given by fol-lowing the information in The Plant List [37]. The con-servation status was recorded by referring to the datafrom IUCN Red List [38], threatened species list ofChina’s higher plants [39], and the Subject Database ofChina Plant [40].
Data analysisThe use values (UV) of each wild edible plant were cal-culated to evaluate the relative importance of each plantbased on the number of times cited and the number ofinformants [35, 41]. The formula for UV is UV = (∑ Ui)/N [35]. Ui is the times cited by each informant for a cer-tain wild edible plant, while N is the total number of in-formants. The similarity or dissimilarity of plant speciesused in each pair of the ethnic communities studied wasanalyzed with the Jaccard index, JI = a/(a + b + c),where a is the number of species in common; b thenumber of species used only by one specific community,and c is the number of species used only in the othercommunity [42]. We used a spreadsheet (Excel) to make
the catalog and analysis about the ethnobotanical infor-mation of wild edible plants. A uni-variate linear regres-sion analysis was undertaken using R (version 4.0.2) toevaluate the relationship of informants’ age and thenumber of mentioned wild edible plants. Significant dif-ference was accepted at P < 0.05.
Results and discussionDiversity of wild edible plants, life forms, and edible partsin Jiangcheng CountyLocal people in Jiangcheng County do not have a verystrict taxonomy system, and they treat all the plants thatare not grown or cultivated in their farm lands or col-lected from the forest or mountain areas as wild edibleplants. A total of 211 wild edible plants, including oneferal species Colocasia esculenta “Tonoimo”, along withethnobotanical catalog information such as scientificnames, family names, local names, life forms, edibleparts, usage and preparations, voucher numbers, cultiva-tion and market status, were recorded (Table 1). The211 species, belonging to 71 families and 151 genera,account for about 20.2%, 9.0%, and 3.8% of the totalfamilies, genera, and species of high plants in Pu’er City[5]. The most frequently used plants are mainly from thefamily of Poaceae (14 species), Fabaceae (12 species),Lamiaceae (11 species), Zingiberaceae (8 species), Aralia-ceae (7 species), Amaranthaceae (7 species), and Moraceae(7 species). At genus level, Dendrocalamus, Dioscorea,
Fig. 3 Interviewing the local people (a, b), informed permissions from the local people have been obtained for the use of the pictures;Parabaena sagittata Miers (c) and Dendrobium nobile Lindl. (d) sold at the market
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 5 of 23
Solanum, Amaranthus, Amomum, Colocasia, Dendro-bium, Ficus, Musa, and Zanthoxylum contain 4 to 6 spe-cies. There are 29 families and 119 genera that includeonly one species in the list. This is one of the longest listof local wild edible plants published, and reveals that thisis a region of global significance for wild edible plantdiversity.Among the 211 species, there are 95 herb species
(45.0%), 54 trees (25.6%), 38 vines (18.0%), 13 shrubs(6.2%), and 11 bamboos (5.2%) (Table 2). All wild edibleplants were also classified by their edible parts (Table 3).The most commonly consumed parts of the plant weretender stem and leaf (91 species, 43.1%), fruit (50 spe-cies, 23.7%), flower (29 species, 13.7%), rhizome (15 spe-cies, 7.1%), followed by root, bamboo shoot, young leaf,tender stem heart, stem, young shoot, seed, bark, petiole,and inflorescence (Table 3). The rich variety of edibleparts collected from different life form species demon-strated that the local communities have gathered a lot oftraditional knowledge from their daily consumption ofwild edible plants. They could figure out which plantpart is safe to eat and get rid of non-edible or poisonousparts. For example, the tuber of Colocasia (Araceae)plants, such as Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott and
Colocasia fallax Schott, is mostly edible as coarse grains,vegetables, or pig feed [43], while the tuber of Colocasiagigantea (Blume) Hook. f. is extremely poisonous, notonly to insects but also to people. Ingestion of this tuberby accident could cause severe pain in the esophagusand digestive system and the edible part of this plant isthus the petiole but not the tuber [44]. Moreover, manyspecies provide more than two edible parts for the localpeople, this information could be interpreted as theirpreference for some species, and could also be useful forthe further economic exploration of these wild edibleplants.
Diversity of usage and preparation methodsAs for the usage and preparation methods (Table 4),more than two-thirds of the plants were consumed aspotherb (wild vegetables, 67.8%). Potherbs are normallyfried or boiled to make a mixed wild vegetable soup.Twenty-four species were used to make salad freshly orafter boiling. Besides, 25 wild fruits were consumed asseasonal fruits with 3 of them also used for liquor brew-ing. The following usages are tonic soup, spice ingredi-ent, sour condiment, liquor brewing, tea substitute, dyematerial, and nut. During our investigation, we found
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Acanthaceae
Dicliptera
chinensis
(L.)Juss.
yake
suo(D),nanlan(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Dye
materialtomakered
sticky
rice
C-110
WN
0.39
Acanthaceae
Thun
bergia
gran
diflora
(Rottl.ex
Willd.)
Roxb.
zakuoluokuo(H),laogu
adan(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Flow
erPo
therb;
teasubstitute
C-188
WN
0.21
Alismataceae
Limno
charisflava
(L.)Bu
ch.
anmu(H),gaijiu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-111
WN
0.19
Alismataceae
Sagittaria
trifolia
L.ya
gangai(D),de
side
luo(H),gai
jiuding
(Y)
Herb
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-187
WN
0.46
Amaranthaceae
Alternan
therasessilis(L.)DC.
pabiu(D),eluoer
la(H)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Salad
C-077
WN
0.14
Amaranthaceae
Amaran
thus
blitum
L.pa
hong
kei(D),motuoqi
pu(H),
jiagaih
en(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-009
WY
1
Amaranthaceae
Amaran
thus
spinosus
L.pa
hong
nan(D),gaih
enlu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-007
WY
0.92
Amaranthaceae
Amaran
thus
tricolor
L.pa
hong
(D),motuoqi
pu(H),gai
heng
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-008
W,C
Y0.97
Amaranthaceae
Amaran
thus
viridisL.
paho
ngkei(D),motuoqi
pu(H),
gaih
endo
ng(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-105
WY
0.99
Amaranthaceae
Chenopodium
album
L.pa
hong
ge(D),nu
oza
(H),malan
gai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-103
WY
0.95
Amaranthaceae
Chenopodium
ficifolium
Smith
paho
ngge
(D),nu
oza
(H),malan
gai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-031
WY
0.83
Anacardiaceae
Choerospon
dias
axillaris(Roxb.)B.L.Bu
rtt&
A.W.H
illmangmen
(D),biulayang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
it;sour
cond
imen
tC-038
WN
0.61
Anacardiaceae
Man
gifera
siamensis
Warbg
.exCraib
mon
g(D),mao
mao
si(H),dang
laogang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
it;salad
C-019
WY
1
Anacardiaceae
Man
gifera
sylvaticaRo
xb.
mon
gwo(D),do
nglaomiu
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
it;salad
C-195
WN
0.94
Anacardiaceae
Rhus
chinensis
Mill.
po(D),shen
gbaoche(H),ga
fabiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Sour
cond
imen
tC-054
WY
0.88
Anacardiaceae
Spon
dias
pinn
ata(L.F.)Ku
rzgu
o(D),pi
luosi(H),galile
biu
(Y)
Tree
Fruit;tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
t;liquo
rbrew
ing
C-029
W,C
Y0.94
Apiaceae
Centella
asiatica(L.)Urban
panu
o(D),mekuoluogu
o(H),da
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
salad
C-011
WY
0.96
Apiaceae
Eryngium
foetidum
L.pa
bong
men
pon(D),yanxu
(H),
long
biajing(Y)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Spices
C-153
W,C
Y0.94
Apiaceae
Heracleum
bivittatum
H.d
eBo
issieu
mulingwon
g(Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-177
WN
0.1
Apiaceae
Oenan
thejavanica
(Blume)
DC.
wogu
owoluo(H),gaiw
eng(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-194
WY
0.64
Apo
cynaceae
Amalocalyx
microlobusPierre
xinha
(D),munu
oqi
cha(H),long
ruib
iu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Fruit
Salad
C-116
WY
0.98
Apo
cynaceae
Dregeavolubilis
(Linnaeusf.)Bentham
exJ.
D.H
ooker
pamen
(D),ku
teng
(H),maying
mei(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Flow
er;ten
derstem
and
leaf
Potherb
C-193
W,C
Y0.94
Apo
cynaceae
Urceola
rosea(Hoo
ker&Arnott)D.J.
