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A Study for

The Fellowship of Engineering

by Richard Chaplin, University of Reading

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Report N' FE 4

THE FELLOWSHIP OF ENGINEERING

The Education and Training of Chartered Engineers fbr the 21st Century

Creativity in Engineering Design

the Educational Function

A study undertaken for The Fellowship of Engineering

by C.Richard Chaplin

MA PhD CEng MIMechE

Department of Engineering

University of Reading

November 7989

@ C. R. Chaplin 1989

A11 rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission ofthis publication to be made without written permission.

First edition published in Great Britain in November 1989 by:

The Fellowship of Engineering2 Little Smith Street,Westminster,London SW1P 3DL

Printed and bound in Great Britain byThe University of Reading

ISBN 1, 871634 06 7

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SUMMARY

This study was commissioned by the Education, Training andCompetence to Practise Committee of The Fellowship ofEngineering as a part of a broad initiative concerned withstimulating debate on The Education and Training of CharteredEngineers for the 21.st Century. The primary objective of the studywas to identify ways by which the creative design ability of youngengineers can be enhanced.

The approach adopted was to review the processes of engineeringdesign which entail creative thinking, from a methodology viewpoint, in terms of current teaching practice and as carried out byactive designers in industry. Observations relating to the creativedesign processes published in the 1950's and 1960's have beenfound to provide an informative insight to the mental processesof successful designers to-day. This insight coupled withobservations regarding the tendency for children to developintellectual abilities which have been described as eitherconvergent or divergent, leads not only to the identification of thenaturally talented designer as a sort of controlled schizophrenic,but also to identification of the essential mental controls whichlead to successful application of formalised methods. It has alsoled to a clarification of the different psychological attributesrequired by effective designers as opposed to scientists.

A further outcome of the study has been to identify differentlevels of creative thinking which take place during the designprocess. Essentiall/, these can be separated into conceptual anddetail design. The education of engineers in the UK tends to befairly good as regards the former, but tends to leave the latterrather more to chance. Somewhat the opposite seems to be thecase in the educational systems operating in some countries whichare our industrial rivals. This is clearly an area where BritishIndustry could benefit from some changes in undergraduateteaching. The options have been explored and somerecommendations made but there is, of course, no easy remedy.

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ACKNOWLED GEMENTS

The author is grateful to all those who have contributed to thestudy. Particular thanks are due to those who have participated inthe discussion phase, freely giving not only their time, but also thewisdom of their knowledge and experience. A list of thesecontributors is appended to the report.

A special debt of gratitude is due to Prof. ]. Black, CBE, F Eng, whofirst persuaded the author to become involved in the study andhas provided continuing support and guidance throughout.

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CONTENTS

Section

1. Introduction

1.1 Background to Study

7.2 The Development of Design Teaching in the UK

1.3 The Design Process - an Overview

2 Creative Thinking in Engineering Design

2.1, The Psychology of Creative Thought

2.2 Formalised Techniques for Creative Thinking

2.3 The Common Features of Formal Techniques

3 The Creative Process in Practice

3.1 Selection of Individuals for Discussion

3.2 Outcome of Discussions

3.3 The Use of Formal Techniques

3.4 Correlation between Theory and Practice

4 A Review of Current Design Teaching Methods

4.L Formal Teaching

4.2 Projects

4.3 Other Types of Exercise

4.4 Educational Objectives and Effectiveness of Current Methods

5 The Perceived Shortcomings and Omissions of Current Teachins

6 Discussion of the Creative Design Role & Engineering Students

7 The Options for Creativity Enhancement

7.1. The Educational Objectives

7.2 Current Methods

7.3 Novel Methods

8 Conclusions

9 Recommendations

10 References

Appendix A: Contributors to Study

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1, INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to Study

The overall objective of this study was to identify the educationalmethods by which we can most effectively develop and enhance thecreative potential of the young design engineer. The need for such astudy was highlighted in the SPRU report on 'Training andCircumstances of Engineers in the 21st. Century', and subsequentlysponsored through the Education, Training and Competence to PractiseCommittee of The Fellowship of Engineering.

At the outset of this study it was envisaged that the u'ork would divideinto a number of steps which, though interactive to some degree,would be more or less sequential:

(i) to review the psychology of creativity as it is related tothe engineeering design processi

(ii) through discussions with designers and designmanagers in industry, to collect information relating totheir own interpretations of the creative function of thedesign engineer, and also what they felt were theshortfalls or omissions in the relevant parts ofundergraduate teaching programmes;

(iii) through discussions with those involved in designeducation at various levels, to identify the spectrum ofrelevant current methods and the areas which peoplefelt were being neglected;

(iv) from the information collected, to distil a set ofeducational objectives in terms of the knowledge andskills necessary to become an effective and creativedesigner engineer; and,

(v) to recommend teaching/training procedures throughwhich to introduce students to the tools of creativestimulation and effective engineering design.

1.2 The Development of Design Teaching in the UK

Any component of engineering education must, if it is to justify thedescription of engineering, be of value in design. And in the limit thejustification of all that circuit analysis, strength of materials, fluiddynamics, etc. is to analyse, detail and quantify a design.

In civil engineering, largely because of the very nature of this disciplinein which virtually every structure is a prototype, design work, at least at

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the detailed level, has formed part of the undergraduate curriculum fora long time. However design at the broader, more conceptual, level hasbeen a comparatively late addition to the teaching of this and all theother engineering disciplines (Holgate (1986)). As already remarked,the detailed analytical tools have always been a part (or even thewhole) of the British engineering degree course. However it is probablyonly since the mid sixties that engineering students have been givennot only the opportunity to test their design skills (other than onpaper), but also some instruction in the methodology'of the designprocess (Dunn (1968)). We have certainly moved far from the fearexpressed by Schrader (1972) of "scientists with engineering degrees".

Since project work started to become part of the engineering degreecurriculum in the early sixties (Hayes and Tobias (196$) the project hasbecome the primary vehicle by which the undergraduate engineerexperiences design. Over the years the final year design project hasassumed increasing importance to the point where it has become a

specific requirement (Levy, 1983)) and the subject of much debate. Inmany areas design teaching has moved towards satisfying the shortfallsidentified by Finniston (1980). There have been numerous reportsadvocating the integration of design teaching into engineering courses(Moulton ('1,976), Corfield (1.979), Black (1986)) with a generalmovement towards Moulton's objective that:

"Design should be a thread running through all the normalengineering degree courses".

A great deal has been written on the subject of engineering design anddesign teaching. Indeed it may be a matter of concern that design hasshown a tendency to become a subject in its own right. The nature ofthis concern, as expressed by McKay (1982), is that in effect there is athread of design running through all engineering; but separate thedesign from the engineering and it looses relevance and has a tendencyto become an esoteric introspective philosophy and an end in itself.

1.3 The Design Process - an Overview

The now considerable literature on the subject of engineering designincludes many useful sources on the models, methods and strategiesavailable to the design engineer which are applicable over a range ofdisciplines and to a variety of problems (see for example: Alger andHayes (1964), Dixon (1966), Jones (7970), Pugh and Morley (1988), Cross

1 The term design methodology is perhaps unfortunate in that it seems to imply an

ivory tower remoteness from the real practice of design in industry. However there

is no alternative for describing the functional mcchanics of the design process.

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(1989), etc). A review of the literature shows a fair degree of consensusregarding the general sequence of events that takes place between thetwinkle in the designer's eye and the customer parting with his money.All authors on the subject are compelled to begin with a flow chart, a

block diagram or a three dimensional model of the design process andwhile this report is not a treatise on engineering design methods it isnecessary to maintain this tradition and an appropriate diagram istherefore presented in Figure 1. The details of the model are notimportant here, but the general pattern and features which arecommon to all such diagrams are of considerable interest in the contextof this study.

Figure 1: The design process

This study is concerned with the creative thinking which is necessaryfor effective design. We need a model of design to try to identify atwhat stages and in what way the designer (or perhaps moreappropriately, the design team) needs to call upon his creative reserves.

All such models of the design process can be seen to have a number ofcommon elements:

(i) the process is divided into a series of separate steps;

recognise & define problem -

market analysiswrite specification -- establish constraints

propose alternative solutions

select optimum scheme

design details

buying - costing - quality - production - prototype

sizing & selecting components

production

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(ii) there is provision for returning to an earlier stage;

(iii) the process moves from problem to solution in stepsand not as a smooth progression.

