Introduction

The term ‘ethnic’ is understood as agroup of people or a community having thesame cultural background. Ethnicity is allabout having to do with common cultureamong the people. The term ‘ethnicity’first appeared in the 1950s in the Englishlanguage. Ethnic communities have beenpresent in every period and continent andhave played an important role in allsocieties. Though their salience and impacthave varied considerably, they have alwaysconstituted one of the basic modes of humanassociation and community. The same is trueof the sense of ethnic identity. Thoughmore elusive, the sense of a commonethnicity have remained to this day a majorfocus of identification by individuals.

Ethnic community and identity are oftenassociated with conflict, and moreparticularly political struggles in variousparts of the world. We should observe,however, that there no necessary connectionbetween ethnicity and conflict. There are,

however, other major sources of ethnicconflicts. One is associated with cultural,notably linguistic and religious,differences. A second is concerned with thedistribution of political rewards withinpoly ethnic states. These often give riseto particularly bitter conflicts.

Ethnicity as a term and a subject ofstudy is very recent. For at least 150years liberals and socialists confidentlyexpected the demise of ethnic, racial andnational ties and the unification of theworld through international trade and masscommunication. These expectations have notbeen realized. Instead, we are witnessing aseries of explosive ethnic revivals acrossthe globe.

Landscape on the other hand is referredto as visible land features of earthsurface. These include plains, plateaus,mountains, hills etc. Human landscape ischaracterized by economic, political andsocial condition with relation to theirlandscape. Ethnic landscape is the studyethnic occupation of land over a givenspace.

Therefore, in this chapter, the topic isbasically stressed on ethnic occupation oflandscape in different parts of the worldand the influence of nature in theireconomic activities.

ETHNIC ENCLAVE

An ethnic enclave is a physical space with highethnic concentration; thus these spaces are

culturally distinct from the larger receivingsociety. Ethnic enclaves are found in virtuallyevery country, arising in response to increasedimmigration of people from the same ethnicbackground. Their success and growth depends onself-sufficiency, and is coupled with economicprosperity. Therefore, the general definition ofan ethnic enclave is a geographically definedspace with characteristic cultural identity andeconomic activity. The term is usually used torefer to either a residential area or aworkspace with a high concentration of ethnicfirms.

The theory of social capital and theformation of migrant networks create the socialfoundation of ethnic enclaves. Douglas Masseydescribes how migrant networks provide newimmigrants with social capital that can betransferred to other tangible forms. Asimmigrants tend to cluster in close geographicspaces, they develop migrant networks—systems ofinterpersonal relations through whichparticipants can exchange valuable resources andknowledge. Immigrants can capitalize on socialinteractions by transforming information intotangible resources, and thereby lower costs ofmigration. Information exchanged may includeknowledge of employment opportunities,affordable housing, government assistance

programs and helpful NGOs. Thus by stimulatingsocial connections, ethnic enclaves generate apool of intangible resources that help topromote the social and economic development ofits members.

By providing a space for co-ethnics to createpotentially beneficial relations, ethnicenclaves assist members in achieving economicmobility. Enclaves create an alternative labormarket that is ethnic-specific and does notdemand social and cultural skills of the hostcountry. By eliminating language and culturalbarriers, enclave economies employ a greaterproportion of co-ethnics and speed theincorporation of new immigrants into a bustlingeconomy. By increasing employment opportunitiesand facilitating upward mobility, studyingethnic enclaves helps to explain the success ofsome immigrant groups. Additionally, while theethnic enclave theory was developed to explainimmigrant incorporation into the receivingsociety, it has also been linked to migrationprocesses at large as successful incorporationof immigrants has the potential to lowermigration costs for future immigrants.

Despite their immediate benefits, the long-term implications of participation in an ethnicenclave are a topic of debate. Enclave economieshave been linked to a glass ceiling limiting

immigrant growth and upward mobility. Whileparticipation in the enclave economy may assistin achieving upward mobility through increasedavailability of employment opportunities in theenclave labor market, it may also impedeacquisition of host country skills that benefitthe immigrant over the long-run. Latency inlearning the language and social norms of thereceiving country constrains immigrants toactivity within the enclave and secludes themfrom the larger receiving context. Opportunitiesavailable to mainstream society can thus be outof reach for immigrants who lack both theknowledge of these services and the ability toaccess them. Thus, the accelerated path towardeconomic mobility that lures new immigrants intoenclave economies pose a challenge to potentialsuccess. Integration into an ethnic enclave maydelay and even halt assimilation to the hostsociety, preventing the immigrants frombenefiting from mainstream institutions.