Middleton
song
long
(D)
Woo
dyvine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Sour
cond
imen
tC-043
WN
0.27
Araceae
Amorph
opha
lluskrauseiEng
ler
yiluo(D),ge
iang
(H),gu
i(Y)
Herb
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-156
WY
0.96
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 6 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Araceae
Colocasia
esculenta(L.)Scho
tt.
borui(D),biuo(H),ho
umin
deng
(Y)
Herb
Rhizom
e;flower;p
etiole
Potherb
C-051
CY
0.98
Araceae
Colocasia
esculenta“Ton
oimo”
peiw
an(D),biuwo(H),ho
ugu
ndi
(Y)
Herb
Rhizom
e;pe
tiole
Potherb
C-180
CY
0.83
Araceae
Colocasia
fallaxScho
ttbo
rui(D),biuo(H),ho
udan(Y)
Herb
Rhizom
e;pe
tiole
Potherb
C-068
WN
0.77
Araceae
Colocasia
gigantea
(Blume)
Hoo
k.f.
borui(D),youti(H),ho
ubu
(Y)
Herb
Petio
lePo
therb
C-084
W,C
Y0.9
Araceae
Lasia
spinosa(L.)Thwaites
pabo
nan(D),ci
bao
cai(H),gian
deiai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-131
WY
0.93
Araliaceae
Aralia
armata(W
all.)Seem
.pa
dan(D),cibao
cai(H),do
nggo
ngyang
(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-055
WY
0.61
Araliaceae
Brassaiopsisglom
erulata(Blume)
Rege
lgu
odan(D),ta
bita
la(H),do
nggo
nglu
(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-152
WN
0.06
Araliaceae
Eleutherococcustrifoliatus(L.)S.Y.Hu
habing
(D),wujiaofu
(H),ciwu
jia(Y)
Shrub
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
salad
C-017
W,C
Y0.98
Araliaceae
Macropana
xdispermus
(Blume)
Kuntze
asa
ding
(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-089
WY
0.15
Araliaceae
Pana
xjaponicus(T.N
ees)C.A
.Meyer
sanqi(H),dang
sawang(Y)
Herb
Root
Liqu
orbrew
ing;
tonicsoup
Z-9429
WY
0.15
Araliaceae
Pana
xzing
iberensis
C.Y.W
u&K.M.Fen
gsanqi(H),dang
sa(Y)
Herb
Root
Liqu
orbrew
ing;
tonicsoup
T-44035
WY
0.14
Araliaceae
Trevesia
palmata(Roxbu
rghex
Lind
ley)
Visiani
padan(D),do
nggo
nglu
(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-070
WY
0.17
Arecaceae
Calamus
henryanu
sBecc.
wai(D),ge
lanbie(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
heart
Potherb
C-164
WN
0.05
Arecaceae
CaryotamaximaBlum
eex
Martiu
sgu
ozhu(D),don
gzo
ng(H),de
idin(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
heart
Potherb
C-173
WY
0.86
Arecaceae
Caryotaobtusa
Griffith
guobang
(D),lawoba
ma(H),de
idin(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
heart
Potherb
C-132
WY
0.49
Arecaceae
Liviston
asaribus
(Lou
r.)Merr.ex
A.C
hev.
magu
o(D),gu
o(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Potherb
C-157
WY
0.18
Asparagaceae
Polygona
tum
cirrhifolium
(Wallich)
Royle
mawei
gen
(D),hu
opi
dagu
o(H),bing
dujiang
(Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-013
W,C
Y0.41
Asparagaceae
Polygona
tum
king
ianu
mColl.et
Hem
sl.
mawei
gen
(D),hu
opi
dagu
o(H),bing
dulu
(Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-134
W,C
Y0.44
Asteraceae
Arctium
lappaL.
niuban
zigen
(H),niuban
gzi
gen
g(Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-192
CY
0.27
Asteraceae
Bidens
pilosa
L.ya
dong
long
(D),za
qiemo(H),
mazhan
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-085
WN
0.76
Asteraceae
Crassoceph
alum
crepidioides
(Ben
th.)S.
Moo
reya
gela(D),minggu
ocao(H),
dong
magu
n(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-006
WY
0.93
Asteraceae
Elepha
ntopus
scaber
L.ya
dindian
(D),bo
gaga
sa(H),
mabiemin
(Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-140
WY
0.56
Asteraceae
Gynuradivaricata(L.)DC.
pabo
ngbang
(D)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-170
W,C
N0.06
Asteraceae
Sonchu
soleraceusL.
kumei
cai(Y)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Potherb
C-080
WN
0.11
Athyriaceae
Diplazium
esculentum
(Retz.)Sm
.gu
ogu
n(D),de
pi(H),jiaogai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-049
WY
0.96
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 7 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Athyriaceae
Diplazium
esculentum
var.pubescens
Tardeiuet
C.C
hr.
pagu
o(D),da
guogu
ome(H),
jiaogailu(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-086
WN
0.36
Balsam
inaceae
Impatiens
mengtszeana
J.D.H
ooker
yadieda
(D),layou(H),ge
igai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-088
WN
0.24
Basellaceae
Anredera
cordifolia
(Ten
ore)
Steenis
pabang
(D),meidang
sha(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-041
W,C
Y0.21
Bego
niaceae
BegoniaaugustineiHem
sl.
pagansong
(D),pa
cheege
(H),a
ei(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf;stem
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-214
WN
0.76
Bego
niaceae
Begonialong
ifolia
Blum
epa
gansong
(D),yaomechege
(H),aeidan(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf;stem
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-087
WN
0.68
Bego
niaceae
Begoniasilletensissubsp.
mengyan
gensis
Tebb
itt&K.Y.Guan
pagansong
(D),yaomechege
(H),aeilu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf;stem
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-167
WN
0.72
Bign
oniaceae
Markham
iastipulata(W
all.)Seem
.laoge
i(D),xiexieayi(H),mao
dei
fan(Y)
Tree
Flow
er;fruit
Potherb
C-072
WN
0.59
Bign
oniaceae
Markham
iastipulatavar.kerriiSpragu
elaoge
i(D),xiexieayi(H),mao
dei
fan(Y)
Tree
Flow
er;fruit
Potherb
C-138
WN
0.6
Bign
oniaceae
Mayodendron
igneum
(Kurz)Ku
rzlaobie(D),gu
ote
guomeaye
(H),nialong
fan(Y)
Tree
Flow
erPo
therb
C-027
WY
0.99
Bign
oniaceae
Oroxylum
indicum
(L.)Bentham
exKu
rzlin
deng
a(D),bu
gubu
lie(H),
daodin(Y)
Tree
Flow
er;fruit;tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
salad
C-189
W,C
Y0.97
Boraginaceae
Tricho
desm
acalycosum
Coll.et
Hem
sl.
mao
duoda
(D),de
nglong
fang
(Y)
Shrub
Flow
erPo
therb
C-109
WY
0.39
Brassicaceae
Cardam
inehirsutaL.
wangye
gai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-097
WN
0.19
Brassicaceae
Nasturtium
officinaleR.Br.
panan(D),ye
qing
cai(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-100
WY
0.71
Brassicaceae
Rorippa
indica
(L.)Hiern
paya
guomu(D)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-081
WN
0.28
Cabom
baceae
Brasenia
schreberiJ.F.G
mel.
pong
(D),xinga
lamo(H)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Potherb
W-81210
WN
0.25
Cam
panu
laceae
Codono
psisjavanica
(Blume)
Hoo
k.f.&
Thom
son
mago
nggu
i(D),ya
libo
me(H),
nian
baobiu(Y)
Herb
Root;ten
derstem
andleaf
Tonicsoup
;pothe
rbC-191
WY
0.66
Cam
panu
laceae
Lobelia
nummularia
Lam.
dong
ke(D),disiliu
(H),long
nan
ma(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Tonicsoup
C-091
WY
0.94
Capparaceae
Cratevaun
ilocularis
Buchanan-Ham
ilton
pago
ng(D),woni
kuotuoluo(H),
zhainiao
gai(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Salad
C-005
W,C
Y0.95
Caricaceae
Caricapapaya
L.gu
isubao(D),memao
si(H),jin
guabiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Salad;
potherb
C-016
W,C
Y0.94
Caryoph
yllaceae
Brachystem
macalycinu
mD.D
onya
ying
ren(D),pi
siligu
o(H),du
shama(Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-101
WY
0.44
Clusiaceae
GarciniacowaRo
xb.
guoda
(D),yika
budu
osi(H),ke
diubiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-213
WN
0.44
Com
melinaceae
Commelinacommun
isL.
yasong
(D),wayou(H),dang
dai
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-033
WN
0.18
Com
melinaceae
Streptolirion
volubileEdge
w.
bi(D),dang
dailu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Inflorescen
cePo
therb
C-210
WN
0.11
Costaceae
Cheilocostus
speciosus(J.Koe
nig)
C.D.Spe
cht
maien
g(D),mijie(H),mulong
dong
bia(Y)
Herb
Youn
gshoo
tPo
therb
C-073
WN
0.09
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 8 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Cucurbitaceae
Coccinia
gran
dis(L.)Vo
igt
madian
lu(D),ni
qipi
lipo
luo(H)
Herbaceou
svine
Fruit
Potherb
C-166
CN
0.47
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumishystrix
Chakr.
dian
song
(D),ayaoshuo
kuo(H),
lugu
abiu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Fruit
Salad
C-215
WY
0.81
Cucurbitaceae
Gynostemmapentaphyllum
(Thu
nb.)