There is a need for creative thought at different stages throughout theprocess, just as there is a need for analysis and decision making atdifferent stages. One of the important observations confirmed by thisstudy is that the segregation of these stages is essential, and the wholeprocess of design can be seen in terms of cycling between creativethought, analysis and decision making. This cycle, illustrated inFigure 2, can be seen in terms of expansion followed by contraction.

expansion ,/ creative slmthesis 1

/ \ contractionv\analysis decision making

Figure 2: The design cycle

The outcome of each stage of creative thinking is a range ofalternatives, which are carefully analysed before making an objectiveselection. Whilst it has long been recognised that creativity, analysisand to some extent decision making require different mental attitudes,the discussion presented below will show that this has had far reachingconsequences on the past selection of engineering students almost tothe extent of positive exclusion of creative talent, and furthermore thata full recognition of these important distinctions can lead to a

significant improvement in design capability. It is also apparent thatthe procedures invoked by the majority of the formalised approaches tocreativity, maieutics as they are called by French (1988), can be explainedin these terms. Explanation leads to better understanding, and thatbetter understanding leads to more effective use.

A secondary observation, which emerges from a consideration of thecreative role of the design engineer, is that the nature of that creativerole changes as the process moves from outline towards detail, fromconcept to embodiment. As pointed out by Pugh and Morley (1988)

there are of course also varying demands for innovation betweendesigns and for different parts of a design. But in general, the resourcesupon which the designer must draw change distinctly as any givendesign develops, and this leads to some significant conclusions interms of curriculum recommendations.

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2 CREATIVE THINKING IN ENGINEERING DESIGN

2|1, The Psychology of Creative Thought

The psychological processes by which the human mind generates newideas have been a topic which has naturally attracted considerableattention over the years. The literature related to the subject rangesfrom "An Essay on Original Genius" by W. Duff (1767) to articles in thecolour supplements of Sunday newspapers claiming that brain powercan be enhanced by eating a special diet of seafood and muesli with nosmoking and drinking (Cannon (1988)), and an improvement increative power may be attained by directing thought processes to theright hand side of the brain (Askwith (1988)).

The question of the physical location of different classes of thoughtprocesses, in terms of left and right cerebral hemispheres, is a veryinteresting one which is described lucidly by Ornstein andThompson (1985) and reviewed in more detail by Le Doux (1983).Although the discoveries of asymmetry have led to some ratherexaggerated claims, it is undoubtedly a fact that different cognitiveprocesses take place in different regions of the cerebellum. Of particularinterest here is the observation that visuo-spatial perception isessentially a right hemisphere function, while mathematical and tosome extent verbal processes are left hemisphere functions. Anaptitude for visuo-spatial perception is clearly of considerableimportance in engineering design, but to what extent this might belinked to creative functions is not clear. What may be of morerelevance however is the tendency for individuals to develop somecognitive skills to higher degrees than others thus utilizing thefunctions of the left hemisphere rather more than the right. This issueof what might be described as mental specialisation will be givenfurther consideration below.

At a rather more practical level quite a lot has been written aboutcreative processes in the Arts, Science and Technology. Perhaps themost useful source here has been Osborn's work (1953): "AppliedImagination. Principies and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving".Osborn's development of brainstorming and description of routes toidea formation, as well as factors which can inhibit idea formation, areboth illuminating and comprehensive. Consideration of inhibitingfactors is particularly important.

Osborn states that:

"Our thinking mind is mainly two-fold:

(i) a judicial mind which analyses, compares and chooses;and,

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(ii) a creative mind which visualises, foresees and generatesideas."

The basic argument which he develops is that while everyonethroughout their everyday life has to exercise judgement and decisionmaking, the opportunities for creativity tend to dwindle as we growolder. So unless a conscious effort is maintained to sustain andstimulate creative faculties, they tend to atrophy as we age, while ourcritical analytical faculties continue to develop with use. Coupled withthis is the observation that creative thought is inhibited by the kind ofattitude that frequently accompanies analysis and judgement. Theseinhibiting factors are particularly apparent in groups, which explainswhy the mental climate which must be encouraged for successfulbrainstorming is defined as: positive, uncritical, stimulating, optimistic,self confident etc. Furthermore what goes for group creativity alsoseems to apply to individual creativity. In simple terms during theprocesses of. ideation a critical, analytical attitude has a negative effect.

Criticism and analysis are of course essential parts of the overall processof innovative design. Many writers on the subject identify four stages(Broadbent (7966), Alger and Hays (796D):

(i) preparation;

(ii) incubation;

(iii) illumination; and,

(iv) verification.

In these the creative element is concentrated in the second phase, beingterminated by illumination (which may be that 'flash of inspiration'),but is preceded by an analytical phase involving collection and analysisof information, and foiiowed by further analysis and criticaljudgement. The description of illumination is however somewhatinappropriate to design problems being more appropriate to theresearch scientist who is searching for the single correct explanation forsome observed phenomenon; the design engineer is always looking fora range of alternative solutions.

The incubation phase, also termed withdrawal (Dixon (1,966)) orspeculation (Gordon (1,961,)), is the creative core. Poincar6 (791,4)

describes this part of the process when applied to mathematicaldiscovery as a series of trial combinations taking place essentially at asub-conscious level guided by an emotional sensibility. Osborn (1953)

is more concerned with the menial processes of ideation and identifiesassociation of ideas as the basis of idea finding. He defines variousforms of association and analogy, and also describes the frame of mindthat an individual, or group, needs to develop to be receptive to

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association. In this context it is possible to generalise to the extent thata positive attitude is essential so that any thoughts, attitudes or voicedopinion which is not positive, or at least voiced in a positive way, willbe counter-productive. These limitations are further illustrated byOsborn's analysis of the factors which tend to inhibit creativity:

(i) The exercise of judgement and criticism -If a colleague says: "That will never work" as a responseto an idea, then the originator of the idea, whopresumably thought it had some merit, will be quitediscouraged from making further contributions.However thick-skinned people might appear to be,there is always a reaction to criticism, especially inpublic. Conversely praise and encouragement will havea beneficial stimulating effect.

(ii) Previous habits -This is the need to get out of the rut, to break the mouldand in this way avoiding preconceptions and prejudice.

(iii) Self-discouragement -"I will never be able to..." is no way to start. Notehowever that the opposite is not an arrogant egotism,but rather an open minded (i.e. receptive)self-confidence.

(iv) Timidity -Creative thinking does require a certain courage, a

boldness or even a taste for risk and adventure, and inthis search for the novel idea (association) anuninhibited yet controlled attitude is productive.

Bruner (1,962) who defines the creative act as one that produces"effective surprise", also describes it as "the resultant of combinatorialactivity", which brings us yet again to ihe creative incubation process as

one that involves a way of thinking that is essentially associatiae. AndTony Buzan in his highly successful book "lJse Your Head" (7974)

advocates an "organic", associative method for the creativedevelopment of ideas.

Gordon's work on Synectics 0,967) provides further illumination onthe mechanics of creative problem solving by groups. Gordon's recipefor creative innovation has been used successfully by others (Parker(1985)) and for its creative core depends on various forms of analogynot unlike Osborn's association.

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Of particular interest here are the fundamental hypotheses stated byGordon:

Synectics theory holds that:

(i) creative efficiency in people can be markedly increasedif they understand the psychological processes by whichthey operate;

(ii) in creative processes the emotional component is moreimportant than the intellectual, the irrational moreimportant than the rational; and,

(iii) it is these emotional, irrational elements which can andmust be understood in order to increase the probabilityof success in a problem-solving situation.

As already noted Poincar6 (7974) has referred to an emotionalsensibility, and Gordon places considerable emphasis on the need, as anessential part of the creative synectics process, for members of the groupto develop an emotional understanding for features of a problem.

Dixon (7966) in discussing the characteristics of inventive people, refersto ]ung's work on psychological types which includes a

judging-perceptiae scale. Dixon identifies the perceptiae person as

being the more innovative since he is more receptive, or sensitive, toexperience, and therefore, when confronted with a new problem, in a

position to have more to draw upon. He also suggests various actionsas a means to improve perceptiveness, and therefore inventiveness.Included amongst these is the advice to avoid the habit of judgementwhich is said to interfere with observation. But the effectiveness of thisadvice has more to do with Osborn's observations about the directlyinhibiting influence of a critical attitude.

The work by Hudson (1966) describing a psychological study of cleverschoolboys is of considerable relevance here. Hudson identifies twotypes: the conaerger and the diverger. His work also implies that therewas a tendency in the boys he studied for them to be either one or theother, and although he does describe an all-rounder, this type accountsfor no more than 407o of the total. In other words as children growand develop, and determined to a significant extent by their emotionalenvironment, they become either conaergers or dioergers.

The characteristics, capabilities and inclinations which Hudsonattributes to these two types seem far more closely tied to creative andinnovative ability than Jung's judging-perceptiae scale, especiallywhen examined against Osborn's "Principles and Procedures ofCreative Problem-Solving" (1953). Basically the difference betweenHudson's two types is that the converger is good at the conventional

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I.Q. test with the single correct answer arrived at by deduction, whilethe diverger is good at the open ended kind of test (e.g. how many usescan you think of for a brick, paper clip, barrel etc.?). The two typesshowed a strong correlation with academic subject preference; thediverger for the Arts, and the converger for the Sciencesl.

The converger likes logical rational argument. He concentrates onimpersonal things, is cautious about expressing feelings and tends to bedefensive.

The diverger is essentially the antithesis of the converger. He preferspeople to things, being more at home with the human side of culture,and avoiding things which are technical and practical. He is eager toexpress emotion but is uneasy with precise argument.

The diverger is therefore very much attuned to associafioe thinkingwhile the converger is happier with analytical, logical deductivethinking.

These two ways of thinking about problems are different. It also seemsthat children (or at least intelligent boys) tend to develop aptitudes forone or the other, and those who develop an aptitude for logicaldeductive thought tend to make an academic choice for mathematicsand the sciences, while those with an aptitude for associative thinkingopt for the arts.

Fludson's work seems to point clearly to an acceptance of the divergeras the naturally creative individual, and this is most certainly anattractive proposition which accords with the associatiae thinkingtheory. However Hudson himself expresses particular caution on justthis point:

"My own belief is that original work will come from convergersand divergers alike; and that the convergence and divergence ofan individual will determine not whether he is original but, if heis original, the field and style in which his originality willmanifest itself."

Hudson then ascribes an individual's aptitude for original work toother aspects of his character, listing qualities which show strongparallels with those derived from Osborn's work:

(i) persistence;

(ii) self-confidence;

It is interesting and perhaps significant to speculate that Hudson might have foundhis study rather more difficult had it not been for the early specialisation still verymuch the norm in British secondary schools.

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(iii) aggression;

(iv) risk-seeking;

(v) rebelliousness and sexuality; and,

(vi) nympholepsy (or yearning for the unattainable).

These observations are consistent with the arguments alreadyadvanced, but with the qualification that the convergers and thedivergers given, or having developed, the necessary attitudes andqualities, will be likely to succeed in differing fields. The difference isthat convergers will be creative in fields where original work can beaccomplished through analysis and deduction, while creative work thatrequires the kind of associative approach detailed above needsdivergent thinking. This it seems is an important distinction which inbroad terms identifies a vital difference between scientific research andengineering design (at least at the conceptual level). Scientific researchcan be advanced largely through the deductive analytical approach;engineering design has a far greater need for the associative form ofcreative thought.

The importance attributed by a number of writers and also by designers(Gordon (1961,) and see below), to emotional involvement with a

problem lends even further support to the divergent nature of thecreative, conceptual phase of engineering design. Cross (1989) hasdescribed the process of design as fluctuating between divergence andconvergence in terms of thinking style. In Section 1 above, design wasdescribed in similar terms, cycling from a creative phase, through ananalytical phase, to a decision making phase and so back to the creative.Each creative phase results in an expansion of alternatives, which areanalysed before selection.

It is clear that if an associative approach is needed for the creative bits,then these must be kept quite separate from the other phases where theanalysis and judgement would quench the creative spark. This leads usto another important observation that the designer, who will beinvolved at each stage, needs to be able to think about the design indifferent ways at different stages of the process. He must play a

different role as the requirements change from creativity to analysis, todecision making, and back to creativity. Any confusion of the roles,particularly confusing judgement with synthesis, will be counter-productive. Ullman et al. (1988), although defining them in a differentterminology, have also noted these conflicting roles of the designer.

A reasonable deduction is that the natural designer has a subconscioustalent to change his way of thinking when he changes roles. The

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designer without this natural talent must develop the ability to controiand change his thinking styles.

As Smalley (1989) has also noted the selection procedure wherebychildren at school in the UK find their way into the engineeringprofession is such that the divergers, those with the natural talent forassociative creative thinking, become attracted to the arts subjects, sogiving up the mathematics and physical sciences that the universitiesand polytechnics demand for admission to study engineering. Thosethat do find their way to engineering degree courses are largelyconvergers or Hudson's all-rounders.

At first sight it might appear that the all-rounder is just what isrequired for a design engineer, but the all-rounder is just that: neitherconverger or diverger, a bit of both. What is needed to become a

natural designer is an individual who is both, but not at the same time;he must be able to flip from converger to diverger at will, as a kind ofcontrolled schizophrenic.

2.2 Formalised Techniques for Creative Thinking

Numerous formalised or systematic techniques have been describedwhich are intended to stimulate creative design. Various detaileddescriptions of the available methods and the types of problem towhich they are best suited have been published and they are onlysummarised here. Further information can be found in: Alger andHays (7964), Dixon (7966), Jones (7970), Cross (1.979), and two OpenUniversity publications - Crickmay ('1972), and Cross and Roy (7975).

There are of course many systematic methods appropriate to the designprocess as a whole. Many of these operate on a basis of proceduralquestionnaires, checklists, charts or matrices, and include suchmethods as FDM - Fundamental Design Method (Matchett (1968)),

PABLA - Problem Analysis by the Logical Approach Method (Latham(1,965)), AIDA - Analysis of Interconnected Design Ideas (Morgan(7967)), VDI2227 - Systematic Approach to the Design of TechnicalSystems and Products (VDI (1,987)) and QFD - Quality FunctionDeployment (Jebb (1989)). However the methods which concern ushere are those which are primarily directed at the creative idea formingphase of the design process.

(i) Brainstorming

Brainstorming (formalised initially by Osborn (1953)) isa problem solving activity undertaken by a multi-disciplinary group. The group meet specifically to

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generate ideas aimed at solving the stated problem.They work within a framework of rules:

criticism is banned;

quantity of ideas is more important than quality;

credit is shared by the group.

The group also needs a secretary to record the flow ofideas as they evolve so that notes of the meeting can becirculated subsequently for further thoughts and, only atthis stage, critical comment and analysis.

The principle of brainstorming is that the thoughtassociation process will be more effective in terms ofgenerating originai ideas when it is free to operatebetween individuals with differing backgrounds. Therules are intended to foster a creative climate.

[The next four methods listed are not formal in the sense thaibrainstorming is. They are ways of thinking about problemsintended, essentially, to break a set pattern through providing anovel viewpoint.l

(ii) Inversion

lnaersion implies a re-orientation of the problem (orsolution): inside out, upside down, back to front. Itimplies changing relative velocities: making thenormally moving part stationary, making a part thatnormally rotates move in a straight line, etc.

Borrowing an example from Dixon (7966), inaersioncan be illustrated by thinking about the problem ofextracting walnuts from their shells. The conventionalapproach is to break in from outside, which tends tobreak up the nut: inverting the problem would meanthinking about how to get the walnut out from insidethe sheli i.e. breaking out, not in.

(iii) smpelhy

Empathy is a positive way of forcing a divergentapproach to a problem which requires trying to thinkabout the problem on an emotional plane with a

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personal involvement. Returning to the walnutexample, empathy requires imagining what it feels liketo be a walnut - sitting inside a cold dry shell - in thedark - wanting to get out and feeling claustrophobic.The answer is of course to push out; in technical termsusing compressed air introduced through a small hole.l

The subtlety of this method is that through requiringthe designer to take an emotional involvement,provided he "plays the game", he is almost tricked intoa divergent associative thought pattern.

(iv) Fantasy

Fantasy is similar to empathy in the sense that it is anindirect way of getting the designer to think about a

problem in a creative manner. The procedure involvesfantasizing about solutions to a problem. In effect thistends to imply suspending, temporarily, anyinconvenient laws of physics as a means to thinkingabout the problem from a novel viewpoint. The kindof components which might be incorporated into a

fantasy solution would be magic carpets or sky hooks.

The similarity with empathy is that the suspension ofconstraints is much the saure as banning criticism, thusencouraging the creative attitude, but an attempt todevelop a physical realisation of the fantasfic solutionmay prove a route to a feasible design.

(v) Analogy

One of the most fruitful sources of ideas when tacklingdesign problems is of course to look for solutions toanalogous problems. Analogy with nature has provideda source for many technical innovations from tunnelboring machinery to "Velcro" fasteners. D'ArcyThompson (7977) and more recently French (1988)

provide many examples.

Given that the majority of engineering students are convergers who are unhappyabout expressing emotions, it is not surprising that they are very reluctant to join inempathy exercises. They find it rather embarrassing and like adolescents at aparty do not want to join in the game/ even when they see those already playing arehaving fun.

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(vi) lynectics

The synectics approach developed by Gordon (1961) is insome ways similar to brainstorming but is rather morestylized and more sophisticated. The similaritiesconcern the involvement of an interactive, multi-disciplinary group. But the process is far morestructured and some of the group members havespecific roles: there is a naoigator who overseesproceedings suggesting strategies and tactics, there isalso a customer to answer questions about the problemand there may also be technical specialists drafted in forparticular problems.

The assault on the problem is structured recognising thefollowing sequence:

la detachmenf - in which the problem is investigatedwith a remote perspective;

lb inaolvemerzf - the problem is now contemplatedfrom a more intimate perspective, deliberatelyseeking a personal, even emotional involvement,using empathy to develop a deeper understanding;

2 det'ermenf - this is a recognition of the point atwhich solutions begin to develop, where there is a

need to hold back from adopting the first, and tocontinue the search for alternatives;

3 speculation - a\ exhaustive search for alternativeswith specific strategies all based on anallgy;

4 autonomy of object - this is the phrase used byGordon to describe the stage in the design processat which what is perceived to be the optimumalternative is identified and thenceforth almosttakes over.

Gordon describes the first part as "making the strangefamiliar", by which he means developing a detailedunderstanding of the problem. The speculation phase,he describes as "making the familiar strange", by whichhe means looking at the problem from different(distorted) viewpoints to provide a stimulus to novelideas.

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The four synectic mechanisms which are identified forthis part of the procedure are described by Gordon as

different forms of analogy:

personal analogy;

essentially empathy as described above but more inthe form of "What does it feel like to be the pistonin a petrol engine, the mooring rope of a NorthSea oil rig, or the blade of a wind turbine ?"

direct analogy;

analogy as described above but particularly withnature.

symbolic analogy;

requires an objective impersonal image which,while technically inaccurate, symbolises theproblem in an aesthetically pleasing manner.

fantasy analogy;

much as in the fantasy method above.

Another important part of the synectics approach is thatthe group discussions are recorded and can be playedback to the group not only so that they can see whatmight be added, but also as a means by which tounderstand better how they interact and how the ideashave been stimulated. This is seen as an essential partof the group training process.

(vii) Morphological Creativity

This is essentially a systematic search for novelcombinations. A problem is analysed in terms of sub-problems and alternative solutions identified for eachof these. The range of combinations can then beexamined for useful solutions to the overall problem.

This optimal combination approach is very much theheart of the VDI method for product design nowembodied in a VDI Design Handbook (VDI (1987)) andwhich is described in great detail by Pahl and Beitz(7977). Following an initial planning phase whichincludes clarification of the overall objectives andelaboration of the specification, the Pahl and Beitz

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approach consists of at least three cycles of expansionand contraction: conceptual design, embodiment design,and detail design.

The conceptual design phase requires a functionalanalysis of the product which leads to identification of aset of sub-functions. Alternative means or principles tosatisfy each sub-function are then sought, and from a

range of feasible combinations one variant is chosen.Different concept variants of the selected combinationmay then be considered before moving on to the nexfphase.

Embodiment design then looks at alternative forms foreach of the identified sub-assemblies, and againalternative combinations are assessed beforedetermining the final layout. The last phase entails thedetail design of the various components and sub-assemblies.

The Pahl and Beitz procedure is highly structured andprovides a fairly clear indication of the role which thedesigner (or design team) is to play at each step. Theadvice given for the "discovery of product ideas" issomewhat weighted towards the use of analyticaldiscursive methods, but a comprehensive set ofintuitive (associative) techniques is also given.

(viii)Lateral Thinking

Edward de Bono's highly popular books on lateralthinking (de Bono (7967)) are based on the concept thatwhen a logical deductive approach to solving a

particular problem is blocked, the way forward issideways, or if you cannot win, then cheat. Thephilosophy of lateral thinking is realiy that of switchingfrom deductive, convergent thinking to associative,divergent thinking.

Lateral thinking is not prescriptive or structured in theway that synectics is. It is really more of a philosophythan a method, but as a technique it deserves inclusionhere particularly because of the implied recognition oftwo fundamentally different ways of thinking aboutproblems.

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Perhaps the most important message of lateral thinkingis that it is something of an acquired skill: the more onepractises it the easier it becomes. Although not stated,the message is really directed at the conaerger, for hereally stands to benefit most from recognizing that thereis a way of tackling a problem different from thedeductive, vertical approach.

2.3 The Common Features of Formal Techniques

In section 2.1 a review of the literature on creatiaity leads us toconclude that there are essentially two ways of thinking when trying tosolve problems: associative and deductive (or analytical). During theirformative years children tend to veer towards being either convergersor divergers, and due to the applicability of the different styles todifferent academic fields, this polarization tends to influence theirchoice of specialisation. Since study of mathematics and the physicalsciences is the conventional route into engineering, it is not surprisingthat engineers tend to be convergers and therefore while suited toanalysis and judgement, are at a disadvantage when, as at certaincritical stages of the design process, there is a need for associativecreative thinking.

In section 2.2 a range of techniques was considered which have beenfound to stimulate creativity, and which in some cases have specialrelevance to the generation of original ideas in engineering design.These creative tools, or maieutics as French (1988) calls them, exhibitcommon features which can be explained in terms of the requirementsfor stimulating associative thinking, whilst temporarily restraining anytendency to critical analysis and judgement.

Where these tools entail detailed procedures, their function is tostimulate some particular pattern of association (some of the moreextreme procedures not detailed above even entail a totally randominput such as using a word selected randomly from a dictionary, or thefirst clue that can be solved in a crossword). In the case of groupmethods, like brainstorming and synectics, there is the furtherpotential of an idea expressed by one individual triggering a responsefrom another group member, but when working in a group even moreeffort must be put into maintaining the sometimes fragile creativemental environment.

An essential pre-requisite for creative engineering design is knowledge;the formulation of ideas which can help towards the solution of a

design problem can only be on the basis of input information. Thisinformation falls into two categories: that which is specific to the

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problem (determined through the initial analytical investigations), andthat which is to play a role in the creative, associative, thought process.This knowledge may become specifically relevant in a technical sense,

or, of more importance here, may function as an associative trigger inthe creative design process which has no apparent logical association tothe technical problem. While Dixon (7966) stressed the role ofperceptive observation in connection with creative ability, Osborn(1953) expressed the view that almost any activity that provided a largeinput of information to be stored away for future reference wasvaluable. He maintained that, rather as in the recommendations forbrainstorming, the need is for quantity not quality.

This issue of quantity not quality is one which is frequentlyemphasized, and normally defended in terms of an argument that a

silly idea may in turn generate a good idea. However while thepotential value of any idea or memory to an illogical association cannotbe denied, there are two good reasons for the quantity not quality rule.In the first place such a ruling should prevent the design team memberhaving to make a value judgement before pronouncing his idea (so

maintaining the creative, rather than critical, frame of mind). Andsecondly, when seeking novel solutions one is trying to form ideaassociations which others have not previously made (ie. original), so

arry qazy or unorthodox idea may provide a route to a feasible originalsolution.

It is necessary to make a significant observation regarding these toolswhich, as part of the process of "making the familiar strange", areformulated to encourage associative and unorthodox thinking. For theclassic converger, who has grown up with an uneasiness aboutexpressing emotion and who will be in a majority in mostundergraduate engineering courses, these methods will seemunpalatable, potentially embarrassing and perhaps even stupid. This isa natural reaction, and since a sense of optimistic confidence is neededfor creative thought, the converger, who is the type most likely tobenefit from using such methods, must overcome this antipathy. Thisis best achieved by first understanding the need and then treating it as a

game, rather than, as some advocates of such methods seem todemand, a new religion demanding undying faith.

These creative tools are necessary and work because of the changingroles of the designer at different stages of the process, in particular thecyclic changes in the way the designer must think. The need todifferentiate the creative role from analysis and decision making isgreatest. But the tools will only work if used with confidence, both self-confidence and a belief (if only transitory) that the method is effective.

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3 THE CREATIVE PROCESS IN PRACTICE

3.L Obiectives and the Selection of Individuals for Discussion

The aims of this part of the study were to try to investigate the views,attitudes and experience of designers and design managers in industry,and interpret the findings in relation to what is known about creativeprocesses in engineering design, and relevant aspects of the educationof engineering students.

As far as the management of design was concerned, the objectives wereto investigate the ways in which managers set about stimulating theirdesigners to be innovative, and collect views on how and in what waysthe education of engineers might be improved in this context.

With designers the objectives were somewhat more complex, theinvestigation concentrating on different aspects of the designer'screative role. Discussions focused on the following areas:

(i) approach to creative design (individual, group etc.);

(ii) problem solving policy (identified steps, formal tacticsetc.);

(iii) influence of education and upbringing;

(iv) use made of education and other sources of skills andknowledge.

It was decided at an early stage that, in view of the intimate nature ofthe information which was soughtl, and the expected variation in theirpatterns, the discussions should be on a personal, preferably one to one,basis, and they should only be loosely structured. In particular a

questionnaire was thought to be too constraining and thereforeinappropriate.

At the outset it was the intention to seek discussions with designersand design managers with personal experience of design in industry. Itwas considered that in the majority of cases these should be individualscurrently involved in an active capacity with design on a day to daybasis. It was also intended to talk to individuals from across the fullspectrum of the engineering industry, from domestic products to heavyindustrial, from software engineering to production engineering, fromthe large corporation to the individual consultant, and from "hi-tech"to those less dependent on the latest advances.

1 It became apparent from the first of these discussions that the process of probing the

designer's personal involvement and the influence of his education and upbringingcould easily become emotionally charged. With the discussion taking on thecharacteristics of psychoanalysis, it could become both intense and exhausting.This did not happen when thcre werc more than two pcoplc involved.

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The final set of individuals whio have participated, though perhapssomewhat less numerically than would be considered necessary tocover the full spectrum, was considered sufficient to arrive at usefulconclusions because the input to the study showed a high degree ofcompatibility with projections from previous work. Appendix A listsall individuals contacted during the course of the study.

3.2 Outcome of Discussions

The outcome of the discussions with the broad range of individualscontacted is given in point form belorv, annotated to highlight thecorrelation with the points made in section 2 above.l The commentsare not necessarily mutually compatible, emanating as they do fromindividuals working in very different situations, but in many casesvery similar observations were made by different people.

1 Product design is a creative art form requiringsensitivity and intellect. Translation of the design intoa communicable form is part of the creative process.The creative designer often has a kangaroo/grasshopper/butterfly mind.

[implying an associative process - not logical anddeductivel

2 Creative design stimulated by interest, curiosity - thedesigner should be inquisitive (How does that work?How is that made?).

3 Creativity in the design process is needed not only at theconceptual stage, but right through to the detailinglevel.

[ttris is an important point which seems to have been ovcrlooked and

creativity at the detail level requires a different attitude of mind]

4 The designer needs to have a mental inventory ofsoiutions/devices/components which forms a workingresource during the embodiment phase and whereoriginality at a detail level is sought.

5 The designer needs to be aware of the historicaldevelopment of his subject to see the current problemin perspective and as a source of ideas.

1 It has been considered inappropriate to indicate the sources of each of theseobservations; the contributions of all those who have participated are gratefullyacknowledged.

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8

9

Engineers lack breadth of knowledge - students shouldmake a study of a nontechnical, artistic subject: paintingor music.

[stimulating divergence and broadening the knowledge base]

Effective, creative design is only possible from the basisof an emotional commitment/involvement. Thedesigner must be fascinated by his job and see it as anintellectual challenge.

[empathy, determination and self confidence]

Emphasis on team approach.

Need to foster creative team environment:

encouragement and praise;

realistic timescales to avoid excess pressure;

require minimum number of alternatives;

provision of a well designed work environment;

negative attitudes outlawed;

beware of "blocks" to creative thinking;

interactive group discussion needs a navigator;

provision of ample "black board" space, not only tocommunicate ideas but also to log progress and actas a prompt;

where team members have different senioritywithin the company, it is essential that allunderstand that in team discussions they are on anequai footing - no one should feel inhibited - thiscan require careful management.

[all very much in line with findings above in scction 2]

The designer should be familiar with materials at a

tactile level, and have a quantitative feel formagnitudes.

[involvement at an intimate level]

An ability to visualize things in three dimensions isimportant and should be coupled with a well developedsketching ability. Designs should be drawn/sketched toscale at an early stage. A tangible model could serve auseful function.

10

77

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12

1.3

[sketching was seen as a design medium as much as a means ofcommunication - although somc maintain (Elliott (1989)) that the

graphics presentation of a full 3D modellcr supplants the need for amodel some designers insist on the value of a physical model]

The designer approaches his solution by steps, withalternating phases of expanding alternatives most ofwhich are subsequently excluded.

The initial analysis of requirements, and particularlythe preparation of the specification, is an important partof the process which should be given full weight inteaching design.

Differentiate between ueatiaity and innoaation whichentails carrying ideas through into something thatworks and makes a profit.

[this was more by way of advice to the design teacher rathcr than

the designer himself]

In searching for novel competitive solutions, at theoutset a problem should be dissected into functionalcomponents - improvements will then come aboutthrough an understanding of the underlying physicalrelationships. Every effort should be made to developsuch an analysis in a parametric form that can berepresented graphically to provide further insight.

lthis is part of "preparation" but also similar to the functionstructure analysis advocated by Pahl and Beitz(1977) though in some

ways goes deepcr]

When a designer gets stuck with a problem that requiresoriginality in its solution, the necessary creative designinspiration may only come after taking fairly radicalsteps to help overcome the barrier. This could includesome form of "shock tactics" or a temporary change inenvironment.

[ttris is again compatible rvith brcaking away from the analytica!

deductive approach]

Creative design work seems to come more easily with a

touch of humour and possibly vulgarity.

fthis is also seen as a movc towards encouraging the right thinkingstyle - but may have a deeper more direct applicability in thathumour is frequently dcpendcnt on illogical association]

74

15

76

17

1",

Analysis of the competition as a stimulant to furtherdevelopment, perhaps in combination with other ideas.

[ttris is equivalent to incremental creatiaity a technique which isappropriate to products that are fairly static in terms of overallconcept - the method was not considered a creative technique in the

same sense as the other methods included in the list in section 2.2]

When tackling a stubborn design problem it isfrequently helpful to set the problem aside, give it achance to incubate, let the mind work on it as abackground task, and then bring the problem to theforeground now and then to check on progress.

ltfris is a very interesting remark made in slightly different ways byseveral people and has some justification in terms of giving freeassociation dominance over logical deduction - but the mechanism ofsubconscious problem solving has to be something of an enigma]

Many designers claim to have inspiration come to themin the middle of the night, or when day dreaming.

[very much the same as background problem solving as in 19]

3.3 The use of Formal Techniques

Most of the designers and design managers that were involved in thediscussions claimed not to be using any type of formal designmethodology, at least not of the sort that would be recognised by thosethat write and lecture on the subject. The few exceptions who didsubscribe to any kind of technique said that they used brainstorming onoccasions, but did not set any great store by it.

But all those involved in these discussions have an established recordof successful design: these are all talented, inventive, creative people.Quite clearly they have, each in their own way, evolved informalstrategies for satisfying the need for creativity in design. Thediscussions have given some insight to the underlying principles ofthese informal strategies. They vary according to the personalities andprofessional sphere of the individuals concerned, but can, to a

significant extent, be explained in terms of the generalized view ofdesign methodologies and creativity expressed in section 2.

3,4 Correlation between Theory and Praciice

With regard to the overall structure of the observed approaches todesign problem solving, there is a close correspondence both to the

18

79

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steps observed by other investigators, and also to those which comprisethe typical design method. Most designers gave considerable emphasisto the first phase of. preparation requiring a detailed analysis of theproblem leading to a complete specification and, perhaps moreimportantly, an intimate understanding of the problem.l The phase tofollow this was one requiring a degree of creative thought leading to anoverall design concept, but the number of iterations and steps on theway are dependent on the field and scale of the problem.

These informal strategies also imply a recognition of the need toseparate analytical, creative, and decision making phases, not just formanagement convenience but because failure to make the distinctioninterferes with the effectiveness of the process. It was particularlyevident from the discussions with senior designers and designmanagers that they all recognized the need to stimulate their designersby providing the right environment both physically and mentally.Motivation and praise for work well done were given high priority as

was the need for the design team to appreciate the responsibility oftheir role in the organization. Continuing broad education andavailability of up to date information on components, materials,manufacturing methods etc. were all stressed as part of the essentialenvironment. This availability and familiarity with the latest technicalinformation (almost to the extent of being immersed in it) was seen as

particularly important when seeking creativity at the detail level.

It is interesting that a senior design managcr in thepart of the design problems in his organizationcomprehensive project deftnition (Costcllo (1989)).

USA has attributed the greaterto a failurc . to start from a

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4 A REVIEW OF CURRENT DESIGN TEACHING METHODS

4.1 Formal Teaching

One of the influences of the Finniston inquiry (Finniston (1.980)), as

interpreted by the Engineering Council (7984), has been that allengineering degree courses in the UK, which either have been, or areseeking to become, accredited by one of the professional institutions,include a significant proportion of design teaching. The design is notalways, as Moulton (1976) recommended, "running like a threadthrough all the normal degree courses" but is incorporated in variousforms.

One of the difficulties with the current British accreditation systemwhereby the specialist institutions need to be able to identify varioussyllabus components, is that it does tend to lead tocompartmentalization. One tends to find for example, rather than themore desirable "What does the design engineer need to know aboutmaterials?" that engineering students are taught Materials Science -"Isn't the inside of an atom interestingT" - and Design, includingmaterials selection, as separate subjects.

The basic introduction to design methods and terminology is given inmost degree courses through formal lectures. These invariably beginfrom some formal definition and block diagram model of The DesignProcess, and will generally progress to describe some examples of"procedural" creativity, notably brainstorming and in many cases someexamples of analogy and the morphological, functional structureapproach as typified in the Pahl and Beitz (7977) systematic method.

In section 3 a need for a creative approach to design at the detail level(embodiment) was identified. The whole armoury of analyticalmethods and procedures, to which the greater part of most degreecourses are devoted, is naturally of high relevance to this phase ofdesign, but creative activity must precede the analysis. Therequirements at this stage are for a knowledge of alternatives fromwhich to select and combine. In mechanical engineering this might becovered to a degree by lectures on "machine elements" andmanufacturing processes, in electronics under the heading of "devicetechnology" and in civil engineering would require a knowledge ofavailable sections, materials and construction techniques. Formallectures have been employed to get over some of this type ofinformation, but when presented in this way it can become almost aninventory, and concentration is hard to maintain. Students aretherefore frequently left to their own devices to acquire this knowledge.Project work and case studies can provide a stimulus, but

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manufacturers' catalogues, trade magazines and telephone access to theoutside world must be readily available.

4.2 Proiects

Engineering degree courses of all disciplines require that the studentgain first hand experience of design. This is normally achievedthrough some form of project activity, and projects have over the pasttwenty five years become an essential syllabus component.

All sorts and kinds of projects are used in engineering degrees, and in awell planned course the project structure will have been carefullythought out to satisfy specific educational objectives (Allison andBenson (1983)). Projects can vary considerably in scale and duration,but perhaps more significantly in the type of design experienceprovided for the student, and the opportunities offered for creativedesign work at different levels. Most courses include project workrequiring creativity at both the conceptual and detail levels, but it isapparent that at the detail level the effectiveness of the learning processis limited if designs are not followed through into hardware.

With regard to the student's opportunity to exercise and developcreative talent, a great deal depends on the structure adopted andcontrols exercised. Open ended design projects which do not requirethe manufacture of hardware provide the greatest opportunities at theconceptual level of creativity but, even where the problem has beenderived from industry, the absence of contact with experiencedmanagement and a harsh practical reality can tend towards unrealisticdesigns. Of course this may actually be a real advantage as far as theexercise and development of creative thinking are concerned.

The question of group working is one which has been given quite a lotof thought, and not just by the educators: the Institution of MechanicalEngineers (7987) have even gone so far as to prescribe that final yearprojects should be on an individual basis. Design projects that involvework mostly at a detail level (for example the design of a structuralcomponent for a specified duty) seem not to suffer through beingperformed by individuals (there are also the advantages of weakpartners being unable to avoid the task, and more positively the "allmy own work" stimulus). However with the more open ended designproblem, requiring substantial creative input at the conceptual stage,learning to interact creatively as a member of a team is seen by many inboth education and industry as an essential part of the engineer'seducation. When this issue was raised with designers and designmanagers in industry expressions of horror were frequently voiced atthe prospect of the student's major final year design project beingperformed on an individual basis. Carter et al. (1980) also identified

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developing experience of group design work as an importanteducational objective of project work.

The role of the project supervisor is inevitably crucial in the student'sexperience of creative design. The intensive demands made onspecialist teaching staff (i.e. those with appropriate design experienceand training) for project supervision, generally result in the dutiesbeing fairly widely distributed within a department. Consequentlysupervisors are often unfamiliar with any systematic design methods,and often see the objectives of the project in technical terms rather thanas a vehicle for design education.l This last point is one which canseriously devalue the potential advantages of projects involvingindustrial participation when an engineer from industry is directlyinvolved in supervision, and rather than counselling and advising,manages and directs.

The essential features of the design project are that the student has theopportunity to seek practical solutions to real problems over anextended time-scale. The project provides the vehicle for the student topractise design, and it is a part of the responsibility of the supervisor toprovide guidance on the way in which a problem is tackled, as well as

technical backup.

4.3 Other Types of Exercise

There are other approaches currently employed in guiding studentsinto developing their creative design ability. These tend to be in theform of case studies of one sort or another.

For centuries the medical profession has used a "master - pupil"relationship as an essential component in the training of doctors. Thespecialist walks the wards followed in the time honoured fashion by a

retinue of disciples. To some extent in years gone by u similarprocedure was followed by young men wishing to enter theengineering profession, who would be indentured to a senior engineer,or perhaps start from more humble beginnings with a tradeapprenticeship. The direct equivalent is not available in a

conventional degree course but something of the master - pupilrelationship can be obtained through case studies. A variety of teachingmethods which come into this category are in use which have a

relevance to creative design.

I This can become a particular problem where projects are closely related to theacademic supervisor's own research interests. Such a course can bc adopted to excitethe interest of the supervisor in student projccts, and that of the student in research,

both of which may be thought worthy, but this does lead to the supervisor havinga vested interest in fulfilling the technical, rather than educatlonal, objectives.

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This can be a particularly effective method of covering some of thedetail information where a lecturer with sufficient experience ofdesign, can cover the field of information more or less throughanecdotes, preferably drawn from his own experience. Externallecturers from industry are frequently used in much the same way butcannot be expected to be constrained to conform to the restrictions of aheavily compressed syllabus.

A version of the master - pupil approach is the "extended design case

study" (Chaplin (1982)) in which students study a specific artifact overan extended period of time, identifying the functional relationshipsand design decisions that have been made. This sort of exercise mustinclude a visit from the designer or members of the design team, whichprovides the essential meeting between the "master" and "pupil",though specific technical, analytical, support can be provided from theacademic side. The scheme ideally includes a visit to the place ofmanufacture or construction. It also provides ample opportunity todemonstrate how creative design work (which need not necessarily beinnovative) can influence the reliability and robustness of a design, as

well as the profitability of the whole organization.

Another form of case study, or mini design project, can be used to greateffect, but demands dedicated staff support. This entails developingdesigns for a series of fairly open ended problems through to fullconcept stage. Such exercises can be performed on a weekly basis withsubmissions involving a full analysis of the problem, with quantitativeassessments where appropriate, and details (generaily in the form ofsketches) of the solution concept. One of the advantages of thistechnique is the very considerable demands made on both creative andanalytical ability, with the resulting opportunities for the student toidentify and separate his different roles. Also, if run on a weekly basis,a sufficient number of design cases can be worked through providingthe student with the time, through experimentation, consciously todevelop and improve his methodology. The disadvantages of such anexercise are in terms of demands on staff time, particularly inproviding feedback to the student within a time-scale that is useful.

4.4 Educational Objectives and Effectiveness of Current Methods

The overall educational objectives of the design related activities of themajority of engineering degree courses can be broadly summarised interms of giving the student:

(i) an overview of design methods; and,

(ii) experience of design at various levels;

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the former being achieved largely through formal teaching, the latterthrough projects and case studies.

It is clear that the teaching of design to undergraduate engineers in theUK has progressed by leaps and bounds over the past twenty five years.Where previously the subject was given nominal coverage, it now haspriority, and the quality of some of the student design work that can beseen at many institutions is outstanding.

But what of creativity? Have the students who are graduating beentrained to use their talents to greatest benefit? A number inevitablyhave that natural ability, but many more do not. In some the creativethought mechanisms have become dormant, or may never havedeveloped, and while many students undoubtedly benefit considerablyfrom what they are taught about design methods, there seems littleevidence of the enhancement of creative ability being identified as aspecific objective with design teaching and project work structured forits attainment.

Osborn (1953) in the foreword to the third edition of his work onApplied Imagination described tests that had demonstrated howinstruction and practice in creative thinking could result in significantimprovements in ideation. The creative capability of the Britishgraduate engineer is high, and certainly higher than some years ago,but further improvement is undoubtedly possible.

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5 THE PERCEIVED SHORTCOMINGS AND OMISSIONS OFCURRENT TEACHING

This section will attempt to identify shortcomings and omissions inthose aspects of engineering design teaching which relate to creativity.Such judgements must needs be highly subjective and involvegeneralisations which are hard to defend other than in that they arenecessary in moving towards recommendations. It is inevitable thatthe observations will not be universally applicable, and by the sametoken nor will the recommendations in section 9; indeed some of therecommendations are based on teaching methods currently in use.

The skills and knowledge which have been identified as necessary tothe creative aspects of the development of effective designs include:

(i) an understanding of the associative processes of creativethought, in particular what can stimulate and what caninhibiU

(ii) thus the need to differentiate and separate differentphases of the process and the roles of the designer;

(iii) knowledge of creative tools;

(iv) experience, obtained under guidance, of the use ofcreative tools in developing solutions to specificproblems;

(v) ability to visualise in three dimensions; and,

(vi) an accumulation of detailed factual information oncomponents and alternative solutions to specificproblems (the tricks of the trade?), and an awareness ofthe value and use of such information in optimal detailselection.

From this list the elements which are currently not addressed, orbroadly speaking given inadequate coverage/ are (i), (ii) and (iv). Theother topics, (iii), 1v; and (vi), are addressed in most courses but a

somewhat more extensive treatment and incorporation into a moreintegrated scheme of creative design teaching couid be beneficial.

One aspect not mentioned here is the influence on creativerequirements of the increasing use of computers in design. The impactof more available and better CAD, whether as three dimensionalmodeller or expert system, is not considered likely to change thefundamental creative role of the designer. It may of course reduce thelevel of analytical capability required which may open the way for themore dioergent thinker to become a design engineer.

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6 DISCUSSION OF THE CREATIVE DESIGN ROLE &ENGINEERING STUDENTS

In section 2 above it was noted that those who had developed as

diaergers were more likely to have a natural talent for associativecreative thinking. But Hudson's (1966) observations showed that therewas a strong tendency for schoolboys who had developed from an earlyage into convergers or divergers, to have greater success in thedeductive sciences or associative arts, respectively. Whilst still atschool this success naturally influenced their choice of subjectspecialisation, consequently restricting their options for degree courses,because of the entry requirements. The outcome has been that the earlyspecialisation process at secondary schools effectively selects out thosepupils with natural creative talents into subject streams largelydebarred from engineering. So the majority of students who registerfor degree courses in engineering (the future professional designengineers) are therefore unlikely to have naturally creative minds.However these are the very students most likely to benefit frompositive instruction in creative thinking methods. But what wouldseems to be a serious loss to the profession of children in possession ofespecially suited talents, is an issue that clearly needs addressing.

Such methods must emphasize the different mental approachesrequired of the designer and their natural conflict. It would seem thattalented designers have a natural ability to recognize subconsciouslythese different needs and control their mental approach accordingly.Design education for those lacking this talent should include someform of training to develop this controlled "schizophrenia" - theability to switch mental approach from analytical and deductive toassociative and creative, as the need arises to match the designer'schanging role.

To achieve greatest effect design education should also include anappreciation of the different levels (or stages) of the design process atwhich inspiration and innovation are required, with particularemphasis given to the contrasting demands at the conceptual and detaillevels. Creative design at these two extremes entails different attitudes,different inputs and different resources.

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7 THE OPTIONS FOR CREATIVITY ENHANCEMENT

7.1 The Educational Objectives

The overall objective stated at the beginning of this report was toidentify the educational methods by which we can most effectivelydevelop and enhance the creative potential of the young engineer. Inthe context of design and in terms of more specific educationalobjectives this can now be seen in terms of a need for the graduateengineer:

(i) to be aware of the broad structure of the design process,recognizing that different scales and classes of designtask require different models;

(ii) to understand the different roles of the designer atdifferent stages of the process, and so to appreciate theneed to adopt a mental approach appropriate to eachphase, differentiating specifically between the creative,the analytical and the decision making roles;

(iii) to have a working knowledge of a range of formaltechniques for stimulating creative thinking in design,appreciating under what circumstances they might behelpful and understanding their basic principles;

(iv) to have practised using a range of creative techniques inseeking solutions to realistic problems, under guidance,and, wherever appropriate, as a member of a group;

(v). to have a well developed ability to sketch and perceiveconcepts in three dimensions; and,

(vi) to be aware of the need to be familiar with the available"components" of engineering solutions, and to havebegun to develop such a mental knowledge base.

The extent to which these objectives are currently attained inengineering courses varies considerably, though none of the coursesseen during this study satisfies all of them, particularly the supervisedtrial of creative techniques. Teaching methods currently in use canlargely cover the requirements with only minor changes, but newapproaches may be found more effective in some respects.

7.2 Current Methods

The primary teaching method used in higher education is the formallecture, and this is considered perfectly adequate here for thecommunication of basic knowledge relating to the structure of the

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design process, the roles of the designer, the formal proceduresavailable to assist in the generation of ideas, and the basic psychology ofcreative, associative thinking. Lectures may also provide a means ofimparting knowledge of the components and processes that arerelevant at the detail design stage, but a course of lectures with a

catalogue for the text book is unlikely to score top marks forentertainment value. One alternative method has been developed tocover machine elements for mechanical engineers: this approach iswhat might be called anecdotal, using design examples from thelecturer's own experience to illustrate the principles and problems ofselecting and sizing components and assemblies.

The need to have first hand experience of creative design is metthrough project work and to some extent case studies. But while thetypical project provides the opportunity, expert guidance of the creativework is exceptional. Supervisors are generally expert in the technicalfield of the project and probably unfamiliar with modern structuredapproaches to design. Provision should be made to guide studentsthrough the use of whatever formal creative tools are appropriate tothe problem. To be most effective and also to prepare the student forthe situation most likely to be found in industry, it is essential that thiskind of exercise is performed in groups.

7.3 Novel Methods

Novelty is of course a quality that one must be cautious to claimespecially in a report on this subject. Two suggestions are offered herefor ways of achieving two of the objectives identified above, which arenot so much novel as variations on well tried themes:

(i) Creative tutorial groups

To develop any expertise in using creative tools,extended practice with some degree of guidance hasbeen found necessary (Gordon (1961) and Parker (7975)).

In an undergraduate course this is probably bestachieved working with small groups (eight wouldprobably be a maximum) making the students do thework but with methods as directed. Different types ofproblem would be selected for each session and theparticipants would write up notes summarising theproceedings and outcome. This kind of activity shouldnot substitute, but be in addition to, more extendedwork on projects described above.

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(ii) Derail data assigyeniq

One approach to getting students to assimilateinformation on components and design elements is togive them the task of collecting it. Members of a class,as individuals or small groups would be charged withcollecting information which they would then have topresent to their fellows. Ideally the tasks should includedeveloping some historical perspective as well as thelatest information. Sources for this kind of informationare widespread but students should be introduced tocollections such as Chironis (1965) for mechanisms,Greenwood (1.959) for a wealth of ideas (if a littleoutdated), the ESDU data sheets, and the whole galaxyof catalogues and data sheets issued by manufacturersand suppliers.

Both of these types of exercise could benefit from some industrialinvolvement, but only from people who fully understand theeducational objectives. In the first case the industrial role would bethat of customer and perhaps source of expertise, in the second the rolewould be the "gatekeeper" pointing the students towards the sources ofinformation more than supplying it directly.

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8 CONCLUSIONS

1 Creative thinking (the formation of original ideas ororiginal combinations of ideas) is essential to effectiveand competitive design.

2 The nature or style of creative thinking varies throughthe design process; a different kind of creative thinkingbeing required at the early conceptual stages of designfrom that needed at the detailing stage.

3 Creative thinking benefits from the right environment,and needs the right attitude of mind.

It is helped by:

self-confidence;

persistence and determination;

constructive discontent (quest for the ideal);

an adventurous spirit;

readiness to embrace irrational and emotionalinvolvement;

a receptive, open mind;

freedom from inhibitions.

It is hindered by:

criticism and judgement;

inability (and reluctance) to break out of a setpattern, or an accepted conservative view;

timidity.

4 Thorough and detailed analysis of a problem is anessential precursor to the formation of creativesolutions. This analysis leads to an understanding fromwhich the transition can be made to a creative attitude,initiated by an emotional involvement and sensitivityto the problem.

5 Individuais perform better when they have someunderstanding of the psychological processes at work inassociative creative thinking.

6 Some people have developed from an early age adiaergent way of thinking that is especially suited to theassociative thought processes that are the essence of

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10

creativity. Such people when at school find the artssubjects easier than mathematics and the physicalsciences.

The opposite form, conaergers, are good at analytical,deductive, logical thinking, and when they are at schoolthey find mathematics and the physical sciences easierthan the arts. They are also particularly ill at easedeclaring emotional involvement.

These differences influence option selections at school,ultimately restricting the choice of degree course.

The design process cycles from a creative expandingphase, through an analytical phase, to a decisionmaking converging phase and back to the creativeagain. These constitute different roles which thedesigner must adopt in sequence.

The logical, analytical, judgemental way of thinkinginhibits and quenches creative, associative thinking,especially in one to whom it does not come naturally.There is therefore a clear need for the designer todifferentiate between the steps in the design processwhich require him to assume the different mental roles.

Naturally talented engineering designers seem toexhibit characteristics of both conoergers and diaergers,but not in a mixed sense; they appear to have the abilityto switch from one to the other as the need arises.

The various formal procedures advanced forstimulating creative thought are structured toencourage the creative attitude of mind and triggerassociative thinking. These procedures when used withconfidence (lack of confidence and a critical attitudeinhibit creative thinking) can be effective. It is to beexpected that such procedures will often seem strange -this is a necessary feature to break away from the set wayof thinking and form fresh ideas.

The changes in creative thinking as the design processcycles from problem formulation through to definitionof the final design details, move from a conceptual andfunctional structure, to more specific components andprocesses. Input in the form of recalled ideas isnecessary throughout, but at the detail design stagethere is a need for a far more specific level of knowledge

11

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relating to specific components and processes. As aconsequence of these differing needs, the creativethinking involved moves to a higher, less emotional,level of consciousness.

12 Creative thinking performance is refined by practice andexperience. This is applicable both to individuals and togroups. With groups there is also the added problem ofassembling a well balanced and compatible team who,through working together in this way, will developclose emotional ties and defensive reactions againstoutsiders. Students should be given ample opportunityfor creative design work as a member of a group todevelop the necessary skills.

13 The increasing use of CAD systems is not thought todiminish or alter the basic creative role of the designer,and may place even greater emphasis on the need forcreative ability. Expert systems should help in the areaof providing specific detail information.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

[Applicable at the school level]

1 Creative exercises should be encouraged throughoutschooling, from rising fives to eighteen plus. Thisshould extend to the inclusion of more open-ended,divergent, exercises as part of syllabuses formathematics and the physical sciences.

(Some of the new GCSE syllabuses have made moves inthis direction, particularly Design and Technology.)

2 Throughout school, particularly in subjects like historyand geography, due attention should be given to thebenefits attributable to creative technologists, in thedevelopment of civilization and progressiveimprovements in living standards. The role of people,as opposed to an impersonal technology or industry, inthese developments should be highlighted.

3 Teachers, particularly those involved in giving careerand option advice, should be aware of the intellectual(and even emotional) demands and challenges andresponsibilities of a career as a design engineer.Thought should also be given as to how best to conveysuch an awareness to school children, and perhaps aneven wider audience, but with priority on a carefullytargeted set of teachers - selected on the basis of theirpositions of influence with children.

4 Ways should be sought to identify candidates for entryto higher education with the right set of intellectualqualities to become creative design engineers,irrespective of their choice of school subjects. The new"Access" courses, set up for the year 1988/89, wereoriginally established to provide routes for such peopleto study engineering. Regrettably it has becomeapparent that the places on these courses are largelybeing taken up by candidates who failed to make thegrades required for the courses with more conventionalentry requirements. Every effort should be made tomake the original purpose of these "Access" coursesknown whilst at the same time stressing that, ratherthan being a route to engineering for people who hadstudied the wrong subjects at school, there may be a realaduantage in coming to engineering from an Artsbackground.

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[Applicable at degree level]

5 Design courses should induce familiarity with creativetools and processes through:

understanding the roles of the designer and theimportance of their differentiation;

understanding the underlying psychology ofassociative thinking;

becoming familiar with a range of creativetechniques (brainstorming, inversion, analogies,etc.) and understanding how and why they work;

participating in creative problem solving groupswith suitable guidance.

6 Lectures or study assignments should be included toprovide students with some historical perspective of thetechnical development of a subject, at a detailed level.

7 Careful consideration should be given to ensure that, bywhatever means might be most appropriate to thespecific subject and institution, all students develop a

basic knowledge of components, processes and thesolutions available to the detail problems ofengineering design.

Efforts should be made to adopt teaching methods, e.g.case studies or special assignments, which willstimulate the student and provide an appreciation ofthe value of such information.

8 Students working on design projects, and as part ofdesign courses in general, should have access to expertsystems and data bases. Indeed far more emphasisshould be placed on learning the (creative?) use ofcommercial software than in learning advancedprograming.

9 Even with the increasing availability of CAD systemsfor the production of drawings, students must still learnto draw, but skill in sketching is more important thanformal draughtsmanship. Students need to be awarethat sketching and the associated facility for threedimensional visualisation are still important both forcommunication and as a design medium.

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10 Final year design projects should ideally be performedby students working in groups on tasks which providethe opportunities to carry..out creative design atconceptual and detailed levels. There should be specificrequirements for each group to plan a methodicalstrategy appropriate to their problem, describing howtheir roles, and therefore mental approach, will changeduring the project, and identifying the creativetechniques to be used at different stages.

This planning exercise should be discussed with, andapproved by, someone who understands and canadvise on design methods and formal (i.e. structured)creative thinking.

These recommendations inevitably impinge on areas of teachingbeyond the prescribed area of this study - creatiaity in engineeringdesign. In so far as they affect engineering degree courses, they do notreally imply any major changes from the way in which mostengineering departments run their design teaching at present, norshould they entail any demand for significant additional teaching time.The recommendations are intended to suggest how, by giving thestudent an enhanced awareness of the processes, requirements andconstraints of creative thinking, with the right guidance andexperience, the quality of design work can be upgraded. No magicpanacea has been offered, nor is it intended that these suggestionsshould displace or supplant other improvements in design education,particularly those aimed at developing methods to produce robustdesigns, for flexible manufacture.

On a somewhat broader front conclusions have been drawn andrecommendations made concerning the influence of school curricula,and in particular the consequences of early specialisation on theintellectual types of children who opt for engineering degrees. This is a

complex issue and while the observations of this report may perhapsbe thought over-simplified, there is some justification for the viewsadvanced.

In Britain the engineering profession and an engineering educationhave, since the mid nineteenth century, been somewhatunfashionable.t In those countries which are the UK's majorindustrial rivals, an engineering education has long been regarded as

one of the best forms of general education, and not merely a

preparation for a career in industry. This attitude has sustained a

I The captive markets of the Empire enabled complacent British manufacturcrs togrow rich without the need for well designed competitive products.

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broader perception of engineering both in schools and society as awhole. Coupled with patterns of education which result in much laterspecialisation it would be interesting to know how far the observationsmade here are applicable to other countries.

The major revisions of poliry currently taking place throughout theBritish education system with the introduction of the NationalCurriculum are intended to result in maintaining a broader syllabus toa later stage. This, coupled with the greater awareness of the role oftechnology that should also follow from the National Curriculum,should help the cause of engineering. In time the great British publicand possibly even the "educated classes" will come to appreciate thatengineering is no more applied (and therefore second rate) science,than science is theoretical engineering. To become a successful designengineer demands high intellectual qualities that combine analyticalability with a controlled emotional creativity.

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APPENDIX A: CONTRIBUTORS TO STUDY

The author wishes to acknowledge the help he has received from allthose listed below in carrying out this study.

F. Adams formerly Kenwood Ltd

K. Ball Merseyside Innovation Centre

I.R. Bayes Reading University

R. Coulthard APV plc

S. |. Culley Bath University

Prof. G. Davies Reading University

Dr. N. P. Fletcher , Loughborough University

Dr. I. Gilchrist Brunel University

K. Grange consultant

R. E. Jackson, F Eng formerly UKAEA

Dr. A. Jebb City University

D. Horne BICC, formerly Black & Decker Ltd

Dr. A. E. Moulton, F Eng consultant

M. Neale, F Eng consultant

Dr. R. C. Parker consultant

Dr. A. F. Pollard DTI

Dr. M. E. Preston Loughborough University

]. A. Ritchie consultant

Dr. I.Sharp QMC London

R. Tilson APV plc

K. M. Wallace Cambridge University

P. R. Whitfield consultant

Prof. G. R. Wray, F Eng Loughborough University

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