ETHNIC GROUPS ININDIA

India is a land of diversity. The land features differ from one region to another.Due to its different land features there are thousands of ethnic groups in India. These are:-

 Ethnic groups in India► Ancient peoples of India► Banjara people► Bengali people► Chakma► Denotified tribes of India► Dravidian peoples► Ethnic groups in India by state or territory► Ethnic groups in Northeast India► Exotic tribes in Hindu scripture► Gurjar► Gurkhas► Himalayan peoples► Hmar► Immigration to India► Indigenous peoples of India

► Indo-Aryan peoples► Indo-Greeks► Indo-Hunnic peoples► Indo-Mongoloid► Irani people► Jat► Jat clans► Jews and Judaism in India► Kashmiri people► Kashmiri tribes► Khasi people► Konkani people► Kumhar► Marathi► Meitei people► Memon people► Mizo people► Oriya people► Parsi people► People from Odisha► Punjabi tribes► Rajput clans► Ramgarhia clans► Romani in India► Scheduled Tribes of India► Tai peoples

► Indian ethnic group stubsThe ethnic groups in India differ from

one region from another on economic point of views. Some regions are industrially andtechnologically advance whereas others are not. Landscape is one of the major reasons for economic disparity. The ethnic groups in southern and northern India are economically more advanced than that of mountainous regions like Kashmir and north-eastern India.

The Naga ethnic groups residing in and around Nagaland are:-Angami Naga, Ao Naga, Chakhesang, Chang Naga, Khiamniungan people, Konyak people, Liangmai Naga, Mao Naga, Maram Naga, Monsang Naga, Nocte people, Phom Naga, Poumai Naga, Rengma Naga, Rongmei Naga, Sangtam Naga, Sumi Naga Tangsa people , TaraoNaga, Tutsa Naga, Wancho people, Yimchunger, Zeme Naga etc.

These ethnic groups are economically backward due to factor like climate, land

features, conflicts, low social structure etc.

URBAN ETHNIC LANDSCAPE IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Immigration has expanded dramatically inboth traditional and emerging receiving

nations. This worldwide boom has profoundlyaltered urban areas as new arrivals havetransformed inner cities and suburbs alikeinto bastions of new ethnic economicactivity. Examining the essential role ofspace in assisting and modifying ethnicbusiness activity, this topic considers howethnic economies are reshaping the urbanlandscape in the United States, Britain,Australia, Canada, Germany, and Italy. Eachchapter explores the significance of urbanspace and local context in the developmentof an ethnic economy and how, in turn,ethnic economies have helped to recreateurban neighborhoods.Ethnic diversity has marked the UnitedStates from its inception. From themigration of the ancestors of NativeAmericans to the increasingly diverseimmigrant populations arriving today, it isimpossible to separate ethnicity from anunderstanding of the United States as acountry and "Americans" as a people. At anever-increasing pace, America today isexperiencing watershed changes in its

social, cultural, and ethnic/racialgeographies.

 Considering the impact of thesetransformations, the urban economy andlandscape is viewed in ethnic groups inboth historical and contemporary context.It begins by laying out a comprehensiveconceptual framework that integratesimmigration theory; globalization;transnational community formation; andurban, cultural, and economic geography.The contributors then present a rich set ofcase studies of key ethnic and racialcommunities—including those of long-standing significance such as NativeAmericans, African Americans, and MexicanAmericans, along with the Latin Americanand Asian groups that make up the vastmajority of newer immigrants.

THE CHANGING NATURE AND ETHNIC LANDSCAPE

Evaluations of coverage in the census, datingback to 1940, have consistently shown adisproportionate undercount of people of color.This so-called "differential undercount" – thegap between the accuracy of the count for Non-Hispanic Whites and the accuracy of the countfor all other race and ethnic groups – led theCensus Bureau to develop targeted methods andmessages aimed at promoting greater censusparticipation among African Americans, Latinos,

Asian Americans, American Indians, and otherhard-to-reach ethnic population groups.  TheGulf Coast already was home to significantnumbers of these hard-to-count groups whenHurricane Katrina came ashore, changing not onlythe literal landscape but the racial and ethniccomposition of the hardest hit communities. 

For example, the Black population in OrleansParish, Louisiana, fell from 67 percent in 2000to 61 percent in 2007, while it increased from23 percent to 27 percent in Jefferson Parish tothe north, clearly suggesting that some Blackresidents fleeing the storm's destructionsettled, however temporarily, as close to homeas possible.  Conversely, the White populationin Orleans Parish increased from 28 percent in2000 to 34 percent in 2007, and dropped from 65percent in 2000 to 59 percent in 2007 inJefferson Parish.

As evidence that many displaced Blackresidents are still intent on returning home,Orleans Parish had the largest increase in Blackpopulation (16,000) of all U.S. counties betweenJuly 1, 2007 and July 1, 2008.  New Orleansmetro area school enrollment statistics from the2008-09 school year bear out the slow but steadyreturn of Black families: Black studentsaccounted for almost 43 percent of public and

private school enrollment, up from about 39percent in the second year after Katrina but notyet at the pre-storm level of nearly half of allenrolled students (49.1 percent).Total schoolenrollment is now 78 percent of the pre-Katrinalevel.