Makino
leiyazhakuo(H),gaiya(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-039
WY
0.49
Cucurbitaceae
Hodgson
iaheteroclita
(Roxb.)Hoo
k.f.et
Thom
son
man
mo(D),er
pidu
oluo(H),
geng
guameibiu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Seed
Nut
C-147
WY
0.7
Cucurbitaceae
Mom
ordica
subang
ulataBlum
ehu
ai(D),ku
gua(H),lu
guayong
biu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Fruit
Potherb
C-118
WN
0.71
Cycadaceae
CycaspectinataBu
chanan-Ham
ilton
guogu
(D),da
gu(H)
Tree
Youn
gleaf
Potherb
C-092
W,C
N0.12
Den
nstaed
tiaceae
Pteridium
aquilinum
var.latiusculum
(Desv.)Und
erw.exHeller
guogu
n(D),da
gugu
oyao(H),
jiao(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-034
WY
0.79
Den
nstaed
tiaceae
Pteridium
revolutum
(Blume)
Nakai
guogu
n(D),da
gugu
oma(H),
jiaolu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-178
WY
0.74
Dillen
iaceae
Dillenia
indica
L.san(D),sipi
luome(H),biahu
obiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Salad
C-106
WN
0.83
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
alataL.
man
bo(D),caobaome(H),de
ilingliu
(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-130
WY
0.75
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
bulbifera
L.yibao(D),ka
lasi(H),lu
gong
lai
biu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-184
WN
0.28
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
esculentavar.spinosa(Roxb.ex
Prainet
Burkill)R.Kn
uth
man
nan(D),meci(H),du
obing
liu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-165
CY
0.84
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
fordiiPrain&Bu
rkill
man
nei(D),meka
(H),lelangu
n(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-129
WY
0.62
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
pentaphylla
L.yibao(D),de
de(H),du
iyib
ao(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-115
WN
0.51
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
yunn
anensis
Prain&Bu
rkill
man
nei(D),aniu(H),luiw
ie(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
ePo
therb
C-209
WN
0.45
Elaeagnaceae
Elaeagnu
sconferta
Roxb.
luan
(D),mulong
ning
biu(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Fruit
Salad
C-082
W,C
Y0.96
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpusaustroyunn
anensis
Hu
daodu
biu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-146
WY
0.45
Ericaceae
Vaccinium
exaristatum
Kurz
madi
(D),amete
li(H),ge
die
yang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit;tend
erstem
andleaf
Season
alfru
it;po
therb
C-154
WN
0.72
Ericaceae
Vaccinium
harm
andian
umDop
amute
lie(H),ge
dieyang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit;flower;ten
derstem
andleaf
Potherb;
season
alfru
itC-117
WN
0.53
Erythrop
alaceae
Erythropalum
scan
dens
Blum
egaiyang(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-197
WY
0.13
Euph
orbiaceae
Euph
orbianeriifolia
L.klima(D),sileib
odo
ng(H),long
gua(Y)
Tree
Stem
Tonicsoup
C-202
W,C
N0.42
Euph
orbiaceae
Man
ihot
esculentaCrantz
men
niu(D),labi
mu(H),jianlui
(Y)
Shrub
Rhizom
e;tend
erstem
and
leaf
Potherb
C-018
W,C
Y0.83
Fabaceae
Acaciaconcinna
(Willd.)DC.
song
bai(D)
Woo
dyvine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-150
W,C
N0.23
Fabaceae
Acaciapenn
ata(L.)Willd.
page
da(D),taopu
(H),miaotei
(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-199
W,C
Y0.99
Fabaceae
Afgekiafilipes
(Dun
n)R.Geesink
luopaiw
ang(D),mieyi(H),mei
Woo
dyvine
Flow
erPo
therb
C-045
WY
0.94
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 9 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
biefang
(Y)
Fabaceae
Bauh
inia
variegata
var.cand
ida(Roxb.)
Voigt
luoke
xiu(D),qietier
yi(H),yang
bian
fang
(Y)
Tree
Flow
erPo
therb
C-025
WY
0.99
Fabaceae
Cajanu
scajan(L.)Millsp.
tuye
(D),ne
qieke
lie(H),de
bei
niejian(Y)
Shrub
Seed
Potherb
C-159
WN
0.37
Fabaceae
Crotalaria
pallida
Ait.
machon
gchan
(D),za
kuoluokuo
(H),ge
linglu
(Y)
Herb
Flow
erPo
therb
C-037
WN
0.2
Fabaceae
Erythrinasubumbran
s(Hassk.)Merr.
guodo
ng(D),ke
xieayi(H),mu
long
gian
(Y)
Tree
Flow
erPo
therb
C-208
WN
0.28
Fabaceae
Millettia
pachycarpa
Benth.
shunanyi(H),laim
ei(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Flow
erPo
therb
C-056
WN
0.02
Fabaceae
Mucun
amacrocarpaWall.
ketuo(D),ne
qiayi(H),gu
alalu
(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Flow
erPo
therb
C-145
WN
0.39
Fabaceae
Mucun
apruriens
(L.)DC.
neqi
ayi(H),meilan(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Flow
erPo
therb
C-046
WN
0.27
Fabaceae
Pachyrhizuserosus
(L.)Urb.
huogu
ode
n(D),di
lebu
(H),ni
geba
(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Rhizom
eSeason
alfru
it;po
therb
C-162
CY
1
Fabaceae
Pueraria
mon
tana
(Lou
reiro
)Merrill
kebie(D),qi
guo(H),meibie(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Root
Potherb
C-050
W,C
Y0.9
Gne
taceae
Gnetum
mon
tanu
mMarkgraf
kemei(D),pailig
uo(H),ge
mai
mei(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Seed
Nut
C-067
WY
0.64
Hydroleaceae
Hydroleazeylan
ica(L.)Vahl
pabu
yin(D),hu
angshangdang
(H)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-206
WY
0.58
Lamiaceae
Clerodendrum
chinense
var.sim
plex
(Molde
nke)
S.L.Che
nbe
ibing(D),de
gapa
me(H),
gong
miegian
(Y)
Shrub
Youn
gleaf
Potherb;
Salad
C-065
WN
0.47
Lamiaceae
Clerodendrum
japonicum
(Thu
nb.)Sw
eet
beib
ing(D),de
gapa
me(H)
Shrub
Flow
erSalad;
potherb;
tonicsoup
C-137
W,C
Y0.34
Lamiaceae
Elsholtzia
blan
da(Ben
tham
)Bentham
yayouman
nuai(D),lu
gume(H),
danmie(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Teasubstitute
C-127
WN
0.45
Lamiaceae
Elsholtzia
kachinensis
Prain
paleng
(D),mig
eligu
o(H),ma
dedan(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Salad;
potherb
C-075
W,C
Y1
Lamiaceae
Elsholtzia
rugulosa
Hem
sley
pulahu
o(D),ni
keni
ne(H),bu
daza
(Y)
Shrub
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Teasubstitute
C-112
WN
0.78
Lamiaceae
GmelinaarboreaRo
xb.
luosuo(D),ayihu
osi(H)
Tree
Flow
erDye
materialtomake
brow
nsticky
rice
C-171
W,C
N0.36
Lamiaceae
Leon
urus
japonicusHou
ttuyn
yimucao(H,Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
tonicsoup
C-205
WY
0.17
Lamiaceae
Menthacana
densisL.
zhaho
ngleng
(D),laosu
bakuo
(H)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-211
WN
0.4
Lamiaceae
Menthacrisp
ataSchrader
exWillde
now
huoleng
(D),luocibo
kuo(H),ma
dulu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-074
CY
1
Lamiaceae
Ocimum
basilicum
L.go
nggu
o(D),yige
salan(H),jun
gai
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-079
W,C
Y0.95
Lamiaceae
Ocimum
basilicum
var.pilosum
(Willd.)
Benth.
gangu
oten(D),eise
sala(H)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-114
WN
0.35
Lauraceae
Cinn
amom
umpartheno
xylon(Jack)
Meisner
maidang
hu(D),shixiaosi(H),ge
long
jiang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Spices
C-094
W,C
N0.14
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 10 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Lauraceae
Cinn
amom
umsubavenium
Miq.
guobaisan
(D),cuopi
cuogu
oluo(H),ge
long
jiang
(Y)
Tree
Bark
Spices
C-124
WN
0.29
Lauraceae
Litsea
cubeba
(Lou
r.)Pers.
guosaikaiteng
(D),sixiao
si(H),
gezhangmujiang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Spices
C-095
WY
0.94
Lygo
diaceae
Lygodium
salicifolium
Presl
pagu
o(D),da
guo(H),bu
gujiao
(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-158
WN
0.17
Malvaceae
BombaxceibaL.
guan
niu(D),yika
budu
osi(H),
mumianyang
(Y)
Tree
Seed
;flower
Nut;Pothe
rbC-201
WN
0.2
Melanthiaceae
Paris
polyph
ylla
var.yunn
anensis
(Franche
t)Hande
l-Mazzetti
chon
gle
(D),ch
onglou(H,Y)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-172
W,C
Y0.53
Melastomataceae
Melastomamalabathricum
L.gu
ogao(D),bi
binannan(H),bu
zhangyang
(Y)
Shrub
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-048
WN
0.67
Meliaceae
Toon
asin
ensis
(A.Juss.)
Roem
.fu
meirong
(D),ye
bu(H),xian
gch
un(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
salad
C-169
W,C
Y0.94
Men
ispe
rmaceae
ParabaenasagittataMiers
pannan(D),xinga
lamo(H),gai
mei(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-064
WY
1
Moraceae
Artocarpus
heteroph
yllusLam.
mami(D),mid
uoluo(H),long
dibiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-161
CY
0.99
Moraceae
Brousson
etia
papyrifera(Linnaeus)
L'Heritier
exVenten
atgu
osha(D),na
shaer
zi(H),rou
yang
(Y)
Tree
Flow
er;ten
derstem
and
leaf;fruit
Potherb
C-212
WN
0.33
Moraceae
FicusauriculataLour.
pawa(D),na
shaer
zi(H),long
obiu(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf;fruit
Potherb;
season
alfru
itC-071
W,C
Y0.93
Moraceae
FicusracemosaL.
guode
(D),moluosi(H),ge
long
biebiu(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf;fruit
Potherb
C-144
WN
0.31
Moraceae
Ficussemicordata
Buch.-H
am.exJ.E.
Smith
nua(D),sigu
osi(H),bu
luobiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-057
WN
0.9
Moraceae
Ficusvirens
Aito
npa
luo(D),nu
ona
zi(H),ge
bpon
gyang
(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-198
W,C
Y0.93
Moraceae
Morus
alba
L.mangmen
(D),shuo
ziabu
(H),
men
gshou
nanyang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit;tend
erstem
andleaf
Season
alfru
it;Po
therb;
liquo
rbrew
ing
C-002
W,C
Y0.93
Musaceae
Ensete
glaucum
(Roxb.)Che
esm.
apa
duoge
i(H),di
bo(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
heart
Potherb
C-076
W,C
Y0.61
Musaceae
Musaacum
inataColla
bi(D),an
pe(H),di
ban(Y)
Herb
Flow
er;ten
derstem
heart
Potherb
C-069
WY
0.9
Musaceae
Musabasjo
oSieb
old&Zu
ccarini
guih
e(D),asi(H),biao
diu(Y)
Herb
Fruit;flower;ten
derstem
heart
Season
alfru
it;po
therb
C-204
CY
1
Musaceae
Musaitinerans
Che
esman
bi(D),an
ne(H),diudi
(Y)
Herb
Flow
er;ten
derstem
heart
Potherb
C-136
WY
0.99
Musaceae
Musayunn
anensis
Hakkine
n&H.W
ang
bi(D),an
pe(H),di
bu(Y)
Herb
Flow
er;ten
derstem
heart
Potherb
C-059
WY
0.89
Orchidaceae
Anthogon
ium
gracile
Lind
l.pa
laib
o(D),gu
osigu
onu
o(H),
xiao
baiji(Y)
Herb
Rhizom
eTonicsoup
C-183
W,C
Y0.35
Orchidaceae
Dendrobium
crepidatum
Lind
l.ex
Paxton
luan
nangai(D),hu
angcao(H),
medaoying
(Y)
Herb
Stem
;flower
Teasubstitute;liquo
rbrew
ing;
tonicsoup
C-174
W,C
Y0.51
Orchidaceae
Dendrobium
cucullatum
R.Br.exLind
l.luan
nangai(D),hu
angcao(H),
medaolu
(Y)
Herb
Stem
;flower
Teasubstitute;liquo
rbrew
ing;
tonicsoup
C-123
W,C
Y0.52
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 11 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Orchidaceae
Dendrobium
devonian
umPaxton
luan
nangai(D),hu
angcao(H),
medaodang
(Y)
Herb
Stem
Teasubstitute;liquo
rbrew
ing;
tonicsoup
C-122
W,C
Y0.51
Orchidaceae
Dendrobium
nobileLind
l.luan
nangai(D),hu
angcao(H),
medaolu
(Y)
Herb
Stem
;flower
Teasubstitute;liquo
rbrew
ing;
tonicsoup
C-128
W,C
Y0.52
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis
corniculataL.
payuan
(D),an
nize
che(H),ma
bian
(Y)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Potherb
C-014
WN
0.5
Passifloraceae
Adeniacardioph
ylla
(Mast.)
Engl.
matiga
(D),agu
ochaba
(H)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Salad
C-148
WN
0.28
Passifloraceae
Passifloracaerulea
Linn
aeus
nuowangwai(D),laofangu
o(H),
luohanbiu(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf;fruit
Potherb;
season
alfru
itC-179
W,C
Y1
Phyllanthaceae
Antidesmaacidum
Retz.
guohu
a(D),pa
cheesi(H)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf;fruit
Salad;
season
alfru
itC-149
WN
0.31
Phyllanthaceae
BaccaurearamifloraLoureiro
fai(D),sishuo
si(H),men
laib
iu(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Season
alfru
it;salad
C-060
W,C
Y0.99
Phyllanthaceae
Bischo
fiajavanica
Blum
egao(D),sipu
gelie
(H),ge
ben
jian(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf;fruit
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-058
WN
0.81
Phyllanthaceae
Glochidionspha
erogynum
(Müll.Arg.)Ku
rzgu
anlei(D),walu
jiepi
(H)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-030
WN
0.52
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthu
sem
blicaL.
mabo
(D),sicuosi(H),niago
ngbiu(Y)
Tree
Fruit;bark
Season
alfru
it;salad;
liquo
rbrew
ing
C-200
WY
0.99
Phyllanthaceae
Sauropus
androgynus
(L.)Merr.
pawan
(D),qi
du(H),shutian
cai
(Y)
Shrub
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-004
CY
0.96
Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca
acinosaRo
xb.
nizhuo
mo(H)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-104
WN
0.13
Pipe
raceae
Piperflaviflorum
C.D
C.
kepian
(D),ke
duoye
(H),laomei
(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Stem
;ten
derstem
andleaf
Spices;p
othe
rbC-096
WN
0.12
Pipe
raceae
Pipersarm
entosum
Roxb.
padie(D)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-098
W,C
N0.26
Plantaginaceae
Limno
phila
rugosa
(Roth)
Merrill
shui
baguo
(H),lanba
bohe
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-190
WN
0.25
Plantaginaceae
Plan
tago
asiaticaL.
yayinren(D),ameiye
(H),made
igan(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-023
WY
0.36
Poaceae
Bambusa
lapideaMcClure
nuopiu(D),wobu
(H),laojing(Y)
Herb
Bambo
oPo
therb
C-175
W,C
N0.51
Poaceae
Cymbopogoncitratus
(D.C
.)Stapf
sakai(D),po
pi(H),ge
laodang
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-022
CY
0.91
Poaceae
Dendrocalam
usbarbatus
var.
internodiradicatusHsueh
&D.Z.Li
meihu
o(D),wone
(H),laobie(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-217
W,C
Y1
Poaceae
Dendrocalam
usbran
disii
(Mun
ro)Ku
rzmaiwang(D),wochi(H),laogan
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-062
W,C
Y0.98
Poaceae
Dendrocalam
usgiganteusMun
romaisang
(D),wopu
(H),laobu
bie
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-176
W,C
Y0.85
Poaceae
Dendrocalam
usha
milton
iiNees&Arn.ex
Mun
romaibo
(D),wochi(H),laogang
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-160
W,C
Y1
Poaceae
Dendrocalam
usmem
bran
aceusMun
romaiya
(D),chachu(H),laogang
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-181
W,C
Y0.98
Poaceae
Dendrocalam
ussemiscan
dens
Hsueh
&D.Z.Li
maihu
o(D),wonang
(H),laobai
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-120
WY
0.85
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 12 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
Poaceae
Imperata
cylindrica(Linnaeus)Raeusche
lya
ha(D),yike
(H),gan(Y)
Herb
Root
Season
alfru
itC-032
WN
0.39
Poaceae
Indosasa
singulispicula
T.H.W
enmaikong
(D),aka
bi(H),laodo
ng(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-182
W,C
Y0.99
Poaceae
Indosasa
sinicaC.D.C
hu&C.S.C
hao
maikong
(D),akuokuome(H),
laobao(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-121
W,C
Y0.96
Poaceae
Pleioblastus
amarus
(Ken
g)Keng
f.nu
okong
(D),aka
bi(H),laodang
ying
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-207
W,C
Y1
Poaceae
Pseudostachyum
polymorph
umMun
ronu
ohe
i(D),pe
(H),laodi
(Y)
Bambo
oBambo
oPo
therb
C-125
WN
0.65
Poaceae
Thysan
olaena
latifolia
(Roxb.
exHorne
m.)
Hon
daking
er(D),mebu
(H),ge
laomie
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
heart
Potherb
C-052
WN
0.83
Polygo
naceae
Fagopyrum
dibotrys
(D.D
on)Hara
page
mon
g(D),luozhuo
guo(H),
gaid
uilong
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-099
WY
0.98
Polygo
naceae
Polygonu
mchinense
L.song
bie(D),yaomechou
ge(H),
dang
dun(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb;
sour
cond
imen
tC-061
WN
0.81
Polygo
naceae
Polygonu
mviscosum
Buch.-H
am.exD.
Don
hanfai(D),enu
osipi
(H),maliu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-102
CY
0.97
Ponted
eriaceae
Mon
ocho
riakorsakow
iiRege
l&Maack
pahe
n(D),an
mu(H),gaijiu
ding
(Y)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Potherb
C-185
WN
0.38
Ponted
eriaceae
Mon
ocho
riavagina
lis(N.L.Burman)C.
PreslexKu
nth
pahe
n(D),an
mu(H),gaijiu
(Y)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Potherb
C-133
WN
0.63
Portulacaceae
Portulacaoleracea
L.pa
boliang
(D),an
nize
che(H),
macixian
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-010
WN
0.37
Prim
ulaceae
Ardisia
solana
ceaRo
xb.
palei(D
)Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-036
WN
0.16
Prim
ulaceae
Embelia
ribes
N.L.Burman
anlige
si(H),gang
duib
iu(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Fruit;tend
erstem
andleaf
Season
alfru
it;salad
C-044
WN
0.55
Rosaceae
Docynia
delavayi(Franch.)Schn
eid.
guomian(D),sipi
ersi(H),biu
men
gyang
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Salad
C-107
W,C
Y0.99
Rosaceae
Pyruspashia
Buch.-H
am.exD.D
ongu
okeig
ai(D),zhashuo
sili(H),
tang
liugu
o(Y)
Tree
Fruit;flower
Season
alfru
it;po
therb
C-168
WY
0.8
Rubiaceae
Canthium
horridum
Blum
emakaone
i(D),ya
daisi(H),ning
zhou
jian(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Potherb
C-040
WN
0.43
Rubiaceae
Galium
elegan
sWallich
guogannu
ai(D)
Herb
Root
Tonicsoup
C-141
WN
0.03
Rubiaceae
Paederia
foetidaL.
kedu
nma(D),ye
kuobu
duo(H),
gufa
mei(Y)
Herbaceou
svine
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-126
WN
0.3
Rutaceae
Zantho
xylum
acan
thopodium
DC.
ga(D),mozila(H),za
buga
biu
(Y)
Tree
Fruit
Spices
C-142
WN
0.65
Rutaceae
Zantho
xylum
armatum
DC.
buga
(D),za
la(H),lu
gajian(Y)
Tree
Fruit;tend
erstem
andleaf
Spices
C-021
W,C
Y0.96
Rutaceae
Zantho
xylum
myriacanthu
mvar.pubescens
(C.C.H
uang
)C.C.H
uang
making
(D)
Tree
Fruit
Spices
C-196
W,C
Y0.19
Rutaceae
Zantho
xylum
scan
dens
Blum
eone
ebi
nesi(H),wei(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Fruit
Spices
C-108
WN
0.15
Sabiaceae
Meliosm
aarno
ttiana
(Wight)Walp.
yejia
yang
(Y)
Tree
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-151
WN
0.28
Saururaceae
HouttuyniacordataThun
b.pa
huai(D),ke
saligu
o(H),lu
linHerb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Salad;
teasubstitute
C-047
W,C
Y0.99
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 13 of 23
Table
1Listof
wild
edibleplantsused
byDai,H
ani,andYaope
oplein
Jiang
chen
gCou
nty,Pu
’er,Southw
est,China
(Con
tinued)
Family
name
Scientificna
me
Localn
amea
Life
form
Usedpart
Prep
arationan
dusag
eVou
cher
number
WCb
MSc
UVd
gai(Y)
Schisand
raceae
Schisand
rahenryisubsp.
yunn
anensis
(A.C
.Sm
ith)R.M.K.Saund
ers
gaziga
nuo(H),do
ngjingdan(Y)
Woo
dyvine
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-093
WN
0.24
Scroph
ulariaceae
BuddlejaofficinalisMaxim
owicz
luofan(D),ayihu
osi(H),nan
wan
fan(Y)
Tree
Flow
erDye
materialtomake
yellow
sticky
rice
C-042
W·
Y0.86
Solanaceae
Solanu
mam
erican
umMiller
pading
(D),ku
liba
sa(H),gaig
eliu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-083
WY
1
Solanaceae
Solanu
mnigrum
L.pa
ding
(D),ku
liba
sa(H),gaig
eliu
(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-028
WY
0.98
Solanaceae
Solanu
mspiraleRo
xburgh
palie
(D),ku
liaoliaoye
(H),gaig
eleilu(Y)
Shrub
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-078
W,C
N0.36
Solanaceae
Solanu
mtorvum
Swartz
liang
lao(D),mosikuo(H),ge
lan
biu(Y)
Shrub
Fruit
Potherb
C-003
WY
0.96
Solanaceae
Solanu
mun
datum
Lamarck
kekua(D),ni
gazi(H),ge
lan(Y)
Shrub
Fruit
Potherb;
salad
C-139
W,C
Y0.73
Solanaceae
Solanu
mviolaceum
Orteg
alianhu
o(D),sikuokaoyao(H),ge
landi
(Y)
Shrub
Fruit
Potherb
C-163
WN
0.17
Urticaceae
Elatostemadissectum
Wed
dell
dong
mawang(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-119
WN
0.12
Urticaceae
Girardinia
diversifolia
(Link)Friis
hanzhan
(D),pa
bie(H),mula(Y)
Herb
Tend
erstem
andleaf
Potherb
C-143
WN
0.37
Zing
iberaceae
Alpiniablepha
rocalyxK.Schu
m.
maga
(D),ge
bobao(Y)
Herb
Inflorescen
cePo
therb
C-063
WN
0.39
Zing
iberaceae
Alpiniagalang
a(L.)Willd.
ha(D),mip
iduo
pu(H),jia
ngmiao(Y)
Herb
Youn
gshoo
t;rhizom
ePo
therb;
spices
C-203
WN
0.72
Zing
iberaceae
Amom
umcoriand
riodorum
S.Q.Ton
g&Y.
M.X
iagu
ohao(D),caoguo
(H),ya
ma
hao(Y)
Herb
Youn
gleaf
Spices
C-113
W,C
Y0.49
Zing
iberaceae
Amom
umkoenigiiJ.F.Gmelin
magu
o(D),mijie(H),ge
bobiu
(Y)
Herb
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-186
WN
0.5
Zing
iberaceae
Amom
ummaximum
Roxb.
magu
o(D),mijie(H),ge
bodi
(Y)
Herb
Fruit
Season
alfru
itC-155
WY
0.83
Zing
iberaceae
Amom
umvillosum
Lour.
mangnian
(D),sharen(H),sha
ren(Y)
Herb
Youn
gshoo
t;fru
itSeason
alfru
it;tonicsoup
C-066
W,C
Y0.55
Zing
iberaceae
Etlingera
yunn
anensis
(T.L.W
u&S.J.
Che
n)R.M.Smith
hendu
n(D),mijie(H),ge
bo(Y)
Herb
Youn
gshoo
tPo
therb
C-216
WN
0.2
Zing
iberaceae
Zing
iber
orbiculatum
S.Q.Ton
gnu
oen
g(D),suoya
mijie(H),ge
bobu
(Y)
Herb
Youn
gshoo
tPo
therb
C-135
WY
0.96
Theorde
rof
plan
tsin
thistableisfollowed
alph
abetically
byfamily,and
then
byspecies
Thetaxono
miccircum
scrip
tions
ofplan
tfamilies
andspeciesfollowed
theAPG
IVsystem
Thelocaln
ames
with
bold
font
resembled
thosein
Man
darin
orlocalC
hine
sedialects
a DDai
lang
uage
,HHan
ilan
guag
e,YYa
olang
uage
bWCwild
orcultivated
c MSmarketselling
,Yyes,Nno
dUVusevalue
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 14 of 23
Table 2 Life forms of wild edible plants in Jiangcheng County
Life forms Records Percent (%)
Herb 95 45.02
Tree 54 25.59
Herbaceous vine 23 10.90
Woody vine 15 7.11
Shrub 13 6.16
Bamboo 11 5.21
Table 4 Usage and preparation methods of wild edible plantsin Jiangcheng County
Preparation and use Records Percent (%)
Potherb 143 67.77
Salad 24 11.37
Seasonal fruit 25 11.85
Spice ingredient 18 8.53
Tonic soup 21 9.95
Sour condiment 10 4.74
Liquor brewing 9 4.27
Tea substitute 7 3.32
Dye material 3 1.42
Nut 3 1.42
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 15 of 23
that local people have some special taste preference forchoosing the wild edible plants. For instance, there are18 species, such as Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers., Zanthox-ylum armatum DC., Zanthoxylum myriacanthum var.pubescens (C.C. Huang) C.C. Huang, Alpinia galanga(L.) Willd., and Amomum coriandriodorum S. Q. Tong& Y. M. Xia, used as spice ingredients to cook beef ormutton, and 11 species, such as Spondias pinnata (L. F.)Kurz, Begonia augustinei Hemsl., and Urceola rosea(Hooker & Arnott) D. J. Middleton, used as sour condi-ments to make fish or cook pork soup. Besides the spicyand sour tastes, several species from the Solanaceae andBignoniaceae families are consumed for their bitter taste.Acacia pennata (L.) Willd., having strong bad egg smell,is also used to cook fish soup, mixed wild vegetablesoup, or fried egg.On one hand, wild edible plants provide essential
source of food for local people, on the other hand, someof these plants are believed to have health benefits andare utilized as medicine and beverage by the local peoplein Jiangcheng County. In this study, there are 21 plantsused to make tonic soup with chicken or pork. The indi-genous villagers used 9 plants to make traditional liquor,which are also frequently consumed to treat stomach or
Table 3 Edible parts of wild edible plants in Jiangcheng County
Parts used Records Percent (%)
Tender stem and leaf 91 43.13
Fruit 50 23.70
Flower 29 13.74
Rhizome 15 7.11
Root 13 6.16
Bamboo shoot 11 5.21
Young leaf 9 4.27
Tender stem heart 9 4.27
Stem 9 4.27
Young shoot 5 2.37
Seed 4 1.90
Bark 2 0.95
Petiole 2 1.90
Inflorescence 2 0.95
inflammatory disease or to help them to have a healthyand strong body. In Pu’er City, there is a long traditionalculture of harvesting and cooking herbal medicines withdifferent meat to make some tonic soup. More than 100species of medicinal plants were sold on the herb marketin Pu’er City during the Dragon Boat Festival (ChineseDuan Wu festival) [45].The diverse use and preparation methods of wild ed-
ible plants in Jiangcheng County indicate that the indi-genous people have learned a lot of traditionalknowledge about how to adapt well to their natural en-vironment. Their strong connections with nature benefitthem, not only by avoiding harmful materials but alsoproviding better taste experiences. These traditionalusage and preparation practices raised a wonderfully di-versified cooking culture. With the increasing demandfor a better and healthy daily life, the consumption ofwild edible plants has been increasing and many of themhave been collected from the field to serve at local res-taurants. The practice of making edible medicinal soupmeets the requirements of food nutrition and bodyhealth at the same time for the modern world, and at-tracts more tourists to have a stomach feast in Pu’erCity. The traditional knowledge is also valuable for fu-ture use of wild edible and medicinal plants in the foodindustry.
The use value and traditional knowledge distributionamong different generations and ethnic groupsThe use values (UV) of each species were calculated todetermine their relative importance to local communi-ties (Table 1). Sixty-five species with the highest UV(0.90-1.00) were remarked as the most consumed wildedible plants in Jiangcheng County. The five differentage groups of informants (50 males and 59 females) con-sumed 90 to 155 wild edible species (Fig. 4). Generally,male and female villagers eat similarly for the same agegroups and the elder generation owns much more
Fig. 4 Characteristics of informants and the average number of edible plants consumed by 5 different age groups
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 16 of 23
traditional knowledge than the younger generation.Based on the t test and uni-variate linear regression,there is significant relationship between respondents’ ageand the number of wild edible plants identified (Fig. 5).A previous study showed that age had a positive effecton the number of listed wild food plants [46]. Our studyfound that, as we expected, the number of wild edibleplants increased along with people’s age. The traditionalknowledge is under serious threats due to environmentaldegradation and acculturation, as well as biodiversityloss, and it showed signs of being forgotten and aban-doned by the younger generation [15, 35]. This situationis also occurring in Jiangcheng County. The traditionalknowledge is handed down to successive generations.With the passing of elderly people, the increased defor-estation of natural forest and monoculture of economicplants, and the decreased availability of wild edibleplants, the traditional knowledge has high risk of lossamong the younger generation in this trans-boundaryregion. Our study established a baseline for future workon the loss of traditional ecological knowledge amongdifferent generations.Altogether, the local Dai, Hani, and Yao communities
in this study consumed a total of 211 wild edible species.The number of wild edible species consumed by eachgroup had a narrow range of 183 to 185 (Fig. 6) and as
many as 149 species, accounting for 70.62% of the totalwild edible species, were used by all 3 ethnic groups.The comparative analysis by Jaccard index (JI) showedthat local Dai, Yao, and Hani communities shared verysimilar wild edible plants traditional knowledge, with JIvalues of 89.8%, 92.7%, and 94.9% for Dai and Yao, Daiand Hani, and Yao and Hani respectively. This highsimilarity might be due to long terms of interactions andcommunication at similar geographic environment. Thehigh JI values indicate that local people in this trans-boundary region are tightly connected and shared muchtraditional botanical knowledge with each other. Besides,the ethnic groups also learned some edible plants know-ledge from the Han Chinese. For instance, there are 27species, which are also commonly consumed by the HanChinese as medicine or vegetable, and these plants’ localnames resemble those in Mandarin or local Chinese dia-lects (Table 1).Searching around the neighboring areas, there were 284
wild edible species used by Dai, Hani, and Jinuo people inXishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture [47] and 224wild edible plants consumed by Hani people in HonghePrefecture [35]. When contrasted with these neighboringareas, the wild edible species are quite different, with only87 overlapping species between Jiangcheng County andXishuangbanna, and 53 overlapping species for Jiangcheng
Fig. 5 The relationship of informants’ age and the number of mentioned edible plants. In the formula, y is the number of recognized edibleplant, while x is the age of villager
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 17 of 23
County and Honghe Prefecture respectively. This resultshows that local people could always make a living fromthe limited circumstances and that the traditional know-ledge of wild edible plants is tightly associated with thelocal environment. The Jaccard index (JI) values were cal-culated ranging from 13.9 to 21.3%, suggesting that there
Fig. 6 Number of wild edible plants used in three ethnic groups.Red, green, and purple color represent Dai, Hani, and Yaopeople respectively
has high diversity of wild edible plants among these bio-diversity hotspot areas.
Cultivation, market, and conservation status in thestudied trans-boundary regionBesides their abundant experiences about harvestingwild edible plants from forest, local Dai, Hani, and Yaopeople also have a very rich traditional knowledge ofintroduction and cultivation of wild plants. There are 68plants cultivated by the local people in JiangchengCounty (Table 1). In the neighboring Xishuangbannan,Dai people have cultivated 315 plants in their villages,with 69 species used as medicines, fruits, vegetables,spices, horticultural flowers, and construction woods[48]. Seventy-nine kinds of folk utilizable plants of swid-den agroecosystem that belong to 38 families and 64genera were cultivated by Hani people, and used as fire-wood, food, fruit, fodder, beverage, condiment, and tex-tile [49].Wild edible plants not only supply the daily materials
needed but also play an important role in ethnic groups’cash income. There are 117 wild edible plants sold atthe local markets by the local people in JiangchengCounty (Table 1), and 146 wild vegetable species werefound to be sold at the local markets and restaurants inXishuangbanna [47]. On one hand, the huge market de-mands for wild edible plants contribute to thickeningthe wallet for the local people. On the other hand, it hasbeen stimulating the increase of pressure on wild
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 18 of 23
collection from the wild, with potential implications forbiodiversity conservation. For instance, Panax zingiber-ensis C.Y. Wu & K.M. Feng, which was cooked by thelocal people with chicken to produce healthy soup, andmixed with traditional wine to make tonic liquor, hasalready been listed as endangered species, and may needmore conservation efforts to resolve this potential over-harvesting pressure.Habitat loss is another main threat to conserve the en-
dangered or rare wild edible plants. During our investi-gation, the shift cultivation land and nearby forests havealmost completely been transformed into rubber planta-tion. We found the rice fields were rented by the busi-nessman to grow banana, chili, watermelon, kidneybean, and some other cash crops almost during thewhole year. The original rice fields, which are normallyfull of water and an important wetland for many crea-tures, have now become relatively dried farm lands. Thedecrease areas of rice paddy caused severe loss of wet-land habits, biodiversity, and cultural diversity in Jiang-cheng County. For example, Brasenia schreberi J.F.Gmel. could be very easily found at the rice field andother wetland area and had some semi-cultivation prac-tice [47], while it almost disappeared because of the lossof rice fields and change of land use for cash crops.Moreover, among the interviewed 109 villagers, only 27respondents knew still how to eat this species. Thesewere all elder people with an average age of 57.5 years.This result suggests the younger generation have alreadylost the traditional knowledge about this edible species,due to the rapid decrease and shrink of wetland habitats.Thus, we highlight that more conservation concern andefforts should also be paid to the tropical wetland areas.Although, the decrease of wild edible plants still hap-
pens because of environmental change and human nega-tive effects, there are also case of edible species increasesdue to human cultural exchange. Dendrobium speciesare usually consumed as medicine and crushed freshlyto treat scald disease by local Dai people [50]. While,Dendrobium species are famous and expensive trad-itional tonic medicine to rescue lives by Han people inthe middle and east part of China. In the 1990s, therewas a huge increase in demand of wild Dendrobiumplants, and the related cultivation industry boomed inSouthwest China for its suitable climate and lower in-vestments. Local people learned that Dendrobium spe-cies not only have external and medicinal use but alsocould be cooked and eaten for health benefits duringtheir communication with the outside businessman.There were 107 orchid species sold at Xishuangbannamarket with Dendrobium plants as the main traded spe-cies [51]. The culture exchange enriched the dish list ofthe local people, while it also contributed the increaseharvesting and conservation pressure of endangered
Dendrobium species because of the preference of wildproducts by the locals. Our results thus indicate that cul-ture exchange could increase the culture diversity butmight have more conservation pressure on endangeredspecies, and ethnobotanical data about the use frequencyand consumption demands of the endangered ediblespecies should be included and considered when weevaluate the conservation status of the threatenedspecies.
Important role of traditional knowledge for localcommunities and forest ecosystem servicesThe forest plays an important role for local commu-nities. Local Dai people have a well-known proverbsaying that only where there is fine forest, there iswater, farming land, food, and people can thrive. Thisclassic ecological belief ranked the forest in an ex-tremely high position, and made a positive contribu-tion to the biodiversity conservation in this region[52, 53]. Based on the guidelines from specificationsfor assessment of forest ecosystem services in China[54], the estimated total value of forest ecosystem ser-vices in Pu’er City was 247,785 billion yuan per year,with the per unit area value of forest ecological ser-vice at 85,500 yuan per hectare per year [55]. Theseassessments were necessarily very simplified, usuallyfocusing on a few, easily quantified services, andfailed to include the services which are of most im-portance to local people and could therefore lead toincorrect policy decisions [56]. Jiangcheng County’sforest cover increased rapidly from 43 to 68% during1997 to 2018, according to the public data from thelocal government [7]. The availability of wild edibleplants obtained from the forest, however, seems tohave decreased according to our result and the de-scription by the elder informants. Globally, the AichiBiodiversity Target 11 (to protect at least 17 percentof terrestrial area by 2020) has been exceeded for for-est ecosystems, but deforestation and forest degrad-ation continue to take place at alarming rates andcontribute significantly to the ongoing loss of bio-diversity [57].Therefore, on one hand, we suggested that we should
equally evaluate the quantity and quality of the forestcover rate, and pay more attention to the negative effectsof mono-culture forest plantations, such as rubber, onthe traditional knowledge conservation and inheritance.On the other hand, ethnobotanical data on the value ofthe forest for providing the wild edible plants and othernon-timber forest products to the local communities aswell as the feedback effect from traditional knowledgeand cultural diversity to forest conservation should beadded into the specifications for assessment of forestecosystem services.
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 19 of 23
Traditional cultivated plant genetic resources anddiversified agricultureLocal ethnic groups have a long tradition of introducingtheir preferred wild plants into farm lands and homegar-dens. The cultivated wild species are very important plantgenetic resources (PGR) for the development of cashcrops. Local Dai communities, cultivated 204 species foredible, medicinal, ornamental, and religious purposes,have a very close relationship with the formation and de-velopment of PGRs and play an important role in the con-servation and utilization of PGRs [58].The UN’sintergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) inGeneva issued a special report on climate change andland, pointing out that human activities and climatechange will place land resources under huge pressure andthat sustainable land and forest management, could pre-vent and reduce land degradation, maintain land product-ivity, mitigate the adverse effects of climate change tosome extent, and conserve the precious land and ecosys-tems at the same time [59]. A recent discovery revealedthat altering the cropping pattern from intensive mono-culture to diversified agriculture, could help to withstandthe climate change, protect vital wildlife, and alleviate thelong-term loss of biodiversity outside natural protectedareas in the future [60]. Besides, increasing plant speciesdiversity could promote beneficial trophic interactions be-tween insects and plants, ultimately contributing to in-creased ecosystem services [61].Thus, we suggested that more wild edible plants could
be introduced and cultivated in the nearby protectedareas, farming land, rubber forest, tea plantations and
Fig. 7 A group of Wild Asian elephants feasting the corn and rice cultivatePhotographed by Mr. Shishun Zhou
village owned forest, homegardens, and any suitable sitesto build corridors or ex situ reserve areas for some im-portant, rare, medicinal, and edible plants, conservemore plant genetic resources and establish a diversifiedagriculture. Moreover, modern plantation technologyshould also be updated, and the cultivation and domesti-cation of some preferred wild edible plants should bestrengthened by cooperating with some food industriesto reduce field collection, increase economic income andcontribute to the sustainable development of localcommunities.
Top 30 wild edible plants for better conservation,understanding, and sustainable utilization in China, Laos,and Vietnam trans-boundary regionBesides the threats from climate change, plantation andlivelihood transformation, over-harvesting and alarmingloss of traditional knowledge, the local people also haveto face human-elephant conflict for there have around44 wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) individuals inJiangcheng County (Fig. 7). With the potential increasingof elephant’s population and expansion of its distribu-tion, human-elephant conflict would be more seriousdue to continuous insufficient food, habitat loss, andfragmentation [32, 62, 63]. The wild plants are importantand reliable food sources both for human and elephant.Among the reported 240 forage plants for wild Asianelephant in Southwest China [64], there are at least 44overlapping wild edible plants both for human and ele-phant in Jiangcheng County. Thus, local ethnic peoplemight have higher accident risk with wild Asian elephant
d by local villagers nearby Jiangcheng County, Southwest China.
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 20 of 23
when they are both trying to harvest the same or similarwild edible plants at the same time. Nevertheless, estab-lishing a food source base with fast-growing, and highbiomass indigenous plants has proven to be one of theeffective ways to solve this problem [65]. However, howto choose more suitable plants to introduce and cultivatein the elephant food source base still lacks practice andresearch data.With limited land and investments, it is difficult to
overcome all these mentioned problems, but we coulduse a multidimensional way to solve or minimize theseissues. Based on our ethnobotanical survey, the data
Table 5 The top 30 most important wild edible plants recommende
Family name Scientific name
Anacardiaceae Mangifera siamensis Warbg. ex Craib
Anacardiaceae Mangifera sylvatica Roxb.
Anacardiaceae Spondias pinnata (L. F.) Kurz
Apocynaceae Amalocalyx microlobus Pierre
Araliaceae Panax zingiberensis C.Y. Wu & K.M. Feng
Arecaceae Caryota obtusa Griffith
Bignoniaceae Mayodendron igneum (Kurz) Kurz
Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Bentham ex Kurz
Cabombaceae Brasenia schreberi J.F. Gmel.
Cycadaceae Cycas pectinata Buchanan-Hamilton
Dilleniaceae Dillenia indica L.
Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus austroyunnanensis Hu
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea ramiflora Loureiro
Fabaceae Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.
Fabaceae Bauhinia variegata var. candida (Roxb.) Voigt
Menispermaceae Parabaena sagittata Miers
Moraceae Ficus auriculata Lour.
Moraceae Ficus virens Aiton
Moraceae Morus alba L.
Orchidaceae Dendrobium chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl.
Orchidaceae Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. ex Paxton
Orchidaceae Dendrobium cucullatum R. Br. ex Lindl.
Orchidaceae Dendrobium devonianum Paxton
Poaceae Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro
Poaceae Pleioblastus amarus (Keng) Keng f.
Polygonaceae Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum myriacanthum var. pubescens (C.C. Huang)
Solanaceae Solanum torvum Swartz
Lamiaceae Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Zingiberaceae Etlingera yunnanensis (T. L. Wu & S. J. Chen) R. M. SmithaTSLCHP Threated Species List of China’s Higher Plants, EN endangered, VU vulnerabbNPLC National Protection level in ChinacIUCN is the IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesdAsian elephant forage plants; Y yeseUV use value
from threatened species list of China’s Higher Plants andthe IUCN Red List, the published food plant list forAsian Elephant, the Subject Database of China Plant andthe calculated UV score, the top 30 most important wildedible plants (Table 5) were identified and recom-mended to be further cultivated and expanded in somelocal villages. These highlighted plants include 15 threat-ened or endangered species, 17 species with UV valueover 0.9 and 19 species consumed by both humans andelephants. The environmental, cultural, and religiousbenefits of the forest are generally recognized by thelocal people [66]. By learning the ethnobotanical
d for cultivation, conservation, and sustainable use
TSLCHPa NPLCb IUCNc Elephantd UVe
EN 1.00
EN 2 EN Y 0.94
Y 0.94
Y 0.98
EN 1 EN 0.14
VU 2 Y 0.49
Y 0.99
Y 0.97
CR 1 CR 0.25
VU 1 VU Y 0.12
EN Y 0.83
VU 0.45
Y 0.99
Y 0.99
Y 0.99
Y 1.00
Y 0.93
Y 0.93
Y 0.93
VU 1 VU 0.52
EN 1 EN 0.51
VU 0.52
EN 1 EN 0.51
Y 1.00
Y 1.00
Y 0.98
C.C. Huang VU 0.19
Y 0.96
VU 0.36
VU 2 0.20
le, CR is critically endangered, “-” means not included or data deficiency
Cao et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:66 Page 21 of 23
knowledge from the ethnic groups and encouragingthem to cultivate more plants, especially the endangeredspecies, in the community land and individual house-holds retained forest, as well as their homegardens couldopen a new channel for connecting the fragmented for-est as a whole, then contributing to conservation and thesustainable use of natural resources.Furthermore, from better protection of wild edible
plants view, there is urgent need for policymakers to en-hance the government coordination in this trans-boundary region [67, 68], and reinforce the monitoringand management of rare or endangered plants traded inlocal markets, to popularize the biodiversity conservationlaws and to promote the awareness of the value of trad-itional knowledge. From the sustainable utilization anddevelopment of wild edible plants view, local govern-ments could continue to make their three times permonth’s traditional market day (every 1st, 11th, 21st ofeach month) more famous of typical ethnic culture char-acters by encouraging local ethnic groups to sell morecultivated wild plants there. The trans-boundary goodtrade fair would be another platform for local communi-ties to demonstrate their unique culture and to increasethe nationalities’ self-identification, then contribute tothe conservation and inheritance of traditional know-ledge for the trans-boundary ethnic groups.
ConclusionAn ethnobotanical study on wild edible plants used bythree trans-boundary ethnic groups was conducted inJiangcheng County, Pu’er City, Southwest China. A totalof 211 wild edible plants and their traditional knowledgewere documented in this study. Our results show thatthree trans-boundary Dai, Hani, and Yao people haveplentiful traditional knowledge on the utilization of wildedible plants with diversified eating parts, preparationmethods, and use purposes. Local people not only col-lect the edible plants from wild, but also cultivated andsold them in the markets. However, many of these wildedible plants were only frequently mentioned by theelder informants and there is an alarming risk of losingthe traditional knowledge among younger generations.Endangered plants distributed at the wetland or sold atthe market, such as Brasenia schreberi J.F. Gmel., Panaxzingiberensis C.Y. Wu & K.M. Feng, and Dedrobium spe-cies, deserve more conservation efforts. Based on our re-sults, the top 30 most important wild edible plants werehighlighted to be further cultivated and expanded insome local villages.In conclusion, wild edible plants play an important
role in local people’s daily life, and the ethnobotanicalinformation of the wild edible plants collected fromethnic groups could provide key scientific data to pro-mote the traditional cultural value among the young
generation and relief the stress of human-environmentconflict. By referring to the traditional knowledge fromthe ethnic groups and encouraging them to make a di-versified cultivation of wild edible plants in the commu-nity land and individual households, as well as theirhomegardens could launch a new bridge for wild plantsto be more profitable cash crops, contribute to the sus-tainable use of natural resources, and conserve the en-dangered species in this trans-boundary region.
AcknowledgementsProf. Kyle Tomlinson and Dr. Lin Wang from Xishuangbanna TropicalBotanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences were thanked for theirtechnical guidance for the data analysis and figure preparation. Prof. AhimsaCampos Arceiz was special thanked for his contribution to revise thelanguage of this manuscript. The authors are grateful to the localgovernment staff and villagers in Jiangcheng County for their help duringthe field survey.
Authors’ contributionsRL and HBH conceived and designed the study. LS and RCQ providefinancial and academic instructions. YLC, SSZ, and RL conducted datacollection and analysis. SSZ identified wild edible plants. RL, YLC, and HBHinterpreted and wrote the draft manuscript. All authors read and approvedthe final manuscript.
FundingThis work was co-financed by the Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Insti-tute, Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant number Y4ZK111B01), by a projectof the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation (LMC) Special Fund (Biodiversity Moni-toring and Network Construction along Lancang-Mekong River Basin project,No. Y8GK041B01), the CAS 135 program (No. 2017XTBG-F03), and NationalNatural Science Foundation of China (No. 32000251).
Availability of data and materialsAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in thispublished article.
Ethics approval and consent to participateNot applicable.
Consent for publicationNot applicable.
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details1Agriculture Service Center, Zhengdong Township, Pu’er City 665903,Yunnan, China. 2Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, ChineseAcademy of Sciences & Center for Integrative Conservation, XishuangbannaTropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla 666303,Yunnan, China. 3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049,China. 4CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology,XishuangbannaTropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun 666303,Yunnan, China. 5CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources andSustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academyof Sciences, Mengla 666303, Yunnan, China.
Received: 8 July 2020 Accepted: 17 October 2020
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