The 2005 hurricanes clearly affected thepresence of Latinos along the Gulf Coast. Census Bureau data show that the Hispanicpopulation in the hardest hit Louisiana andMississippi areas grew significantly in the wakeof Hurricane Katrina, an increase primarilyattributable to migrant workers seekingemployment opportunities related to therecovery.  It appears that many of these workersare undocumented migrants with limited Englishproficiency, characteristics that make themparticularly vulnerable to an undercount.

The Mexican Mobile Consulate Survey,conducted in the spring of 2007, showed thatnearly three-quarters of Mexicans in the NewOrleans area arrived after the storm in searchof work.  Most did not intend to staypermanently; in fact, most said they planned tostay less than two years or that they didn'tknow how long they would stay, an uncertaintyindicative of their fragile legal status (almost9 in 10 reported that they were undocumented

migrants).  While a majority of post-Katrinamigrants to the New Orleans area wereunaccompanied young men (more than 60 percent,however, reported being married), 37 percentwere accompanied by family members and nearly aquarter were women.

In Mississippi, the Latino share of thepopulation increased by about 50 percent in thecoastal counties between 2000 and 2007, andalmost doubled over that period in both Biloxiand Gulfport.  Similar proportional increases inthe Latino population were seen in Mobile andBaldwin Counties in Alabama, although not in thecity of Mobile.

The Gulf Coast also is home to an Asian-American population that, because of itsconcentration in marine-related occupations, wasespecially vulnerable to the catastrophic 2005hurricanes.  According to a post-Katrinaanalysis by the Asian American Justice Center(AAJC), "Asian Americans constituted asignificant percentage of the impacted ethnicpopulations in the Gulf Coast."  The AAJCresearchers found.

The largest Asian community was VietnameseAmerican (over 45 percent of Asian Americans inLouisiana reported this ethnicity); many

Vietnamese Americans, as well as Laotians, Thai,and Cambodians in the region, have limitedEnglish proficiency.  Before the storm, "NewOrleans was home to the oldest Filipinocommunity in the nation. South Asians alsoconstituted a significant population inLouisiana, with many working in the hotelindustry. Other groups in the region includedChinese and Korean Americans, some of whom werealso involved in the fisheries industry."

ECONOMY OF THE ETHNIC LANDSCAPE

As stated earlier, the landscape is themain agent of the economy of the ethnicgroups. There are millions of ethniccommunities spread everywhere around theglobe. They are considered as minoritygroups in most of the countries. Theseethnic groups are being dominated bysuperior races. They are sometimes deniedtheir right politically and economically.This leads to ethnic conflicts in most ofthe region. The other cause of the economicdisparity and backwardness is the physicallandscape they occupy. The plain areas havefavorable condition for cultivation andrich flora and fauna whereas some regionslike mountain, desert and marsh areas havelow production. The other reason of ethniceconomic disparity is their settlement.Some settle near the river banks whichmakes the transportation and cultivation

easier. The economy in such regionflourishes faster than that far away fromriver banks.

Ethnicity has existed in societies sincetime immemorial. The first ethnic groupswho first occupy the landscape are theaboriginals. These aboriginals are stillliving below human living standard.Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia,Malaysia, India and African countries aredealing with ethnic issues. On the otherhand countries like USA, UK, Mexico andSouth American countries have thousands ofethnic groups but the economic life ofethnic communities in these countries arefar more better than those in Asiancountries.

Therefore, the economy of the ethniclandscape depends upon the land featurethey occupy; and also depends upon theirexposure to outside world. Conclusion

The ethnic groups which spread aroundthe world are almost non exposure tooutside world. This adds to their economic

backwardness. The landscape they occupy maybe rich in mineral resources, flora andfauna, fishing, cultivation etc. but theireconomic backwardness results in nonutilization of all those resources. On theother hand, conflict over politicalauthority and low social structure lead totheir economic backwardness. Some ethnicgroups in small number are threatened byoutside interference and they may even losetheir culture heritage, language andtradition.

The revival of ethnic groups is the needof hour. Reviving them not necessary anopen discrimination but is a response to aneed for collective identity whichtranscends the general status of the groupand tend to be stronger precisely where anethnic group’s position is relativelystrong.

In order to understand the economiccondition of ethnic group in a particularlandscape, we need to study thoroughly theclimatic condition of the area, the typesof landform, the forest type, politicalcondition, social condition etc. The

economic disparity of ethnic communitiesaround the world is due to theirinteraction with others economically. Thelandscape is a unique area of nature thatenables human to settle and breed. Itdepends on how we use it.

REFERENCES

1. ETHNICITY- John Hutchinson andAntony D. Smith

2. THE HUMAN LANDSCAPE- Geeti Sen andAshish Banerjee

3. THE ETHNIC PHENOMENON- Van DenBerghe

4. SOURCES FROM INTERNET

5. DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS